reative

lass blowing
SCIENTIFIC AND ORNAMENTAL
By James E. Hammesfahr & Clair L. Stong
 HAYNER PUBLIC LIBRARY DISTRICT-ALTON

0 00 30 00614705

Jennie D
Hayner
Library
Assn.
BOOK
FUND
SCIENTIFIC AND ORNAMENTAL

By James E. Hammesfahr
Clair L. Stong

with a Foreword by Charles H. Greene

State University of New York,
College of Ceramics at Alfred University

W. H. Freeman and Company

San Francisco

HAYNER PUBLIC LIBRARY DISTRICT

ALTON, ILLINOIS
Copyright (c 1968 by James E. Hammesfahr and Clair L. Stong

No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic, or electronic process, or in the form
of a phonographic recording, nor may it be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise copied
for public or private use without written permission from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 68-14225
10 9 8 7 6 5 4
In memory of Herman Hammesfahr,
master glass blower and German immigrant, who in 1862
first brought to these shores many techniques of glass working
now disclosed in this volume—techniques preserved
by three generations of his grateful progeny.
Not many people take up glass blow­ may take days or weeks, depending
ing, either for fun or as a vocation. upon the shop. Alternatively, you may
In an industrially advanced nation attempt to lure a glass blower away
such as the United States where mod­ from his present employer, a common
ern technology and its fruit—the good practice that does not always win
life—depend so heavily on blown glass, friends. Or, if you are influential, you
it seems strange that not more than may import a glass blower from
one in 10,000, including even the many abroad, where the supply is more plen­
craftsmen who make neon signs, prac­ tiful: in West Germany, Italy, and
tices the art of shaping molten glass Japan accomplished artisans are still
by hand. held in such popular esteem that
Most commercial glassware is now youngsters compete for apprentice­
made by machine, of course. Ready­ ships. But perhaps the best solution is
made bulbs, tubes, vessels, rods, and to take up the art and do the job your­
sheets, as well as complete laboratory self.
apparatus, are available at modest cost Few glass blowers are trained in the
in an impressive range of sizes. But United States. One reason is that al­
if you are in need of the services of most none of our high schools or vo­
a glass blower to assemble the parts, cational schools offer courses in glass
or to repair an apparatus, and you do blowing—although they teach the ele­
not have a glass blower on your pay­ ments of wood and metal work to mil­
roll, you face a problem with few solu­ lions. It is true, of course, that very
tions. One solution is to let the job little information about the techniques
out on contract to a specialty shop and of glass blowing has been published.
wait in line^for the finished work; this A number of small manuals explain
roll at to do in glass blowing, but none have made costume jewelry of glass
has treated the hows clearly, or in de­ on a first try with no other than writ­
tail. ten instructions. They provide de­
This book fills that important need. scriptions of how to construct, adjust,
I would have found it invaluable in and operate inexpensive tools for
my own graduate work in chemistry. working glass by hand, and they have
It describes and explains many tech­ included a list of sources of materials.
niques that I learned the hard way, Indeed, 'he book is addressed to be­
by sad experience. In addition, it con­ ginners, and its explanations are con­
tains some previously unpublished fined to operations that require little
hints and suggestions that we have more than enthusiasm, reasonable pa­
tried in our laboratory practice and tience, some glass tubing, and a gas
found useful. I think the book will be fire. There is no reference to the man­
essential for any graduate students of ufacture of glass pieces by machines,
chemistry and physics who have fre­ or with the more complex tools, such
quent occasion to build or repair glass as lathes, that are commonly used to
apparatus. supplement hand operations during
This book is not limited to those the commercial manufacture of labo­
in the sciences. It introduces a new ratory glassware; nor is the ancient
hobby: glass blowing for diversion. method of blowing molten glass at the
That the fascinations of the art have end of a four-foot iron pipe empha­
universal appeal is attested by the con­ sized. The authors assume that these
stant presence of onlookers that sur­ operations will be deferred until the
round the itinerant glass blowers who beginner has acquired some experi­
turn out model sailing ships, minia­ ence in constructing small glass pieces
ture birds, and similar trinkets at by hand.
amusement centers. Most perform­ So, I introduce this book with en­
ances that are interesting to watch thusiasm. May it acquaint many stu­
are even more fun to do, and glass dents and laymen with the satisfac­
blowing is no exception. Moreover, tions
/ that come with the mastery of
glass affords at least as much latitude an art. A good antidote for the stress
for creative expression as do ceramics of modern living is a quiet avocation.
and similar crafts that have attracted An effective one is the manipulation
large numbers of enthusiasts. of molten glass. I hope that you come
The authors have kept the amateur to know its joys.
very much in mind. They explain in
detail how to create colorful knick Charles H. Greene
knacks by techniques so simple that Alfred, New York
children younger than 12 years of age December, 1967
Glass working, like the working of mentary hows and whys so that with
most basic materials, encompasses arts a reasonable amount of practice the
and sciences that vastly exceed the novice can master all of the basic oper­
limitations of a single volume or even ations. Thus equipped, he will find that
a single mind. For this reason we do the fabrication of complex shapes be­
not presume to suggest that the fol­ comes not only easy, but fun. More­
lowing pages cover the whole field of over, a thorough knowledge of the
glass work, or even a substantial part hows and whys will prevent him from
of it. We have addressed ourselves drifting into bad habits of procedure
primarily to those readers who are in­ that invariably occur during hit-or-
terested in learning how to make, from miss learning. Without this under­
plain glass tubing and rod, laboratory standing, practice tends to perpetuate
glassware or small objects such as errors as readily as to correct pro­
costume jewelry, miniature birds, ani­ cedures.
mals, and so on. This art is known in There is a correct and an incorrect
the trade as “lampwork,” a term that way to use any book, including this
dates from an era when heat for sof­ one. The substance of this primer has
tening glass rod and tubing was devel­ been arranged sequentially. We sug­
oped by blowing air through the flame gest that you read it through before
of a wick lamp. touching a piece of glass. Decide how
Essentially, we have endeavored to deeply you wish to become involved.
compile a primer for use by those who Then make a thorough study of Sec­
want to learn the essentials of lamp­ tion II, in which tools and facilities
work but do not know where or how are discussed. Acquire a full set of the
to start. The book explains the rudi­ tools that you will need for the kind
 of work that you will undertake. Don’t illustrations adorn these pages. His
skimp on tools. Good tools can make contribution in helping us to explain
the difference between success and the technical procedures of glass work­
failure for a beginner. Finally, com­ ing extended far beyond the execution
plete every basic exercise discussed in of attractive drawings.
Sections III and IV before moving on. Special mention must be made of
Keep the book within easy reach dur­ the generous help that we received
ing practice sessions and refer to it from Professor Charles H. Greene
when an operation goes out of control. who, as chairman of the Glass Science
For centuries the lore of glass blow­ Department of the State University of
ing was a closely held secret, passed New York, College of Ceramics at Al­
down from father to son and from fred University, not only reviewed the
friend to friend. The hard-won tech­ manuscript and made numerous help­
niques that are presented in this vol­ ful suggestions but throughout the
ume were painstakingly developed by project gave to us unstintingly of his
a succession of these nameless, unsung time, knowledge, and warm encourage­
craftsmen. To them we now pay trib­ ment.
ute. Our debt of gratitude could not be
We are also grateful to a number of retired without mention of John E.
modern industrial organizations who Paggioli, one of New York City’s
have opened their doors, as well as brighter and more zestful attorneys,
their files, to us—particularly the who, in the role of social catalyst, ini­
Corning Glass Works, the General tiated our collaboration—and gave it
Electric Company, the Westinghouse an occasional nudge.
Electric Corporation, the Driver-Har­ Finally, it is with greatest pleasure
ris Company, the B. F. Drakenfeld & that we acknowledge the splendid as­
Company, and the American Gas Fur­ sistance of Irene Schmitt, an accom­
nace Company. Permission to repro­ plished writer and artist, who not
duce data from their literature is only combed our efforts for misspelled
hereby gratefully acknowledged. words and affronts to the accepted
We also thank the Editors of Sci­ mores of the English language, but
entific American for permission to re­ typed the final manuscript. To her we
print certain material that appeared extend our sincerest appreciation.
originally in that esteemed periodical
and for numerous helpful suggestions James E. Hammesfahr
and editorial assistance. Clair L. Stong
It gives us pleasure, too, to acknowl­
edge the work of Wayne Gallup whose April, 1968
 ontents

Section I Glass: Its Origin, Uses, and Nature 1

Section II The Tools of the Glass Blower 19

Section III Solid Glass: Basic Operations 49

Section IV Glass Tubing: Basic Operations 85

Section V Novelty Glass Work 137

Section VI Scientific Glassware 156

Sources of Tools and Materials 189

Bibliography 191

Index 193
 Section I

lass: Its origin, uses, and nature

Anyone can learn to blow glass. Pro­ vention of glass are obscure. One early
ficiency in the art comes rather easily account was written some 2,000 years
with practice, particularly to the arti­ ago by the Roman encyclopedist, Pliny
san who is steeped in the lore of the the Elder.
material. How did glass come into be- Volume XXXVI of Pliny’s Nat­
ing? What properties explain its be­ ural History relates how a caravan of
havior? How does it react to manipu­ traders in minerals once camped on
lation? To what ends may it ap­ the white sands of the Belus River in
propriately be applied? The glass Phoenicia. Finding no rocks at hand,
blower who dismisses such questions the traders made a fireplace for cook­
lightly is in the position of the cabinet ing their evening meal by piling on
maker who cannot distinguish oak the sand a circle of lumps of soda from
from pine-—knowledge essential for their cargo. On arising the next morn­
the expression of his skill. So, we be­ ing they found among the dead coals
gin at the beginning. Who invented a translucent substance that shat­
glass ? tered into fragments with razor-sharp
The full story of manufactured edges. Thus, according to Pliny, did
glass, like that of metallurgy, pre­ men chance upon the recipe for mak­
dates recorded history. Primitive tools ing glass.
chipped from natural, volcanic glass Historians confess that Pliny did
appear to have been used throughout not hesitate to use his facile imagina­
most of the past 500 centuries. Ob­ tion when spinning a tale. In this in­
jects of manufactured glass have been stance, however, he enjoys some
dated as old as 3,000 years. The cir­ measure of support from modern glass
cumstances that surrounded the in­ technology. Although sand resists the
2 traders dined on seafood, discarding
Creative the bones and shells in the fire. Such
glass blowing
rubbish would have provided the es­
sential lime and could possibly have
turned the trick. With the addition of
this lime, the formula reported by
Pliny would match that used for mak­
ing most of the glass used today.
Somehow, the ancients hit on a good
recipe. The authors of this volume
have no wish to spoil the good story
told by Pliny.
Whatever the circumstances sur­
rounding the invention of glass, the
material itself made little impact on
technology for some 3,000 years. A
few glass utensils from the early pe­
riod, consisting mostly of rude bottles,
urns, and goblets, have been turned up
by archaeologists, but ancient potters
heat of an open fire, soda melts even remained loyal to their clay, and archi­
in the flame of a candle. Moreover, tects continued to design structures
sand dissolves in melted soda much with unglazed windows.
as salt dissolves in water. Soda is a Then, at about the time Pliny wrote
good flux, or dissolving agent, for his history, an individual about whom
sand. The ingredients must be well nothing whatever is known thrust the
mixed, of course, if one expects to pro­ end of an iron pipe into a heated mix­
duce glass lumps of substantial size ture of soda, lime, and sand, and from
—a detail that Pliny overlooked. He the adhering mass he blew a bubble of
also neglected to mention one essen­ glass—seemingly a trivial event. Yet,
tial ingredient of glass: a substance few strokes of genius have more pro­
■ Figure 1-1. such as lime that imparts chemical foundly altered the course of human
A chunk of obsidian stability to the product. affairs..
(a natural glass) and an In the absence of lime the fused That shimmering sphere contained
arrow head chipped from
obsidian. Tools of such mixture of soda and sand dissolves in the seed of miracles. From it, in one
glass predate recorded water. Indeed, if the proportion of form or another, have come answers to
history. [Courtesy soda to sand is large the product be­ riddles as diverse as the nature of dis­
photomedia department, comes water glass, the familiar ce­ ease, the structure of the universe, the
Corning Glass Works.] ment and a favorite preservative for nature of the atom, and the dynamics
eggs. The introduction of a small pro­ of the living cell. Without vessels of
portion of lime drastically alters the blown glass chemists could not have
properties of the fused mixture. It compounded the wonder drugs. Elim­
then resists attack, not only by water, inate the bulb of blown glass and the
but by most other fluids and gases in­ global network of telephones would
cluding acids. Perhaps the Phoenician fall silent, as would radio and televi-
 Figure 1-2. 3
An ewer dating back to Glass: its origins,
the Roman Empire, uses, and nature
probably Syria or Italy,
first century A.D. The
mold is blown of amber
glass and signed by
Ennion. [Courtesy
photomedia department,
Corning Glass Works.]

