Stress Required for Slip

The flow stresses of crystals are highly anistropic.

Yield stress of zinc under uniaxial tension varies by a

factor of at least 6.

It is very important to specify the orientation of the

load.
Dislocations can glide only under the effect of shear
stresses, these shear stresses have to be determined

In uniaxial tensile and compressive test ( the most common tests),

one has to determine mathematically the shear component of the
applied stress acting on the plane in which slip is taking place
The areas A1 and A are related by the
angle . Area A is the projection of A1
onto the horizontal plane; thus, we can
write
 Nature of Metals: Varies from metal to metal
Metal Structure CRSSCRSS Slip systems
Silver FCC 0.50 {111} <110>
Aluminium FCC 0.75 {111} <110>
Magnesium HCP 0.39-0.50
Cobalt HCP 1.38
Iron BCC 15 {110} <111>
Molybdenum BCC 96.5 {110} {112} <111>
If CRSS is high, stress required for deformation is high and thus metal has high strength.
FCC 12 slip system, CRSS is  0.50, FCC has low yield strength.

BCC no close packed plane compared to FCC dislocation must move on {111} {, {112} and
{123} planes, CRSS is high, YS is also high.

HCP CRSS depends on c/a ratio is greater than 1.633, CRSS is low, but metal with low c/a
ratio CRSS is equal to or greater than HCP
Purity of metal: Purer the metal Lower is CRSS
Purity of Ag changes from 99.999 to 99.93 CRSS is raised by a factor
more than 3
Temperature: CRSS increases with decrease in temperature

Crystal Example Twin plane Twin direction

FCC Ag, Au, Cu (111) [112]

BCC α-Fe, Ta (112) [111]

HCP Zn, Cd, Mg, Ti (10ˉ12) [ˉ1011]

 Slip vs. Twinning

during/in slip during/in twinning

Crystal orientation Same above and below the slip Differ across the twin plane
plane
Size (in terms of inter- Multiples Fractions
atomic distance)

Occurs on Widely spread planes Every plane of region

involved
Time required Milli seconds Micro seconds
Occurrence On many slip systems On a particular plane for
simultaneously each crystal
 Two types of twins
1. Mechanical/deformation twins-produced in HCP and BCC metals
under shock loading and low temperature, stepped lines
2. Annealing twins- commonly found in FCC metals such as Copper,
Brass, Austenitic Steels etc. parallel lines
During heat treatment after cold working
Tensile yield stress

=45o =0o
=90o 0 0.5 0
cos cos
Effect of orientation on tensile yield strength Slip in single HCP crystal
τ R = σ cosφ cosλ
 Multiple Slip

Slip in unconstrained Gripped to constrain

single crystal cause lattice bending

Specimen

Single slip
FCC crystal -Al

Effect of mono or multi slip on ductility

and strain hardening of
single crystal Aluminium
 Deformation bands and kink bands
• Inhomogeneous deformation of a crystal results in regions
of different orientation called deformation bands.
• Deformation bands can be observed even after repeated
polishing and etching because they represent a region of
different crystallographic orientation.
• In single crystals, several millimeters wide deformation
bands may occur, while in polycrystalline specimens
microscopic observation is needed to see them.
• Deformation bands generally appear irregular in shape but
are elongated in the direction of principal strain.
• Deformation bands have been observed in both fcc and bcc
metals, but not in hcp metals.
 Deformation bands and kink bands(contd…)

• It is difficult to deform a hexagonal crystal when the basal plane is

nearly parallel to the crystal axis considering the equation of critical
resolved shear stress.
• Orowan found that if a cadmium crystal of this orientation were
loaded in compression, it would deform by a localized region of the
crystal suddenly snapping into a tilted position with a shortening of
the crystal is called buckling or kinking as shown in figure shown in
next slide.
• Crystal decreases its length and accommodates the applied stress,
thus also known as accommodation kinks.
• Kinked regions have different orientation. Some slip systems
becomes operative. it also sometimes resembles twins.
 Deformation bands and kink bands(contd…)
.
.