Figure 1-3.
A rose vase of lead
crystal. [Courtesy
Steuben Glass.]

sion. Without glass bulbs man could

not make his way among the clouds,
much less probe the depths of space.
In short, glass implements almost
every facet of science and technology;
it lights man’s dwelling place, his
way, and his future.
Equally distinguished contributions
to our aesthetic heritage have come
from glass. Generations of artists and
artificers have found creative expres­
sion through glass in masterworks
that range from the stained glass
windows of medieval cathedrals and
the royal banquet settings of crystal,
to the glittering baubels that adorn
milady.
4 The variety of uses that have been melt. The suspended particles selec­
Creative found for glass is a tribute to man’s tively reflect or scatter light of one
glass blowing
ingenuity. In industrially developed color. Selenium combined with cad­
nations we are rarely farther than a mium sulfide in the batch produces
few inches from some object of glass particles in the glass that scatter all
—whether it be the spectacles on the wavelengths except red. The result is
nose, the crystal in the watch, or ruby glass, formerly made by adding
the windshield of our motor car. Yet, particles of pure gold to the mixture.
curiously, despite all our vaunted clev­ Glass so colored or bleached is not
erness and concentrated effort, we basically altered. It remains the prod­
have failed to hit upon an adequate uct of the ancients. The first signifi­
substitute for this versatile product of cant innovation in glass making came
the ancients. in 1673 when the Worshipful Com­
Until the latter half of the seven­ pany of Glass Sellers, a group that
teenth century the term glass desig­ dominated the glass industry of Eng­
nated the material described by Pliny. land, grew dissatisfied with the soda­
Efforts toward the improvement of lime glass then being imported from
glass centered chiefly on the search Venice. They commissioned a British
for pure raw materials, and on manu­ experimenter, George Ravencroft, to
facturing procedures for making a compound a glass of native materials
clear, colorless product. Most sand in the hope of freeing Britain from
contains some iron. Even a slight dependence on foreign sources. Sub­
trace of this element in the melt im­ stituting lead oxide (litharge) for
parts a greenish cast to glass. soda and altering the proportions of
Glassmakers learned how to neutral­ other ingredients in lime glass, Raven­
ize this stain by adding controlled croft achieved spectacular success
amounts of manganese, which was in within three years. The resulting
effect a bleaching agent, to the melt. “lead” glass was not only as clear as
Conversely, craftsmen observed that lime glass, but it bent light much
the selective addition of metallic more strongly than the old glass, as
oxides to the basic formula resulted in it had a higher index of refraction.
strongly colored glass. In one of its Moreover, it was characterized by a
several chemical states iron stains much higher dispersive power—the
glass green; in another it yields a yel­ property of transparent substances to
low tint. Cobalt imparts a bluish bend light rays of some colors more
hue; copper, a deep red, blue, or even than rays of other colors. As a result,
green; charcoal, yellow-brown; man­ lead glass had a sparkling brilliance
ganese dioxide, violet. A mixture of that rivaled rock crystal. For this rea­
stannic and arsenious acids produces son lead glass was soon being widely
white. Milky white glass can be made used for the production of fine din­
by increasing the proportion of cal­ ner ware and objects of art, appli­
cium fluoride. cations for which it remains unsur­
Color can also be developed by in­ passed, even today.
troducing finely divided particles of The next significant advance in
metal or metallic compounds into the glass making came two centuries la-
 5
Glass: its origins,
uses, and nature

Figure 1-4.
Arrays of laboratory
glassware form the
indispensable base of
modern technological
advances. [Courtesy
photomedia department,
Corning Glass Works.]
6 ter. The German physicist, Ernst entered the field of glass making in in­
Creative Abbe, became interested in improving creasing numbers. The term “glass”
glass blowing
the microscope, and in 1876 he con­ no longer designated the product of
cluded that any striking advance had the ancients but became a generic
to await the development of glasses term. New glasses appeared by the
with controllable refractive index and hundreds. Some modern foam glasses
dispersion. The lens makers had are as light as feathers. Other special
reached a dead end. In 1884 he joined compositions are as heavy as iron.
with Otto Schott and Karl Zeiss to Some, in the form of fibers, are as soft
form the Jena glassworks of Schott as wool. Others are as hard as gem
and Sons. Within two years the firm stones. Still others are so flexible that
made new glasses from one or more they make good springs. Some are as
of 28 chemical compounds, including stiff and strong as steel. Normally,
such exotic elements as beryllium, ce­ glass at room temperature is consid­
rium, niobium, erbium, and uranium, ered an excellent electrical insulator,
as well as boron, cadmium, and tin. but now fairly good conductors are
Abbe solved his problem and, inci­ also made of glass. Most glasses
dentally, opened the modern era of soften when heated to redness and
glass making. shatter if suddenly chilled. Some new
Early in the present century experi­ ones make splendid crucibles for re­
menters at the Corning Glass Works, taining molten metals, and even w’hen
Corning, New York embarked on an white hot can be plunged into ice wa­
organized program of scientific re­ ter without damage!
search to explore the full potentials of Silica remains the primary ingredi­
glass. Similar efforts were soon un­ ent of most of the new glasses. It is
dertaken by other members of the in­ the flux that distinguishes one kind
dustry. The first results appeared in of glass from another. The fluxes are
1912 with the introduction by Corning mostly the oxides of metals. Their
of the borosilicate glasses, a group of combinations are seemingly myriad.
materials that exhibit remarkable re­ Thousands of different glasses can be
sistance to thermal shock. found in the marketplace. Diverse as
Products made of these glasses are the new glasses are, however, it is pos­
marketed by Corning under the brand sible to group them into six major
name “Pyrex.” Borosilicate glasses families.
expand only about a third as much The largest family, the one that ac­
when heated as soda-lime or lead counts for the lion’s share of all glass
glass. For this reason they can be sub­ currently manufactured, is still the
jected without damage to tempera­ product of the ancients—soda lime
ture changes that would shatter the glass. The formula is varied slightly
older glasses. Borosilicate glasses are by each manufacturer, but the prod­
also relatively inert chemically. Boron uct remains essentially unchanged.
oxide is the principal ingredient of the Similar minor modifications of Raven­
flux. croft’s lead glass make up the second
Following the development of the family. Lead glasses soften at a rela­
borosilicate glasses qualified chemists tively low temperature and remain
plastic through a broad range of tem­ 7
peratures. Hence, lead glasses are con­ Glass: its origins,
venient to work. For this reason, neon uses, and nature
signs are usually made of this mate­
rial. The high density of the flux
accounts for the high index of refrac­
tion of the lead glasses. Lead glasses
also strongly absorb ultraviolet rays
and X-rays; this property has been
exploited for making special windows
that shield observers from the haz­
ards of radiation.
The resistance of all glasses to
thermal shock increases with the pro­
portion of silica in the melt because
silica tends to retain its dimensions
when heated. Moreover, silica is
highly stable chemically. The reason
silica exhibits little expansion with in­
creased temperature is nof fully un­
derstood, although theoretical ex­
planations have been advanced.
When any compound is heated, the
vibrations of its constituent atoms
increase in intensity. The atoms then
need more room in which to vibrate.
They spread apart just enough to ac­
commodate the added jiggle. So, the
material expands. The two modes of
vibration that occur may be illus­ cules of silica to accommodate the
trated by a helical spring which (1) side-to-side jiggle.) For this reason,
alternately stretches and contracts or the distance between silicon atoms in­
(2) bows alternately from side to side. creases very little when silica is
Groups of atoms are linked into mo­ heated. The addition of fluxes to silica Figure 1-5.
lecular structures by forces of electri­ breaks the strong silicon-oxygen-sili-
cal attraction known as chemical con bridges that vibrate from side to • Oxygen
bonds. Molecules of silica consist of an side. Atoms of the flux, such as so­
C«>) Silicon
atom of oxygen bonded between two dium atoms, become linked into the
atoms of silicon—a structure that structure. Vibrations of the first mode Sodium