• The kink bands are local deformation bands with an arbitrary degree
of crystallographic rotation. This rotation usually increases with
increasing the strain. In fact, some rotation takes place inside
the kink bands during deformation.
Plastic Deformation of polycrystalline materials
Most of engineering materials are polycrystalline in nature containing large no. of
grains with different orientation
• Deformation and slip is more complex in polycrystalline materials.
• Due to random crystallographic orientation of the numerous grains and the
effect of neighboring atoms, the direction of slip varies from one grain to
another.
• Grain boundary act as barrier to the movement of dislocations from one grain
to other.
• Beloiw 0.4 Tmp (on absolute scale) grain boundary are quite strong
• Intergranular fracture takes place
• Above 0.4 Tmp grain boundary sliding causing ---Transgranular fracture.
• Each grain is surrounded by others and deform in such way that shape is
compatible with the neighbour.
• For each crystal, slip occurs along the slip systems that has most favorable
orientation.
• Slip on a single system within a grain will not satisfy the need of compatibility.
• Since plastic deformation of single grain is restrained by its neighboring grain a polycrystalline
material will have an intrinsically greater resistance to plastic flow than would single crystal.
• Prior to deformation the grains are equiaxed after deformation, the grains become
elongated along the direction in which specimen was extended.
• Better agreement : each grain undergoes the same shape change and the whole polycrystal
(taylor models).

Shear stress is maximum at an angle of 45o to the tensile axis the favourable oriented grains
will show slip system oriented around 45o.
(i) Due to mis orientation of slip in large angle grain boundary dislocation can not cross the boundary
(ii) Discontinuous slip restricted to grain boundary
(iii) Dislocation pile up create high stress concentration around the boundary
(iv) Due to this slip initiates in less favourable oriented grain
(v) Change of shape of grain boundary

Grain
boundary nb
r
Source
void

Shape change of grain due to edge dislocations

 Poly crystal

Tensile strength, MPa

= Yield Strength, stress required to
propagate Lüder bands and are Crystal 2
constant and d is average diameter.

Crystal 1

Elongation, %
Single crystal, Single crystal for
multiple system and poly crystal
Role of in deformation strengthening
The boundaries between grains in a polycrystalline aggregate are a region of
disturbed lattice of few atomic diameter wide.
Volume defect
disordered solid

Grain boundaries have Internal surface → higher

energy regions
high energy
1. Diffusion Coincidence Sites
atoms that belong to
2. Phase both grains
transformation Grain boundary
3. Precipitation dislocations
reaction
4. Results in higher
concentration of
solute atoms

For Cu- High angle grain Boundary 600 mJ m-2 twin Boundary 25 mJ m-2
Grain boundary hardening

•Grain size D is typically 10-100 μm

•Dislocations cannot simply slide

from one grain to the next because
the slip planes do not line up

•Effect of grain boundaries on the

shear strength required for a
dislocation to move
 Is a grain boundary a barrier for
dislocation motion?
The grain boundary acts as a barrier to dislocation motion for
two reasons:

1. Since the two grains are of different orientations, a

dislocation passing into grain B will have to change its
direction of motion; this becomes more difficult as the
crystallographic misorientation increases.

2. The atomic disorder within a grain boundary region will result in a discontinuity of slip planes from one grain into the other.
ky= the locking parameter which measures the relative hardening contribution
of the grain boundaries. d = grain diameter.
The hall-petch equation was originally based on yield point measurements in
= Yield Strength, stress required to low carbon steel. It has been found to express the grain size dependence of the
propagate Lüder bands and are flow stress at any plastic strain out to ductile fracture and also to express the
constant and d is average diameter. variation of brittle fracture stress with grain size and the dependence of fatigue
strength on grain size.
• Original dislocation model for hall-patch equation was based on the concept
that grain boundaries act as barriers to dislocation motion.
• A more general model proposed avoids the description of the stresses at grain
boundaries and instead concentrates on the influence of grain size on
dislocation density , and hence on the yield or flow stress. The flow stress is
given in terms of dislocation density by

based on experiment,

Where  is constant (0.3 to 0.6),  is dislocation density,

G is Mod. of rigidity
 Composite

Particle- Fiber-
Structural
reinforced reinforced

Dispersion- Continuous Discontinuous Sandwich

Large-particle Laminates
Strengthened (aligned) (short) panels

Randomly
Aligned
oriented
 Particle-Reinforced Metal matrix
Composites composite(MMC)