may be likened to a helical spring (see then predominate: the molecule alter­
Fig. 1-5, a). A large part of the ther­ nately stretches and compresses (1-5,
mal vibration in heated silica is con­ c). In this state the material must ex­
fined to the side-to-side motion of the pand to make room for the longitudinal
oxygen atom (1-5, 6). (Nature left motion. The rate of expansion in­
enough room between adjacent mole- creases in proportion to the added
8 flux. It is for this reason that both nomical telescopes, the bulbs of ultra­
Creative hot lime and lead glasses shatter when violet lamps, the windows of optical
glcss blowing
thrust into ice water whereas glasses masers, and related scientific applica­
that contain larger proportions of sil­ tions.
ica emerge from the water undam­ Silica is an almost perfectly elastic
aged. In borosilicate glasses, such as material. When deformed mechani­
some Pyrex glasses, boron atoms are cally, it quickly returns to its former
linked into the silica structure by sili- shape, unless it is bent so much that it
con-oxygen-boron bonds that vibrate breaks. Because of this property, sil­
most strongly in the side-to-side mode. ica in the form of fibers is an ideal
Hence these glasses have substantial material for use in suspending bal­
resistance to thermal shock, although ances, the moving parts of electro­
not as much as the high silica glasses. meters, and similar instruments.
Why not make glass of pure silica? Fused silica retains its shape even at
In general, the manufacture of such white heat. Hence it is much in de­
glass is difficult. Pure silica reaches mand for laboratory crucibles and in
the plastic state of thick molasses at the form of vessels known as ignition
a temperature of about 3000 degrees tubes in which substances may be
Fahrenheit (1650°C). Bubbles of air burned to ash, without becoming con­
that are naturally trapped between the taminated, during chemical analysis.
grains of sand cannot escape from Most remaining glasses are mem­
the sticky mass. If the temperature is bers of one or another of two addi­
raised to 4000 degrees (2310°C), the tional families; the so-called 96% sil­
boiling point of silica, the mass, in­ ica glasses and the aluminosilicate
stead of becoming water-thin, evap­ group. A few years ago experimenters
orates! To eliminate the trapped air, at the Corning Glass Works chanced
the sand must be melted at high tem­ to observe that boro silicate glasses
perature under vacuum, a costly pro­ containing unusually large amounts
cedure. Fused silica glass may also of boron oxide were briskly attacked
be made by melting crushed crystals by dilute acid. They also noticed that
of quartz electrically, as well as by the the effect became more pronounced as
reaction of silicon chloride and water the rate at which a formed object
in an oxygas flame, both expensive cooled was lowered. The acid did not
procedures. Pure silica glass is now dissolve the glass completely. The bo­
routinely made by melting silica un­ ron oxide and soda dissolved, but not
der vacuum. The product is a new the silica. Eventually, a procedure was
family of costly glasses for special ap­ developed in which a molded object is
plications. Fused silica is extremely immersed, after suitable heat treat­
resistant to thermal shock and chemi­ ment, in hot dilute acid until the bo­
cal attack. It transmits radiant en­ ron oxide and soda are leached away,
ergy from the ultraviolet end of the leaving a permeable skeleton of al­
spectrum well into the infrared, with most pure silica. When the piece
lower energy loss than any other is dried and fired at a temperature of
glass. For these reasons it is of lim­ about 2200 degrees Fahrenheit the
ited use for the optical parts of astro­ pores close, resulting in a clear trans-
parent structure some 14% smaller substances listed in the periodic ta­ 9
than the untreated original. This ble of chemical elements. The number Glass: its origins,
glass exhibits little more thermal ex­ of varieties runs into the thousands. uses, and nature
pansion than pure fused silica and Currently, one manufacturer alone
about the same electrical properties, compounds some 200 experimental
resistance to chemicals, and transpar­ glasses per week! Space permits the
ency to ultraviolet light. Available mention of only a few.
from the Corning Glass Works under One subgroup of the optical glasses
the brand name Vycor, these glasses is based on the oxides of the rare
are used for chemical apparatus, earth elements, notably lanthanum
ultraviolet lamps, and windows in and thorium. These glasses contain
space capsules. no silica. Superficially, they resemble
Still another class of glasses, which ordinary lime or lead glass, and they
makes up the sixth family, is repre­ are clear and transparent. Prisms
sented by the aluminosilicate group, made of them have the remarkable
in which aluminum oxide and lime are property of strongly and almost
chief constituents. The material com­ equally bending light of all colors,
bines good electrical and chemical whereas conventional glasses bend
properties with resistance to high blue light at a relatively sharp angle,
temperature. Containing about 60% green light somewhat less, yellow
silica, this material does not require light still less, and red light least of
special processing and can be worked all. Dinnerware or costume jewelry
by conventional glass blowing tech­ made of this material would have lit­
niques. When tempered it has good re­ tle appeal, and would lack luster and
sistance to thermal shock. It is spe­ sparkle. On the other hand, lantha­
cially suited to applications that re­ num and thorium glasses make ideal
quire high strength at relatively high camera lenses because with minimum
temperatures, such as thermometers, correction they bring light of all col­
combustion tubes, electronic vacuum ors to focus equally in the plane of the
tubes of the high-power type, and film. Their development has enabled
cooking ware used on stove burners. optical engineers to design cameras of
A seventh classification of optical remarkably high performance.
glasses can be made, although the Another glass containing silica and
group is scarcely a family because its soda, but with the rare earth neodym­
members have little in common be­ ium oxide instead of lime, transmits
yond the fact that all are vitreous in all colors except the bright yellow that
nature. Their atoms are locked in ran­ is emitted by the sodium atoms from
dom array, not in the highly organized hot glass in the glass blower’s flame.
pattern of a crystal lattice. In one Known as “didymium” glass—be­
sense these special glasses may be cause praesodymium, another rare
thought of as fused fluxes because earth metal, usually goes along with
many of them contain little or no sil­ the neodymium-—the material makes
ica. splendid goggles for glass blowers.
To compound them, glass makers It blocks out the dazzling yellow glare
have utilized more than half of the that obscures the small details when
10 the worker is fashioning small, dark and back again, without limit. In
Creative delicate pieces. Theatrical spotlights sunlight, the darkening may ap­
glass blowing are also occasionally equipped with proach maximum intensity in a mat­
“illusion pink” didymium filters for ter of seconds. The time required for
suppressing the yellow hue emitted by regaining the original transparency
incandescent electric lamps. Light so ranges from minutes to hours, de­
filtered imparts an attractive glow to pending upon the composition, the
the flesh tones of performers. previous heat treatment, and the tem­
In recent years, photosensitive perature. Windows of this glass
glass has also been developed. A would maintain daylight of constant
small amount of cerium oxide is added intensity in a room, whether the sun
to the melt in addition to controlled was shining or not. Spectacles made
amounts of antimony oxide and gold. from photochromic glass become sun­
When the finished glass is exposed to glasses in the sun and clear in the
light, a chemical change occurs; the shade.
cerium oxide transfers electrons to Corning has also developed a series
the ions of antimony and gold. The of glasses that soften at relatively low
change is not at first apparent to the temperatures. These contain a large
eye. But when the piece is subse­ proportion of lead oxide and are called
quently heated, antimony transfers “solder” glasses. They are used for
electrons to the gold centers, which joining conventional glasses that be­
grow and so coloi’ the glass a deep come rigid at relatively higher tem­
blue. The sensitivity extends com­ perature. Although the solder glasses
pletely throughout the piece. If the ex­ are more reactive chemically than
posure is made through a photo­ lime, lead, or borosilicate materials,
graphic negative the resulting picture they are sufficiently inert for use in
creates a three-dimensional effect. numerous applications, particularly in
Another glass, made with silver and scientific apparatus such as vacuum
lithium, is highly soluble in hydro­ tubes. Solder glasses are compounded
fluoric acid at points of exposure to to expand and contract at the same
light after development by heat. This rate as the glasses to be joined. Other
property has become the basis of a physical properties, such as density,
chemical machining technique. In one viscosity, electrical resistivity, and
demonstration, 200,000 uniform holes, chemical durability, may differ how­
each smaller than the thickness of a ever.
human hair, were etched in a 12-inch The solders are compounded into
square of the new glass. two types. One type melts at a rela­
One of the more recent develop­ tively low temperature and may be re­
ments to come from the laboratories melted at the same temperature. It
of the Corning Glass Works is a com­ solidifies as a vitreous mass. The sec­
position that darkens when exposed ond type also melts initially at a rela­
to light and then clears when the tively low temperature. By appropri­
light is removed. This “Photo­ ate heat treatment, however, the
chromic” glass never loses its ability vitreous mass may be devitrified and
to change color, cycling from clear to changed to a crystalline form that
melts at substantially higher temper­ attempts to pull away from the un­ 11
ature. Solder of this type is used for yielding envelope and is expressed Glass: its origins,
joining glass parts, such as color tele­ by a force that tends to squeeze to­ uses, and nature
vision tubes, that must be heated gether the molecules of the envelope.
strongly following assembly. Hence, the envelope is subject to a
Solder glass is distributed in the force of compression. Conversely, the
form of a fine powder. To make a sol­ molecules of the interior undergo a
dered joint, the powder is mixed with pull, or tensile stress, as they are
a binder, such as collodion thinned by drawn simultaneously toward the cen­
99 parts of acetone, to make a creamy ter by the natural shrinkage of the
paste. The paste is applied to the sur­ mass and outward by the unyielding
faces that will be joined. The coated envelope. The pressure of this tug-of-
surfaces are pressed into contact and war may amount to many tons per
dried. The assembly is then heated in square inch. Internal stresses always
an oven at a temperature sufficient to occur to some extent when glass cools
melt the solder but below the soften­ unevenly. Such stresses are relatively
ing temperature of the glass parts. trivial in fused silica and the 96%
The physical properties of all silica glasses because of the low ther­
glasses can be somewhat modified by mal coefficient of expansion of these
heating and cooling the material at a materials.
controlled rate. Such heat treatment Similar stresses also appear when
is known as tempering or annealing, a glass piece of irregular shape cools
depending upon whether internal from the plastic state. The thin parts
stress in the glass is developed or re­ cool and shrink first, and eventually
lieved. The terms “annealing” and become rigid. Thicker parts solidify
“tempering” are borrowed from the later. As the rigid but still hot piece
field of metallurgy and these tech­ continues to cool, the hotter, thick
niques impart analogous qualities to parts shrink more than the thin parts,
the product; that is, they soften or but the glass can no longer flow and
harden it, respectively. Heat treat­ thus relieve the growing stresses. As
ment of metals alters the crystalline a consequence, internal forces develop
structure of the substance whereas in that remain in the glass when the
the treatment of glass, a noncrystal­ piece cools to room temperature.
line material, the effects are achieved The effect of stresses so developed is
by manipulating the patterns of in­ easy to demonstrate. Place an irregu­
ternal stress. larly shaped piece, such as a water
Such internal stresses develop when tumbler with a thick bottom, in an
two or more regions in a mass of oven and heat it slowly to a tempera­
glass are heated or cooled unequally. ture of 300 degrees or more, and
The surface of a molten mass cools then plunge the hot glass into ice
faster than the interior, and hardens water. Doubtless it will shatter. The
first. The interior, which is now en­ thin sides cool and shrink faster than
cased by a rigid envelope, continues the bottom. The resulting stress ex­
to cool and shrink as it stiffens. Stress ceeds the breaking strength of the
develops when the shrinking interior glass. Stresses of this magnitude can
12 Polaroid No. 1 Polaroid No. 2 and examined with the aid of an easily
Creative constructed instrument that utilizes
glass blowing polarized light, that is, light that vi­
brates in a single plane. Waves of or­
dinary light vibrate simultaneously
in all planes, vertically, sideways, and
Polaroid sheets at right angles so on. Waves that vibrate in a single
Second sheet blocks light plane can be separated from the jum­
a ble of vibrations making up ordinary
light by a special filter that consists,
Polaroid No. 1 Polaroid No. 2
in effect, of a grid of fine opaque lines.
A filtering material of this kind is
distributed in the form of plastic
sheets under the brand name “Pola­
roid.” When a beam of ordinary light
falls on a sheet of Polaroid, only pola­
Polaroid sheets aligned rized light is transmitted. All other
Second sheet transmits light light is largely absorbed. When the
b transmitted rays fall on a second sheet
of Polaroid they are fully absorbed if
develop in newly made pieces, which the grid-like structure of the second
promptly crack. In occasional pieces sheet is at right angles to the plane in
the internal stresses fall just short of which the light vibrates (Fig. 1-6, a),
the breaking point. These may crack but they are transmitted if the grid
spontaneously days, or even years, is parallel with the plane of vibration
later. Almost any external force, such (1-6, b). Glass has the property of al­
as a small increase in temperature, tering the plane of polarized light, de­
can initiate the rupture. In this case pending somewhat upon the magni­
the sequence of events is reversed. tude of its internal stresses. This
The thinner portions of the warmed property can be used to detect the in­
glass expand more quickly than the ternal stresses. A film of Polaroid is
thicker portions and so generate placed in front of an incandescent
forces that add to the internal stresses lamp. The observer looks at the light
already present. A mechanical shock, source through a second polarizing
such as a gentle tap, can have the film and rotates the film to the point
same effect. In short, the presence of of minimum light transmission. The
internal stress, in its net effect, low­ glass specimen is then placed between
ers the natural strength of the glass the two films. Patterns of internal
Figure 1 - 6. unless it is carefully controlled so that stress appear as bands of light and
tensile stress does not appear in the shade, whereas unstrained glass ap­
surface of the piece. The piece gains pears uniformly clear. Detailed in­
strength, however, if the surface is structions for making and using an
under compression and the interior instrument of this type (called a po­
under tension. lariscope) are included in Section II
Internal stresses can be detected (see page 40).
 Although the presence of internal 13
stress is normally undesirable, meth­ Glass: its origins,
ods have been developed for utiliz­ uses, and nature
ing it to produce glass of exceptional
strength, by the technique of temper­
ing. For example, jets of cold air are
played on the surfaces of plate glass
which has been heated until it is
plastic. Thus chilled abruptly, the sur­
faces are placed in a state of compres­
sion and the interior in tension. Plates
so treated may be safely loaded by
tensile stresses that would break or­
dinary glass. The loading opposes and,
in effect, cancels the built-in stress of
compression. In the interior of the
plate, where tensile stress is increased
by tempering, the strength of the ma­ a Let molten drop of glass fall
Prince Rupert's Drop”
resists force of
terial is almost unlimited because the into container of water hammer blow
glass is free of imperfections. Glass
so tempered is used for windows of
automobiles, show cases, windows of
telephone booths, scientific apparatus,
kitchen ware for use on stove surfaces,
and numerous similar constructions
that require great strength combined
c Grasp drop and snap off
with transparency. hair-like tip
The fascinating glass novelties
known as Prince Rupert’s drops pro­
vide a dramatic demonstration of the
tempering effect. These small tear­
drop-shaped objects are made by
dropping bits of molten glass into cold
water. Prepare them by melting the d Drop explodes into harmless granules
tip of a rod of lime glass about 2 mil­
limeters in diameter in a gas flame.
Let a drop about % inch in diameter place the body of the drop flat on a
fall a distance of 4 or 5 inches smooth anvil and, while holding it by
into a container of warm water 10 or the tip, strike the body sharply with Figure 1-7.
more inches deep. Many of the drops a hammer. If all has gone well the
will break but some will survive. Fish hammer will bounce off the undamaged
out a chilled drop by its tip and exam­ glass.
ine it with the polariscope. The in­ Next, shield your eyes from the
ternal stresses will appear as a daz­ drop and snap off the slendei’ thread
zling pattern of rainbow colors. Next, of glass attached to the small end. The
14 entire drop will explode into minute attacked by certain substances, nota­
Creative fragments (Fig. 1-7) ! The particles bly fluorine and hydrofluoric acid,
glass blowing and, to a lesser extent, caustic alkalies
have dull edges and will not cut you
even if you rub them between your such as sodium or potassium hydrox­
forefinger and thumb. In effect, the ide. These reagents, particularly hy­
broken tip acts as an imperfection drofluoric acid, are commonly used for
from which myriad fractures are prop­ etching glass. The surface to be
agated through the entire piece in re­ etched is coated with an inert varnish,
sponse to the imprisoned stresses. All such as one that has an asphaltum
tempered glass reacts in the same way base, through which the desired de­
to surface damage. A tempered sheet sign is cut, and exposed to the rea­
of plate glass can withstand astonish­ gent. If the fluid is placed in contact
ing loads, but when even a small area with the glass, a polished groove will
is chipped, the sheet bursts into frag­ be etched. Exposure to the fumes
ments. will make a matt impression. In addi­
Internal stresses are relieved by tion, etching baths that contain potas­
just the opposite technique. The glass sium or ammonium fluorides precipi­
is heated slowly to the so-called an­ tate insoluble silica fluorides on the
nealing “point,” the temperature at glass surface and so produce a matt
which the molecular arrangement is so surface.
altered within a reasonable period of An effective etching solution for
time that the internal stresses disap­ glass of all kinds consists of 10 parts
pear. Actually, there is no “point” at (by weight) of ammonium fluoride, 4
which glass softens. Only crystalline parts of distilled water, and 1 part
substances have melting points. (Glass each of sulfuric acid and hydrofluoric
—like tar, pitch, and other amorphous acid. Mix the ammonium fluoride and
substances—is a fluid that becomes water in a plastic container, then add
more or less viscous depending upon the sulfuric acid slowly to prevent the
its temperature. Even at room tem­ temperature of the solution from ris­
perature, glass must be regarded as a ing above 140 degrees Fahrenheit, and
supercooled fluid.) finally add the hydrofluoric acid. By
After the internal stresses have adding two parts of gum arabic in so­
been relieved by heating the glass to, lution, the preparation can be con­
say, the consistency of cold pine pitch, verted into an etching ink for applica­
the temperature is gradually lowered tion by an ordinary pen. Store in a
—so slowly that all regions of the tightly capped plastic bottle. Warn­
mass are at practically uniform tem­ ing: Do not breathe the fumes or let
perature during the cooling. The mass the solution come in contact with the
shrinks uniformly and no strains de­ skin. Hydrofluoric acid is extremely
velop. The treated piece is said to be caustic. In case of accidental contact,
“annealed.” wash off the fluid immediately in run­
Although glasses, particularly the ning water and call a physician. The
varieties that contain a large propor­ acid penetrates the skin so that the ef­
tion of silica, are relatively inert fects may not be apparent until hours
under ordinary conditions, they are after contact with the acid.
 Most glass dissolves only slightly in ness are specified in millimeters. 15
water. Nonetheless, the so-called soft (There are 25.4 millimeters in 1 inch.) Glass: its origins,
glasses, such as soda-lime and lead Most manufacturers produce tubing uses, and nature
types, are impaired to some extent by in three weights, or wall thicknesses:
prolonged exposure to humid air, par­ thin, standard, and heavy. Glass is
ticularly in the smoggy atmospheres sold by the pound. When ordering
of metropolitan centers. Flux appears glass, specify the amount in pounds,
to dissolve from the surface and to re­ the diameter in millimeters, the
act with carbon dioxide and other con­ weight of the wall (thin, standard, or
taminating substances in the air to heavy), and the kind of glass desired
form carbonates that collect on the (lime, lead, borosilicate, and so on).
surface as a whitish or light gray Stocks should be stored flat on
film. Such aging spoils the glass. Glass shelves in a dust proof cabinet. Each
tubing or rod that has been stored kind of glass should be kept in a sepa­
under unfavorable conditions for 10 rate compartment clearly marked with
years or more may be difficult to work, its type. Cold, clear glass of all types
may tend to shatter upon exposure to looks much alike, and feels much alike.
heat more readily than new glass, It is easy (and distressing) to mix
and, unless cleaned, may not seal ef­ the several varieties. Soft glasses can­
fectively or have normal strength not successfully be joined to the hard
when blown or otherwise formed into varieties (the borosilicates) nor can
desired shape. Stocks of glass should the hard glasses be joined to the high
be limited to a five-year supply. Cor­ silica types. Should the stock become
roded and otherwise soiled glass may mixed, tests are available for identi­
be cleaned by soaking for several days fying the several families.
in a 10% solution (by weight) of Lead glass scratches easily and will
chromium trioxide, followed by a thor­ turn black and opaque when heated
ough rinse in distilled water. This to softness in a fire that is rich in gas
treatment will remove foreign mat­ and lean in air, such as the flame of a
I