• The term “large” is used to indicate that particle– • Metal matrix composites are high strength
matrix interactions cannot be treated on the atomic fracture toughness and stiffness are offered
or molecular level; rather, continuum mechanics is by metal matrices than those offered by their
used. polymre counterparts.
They can withstand elevated temperature in
• Most of these composites, the particulate phase is corrosive environment than polymer
harder and stiffer than the matrix. These composites.
reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of • MMC are widely used in engineering
the matrix phase in the vicinity of each particle. applications where the operating temperature
lies in between 250 0C to 750 0C.
• Particle–matrix interactions that lead to
• Matrix materials: steel Aluminum, titanium,
strengthening occur on the atomic or molecular
copper, magnesium and super alloy.
level. The mechanism of strengthening is similar to
that for precipitation hardening
 LARGE–PARTICLE COMPOSITES
• Common large-particle composite is concrete, which is composed of cement (the matrix), and sand and gravel
(the particulates).
• Particles can have quite a variety of geometries, but they should be of approximately the same dimension in all
directions (equiaxed). For effective reinforcement, the particles should be small and evenly distributed throughout
the matrix.
• The volume fraction of the two phases influences the behavior; mechanical properties are enhanced with
increasing particulate content. Two mathematical expressions have been formulated for the dependence of the
elastic modulus on the volume fraction of the constituent phases for a two-phase composite.
• These rule of mixtures equations predict that the elastic modulus should fall between an upper bound represented
by

and a lower bound, or limit

where E and V denote the elastic modulus and volume fraction, respectively, whereas the subscripts c, m,
and p represent composite, matrix, and particulate phases.
 DISPERSION-STRENGTHENED COMPOSITES
• Metals and metal alloys may be strengthened and hardened by the uniform dispersion of
several volume percent of fine particles of a very hard and inert material.

• The dispersed phase may be metallic or nonmetallic; oxide materials are often used.

• The strengthening mechanism involves interactions between the particles and dislocations
within the matrix, as with precipitation hardening. The dispersion strengthening effect is not
as pronounced as with precipitation hardening; however, the strengthening is retained at
elevated temperatures and for extended time periods because the dispersed particles are
chosen to be unreactive with the matrix phase.
Example: Thoria-dispersed nickel containing 3% Thoria, Sintered Aluminium Powder
(SAP), Aluminium-Aluminium oxide system
 Fiber-Reinforced Composites

• Technologically, the most important composites are those in which the

dispersed phase is in the form of a fiber.

• Design goals of fiber-reinforced composites often include high strength and/or

stiffness on a weight basis.

• These characteristics are expressed in terms of specific strength and specific

modulus parameters, which correspond, respectively, to the ratios of tensile
strength to specific gravity and modulus of elasticity to specific gravity.

• Fiber-reinforced composites with exceptionally high specific strengths and

moduli have been produced that utilize low-density fiber and matrix
materials.
 INFLUENCE OF FIBER LENGTH

• The mechanical characteristics of a fiber reinforced composite depend not only on the
properties of the fiber, but also on degree to which an applied load is transmitted to the
fiber by matrix phase.
• Some critical fiber length is necessary for effective strengthening and stiffening of the
composite materials. this critical length is dependent on the fiber diameter (d) and its
ultimate (or tensile) strength (ϭf ) and on the fiber matrix bond strength (or shear yield
strength of the matrix, whichever is smaller) according to

• For a number of glass and carbon fiber matrix combination, this critical length is on the
order of 1 mm , which ranges between 20 to 150 times the fiber diameters
 Estimation of strength and
Modulus of composites
P c, f, m = Load carrying by composite fiber and matrix respectively
The stress–strain
response of a Where c, f, m = stress in composite, fibers and matrix respectively
composite material Ac, f, m = cross sectional area of composite, fibers and matrix respectively
depends on the Area fraction of continuous phase is equivalent to the volume fraction of the phase
respective properties
of the matrix and
reinforcing phases,
their relative volume Therefore
fraction, the absolute
length of the fibers, From Hooke’s law
and the orientation of
the fibers relative to Young’s modulus for isostrain case is
the applied stress
direction.
The relative loads supported by
the fibers and matrix are given by
When the applied stress direction is perpendicular to the fiber axes or reinforcing plates, the
matrix and reinforcing phases are described as being in series with one another. Here the loads
in the two phases are equal such that