ter from the surface. Actually, the propane blow torch. The burning fuel
aged surface of the glass should be re­ has greater affinity for oxygen than
moved. This can be dissolved away the lead oxide. Hence the lead oxide
with hydrofluoric acid or a solution gives up its oxygen to the fuel and
of ammonium difluoride. Glass so is thereby reduced to metallic lead,
treated should be immersed for a few which stains the glass. There is no
minutes in a 5% solution of sodium convenient test for identifying lime
hydroxide, to neutralize the acid, and glass, but if one is working with only
then rinsed with distilled water. Obvi­ lead, lime, and borosilicate, a test is
ously, such treatment is warranted not needed for lime because borosili­
only in the case of rare or costly glass. cate (Pyrex) can, like lead, be identi­
No treatment is a substitute for clean, fied easily. First, borosilicate softens
fresh stock. at a much higher temperature than
Tubing and rod are supplied by either lime or lead glasses. It must be
manufacturers in standard lengths worked in a fire enriched by oxygen,
of 4 feet. Diameter and wall thick­ so try a suspected piece in the heat of
16 an air-gas flame. If it refuses to soften in the fire, while others at the same
Creative enough for convenient working, it is temperature remain stiff. The glass
glass blowing borosilicate. Pyrex brand No. 7740 that becomes plastic at the lower tem­
glass, a popular kind of Pyrex, can be perature is said to be the “softer” of
positively distinguished from all othei' the two. It is somewhat difficult to
glasses, including quartz and high make a smooth joint between glasses
silica types, by a simple test. This of differing softness. Moreover, if the
test is based on the property of glass difference in the softening tempera­
to bend light at a characteristic angle tures is great the joint may crack
that is expressed numerically as the when the piece cools because inter­
“refractive index.” Glass, when im­ nal stresses tend to develop as the
mersed in a fluid of matching refrac­ glasses solidify and shrink at differ­
tive index, becomes practically invisi­ ing rates.
ble. Pyrex brand No. 7740 glass has a When working with glasses of dif­
refractive index of 1.474. So does a so­ fering softness, it always pays to
lution consisting of 16 parts (by vol­ make a “sealing” test before con­
ume) of methyl alcohol and 84 parts of structing an object, to learn in ad­
benzene. The solution is made up in vance if the joints—or “seals,” as they
a wide-mouthed jar equipped with a are commonly known—will break
close fitting screw top. The solution when they are cooled. The compatibil­
may be kept for many years. To make ity of unknown glasses can be deter­
the test, simply immerse the sus­ mined experimentally. For example,
pected glass in the solution. If it dis­ the ends of unfamiliar tubes may be
appears, it is Pyrex. (A faint, varicol­ heated to the plastic state and simply
ored outline may be detected if the pushed together so that they fuse.
specimen is viewed against a light.) If the resulting joint does not crack
The submerged portion of a length of when pooled in the air, the materials
tubing that is anything other than are likely to be compatible. A more ef­
7740 glass (including lime and lead fective and interesting test is em­
glasses as well as the high silica ployed by glass manufacturers. Draw
types) remains plainly visible. Lime the materials to be tested into slender
glass will similarly disappeai' in chloro­ rods about 6 inches long and 6 mil­
benzene. Warning: Benzene is highly limeters in diameter. (See page 58
toxic. Avoid breathing the fumes. for the technique of drawing.) Next,
Open the container only in a well simultaneously heat about % inch of
ventilated room, preferably under a one end of each rod to the plastic
fume hood. state, and place the molten portions
Not all soft glasses expand and in overlapping contact (Fig. 1-8).
contract at the same rate when worked Squeeze the overlapped portions
in the fire. This is particularly true lightly between the jaws of a pair of
of colored glasses in which the various tweezers to assure a good joint. Then,
hues are imparted by the addition of without twisting the softened region,
metallic oxides in varying amounts bring the center of the joint to yellow
and by related modifications in the heat, remove from the fire, and quickly
flux. Some quickly become butter-soft stretch the molten glass into a thread
about 30 inches long. The smaller the 17
diameter of the thread after drawing, Glass: its origins,
the more sensitive the test. Thus it is uses, and nature
well to stretch the rods a little where
they have been pressed together with
the tweezers prior to the final heating
and drawing. Be sure to hold the
thread straight until it is cold and
rigid. Only then may it be released so
that you may observe the curvature. If
the glasses are compatible (i.e., if they
shrink at the same rate when cooled),
the thread will remain straight when
you release it. Such glasses can be
sealed successfully. On the other
hand, if, when released, the thread
curls into loops smaller than about
10 inches in diameter, the glasses are
incompatible and seals made between Overlap fused ends

them will almost certainly crack upon

cooling. (The curling is caused by the
uneven shrinkage of the two compo­ c Heat overlapped portion
nents of the thread.) The glass with
the greater coefficient of expansion
will be on the inside of the curve.
Threads of lead glass and lime glass d Pull glass until hair thin

will remain relatively straight. Those

made from lead glass or lime glass
and borosilicate will form coils an inch e If glasses are compatible hair remains straight
or so in diameter. Neither lead nor
lime can be sealed to borosilicate.
For all but the most exceptional ap­
plications, the glass blower works f If glasses are incompatible hair will curl
with either lime, lead, or borosilicate
glasses. In descriptions of the tech­
niques of glass blowing it will be as­
sumed in the following sections of this three of these glasses, particularly
book that the reader will use one or lead and lime, must be annealed after
another of these three materials. Be­ they have been worked. Lead and lime Figure 1-8.
ginners are urged to practice first must be kept hot when being worked.
with lead glass. As previously men­ If permitted to cool, they tend to crack
tioned, it has the broadest range of when abruptly reheated. Borosilicate,
working temperature, remaining soft on the other hand, can usually be
longer than does lime or borosilicate abruptly reheated without cracking.
when it is removed from the fire. All Even so, such rough treatment is not
18
Creative
glass blowing
Characteristics of representative Corning glasses

Expansion
(number of
parts in 10 Corning Annealing Softening
million per Class Works Strain point temperature temperature
degree C) code number (degrees C) (degrees C) (degrees C)

8 7900 820 910 1500

21 7240 515 580 840
32 7740’" 510 550 820
36 7720 495 525 755
40 3320 500 535 785
46 7050 460 495 700
50 7060 460 495 690
62 7520 530 565 750
70 7530 530 560 730
77 7550 515 545 715
85 7560 500 535 700
89 0120*** 400 433 630
90 0010*** 390 425 625
92 **
0080 475 510 695
99 0250
** 433 465 650

* Pyrex ** Soft glasses *** electrical lead glass (bulbs, etc.)

Note: The glasses in this table are listed in the order of increasing thermal
coefficient of expansion. Each glass will seal directly to its immediate
neighbors and to any other in the series through a graded seal that in­
cludes all intermediate glasses. Exceptions are 0010, 0080, and 0120,
which may be regarded as having the same coefficient.

good practice. All glass should be to work with another class of glasslike
warmed gradually, even material that materials, known as colored enamels,
is well annealed. This is one good rea­ that are used for making colored de­
son for practicing with lead and lime signs on glass. In general, enamels
glasses. Of necessity, the worker ac­ are compounded much as are conven­
quires the habit of heating the ma­ tional glasses, but, for use, they are
terial slowly and of protecting it from ground to a fine powder that is mixed
drafts of cold air when it cools. The with an oil for application to a glass
habit sticks when he graduates to bo­ object. The decorated piece is fired in
rosilicate materials. an oven. The heat burns the oily me­
The accompanying table lists the dium away and fuses the enamel to
characteristics of the more commonly the glass. The characteristics and col­
used glasses. Study the data carefully ors of enamels, and the techniques of
before proceeding to Section II. applying them are discussed in Sec­
The glass blower also has occasion tion VI.
 Section II

The ools of the glass blower

The essential tools of the glass blower air, or gas and air enriched by oxy­
are few in number, primitive in de­ gen, can be adjusted to meet the spe­
sign, and relatively inexpensive. A cial requirements of the kind of glass
complete set may be purchased for being worked; it can be made “rich”
about $125, and the essential items for or “lean” in the proportion of gas to
less than $50. (A list of suppliers will air as desired. The necessity for this
be found in Sources of Tools and Ma­ adjustment arises from the chemical
terials at the end of the book.) Aside properties of the metallic oxides mak­
from the gas burners, most of the ing up the glasses. A flame rich in gas
tools can be improvised from com­ tends to rob the oxides of oxygen,
monly available materials. Instruc­ thereby reducing them to metal. The
tions for making, adjusting, and using resulting metal discolors the glass.
them are presented in the following The prolonged heating of some glasses
pages. may cause some of the ingredients to
separate and crystallize. Glass so
transformed is said to be “devitrified.”
Glass fires
It loses its transparency, luster, and
Fires used for glass work differ from strength. For these reasons glass fires
those of ordinary gas burners in three must be considered chemical agents as
major respects. First, the flame of a well as sources of heat. Thirdly, glass
glass fire has a sharp boundary; the fires are designed to soften the ma­
heat is concentrated where it is terial at about the pace at which the
wanted and the temperature is rela­ artisan works—not so quickly that the
tively high. Secondly, the fuel mix­ glass melts out of control nor slowly
ture, which consists of either gas and enough to waste time. Of course
 20 inward. Simultaneously, convection
Creative carries the hot gases upward. As a
glass blowing consequence of these two motions, the
Violet
flame assumes the shape of a hollow
cone. The interior of the cone is com­
posed of relatively cold fuel, a com­
plex mixture of hydrocarbon mole­
cules. Most of the heat is liberated by
the combustion of hydrogen that splits
off from the molecules. The light
comes from the residue, particles of
Too much air
Flame strikes back
carbon brought to incandescence in
Too much air
Jt
11 the heat of the burning hydrogen. The
and gas carbon fails to burn because of in­
sufficient oxygen. The glowing parti­
.,-Soot i Violet cles cool and escape from the flame as
V!
Blue
flame
soot. The soot is wasted fuel (Fig. 2-
"-r
Bright i 1, a). The production of heat can be
V
AL L* C greatly increased by supplying the fire
-Blue
J®0®l Air vents
with enough oxygen to burn the car­
Dark fully open
1
i
bon particles. When this is done, the
cone 1
41 flame turns from bright yellow to
blue; the carbon liberates heat in­
i
stead of light.
Correctly adjusted To burn the carbon, air can be
fuel mixture mixed with the gas before it flows
from the end of the pipe. The opera­
skilled craftsmen can work with al­ tion of bunsen burners and propane
t most any kind of fire. But the begin­ torches is based on this scheme. A
ner who attempts to blow glass by small jet of gas is admitted to the bot­
Air vents closed means of a Bunsen burner is in the tom of a short pipe that has perfor­
awkward plight of the piano student ated sides. Air, entrained by the jet,
who wears mittens. Don’t handicap flows into the pipe through the per­
yourself with a poor fire. forations. The mixture is ignited as it
What accounts for the unique prop­ flows from the upper end of the pipe.
Gas control erties of glass fires? How are the The speed at which the flame travels
burners adjusted and used? Consider, through the gas, as well as the rate at
first, how a column of propane or il­ which heat is liberated, increases as
Figure 2-1. luminating gas burns in air. When the ratio of fuel to air decreases. If
gas that is flowing from an open pipe the rate at which the mixture flows
is ignited, it burns only at the bound­ from the top of the pipe exceeds the
ary, where the air and gas meet. Suf­ speed at which the flame travels down­
ficient oxygen for supporting combus­ ward, the flame is blown from the end
tion is unavailable except at the inter­ of the pipe and the fire goes out
face. The combustion reaction travels (2-1, &). Conversely, if the velocity of
 the combustion front exceeds the rate
of gas flow, the flame darts into the
pipe and burns inside. The fire is said
to “strike back” (2-1, c). When the
mixture contains almost but not quite
enough air for complete combustion
and the rate of gas flow just exceeds
by a little the velocity of the combus­
tion front, the flame rests on the top
of the pipe in the form of two cones,
a relatively cool inner cone of bluish
green surrounded by a larger, hotter
flame of light transparent blue
(2-1, d). Most Bunsen burners include
a loose-fitting sleeve that may be slid
up and down the outside of the pipe
for regulating the amount of air that
enters the perforations, and a needle
valve for regulating the rate of gas
flow. These two controls are manip­
ulated experimentally to produce the zles graduated in diameter for creat­
desired stable flame. Propane blow ing the air jet (Fig. 2-2). Needle
torches are based on the same princi­ flames about Vs inch in diameter and
ple but usually have no provision for 1 inch long can be developed by set­
regulating the flow of air. As men­ ting the pipe at minimum length and
tioned, either burner can be used for using an air jet of the smallest di­
glass work although they are not rec­ ameter. The flame is made longer and
ommended for beginners. Both will bushier by extending the length of
blacken lead glass. the pipe and using larger air jets. The
To achieve a somewhat higher tem­ bushy flames are turbulent and noisy.
perature, blow a jet of compressed air, Most commercial blast burners in­
positioned coaxially inside the pipe clude a third gas inlet for admitting
near the open end, into the cone of oxygen to the mixture. The addition
cold gas as it flows from the burner of oxygen causes the fire to burn at
pipe. The flow of both gas and air is higher temperature by reducing the
controlled by petcocks. The size, proportion of nitrogen in the fuel
shape, and temperature of the result­ mixture. Nitrogen, which composes
ing flame depends on the ratio of gas four-fifths of the atmosphere, makes
to air, the rate of gas injection, the ef­ no contribution to the heat liberated Figure 2-2.
fective length of the pipe, and the di­ by an ordinary fire. On the contrary,
ameter of the air jet. Blast burners this relatively inert gas absorbs heat
of this type, which are also known that would otherwise raise the tem­
as “cannon fires,” are usually fitted perature of the flame.
with a sliding sleeve for altering the Temperatures intermediate between
length of the pipe, and a set of noz­ those of an air-gas fire and a fire en-
22 A burner of this type, in one form,
Creative consists of three parts: a pinion gear,
glass blowing a perforated bushing, and a straight
pipe. The gear and bushing fit snugly
against the inner wall of the pipe, near
one end of the pipe. The openings in
the bushing admit a fairly large
amount of fuel to the central hole of
the gear and less fuel to the spaces
between the gear teeth. The central
hole of the gear is the nozzle for
the central flame, and the spaces be­
tween the gear teeth are nozzles for
the pilot flames (Fig. 2-3). The di­
mensions of the openings are so pro­
portioned that the relative velocity of
the gas mixture is correct at only one
critical pressure. The proportion of
gas to air in the fuel mixture is
equally critical because this ratio de­
termines in part the speed at which
the flame travels through the mixture.
When the fuel is correctly adjusted,
Blue Light violet a burner of this type develops an in­
tensely hot needle flame consisting
of two slender coaxial cones. The flow
Premixed gas of gas is laminar, not turbulent. A
and air Pilot flames Principal flame typical flame measures about % inch
in diameter at the base, comes to a
riched by oxygen are developed by sharp point at a distance of 3% inches,
mixing air and gas in almost explosive and emits a gentle hiss, the sign of
proportions (adding almost enough correct operation.
air to the gas for complete combus­ Such burners are known in the
tion) and forcing the compressed mix­ trade as “glass fires.” They can be
ture through a nozzle at a velocity mounted in various arrays. In one ar­
slightly in excess of that at which the rangement, two or more are mounted
flame travels through the fuel mix­ side by side and directed to a common
ture. Under these conditions one focal point. A companion set directs
Figure 2-3. would expect the flame to be blown off flame to the same focal point from the
the end of the burner. This is pre­ opposite side. This arrangement cre­
vented by surrounding the nozzle ates a so-called “crossfire.” Such cross­
with pilot fires that continuously ig­ fires are used almost exclusively by
nite the mixture. In effect the pilot itinerant glass blowers who stage ex­
fires stabilize the central flame by an­ hibitions of glass blowing in schools
choring it to the tip of the burner. and at recreation centers (Fig. 2-5).
The crossfire
Vs inch pipe elbow
The crossfire has no peer as a tool for
the beginner. It heats the work on
No. 3151 D
two sides simultaneously, thus mak­ new glass fire
ing a minimum demand on manipu­ (American Gas
Furnace Co.)
lative skill. The rate at which a cross­
fire softens glass varies approximately I

in proportion to the number of flames.

The beginner can start with one or *

>

two burners on each side and increase

the number as skill is acquired. The
burners can be directed to a common
focal point or spread to converge on a Approx. 12
74 inch
line; this enables the beginner to No. 16 gauge sheet steel
• k
O.D. copper tubing
distribute the heat as desired, with­
out shifting the work in the fire.
Burners of this type were developed ) T

late in the nineteenth century by pro­ Drill axial hole

longed trial and error. Doubtless they i
through wooden handle
could be made at home by a clever and
persistent mechanic. On the other I
!

hand, commercial burners are cur­

rently priced at about $1.70 each;
this is less than the retail price of the
required stock brass. We use the No.
3151JC New Style Glass Fire, manu­ To venturi mixer
factured by American Gas Furnace
Company, Elizabeth, New Jersey. A Figure 2-4.
single fire of this type, when mounted
in an appropriate handle, can be used
as a hand torch that develops a
needle flame, or several fires may be
combined by means of appropriate
manifolds to form a crossfire. Figure
2-4 depicts the structural details of a
serviceable hand torch which has a
single glass fire, and Figure 2-5 il­
lustrates one possible scheme for as­ Figure 2-5.
sembling a crossfire comprising two
glass fires on each side supported by
standard %-inch pipe fittings. A pro­
fessional crossfire, manufactured by
American Gas Furnace Company, that
employs as many as five glass fires
 on each side, is shown in Figure 2-6.
Creative We recommend a crossfire of not
glass blowing more than two glass fires on each side
for beginners.
Gas and air must be supplied to the
crossfire through a carburetor, the
size of which varies with the number
of glass fires. A crossfire employing a
total of four No. 3151JC glass fires
inay be supplied with the required fuel
mixture through a No. 12-40-31 ven­
turi mixer, complete with needle valves,
manufactured by the American Gas
Furnace Company. The same mixer
can be used, if desired, for supplying
fuel to a hand torch equipped with a
Figure 2-6. single No. 315JC glass fire (Fig.
2-7).

The venturi mixer

The venturi mixer acts both as a car­
buretor and as a pump for increasing
the flow of illuminating gas from the
supply main. Normally, illuminating
gas enters residences at a pressure of
only a few ounces pei’ square inch, in­
adequate for supplying fuel to the
high velocity jets. In essence, the ven­
turi mixer acts as an aspirator. A jet
of compressed air flowing through a
constricted tube creates a region of
low pressure. Gas, admitted to this re­
gion, is entrained by the jet and sub­
sequently compressed as illustrated
(Fig. 2-7, 6). The ratio of gas to aix’
in the resulting mixture can be al­
tered by needle valves that control
both the gas and the air. Propane may
be substituted for illuminating gas if
the pressure is appropriately low­
Fuel mixture out ered by means of an automatic regu­
lator. Incidentally, a check valve
should be installed in the gas line (see
page 30).
Air compressors 25
The tools of the
The essential supply of compressed glass blower
air can be provided most inexpen­
sively by one or more compressors
from old electric refrigerators. Many
dealers in refrigerators give away
such compressors for the asking. At
the most, they are priced at $5 or so.
New compressors of adequate capacity
are currently priced at $25 and up.
If a refrigerator compressor is used,
avoid damaging the copper tubing
that serves as the inlet and exhaust To air or
gas line
lines. Saw off the excess, leaving nip­
ples about 2 inches long. If neces­ 21

sary, improvise a wooden base for sup­

porting the compressor upright in the —
position occupied by the unit in the —14
Scale calibrated
refrigerator. Splice an appropriate ex­ -12
to indicate 26"
—IO
tension cord to the power terminals of
the motor and fit the other end of (>

the cord with a three-terminal plug.

Use the third terminal for making a
ground connection to the case of the
compressor. Start the machine and
identify the air outlet.
Connect the outlet to the air inlet 10-mm glass tubing
of the venturi mixer by an appropri­
ate length of rubber tubing. If either
the volume of the air or the pressure
s
is excessive, insert a T fitting for
bleeding off the excess. Slip a short
length of rubber tubing over the leg
of the T and partially close the tubing
with a pinch clamp. The exact adjust­
ment of the pinch clamp for the
proper pressure must be determined
experimentally. The No. 3151JC glass Figure 2-8.
fire requires approximately 0.45 cubic
foot of air per minute at a pressure of
about 1 pound per square inch. (Pres­
sure can be measured inexpensively
by means of a water manometer. A
pressure of 1 pound supports a column
26 of water approximately 28 inches in
Creative height. See Figure 2-8.)
glass blowing

Adjusting the glass fire

To put the 3151JC glass fire into oper­
ation, first close both needle valves of
the venturi mixer, start the compres­
sor, and turn on the gas. Open the
needle valve that controls the gas and
light the fire. Adjust the yellow flame
Bright, yellow, to a height of approximately 4 inches
smoky, silent
(Fig. 2-9, a). Then slowly open the
needle valve that controls the air. The
length of the flame will increase for a
No air few seconds, perhaps to as high as 10
inches. It will then turn yellowish
Bright blue blue and shorten to about 5 inches.
Ui/ent Continue opening the air valve. The
flame will gradually turn solid blue
Some air and a bright greenish-blue central
cone, surrounded by an envelope of
Bright blue Roaring sound
lighter blue, somewhat resembling the
flame of a Bunsen burner, will de­
More air
velop (2-9, b). The gas will burn si­
lently. Admit still more air. The in­
Bright blue
ner cone will now shorten to a length
Gentle hiss of about 1% inches, develop a brush­
like appearance at the tip, and gener­
Still more air ate a pronounced roar (2-9, c). The
flow of gas has become turbulent. Up
translucent—Violet afcra
to this point all combustion has oc­
Gentle hiss curred beyond the end of the burner
despite the fact that the nozzles are
Even more air
—less gas
recessed approximately % inch. Open
the air slightly more, perhaps a half
turn of the needle valve. Suddenly, the
roar will change to a gentle hiss as
Figure 2-9. laminar flow is restored (2-9, d). Sat­
ellite pilot flames will form inside the
recess at the end of the burner and the
principal flame will assume the shape
of a slender blue cone approximately
Vs inch in diameter at the base and 3
inches long, enveloped by a second vi-
olet cone of about twice the base diam­ 27
eter and an inch longer. This is the The tools of the
ideal fire for working lime glass. glass blower
Finally, open the air valve an addi­
tional quarter turn. The inner cone
will now change from blue to trans­
parent violet. This is the proper ad­
justment for working lead glass
(.2-9, e). The outer cone will become
almost invisible even when viewed
against a black background in a dimly
lighted room. Incidentally, the work­
bench should be painted flat black. (A
piece of plywood about 3 feet square
may be painted flat black and set up
behind the fire for the background, if
desired.) When the Venturi Mixer is
properly adjusted, the combined gas
and air pressure in the manifold of a so-called “fishtail” burners. Fishtail
hand torch or crossfire equipped with burners develop flames in the shapes
3151JC glass fires measures 3.5 of thin ribbons approximately Vie inch
ounces, which is equivalent to a water thick and % inch wide (in the case of
column 6 inches high. Once the needle the type 81-WNS burners manufac­
valves have been adjusted, you need tured by the American Gas Furnace
not disturb them except for altering Company). We use them in the No.
the mixture when you are shifting 658-N hand torch also made by this
from one type of glass to another. In­ firm (Fig. 2-10).
crease the proportion of gas in the A hand torch of this general type is
mixture when working lime glass. indispensable for connecting station­
ary configurations of glass tubing,
Hand torches such as vacuum systems and similar
apparatus that cannot be readily
Substantially all novelty items, includ­ moved to the workbench. Beginners
ing miniature vases, birds, animals, will discover that, in general, it is
and so on, can be made in the crossfire much simpler to make T seals and
by procedures that will be described similar forms with the hand torch
in Sections III, IV, and V. Much lab­ than with the crossfire, because the
oratory glassware can also be made in torch is so easy to manipulate.
the crossfire. Until the beginner ac­ The fishtail hand torch may be Figure 2-10.
quires some dexterity in manipulating operated from the same venturi
softened glass, however, he should ac­ mixer used with the crossfire, al­
quire a pair of hand torches: one though the performance of the torch
equipped with a single glass fire that will be improved by a special mixer
develops a needle flame; the second, designed for its lower fuel require­
with a crossfire consisting of a pair of ment. A separate mixer will also elimi-
28 Adjusting the blast burner
Creative
glass blowing The adjustment of blast burners is
largely a matter of experiment and de­
pends upon the size and character of
the desired fire. Gas is admitted first
and lighted. Air is then added gradu­
ally. Relatively low air pressure cre­
ates a needle flame; a higher pressure
yields a turbulent, noisy, bushy flame.
Small fires require the use of small ah'
nozzles and big fires, nozzles of larger
diameters. The pipe or “barrel” of the
burner is extended or shortened by al­
tering the position of the sleeve to pro­
duce a flame of maximum stability.
Blast burners can be used foi' soften­
ing large areas of glass, such as the
bottoms of flasks, or lengths of glass
tubing up to about 3 inches as may be
required when making bends of sub­
stantial radius.
nate the inconvenience of readjusting A more convenient apparatus for
the needle valves when you are shift­ softening glass tubing, however, is the
ing from the crossfires to the hand ribbon burner (Fig. 2-11). This device
torch. The procedure for adjusting the delivers a flame approximately 1 inch
fuel mixture for this torch is similar in width and up to 36 inches long
to that for adjusting the fuel mixture depending upon the size of the burner.
for the crossfire. First, turn on the It operates on pressurized premixed
gas and regulate to produce a yellow fuel and requires a special venturi
flame about 1% inches high. Then mixer. Ribbon burners of current de­
open the air valve until the flame be­ sign are equipped with an adjustable
comes light blue and burns with a strip of sheet metal for altering the
barely audible hiss. In operating fires length of the fire. The same effect can
that use premixed gas and air, always be achieved with burners of older de­
turn the gas on first when lighting the sign by covering a desired length of
burner and off first when shutting the unit with a strip of wet asbestos
down. Glass fires are designed for a paper.
Figure 2-11. specific rate of fuel consumption. At­
tempts to increase the heat beyond the
designed limit by employing higher The oxygen-gas fire
fuel pressure or enriching the mix­
ture by an increase of the proportion Most professional glass blowers who
of gas fail. The fire simply blows off specialize in the fabrication of labora­
and goes out. tory glassware prefer to work with a
single gas-oxygen jet burner. The 29
pressurized mixture is fed to a nozzle The tools of the
that consists of a copper tube with glass blower
heavy walls of the general type used
in oxy-acetylene welding torches. The
size and character of the flame is con­
trolled by altering the pressure of the
fuel and diameter of the nozzle.
Some burners of this type feature a
rotary turret that carries a series of
nozzles in graduated sizes, and a pilot
flame which burns continuously and
ignites the fuel automatically (Fig. 2-
12). To select a fire of desired size the
worker merely rotates the turret. One
flame goes out and the next appears.
The burner is attached to its heavy
base through a ball and socket joint
that permits the flame to be pointed in
any direction. The artisan has instant
access to flames that range in size and
character from a needle point to a
large, bushy form.
Oxygen may be added to the fuel
supply of all burners designed for
compressed air and gas. Simply insert
a T fitting into the air line and couple
the oxygen hose to the leg of the T.
The tank of compressed oxygen must
be equipped with an automatic pres­
sure regulator and a needle valve for
releasing the gas into the air line at
the appropriate rate: about 10% oxy­
gen to 90% air.
If oxygen is to be used routinely,
as for making laboratory glassware
of Pyrex or other borosilicate glasses,
it is both more economical and more
convenient to substitute a special ven­ Figure 2-12.
turi mixer for the T fitting. This de­
vice consists of a pair of venturi mix­
ers connected in tandem. The first
section combines the oxygen and air
in the optimum ratio of 7 to 10 parts
of air to 1 part of oxygen (by volume).
30
Creative
glass blowing
The second similarly adds gas in op­ be operated on either household gas
timum ratio to the oxidizing mixture. or propane. After mastering the basic
As a safety measure, it is advisable to operations of glass blowing you may
insert a check valve between the mixer wish to add oxygen for working the
and the gas line. Check valves permit borosilicate glasses. Under no circum­
the gas to flow in only one direction. stances should the beginner attempt
The device prevents oxygen from to work the borosilicate glasses dur­
backing up in the gas line and form­ ing initial practice sessions. Habits
ing an explosive mixture. Once the can be formed that almost certainly
needle valves of the mixers have been will be painful to break.
adjusted, the apparatus requires no
further attention.
To make the adjustment, first turn The workbench
on and ignite the gas. Then add air to
produce the correct fire for working Among the glass blower’s facilities,
soft glass by the procedure described next in importance to the fires are the
previously (see page 26). Next open work place, the bench, the supplies
the gas adjustment slightly. Then and tools, in that order. Any space
gradually open the needle valve that that would be suitable for a kitchen
admits oxygen. Continue adding oxy­ stove can be used for the workplace.
gen until the flames shrink to about The glass fires are no more hazardous
half of their former length. Next, add to either the building or the worker
gas until the length of the flame has than a conventional gas stove. The
grown about 50%. Finally, add oxygen room should be normally ventilated
to restore the flame to its former and lighted. Any sturdy bench or ta­
length. ble with the top at least 30 inches
A properly adjusted flame to which square can be used for supporting the
oxygen has been added consists of a fires (Fig. 2-13). The top should be
brilliant bluish-green inner cone sur­ covered by a hard sheet of compressed
rounded by an almost invisible outer asbestos approximately % inch thick,
cone of violet. In a crossfire, the sharp such as Transite, which may be pur­
purplish tips of the flames should chased at most lumber yards or from
meet at the center focal point. Venturi other suppliers of building materials.
mixers for combining oxygen with the Do not cover the bench with sheet
air-gas fuel mixture must be designed metal. Hot glass may crack when laid
to meet the special fuel requirement of on a cold metal surface. As previously
each burner. They are manufactured mentioned, the background should be
to order by the American Gas Furnace painted flat black. The fires are all
Company. but invisible when viewed against a
Although a wide selection of burn­ light background. At least, the burners
ers is thus available, we urge the be­ should be mounted on a black base­
ginner to start with a crossfire. It may board.
 31
The tools of the
glass blower

Glass storage
Glass tubing and rod should be stored
flat on a convenient shelf that is
divided into labeled compartments for
the various sizes and kinds of glass.
Do not store tubing vertically unless
the tops are covered to prevent dust
from settling on the inner wall.