Where = load carried by the composite, fiber and matrix respectively

Unlike the isostrain analysis condition, displacements in the two phases under the isostress
condition are additive, with the total composite strain being the weighted sum of strains in the
matrix and reinforcing phases, Accordingly,

By combining this equation with Hooke”s law for the fiber and matrix components composite
modulus in the direction normal to the aligned reinforcing phase is
 Introduction

• Polymers are very large molecules made, when hundreds of monomers join together
to form long chain.

• Polymers may be naturally found in plants and animals (natural polymers) or may be
man made (synthetic polymers).

• Different polymers have a number of unique physical and chemical properties due to
which they find usage in everyday in life.
 Types of polymers

• Natural polymers

• Homopolymer

• Copolymer

• Thermoplastics

• Thermosets

• Long chain polymers

•Natural polymers :-
• Natural polymers is a polymer that results from only raw materials that are
found in nature.
• Some of these natural polymers include DNA and RNA
• DNA ,Wood are some of the naturally occurring polymers
• Homopolymer :-
• Homopolymers are synthesized from a single type of monomer.
• Homopolymers are consists of chains with identical bonding linkages to
each monomer unit.
• This usually implies that the polymers is made from all identical monomer
molecules.
• Copolymer :-

• When two or more different monomers together to polymerize their results is called as
copolymer.

• This process is called as copolymerization.

• Thermoplastic:-
• A type of plastic that can be softened by heat, hardened by cooling , and then softened
by heat over and over again.

• Thermo plastic are not cross linked polymer.

• Examples: polyethylene, Nylon , Polyvinyl chloride.

 • Thermosets :-
• Thermoset having the property of becoming permanently hard and rigid when heated.

• Thermosets are hard and rigid at room temprature and do not soften on heating.

• Examples: Epoxy resins , phenolic resins , unsaturated polyester resins.

• Long chain polymers :-

• A very long strand of repeating molecules linked together by primary bond .

• Polymer chains are orient themselves in lines as they enter a mold but may be annealed so
the can recoil.
 Types of deformation
• Elastic deformation: small – fully recoverable time dependent obeys hooks law occurs in
metal within elastic limit.

• Elastometric deformation: Very large time dependent fully recoverable does not obeys
hooke ’s law occurs.

• Plastic deformation : Large permanent time independent obeys hookes law occurs beyond
plastic limits.

• An elastic deformation: Small -fully recoverable time dependent – may or may not obey
hooke’s law-occurs in rubber and plastics.

• Viscoelastic deformation: Time dependant partially elastic and partially permanent -obeys
hookes law along with newtons law occures in polymers.
Stress –Strain Behavior of Polymers

Ceramic
M

M
 Mechanical behavior of polymers
• Mechanical behavior of polymers depends on many factors like composition, strain rate
molecular weight, crosslink density and temperature.

• Brittle materials break at the stress maximum and at low strain, whereas ductile materials
undergo yielding followed by a drop in stress and break at noticeable lower stress but
much higher strain.

• At low stress, the deformation of most solid plastics is elastic. The applied stress is
proportional to the observed strain, and after removal of the load the material returns to its
original shape and size.
 Characteristics of polymers

• Low density

• Good corrosion resistance

• Poor tensile strength

• Good coefficient of friction

• Good mould ability

• Low mechanical properties

• Poor temperature resistance

• Can be produced with close dimensional tolerences

 Application of polymers

• Medicine: many biomaterials especially heart valve replacement and blood vessels
are made up of polymers like dacron, teflon.

• Industry: Automobile parts, pipes, tanks, packing materials are used in industry.

• Sports: playground equipment, golf clubs, swimming pools and protective helmets
are produced from polymers.