Miscellaneous supplies
Of first importance among the addi­
tional materials is a supply of asbes­
tos paper and an assortment of corks
in a range of sizes that fit the glass
tubing. The asbestos paper comes in
rolls approximately 36 inches wide
and in various weights. We prefer the
weight and quality of paper used by
manufacturers of neon signs. This
material is more flexible and porous
than the kind usually sold by hard­
ware stores. Sign makers draw letter­
ing full scale in reverse on the paper
to guide the glass blower in bending
the glass tubing. Usually it is possi­
ble to purchase such used paper in­ ing in the fire can also be made of
expensively. Full rolls of new paper corks. To make one of these fixtures,
can be procured from distributors of first burn a center hole axially
neon sign supplies. The paper is used through the cork, which fits snugly
by glass blowers in innumerable ways: the short length of rod or tubing. A
as covering to protect hot glass from cork borer makes a cleaner hole, and it
cold drafts of air, as shields to protect is more convenient to use, of course.
the hands from heat, as small rolls in When the cork is inserted into the Figure 2-13.
the form of plugs to support glass work piece the small rod or tube
rods and tubes coaxially inside larger serves as a handle (Fig. 2-14).
tubes, and so on. Corks are used to In addition to the corks, an assort­
plug the ends of tubing for blowing ment of stoppers (whimsically called
bulbs and other forms. Handy fixtures “policemen”) should be made of rub­
for supporting short lengths of tub­ ber tubing in sizes to fit glass tubing
 a

Figure 2-15.

from 6 to 15 millimeters in diameter. inches long, taper the ends as desired,

Figure 2-14. Cut the rubber tubing into 2-inch and fold the piece into a slender U, so
lengths, fold over a ^-inch length of the tapered jaws are separated by
about % inch. The jaws of tweezers can
one end, and wire it in place, as illus­
trated (Fig. 2-15, a). Policemen are be fitted with small plates of various
handier than corks for closing tubes forms for shaping molten glass. A pair
of small diameter. Keep the supply of of tweezers fitted with small flat jaws
corks and policemen in a shallow box is handy for squashing a sphere of
on the bench. The supply should also soft glass into a disk, for example, as
include an assortment of paper clips is a pair with curving jaws for mak­
and a dozen small spring clips of the ing irregular shapes. The jaws are cut
kind girls and women use for making from the sheet metal and brazed to the
pin curls. The clips are handy for tips of the tweezers (Fig. 2-15, b).
clamping the edges of asbestos paper Brazing is easy to do with the small
that has been looped around hot tub­ hand torch. Just support the pieces to
ing for protection against drafts. be joined on a block of charcoal, coat
the joint with a paste made of house­
hold borax and rubbing alcohol, ap­
Tweezers ply the heat by means of the hand
torch, dip the tip of a rod of brazing
Other essential tools include at least brass into the borax paste, and feed it
one pair of tweezers about 8 inches into the work as though it were solder.
long. Tweezers are easy to make from Brazing rod can be purchased for pen­
14-gauge sheet steel. Cut a strip of nies from most automobile repair
the metal about 1 inch wide and 17 shops.
The blowing hose 33
The tools of the
A blowing hose equipped with a glass blower
swivel connector and glass mouth­
piece is handy for blowing some
types of novelty glasswork and essen­
tial for blowing many kinds of labora­
tory glassware. The rubber tubing
should be of the best quality of gum
rubber, inch in diameter, and of the
heavy-wall type. (Thick walls of good
rubber are unlikely to kink during a
crucial operation and shut off the
air.) Such tubing may be procured
from distributors of neon sign sup­
plies. One end of the hose should be
equipped with a glass mouthpiece that
is flanged for resting behind the teeth
(see page 98). The other end of the
hose slides onto a right-angled
swivel, the outlet of which is equipped
with a short length of rubber tubing
appropriate in size for the work at
hand. The swivel permits the work to
be rotated continuously in one direc­
tion without twisting the blowing
hose.
In addition to the blowing hose and
swivel, the artisan who fashions lab­
oratory glassware will need an appa­
ratus for drying the blown air.
Moisture from the breath can con­
taminate many types of scientific ap­
paratus. The air dryer can be a 1-liter
flask filled with a chemical, such as
calcium sulfate, that absorbs mois­
ture. (The chemical is available in glass tube, and from the flask into the
the form of a commercial product, work by a second tube that leads from
Drierite, that changes from blue the top of the flask through the perfo- Figure 2-16.
when dry to pink when moist, and vice rated stopper. It is advisable to cover
versa. The moist chemical can be the top of the chemical by a tuft of ab­
dried by baking it for an hour in a sorbent cotton. The cotton serves as a
kitchen oven. Baking also reverses the filtei' to prevent the air from carrying
color.) Air is blown into the bottom small particles of the chemical into
of the flask through a 6-millimeter the work (Fig. 2-16).
34 wooden clamp at the point where
Glass holders the wire leads away from the rod.
Creative
glass blowing Frequently it becomes necessary to Turn the crank and adjust the wooden
support a small object in the fire. This clamp at an angle that causes the wire
is accomplished by means of various to wind into a closely spaced helix
clamps known as “holders.” In gen­ (Fig. 2-17, a). Make the helix about 1
eral, holders are not available on the foot long. The helix can then be cut
market. We make them of iron wire, into 1-inch lengths (by means of a
mostly BS gauge No. 14, that is hacksaw) for use in making up sev­
known to hardware dealers as galva­ eral holders.
nized tie-wire. The completed tool con­ Next, cut three 14-inch lengths of
sists of a bundle of three wires, each straight wire. (Wire may be straight­
about 1 foot long, bound togethei' at ened by clamping one end in a vise,
one end and looped at the other. The gripping the other in a pair of pliers,
loops serve as jaws. A helical coil of and stretching the material about 1%
the same wire slides over the bundle of its length. Alternatively, the free
to bring the jaws into clamping con­ end of the wire may be attached to a
tact with the work as illustrated (Fig. lever, such as a broomstick, foi'
2-17, a). The helical coil may be made stretching if you are not strong
by winding the wire around a steel enough to do the job by hand.) Form
welding rod, about Vs inch in diameter, loops in one end of each length of wire
that serves as a mandrel. The job can by wrapping the ends of the wires
be done by improvising a fixture from around a mandrel, such as a %-inch
half of a door hinge, the welding rod, metal rod or a glass tube (2-17, b, c).
and a wooden clamp that is made by Bend the loop so that it is centered on
fastening two 12-inch lengths of %- the straight portion of the wire, as il­
by IV^-inch soft pine at the ends. The lustrated (2-17, d). Next, slip the
door hinge is screwed to the corner of three wires into a length of the heli­
the workbench so the edge of the cal coil and place a small sphere such
hinge that is normally occupied by the as a glass marble between the three
bolt extends slightly beyond the loops (2-17, e). The marble will be
bench. The bolt hole becomes a bear­ held securely if the loops are spaced
ing for the welding rod. A crank, hav­ evenly around its circumference. Push
ing a throw of about 6 inches, is the helical coil toward the loops until
bent in one end of the welding rod. they grip the marble snugly. Now
The rod is slipped into the bolt hole so wrap a short length of adhesive tape
that the crank extends away from the around the bundle about midway be­
bench. The end of the wire to be coiled tween the helical coil and the free ends
is fastened to the throw of the crank. of the wires. The tape binds the wires
Just wrap the end of the wire around so that they remain parallel to each
the rod. Two or three turns is enough. other. Finally, slip an additional coil
Then, by rotating the crank, twist the over the free ends and soldei' it in
wire onto the straight portion of the place, as illustrated (2-17, e). The
rod, an inch or so beyond the crank. wire loops will now retain their rela­
Now grip the rod and wire in the tive positions when the adhesive tape
 35
The tools of the
glass blower

is removed. Spherical objects are

clamped in the holder and released by
sliding the movable coil.
A special holder of the same type
can be made for manipulating disks,
such as the bottoms of miniature
vases, wine glasses, and the like. Make
up three wires with loops, as described
above. Next, clamp the loops, one at a
time, in a vise so that half of the loop
extends above the jaws and the
straight part of the wire is vertical.
With a hammer, bend the exposed
portion of the loop over to make a
sharp right angle with the clamped
portion (2-17, /). Remove the wire about the size of a five-cent coin, be-
from the vise and, with a pair of tween the facing loops. Tape the as-
pliers, bend the straight portion to an sembly as in the previously made
angle of 45 degrees at the point where holder, and slide the wires relative to
it joins the loop (2-17, g). The distant each other until the disk spins true
side of the loop is now in line with the when the bundle is rotated between
axis of the straight wire as illus­ the thumb and forefinger. Finally, slip
trated. Finally, assemble the three an additional helical coil over the free
wires into a bundle, slip a helical coil ends and solder in place. Remove the
over the bundle, and grasp a disk, tape and disk (2-17, A). Figure 2-17.
 36
Creative
glass blowing

Holders , of two other types are oc­

casionally useful, particularly for mak­
ing laboratory glassware. One consists
of a brass tube about %o inch in di­
ameter and 6 inches long, into one end
of which a bundle of 5 wires is inserted
and soldered. The wires are spread at
estos paper an angle of about 20 degrees as they
emerge from the handle and then ex­
tend parallel to the axis of the handle,
as illustrated (Fig. 2-18, a). Holders
of this type are used for supporting
short lengths of glass tubing in the
fire, such as electrode assemblies, and
are called electrode holders. They may
be purchased from distributors of
Figure 2-18. neon sign supplies.
Holders that are similar in princi­
ple but larger are handy foi' manip­
ulating spherical bulbs. They consist
of a wooden handle, such as an 8-inch
length of broomstick, the end of
which supports a pair of spring steel
strips bent in the form of open C’s
assembled at right angles to each
other (Fig. 2-18, d). Holders of this
type can be purchased from dealers in
scientific supplies.

The bucks
When making beads or glass fibers,
the glass blower draws molten mate­
rial from the tip of a glass rod that
is supported in the fire. The rod rests
on a pair of improvised supports
known as “bucks” (Fig. 2-19). Bucks
can be made of two 6-inch lengths of
Figure 2-19. pipe, one of which telescopes inside
the other. We use %- and Vz-inch pipes. 37
The Vz-inch pipe is threaded on one end The tools of the
and is screwed into a pipe flange that glass blower
serves as a base for the tool. A tapped
lateral hole takes a thumb screw for
clamping the inner %-inch pipe. The
upper end of the %-inch pipe is
split and spread to form a V about IV2
inches wide at the top, as illustrated
(Fig. 2-19).

Flaring tools f

A set of flaring tools in a range of

sizes is essential. They are used for
expanding glass tubing into funnel
shapes and opening glass bulbs into
hemispheres, as explained in Section
IV. The smallest may consist of the
well rounded tine of a rattail file
about 8 inches long. (Fig. 2-20, a).
File the rough corners from the tine.
Then round it off and polish it with
successively finer grades of emery
cloth, finishing with crocus cloth.
Larger flaring tools are made
from strap iron about % inch
thick and as much as 1 inch wide. The
flaring blade, which resembles a burn­
ishing tool, is made by tapering the
metal at one end and shaping a tine at
the other end for insertion in a
wooden handle that can be purchased
from a hardware store (2-20, b). Flar­
ing blades should be about 3 or 4
inches long, rounded and polished
with crocus cloth. A flaring tool in the
shape of an arrow head (about 1% Figure 2-20.
inches per side) made of 16-gauge
sheet steel is occasionally convenient
for shaping glass objects 3 inches oi'
larger in diameter (2-20, c). This
tool is available from dealers in scien­
tific supplies.
38
The glass roller
Creative
glass blowing
To make a flare, the glass tubing must
be rotated at a uniform rate, an opera­
tion that becomes progressively diffi­
cult as the size of the tubing in­
creases beyond 15 millimeters. The
procedure can be greatly simplified by
the use of free-turning rollers for sup­
porting the work. The tubing is placed
on the rollers and stroked back and
forth by the palm of one hand. By
simultaneously exerting a slight pres­
sure toward one side or the other, the
tubing can be slid into and out of a
fire placed close to one end, as illus­
trated (Fig. 2-21, a).
A set of rollers can be improvised
from a rectangle of 16-gauge sheet
metal, a pair of %-inch steel rods, the
wheels from a roller skate, and four
cotter pins. First cut the sheet metal
into a strip 6 inches wide and 18
inches long. From the ends, cut out
semicircular pieces having a radius
of 2% inches. Around the edge of the
openings, drill a series of Vi-inch
holes spaced approximately 34 inch
/apart (2-21, 6). Bend up the ends to
a right angle, 4 inches from each end
of the sheet (2-21, c). Cut the rods to
a length of 11 inches, and, approxi­
mately x/z inch from each end of each
rod, drill a %2-inch hole (crossways)
for the cotter pins. Slide a pair of
roller skate wheels onto each rod, in­
sert the ends of the rod in correspond­
ing holes of the sheet metal base, and
Figure 2-21. insert cotter pins in each end of the
rod. The spacing between the wheels
(of the two rods) may be adjusted by
shifting the rods to appropriate holes
in the base. The rollers will accommo­
date tubing that ranges in diameter
from about 10 to 100 millimeters.
Glass cutters perature of the wire. Connection be­ 39
tween the Variac and the brass rods The tools of the
The well equipped small glass shop is made by a pair of leads equipped glass blower
will have at least three tools for cut­ with alligator clips. The length of the
ting glass. The most essential is an wire may be adjusted as desired by
ordinary flat 6-inch file. We prefer the releasing the clamping screws.
Nicholsen Warding Bastard. The Alternatively, the temperature of
technique of using the file for cutting the wire may be controlled by insert­
rod and tubing is described in Section ing a resistance in series with one of
III. Eventually the file will become the leads from the 110-volt power
dull. It may be sharpened by grinding source. A convenient resistance may
the edges on a carborundum wheel; be made by connecting eight porcelain
and it can be resharpened until the lamp sockets in parallel. The sockets
metal becomes so thin that it snaps may be mounted on any convenient
under the pressure of ordinary use. A base. Connect one lead of an exten­
wheel cutter should also be acquired sion cord to one terminal of the sock­
for use on sheet glass. ets. The other lead of the extension
Tubing larger than 25 millimeters cord connects directly to one brass rod
may be cut with a hot wire. Our de­ of the hot wire fixture. From the op­
vice consists of a base of Transite posite terminal of the sockets connect
about % inch thick that supports a a lead to the remaining brass rod of
pair of brass rods near the ends, as il­ the fixture. The temperature of the
lustrated (Fig. 2-22). Axial holes are wire is controlled by screwing more
drilled in both ends of the %-inch rods or fewer 100-watt lamps into the
and threaded to take %2 machine sockets.
screws. The transite base is drilled for As explained in Section III, soft
the screws. The holes are countersunk glass tubing larger than 25 millimeters
on the bottom side of the Transite. in diameter is cut first by filing a
Flathead screws are used for attach­ nick all around the tube at the point
ing the rods to the base. The heads are where the glass is to be parted. The
subsequently coated with a thick layer nick is then touched to the hot wire. It
of epoxy cement that serves as electri­ is cracked by thermal shock. The pro­
cal insulation. Holes about Me inch in cedure for cutting borosilicate glass is
diameter are drilled through the rods similar. These harder glasses are not
at a point that intersects the bottom as sensitive to heat, however. If the
of the axial holes at the top. Nichrome borosilicate glass fails to part after it
wire, threaded through these holes, has been in contact with the hot wire
is clamped by roundheaded %2 machine for, say, 20 seconds, lift the tube from
screws that occupy the axial holes at the fixture and touch the heated nick Figure 2-22.
the top. Iron washers soldered to with a narrow strip of cloth moistened
heads serve as finger grips for turn­ with cold water (such as a lamp wick)
ing these screws. The wire may be and promptly pull the ends of the tub­
heated by current supplied by a vari­ ing apart. Usually, the tubing parts
able voltage transformer, such as a as a clean break, but now and then the
Variac. The Variac controls the tem­ edge may be somewhat jagged. These
40 The polariscope
Creative
glass blowing Glass that has been heated to the soft­
ening point and cooled unevenly de­
velops patterns of internal stress, as
discussed' in Section I. Stressed and
unstressed glasses appear identical
to the unaided eye. The stresses show
up clearly, however, when the glasses
are examined through a polariscope,
an inexpensive and easily constructed
instrument. One simple form of the
polariscope consists of a light box,
closed by a sheet of Polaroid (a spe­
cial plastic), and a pair of Polaroid
sunglasses (Fig. 2-24, a, b). Light
that comes through the sheet of Po­
laroid is said to be “polarized,” be­
cause the sheet absorbs, increasingly,
all light waves except those that vi­
brate in a single plane. During use,
the light box is turned to a position
that favors the transmission of waves
that vibrate in the vertical plane. Po­
laroid sunglasses, on the other hand,
are designed to favor the transmission
of waves that vibrate in the horizontal
plane. For this reason, the lighted box
appears dark when viewed through
the sunglasses. Glass that is stressed
gains the power to rotate the plane in
which light waves vibrate, the amount
of such rotation depending upon the
amount of the stresses. Hence, when
small points may be broken off by stressed glass is held in front of the
striking the cut end diagonally with light box and viewed through the sun­
a piece of heavy screening (about .1- glasses, the stressed regions rotate
inch mesh made of No. 18 steel wire) the plane of the vertically polarized
Figure 2-23. tacked to the face of a wooden paddle waves just enough so that some of the
(Figure 2-23). Larger irregularities light can make its way through the
may be nibbled away by repeatedly sunglasses. As a consequence, the dis­
gripping the glass edge forcefully be­ tribution and intensity of the stresses
tween the jaws of tweezers and “bend­ become visible as patterns of light and
ing” the tweezers back and forth, or shade (2-24, c). Unstressed glass dis­
they may be filed off with a wet file. plays no patterns (Fig. 2-24, d). To
construct the instrument, make a box
of ^-inch plywood that measures 6
inches in height, width, and length. High extinction
Drill twro %-inch holes near the cen­ „sheet Polaroid
sandwiched
ter of each side, for ventilation. Install ■ between glass
a porcelain socket and a 60-watt in­ sheets
candescent lamp equipped with a con­
necting cord and plug in the bottom.
Just above the lamp install a 6-inch
square of frosted or milky glass. The Holes for
ventilation
glass may be secured in place by
strips that are tacked and glued to the
sides. Complete the unit by similarly
installing the Polaroid sheet, sand­
wiched between two sheets of window
glass, in the top of the box.
The design may be improved at
slight cost in terms of additional Unannealed
work. For example, the sunglasses (strain)
may be supported in the normal view­
ing position by an extension bracket
attached to the box. The position of
the glasses will then remain fixed Polaroid sun glasses
when the operator tilts his head from
side to side. A binocular eyepiece
equipped with HN 22 Polaroid may be
substituted for the sunglasses. HN 22
Polaroid is a more effective polarizing
agent than the material used in sun­
glasses and, accordingly, produces a
sharper image of higher contrast.
The addition of another optical ele­
ment to the polariscope will transform
the black-and-white images of the
stresses into colored images. The col­
ors enable the observer to distinguish
Annealed
between the stresses of compression (no strain)
and tension, an important distinction
in cases in which tension appears in Figure 2-24.
the surface of glass where it may in­
duce fracture. The additional optical
element may consist of a sheet of
either mica or cellophane approxi­
mately .005 inch thick. Mica works
somewhat better than cellophane, and
Creative
glass blowing
it does not age and thus depreciate in between the glass sheets that protect
quality with the passing of time. Mica the Polaroid. It must be rotated to the
is sold in presplit blocks several times position- at which the rose color ap­
thicker than required, and their cost pears, and installed in contact with
increases disproportionately with size. the outer glass cover. Alternatively,
Thick sheets may be split to the two small squares of mica (similarly
required thickness by inserting a oriented) may be cemented by the
sharp knife into the edge of the block. corners to the outer surface of the
A bubble of air will enter the material sunglasses.
at this point. A piece of hard wood The thickness of the mica sheet is
that has been sharpened to a knife- critical and must be determined ex­
edge is then placed between the sheets perimentally. If the colors fail to ap­
and the bubble pushed across the pear, or seem pale and dilute, try a
block. Place the sheet, so split, flat thicker or thinner sheet (.005 inch is
against the Polaroid of the light box only approximate).
and examine it through the sun­ Clear cellophane of the kind used
glasses or the eyepiece. The mica will for wrapping gifts may be substituted
appear either dark, clear, or colored. for the mica. Cellophane is available
Now rotate the sheet slowly, while from novelty stores and from dealers
keeping it flat against the Polaroid. in artist’s supplies. It comes in sheets
The mica will now glow with all of the approximately .001 inch thick. Cut a
colors of the rainbow, one at a time. strip approximately 6 inches wide and
Next, turn the sheet to the position at 36 inches long. Divide the strip into
which a red color is seen, not a bright six equal squares. Without rotating
red like a fire engine but a deep rose. the squares (relative to their position
Hold a thin strip of unstressed lime in the sheet) pile them into a stack.
glass in front of the rose color and, Place the stack on the light box, just
using both hands, exert a bending as though it were a sheet of mica, and
force on the glass—not enough to repeat the procedure discussed above.
break it. A pattern of stress will ap­ If colors fail to appear, or seem weak
pear in color: blue on the outside edge or faded, remove one or more sheets
of the bowed strip where the glass is of cellophane until the hues are most
in tension and yellow on the inner vivid. Then adjust the position of the
edge where it is in compression. Other stack for the deep rose hue and assem­
rainbow colors will appear in the mid­ ble it in the instrument. A detailed
dle, where the glass is unstressed. In discussion of why the colors appear is
lead glass the colors will be reversed: beyond the scope of this volume but,
blue in regions of compression and in a word, certain materials in proper
yellow in regions of tension. Stresses combination polarize light of some col­
in clear plastics take on the colors of ors more strongly than they polarize
those in lead glass. light of other colors and thus give rise
The sheet of mica may be inserted to the observed effect.
 43
The tools of the
glass bloiver
Didymium goggles
Another optical device of considerable
convenience when working borosili­
cate glasses is a pair of goggles fitted
with lenses of didymium glass. When
the glass is heated in an oxygas flame
the intense yellow glare, known as
“flare-off,” almost totally obscures the
work. The glasses are relatively probe enters
opaque to the glare, but all other col­ ?h this hole

ors are seen clearly and appear unal­

tered.

The annealing oven

Strained glass must be annealed, that
is, heated slowly until the strain is
relieved by plastic flow, and then
cooled slowly and uniformly. Several
procedures for annealing small glass
parts have been devised. They will be
discussed in the sections that explain
the basic operations of glass blowing.
Complex pieces are most conveniently
annealed in special ovens that can be
heated to at least 800 degrees Fahren­
heit (426°C) and maintained at any
temperature. We use ovens of two
types, a small one that can be heated Objects to 3 washers space
the two plates
over the burner of a kitchen stove, be annealed
and a larger one equipped for electri­
cal heating. The cabinets of both pipe nipples, as illustrated (Fig. 2-
ovens are made of Transite. 25). Eight nipples provide three
The smaller oven consists of a box points of support on each side of the Figure 2-25.
8 inches on each side that has a 4-inch square. (Multiple attachment is nec­
circular opening in the bottom. This essary because Transite tends to
hole, which is centered over the flame crack after protracted heating.) The
of the gas burner, is covered by a 6- square acts as a shield to prevent
inch square of Transite spaced about flame from coming into direct contact
% inch above the opening by Vs-in with glass objects.
44 A second square of Transite of the
Creative same size is spaced approximately %
glass blowing inch above the first square by iron
washers. Both of the squares are at­
tached to the bottom of the oven by
stove bolts. The second platform
serves as the bottom of the oven.
A cover for closing the oven at the top
is made of two squares of Transite
bolted together, the bottom section
fits the inside of the oven, and the top
extends over the edge of the sidewalls.
A hole 10 millimeters in diameter is
drilled through the center of the cover
for admitting the probe of the Pyrom­
eter that measures the oven temper­
ature. The perforated sides and the
bottom of the oven are assembled by
means of angle brackets. All cracks
where sections of Transite meet are
calked by a paste of crude talcum pow­
der and water glass (sodium silicate).
Weston Model 301
Silver-soldered 0-200 microammeter
Any equivalent refractory cement
may be used, of course.
No. 20 B&S gauge constantan-iron The large, electrically heated oven
1 ochactnc inciilQtcrl \A/iro
consists of a pair of Transite boxes
nested to form a 2-inch space for in­
sulation that consists of an inner
Encapsulated in 10-mm Pyrex tube
sheet of aluminum foil backed by
either glass or asbestos wool. The in­
side dimensions of our oven are 6
inches in depth, 8 inches in height,
and 24 inches in length. The heating
elements consist of four coils of
Nichrome wire that were removed
from the replacement units of radiant
heaters. The replacement units were
purchased at a local hardware store.
Two are of 1-kilowatt capacity, and
two of 600 watts each. The coiled wire
was stretched enough to extend
around the walls of the oven and fas­
tened to the Transite inner wall by
cotter pins that fit holes in the
Figure 2-26. Transite, as illustrated (Fig. 2-26).
 45
The tools of the
glass blower

Assembled with 90° angle brackets

46
Creative
glass bloiving

The ends of each coil attach, be­

tween nuts, to brass stud bolts that
extend through one end of the oven.
Each 1-kilowatt coil is connected in
parallel with a 600-watt coil. The pair
can be turned off and on by a toggle
To meter
Iron switch mounted in a small box at the
Solder
outer end of the oven. All coils are
Braze
turned on to heat the oven to the an­
nealing temperature of soft glass
(800 degrees Fahrenheit). This tem­
Constantan perature is reached in about 20 min­
To meter utes. One set of coils is then turned off.
The remaining coils usually maintain
the annealing temperature to within a
few degrees, their output compensat­
ing for loss of heat through the walls
Glass envelope
of the oven. With all coils operating,
l. : *• t- the temperature rises to approxi­
mately 1200 degrees Fahrenheit
(650°C), beyond the annealing tem­
perature of the borosilicate glasses.

The pyrometer
The pyrometer is also homemade. It
consists of a pair of iron-constantan
thermocouples connected in series, and
a microammeter that indicates from
0 to 200 microamperes.
Figure 2-27. The thermocouple wire comes as a
twisted pair insulated by an asbestos
covering. Two lengths, each 3 feet
long, are required. Approximately one
half inch of the insulation is stripped
from all ends. The wires on one end of
each pair are twisted together as a
 47
The tools of the
glass blower

pigtail splice and brazed. These two Examine the glass rod. If it has not
splices make up the thermocouple sagged at this temperature, repeat the
junctions (Fig. 2-27, a). At the other procedure. This time let the tempera­
end of the wires the iron member of ture rise until the meter reads 65
one pair is similarly spliced and microamperes. If the rod still re­
brazed to the constantan member of mains straight try again at 70 micro­
the other pair. The two remaining amperes. The objective is to determine
ends are spliced to a convenient length the temperature at which the rod be­
of copper extension cord. A 4-inch comes sufficiently plastic to sag per­
length of 8-millimeter soft glass tub­ ceptibly in 5 minutes. In our oven,
ing is slipped over the junction end of this occurs at a current indication of
the pairs and softened in the fire until 75 microamperes. We then assume the
the glass shrinks into contact with annealing temperature to have been
the asbestos insulation (2-27, b). The reached at a current about 10% lower,
glass envelope merely protects the or, in our oven, at 67.5 microamperes.
asbestos from abrasion. The free end At this temperature we anneal glass
of the extension cord is connected to for 3 minutes per millimeter of glass
the terminals of the microammeter thickness. A similar procedure is fol­
(2-27, c). lowed for determining the annealing
The instrument may be calibrated temperature (in terms of meter cur­
in either of two ways. First, hold the rent) of other glasses, such as the
thermocouple junctions in the fire and borosilicates. ■
note which way the pointer of the me­ The pyrometer can also be cali­
ter moves. If it moves backward re­ brated in degrees. We did this by pro­
verse the connections. Next, place the curing a conventional mercury ther­
junctions in the annealing oven, along mometer calibrated to 400 degrees
with a 12-inch length of 4-milli- Centigrade (752°F). The bulb of the
meter rod of lime glass supported near thermometer was inserted into the
the ends about an inch above the bot­ oven along with the pyrometer probe.
tom of the oven by blocks of Transite. As the temperature rose a tabulation
With the cover of the oven in place, was made: the indicated current was
switch on the power and let the unit listed in one column and the corre­
heat until the meter indicates a cur­ sponding thermometer indication in
rent of 60 microamperes. Hold this the adjacent column.
current reading for 5 minutes by Next we procured a small alundum
switching one set of heating coils off crucible together with 2 pounds of
and on as required, then turn off zinc and 2 pounds of lead. These met­
all heating units, and let the oven cool. als freeze at characteristic tempera-
48
Creative
glass blowing

to detect. The temperature remains

constant for several minutes as the
metal freezes, and then falls.
The zinc was remelted to release
the thermocouple, which had become
embedded in the frozen metal, and re­
placed by lead. Lead freezes at 589.6
degrees Fahrenheit (327.4°C). The
current indication at this lower tem­
perature was determined by the pro­
cedure used for zinc. These two tem­
peratures, together with their equiva­
lent current indications, were entered
on the table. A graph was then drawn
by plotting the current in microamp­
eres against temperature (Fig. 2-28).
Still other tools are occasionally im­
provised for special applications. An
example is a pair of tweezers with
angular jaws and a slender rod that
runs midway between the jaws from
Microamperes its point of attachment at the bend of
the U. The rod is inserted into the
tures, which we used for calibrating softened mouth of a small bottle; the
our pyrometer. The zinc was placed in jaws form the neck as the bottle is ro­
the crucible and melted. The thermo­ tated. Another example is a set of dies
couple junctions were immersed in the attached to the inner surfaces of a
molten metal. The current, as in­ gate hinge. This tool is used as a mold
dicated by the meter, dropped contin­ for pressing special shapes, such as
uously. As the metal started to freeze, leaves, simulated seashells, items of
Figure 2-28. the current remained constant for a costume jewelry, and the like, from
time. The current, at this tempera­ softened glass. The list continues
ture, was recorded. When the metal without limit. All tools are convenient
had frozen completely, the pointer of on occasion. In the strictest sense,
the meter resumed its descent. Zinc however, to the glass blower only two
freezes at 787.1 degrees Fahrenheit facilities are indispensable: a good
(419.5°C). The freezing point is easy fire and a pair of dexterous hands.
 Section IIJ

olid glass: Basic operations

Operations that involve no blowing of the molten material so acquired will

air demand much of the glass blower’s pay off handsomely when the time
time and skill. Solid glass in the form comes for blowing bulbs.
of sheet or rod is heated to softness
and then stretched, bent, pressed,
fused, and otherwise forced into the
Cold cuts
desired shape. The glass blower uti­
lizes such natural forces as surface Ordinarily; glass is shipped by the
tension, which tends to pull the plastic manufacturer in relatively large
mass into a round ball, and gravity, pieces; sheets of window glass are
which causes the mass to sag. Exam­ made in standard widths up to 6 feet
ples of objects made of solid glass in­ and plate glass up to 15 feet. Rod
clude the stems of wine glasses, the stock and tubing come in 4-foot
handles of pitchers, beads and similar lengths. You must cut these pieces to
baubles, stirring rods, stoppers, glass desired size. Actually, one does not
fibers, the hooks and bracing of lab­ “cut” glass as wood is cut by a knife.
oratory apparatus, and so on. Glass is brittle at room temperature.
In general, the techniques employed When sufficient pull is exerted, the
for altering the form of solid glass material fractures. Glass always
are somewhat easier to master than breaks under tensile stress, never un­
those that require blowing. For this der compressive stress. (Glass can be
reason, beginners are urged to accu­ crushed, of course, but in this case it
mulate a few hours of experience in fractures as a consequence of tensile
manipulating solid glass as a prelude stresses that appear when the mate­
to work with tubing. The “feel” for rial yields under compression.) A so-
 called “cold cut” actually involves tion, but it does catch the powdered
50 breaking the glass along a desired line glass fragments that are otherwise
Creative by the application of tensile stress, a thrown into the air by the tool. The
glass blowing
stretching force. Glass that is free of fragments can damage the lungs if in­
surface imperfections, such as minute haled.
cracks, exhibits astonishing strength. A pressure of approximately 8
Specially made pieces have withstood pounds should be exerted on the tool
tensile forces of as much as 400 tons during the stroke. A lighter pressure
per square inch. The presence of even will fail to mar the surface ade­
a few microscopic cracks in the sur­ quately. Greater pressure may bend
face, however, can drastically weaken and break the sheet in an undesired
the material. The forces tend to direction, particularly at the edge
concentrate at the bottoms of the where the stroke begins. To sense
cracks and are not relieved by plastic the 8-pound pressure, just press the
flow as they are in metals, such as cop­ tool against the platform of a bath­
per, that bend easily. As a conse­ room scale or equivalent balance.
quence, the cracks grow and spread in Having scored the top surface by
response to stress. Glass blowers take means of the cutter, move the sheet so
advantage of this for breaking the the line of scoring is even with the
material along a desired path. To cut front edge of the bench. Then grasp
cold glass they first scratch the sur­ the middle of the overhanging portion
face by means of a sharp, hard tool and push it down abruptly. Weai' a
and then apply tensile stress across glove if you are afraid of cutting your
the line of surface fractures so made. hand. In cutting narrow sheets, use
To cut sheet glass, simply lay the one hand to hold the glass in contact
material on a flat support such as a with the bench, and the other to do
clean bench top, and draw a “glass the pushing. When the overhanging
cutter” across the sheet at the place portion is pressed down, the upper
where the break is desired. This surface of the sheet is stretched on
makes a line of small cracks. The tool each side of the scored line, and the
may be a diamond point mounted in bottom surface is similarly com­
an appropriate handle, a similar point pressed. Tension enlarges cracks
of hard metal such as tungsten car­ along the scratched line until they
bide, or a small wheel sharpened to a extend completely through the sheet.
V-shaped edge. In general, cutting The result is a clean “cut.”
tools of the wheel type are preferred. The same principle is used for cut­
They work well, are inexpensive, and ting rod and tubing. For rods and
are available at most hardware stores. tubes up to 20 millimeters in dia­
Use a straightedge, such as the side meter, the glass is best scored by
of a wooden board, to guide the tool. a flat file. (We use a 6-inch Warding
Cutters of the wheel type should be Bastard of the type manufactured
lubricated by dipping the wheel into by the Nicholson File Company.)
kerosene just before the stroke is With one hand, simply brace the glass
made. Some workers also lubricate the at an angle of approximately 45 de­
glass with kerosene. The fluid does grees in a shallow notch that you have
not necessarily help the cutting ac­ made in the edge of the bench and
with the other press a corner of the
file against the glass (Fig. 3-1, a). 51
Holding the file at an angle of 45 de­ Solid glass:
grees (3-1, 5) and using the thumb as basic operations
a guide, make a firm stroke directly
across the glass as illustrated. Exert
a downward force against the file of
about 3 pounds for 6-millimeter rod
and tubing of standard wall thickness,
and of about 6 pounds for rod and
tubing of larger diameters. Again, to
become acquainted with the “feel” of
3 pounds and 6 pounds press the file
against the platform of a spring bal­
ance. One stroke of a sharp file is
usually sufficient to cut tubing of 6
millimeters or less in diameter.
Larger sizes will usually require three
or more strokes. The nick should ex­
tend approximately a third of the way c
through the wall, for tubing, and to a
depth of approximately 1 millimeter,
for rods larger than 8 millimeters
(3-1, c). In addition, the nick should
extend approximately one third of the
distance around the circumference of Figure 3-1.
the piece. Rock the file this amount as
you make the stroke. The bottom of
the nick should have the form of a
sharp V, not rounded; the file must be
sharp. Many workers wet the nick be­
fore making the break. This may pre­
vent the inhalation of minute glass
fragments that sometimes fly from the
break, but, in our opinion, it does not
result in a better cut. Having made
the nick, grasp the rod or tubing by
the hands on each side of the nick,
with the thumbs extended but not
touching, move the arms inward until
the glass rests firmly against the
stomach, and point the nick directly
away from the stomach. Then pull
the ends apart. Do not deliberately
bend the glass with your hands. The
inadvertent pressure exerted on the Figure 3-2.
52
Creative
glass blowing

Masking tape
guides file

Completed nick

piece by the stomach will result in most any mechanical or thermal shock
some bending force. The material will that, in effect, exerts tension on op­
part as a clean, square break (Fig. posite sides of the nick will cause a
3-2). For short pieces, 4 inches or less clean break.
in length, grasp the glass through The file will become dull after mak­
several folds of cloth to prevent an ac­ ing a few cuts. It is easily sharpened.
cidental cut if the glass shatters. Just grind the edges square on a car­
Some experienced workers prefer to borundum wheel equipped with a fix­
pull the glass apart by grasping the ture for supporting the flat side of the
tubing with the fingers of each hand file at right angles to the cutting edge
(palms down), putting the tips of the of the wheel.
thumbs together and tightening the Tubing larger than 20 milli­
grip on the glass. This presses the meters in diameter can be cut most
thumbs tightly together and exerts conveniently by means of a heated
pull on the glass. It also invites a cut wire. The construction of the hot wire
should the glass shatter. has been discussed in Section II. To
Alternatively, tubing that has been prepare for making the cut, first file a
Figure 3-3. properly nicked can be parted simply nick completely around the piece (Fig.
by striking the glass a sharp (but not 3-3, a). To guide the file, wrap the
forceful) blow with an edge of the file glass with a layer or two of adhesive
on the side directly opposite the nick. masking tape at the point to be cut.
It can also be parted by touching one Place the smooth edge of the file
end of the groove with the molten tip against the tape and file the circular
of a glass rod. The heat expands, and nick (3-3, b). Remove the tape, let the
thus stretches, the glass. Indeed, al­ wire reach yellow heat and then place
a portion of the nick squarely in con­
tact with the hot wire. A crack will
appear along the heated arc. Rotate
the glass to bring another zone into
contact with the wire (3-3, c). This
will extend the crack. Usually the
piece will part on the third shift. The
hot wire is a particularly effective de­
vice for cutting large glass bottles
and jugs.

Fire-cutting
Rods and tubing may also be parted
by melting the glass. This operation
is called “fire-cutting” or “burning
off.” As an introductory exercise, light
and adjust the crossfires as explained
in Section II, select a standard length
of 6-millimeter glass rod, grasp the
rod at convenient points of balance,
and slowly warm (preheat) the mate­
rial at a point about 20 inches from
one end by passing the rod directly
up and down through the focus of the
crossfire at the rate of about one pass
per second (Fig. 3-4, a). The rod
should be lifted about an inch above
the flame and lowered about an inch
below it during each pass.
After six or eight passes, support
the material steadily in the flame, but Try to move the hands in step. Pre­
rotate the piece a full turn alternately vent the heated portion from twisting
clockwise and counterclockwise. After or wobbling out of shape. (No one can
a few seconds the rod will soften and do it perfectly.) Within a second or
feel “wobbly.” Note the yellow color, two the narrowed portion will reach
called “flare-off,” that the hot glass im­ the fluid state and part in the middle.
parts to the flame. While continuing Continue to rotate the severed ends in Figure 3-4.
to rotate the rod, stretch the ends the fire until the thinned tips have
apart about % inch (3-4, b). The cen­ been drawn into molten blobs by sur­
ter of the heated portion will shrink face tension (3-4, c, d). Then lay the
appreciably as the rod is stretched glass aside on asbestos paper to cool.
and will quickly reach a bright yellow This completes the fire cut. When the
heat. Stretch the material another % 20-inch length has cooled, cut it in the
inch. middle by the same technique.
54 Fire-polishing
Creative
glass blowing The edges of glass that have been
separated by breaking the cold mate­
rial are naturally sharp and, like all
broken glass, can cut you. For safety
all sharp edges should be removed,
particularly those on tubing that must
be put in the mouth for blowing. This
can be done by melting the edges in
the fire, an operation known as “fire­
polishing.” Surface tension then
draws the softened glass into a
smooth, rounded contour. Select one of
the 10-inch lengths of 6-millimeter
rod that you have just fire-cut and,
with the file, cut off the rounded end.
Nick the glass about % inch from the
end, and brace the piece against the
bench so that the nick is even with the
bench top and faces away from the
bench. Then make the cut by striking
Nick and the tip of the rod immediately above
strike off end
the nick with the edge of the file (Fig.
3-5, o').
Preheat the cut end by passing the
glass up and down through the focus
Fire-polish
of the crossfire, just as when preheat­
ing for a fire cut. Then, while rotating
the rod by one hand, support the cut
end steadily in the fire (3-5 b). Yellow
flare-off will be observed almost imme­
diately. After about 6 seconds the
edges will have melted and lost their
Finished piece sharpness. Inspect the end. The cor­
ners will have become nicely rounded
(3-5, c). Rods smaller than 6 millime­
ters will have a full polish within 4 or
Figure 3-5. 5 seconds. Larger rods require propor­
tionately more time. The edges of tub­
ing are similarly treated. When fire­
polishing a tube, however, always plug
the opposite end with a cork, to pre­
vent the flame from rushing through
the piece and burning your hand.
 How to make balls of solid glass 55
Solid glass:
Frequent occasion arises for round­ basic operations
ing the end of a glass rod, either by
making the form of a hemisphere, as
on a stirring rod, or by making a com­
plete sphere of a diameter substan­
tially larger than that of the rod. The
required technique is merely an elabo­
ration of fire-polishing.
Preheat the end of the rod, bring
the material to a complete fire polish,
and while supporting the rod hori­
zontally in the fire continue heating
the tip of the glass. Within about 20
seconds, depending on the thickness
of the rod, surface tension will draw
the molten glass into a hemisphere.
Unfortunately, gravity is also at work. Stationary
Unless you rotate the piece uniformly,
the tip will sag. You can correct the
tendency to sag merely by rotating
the rod so that the bent end points up­
ward. Held still in this position, the
glass will flow back into a hemisphere.
Rotated
But, unless the material is rotated at
an appropriate rate, it will again sag
out of control.
Here, then, is the first skill you
must develop in the course of becom­
ing a glass blower: the knack of rotat­ in the fire to take advantage of grav­
ing hot glass at a rate that precisely ity, or to offset the effect of gravity,
counteracts the force of gravity (Fig. as the case may be. This is accom­
3-6). The trick is not difficult to mas­ plished by rotating the work. Now,
ter if you follow a few simple rules. practice until you have made three
First, never soften more glass than rounded ends in succession. Lay them
you need for making a desired form. aside on asbestos paper to cool.
If you intend to impart a rounded Next, preheat and then soften the
shape to the end of a rod, heat only tip of another 10-inch rod. Your ob­ Figure 3-6.
the tip. Second, never soften the ma­ ject in this exercise will be to collect a
terial more than necessary to accom­ mushroom-shaped lump on the end
plish your objective. Obviously, stiff of a rod. While rotating the tip of the
glass is easier to control than runny rod in the focus of the crossfire, grad­
glass. Watch the work as it softens ually lower your hand so the rod
and changes form. Alter its position slopes upward into the fire at an angle
56 of approximately 45 degrees (Fig. 3-
Creative 7, a). When the tip has heated to yel­
glass blowing lowness, feed about Vie inch of addi­
tional glass into the fire. Observe that
a bulge, one slightly larger in diame­
ter than the rod, now forms at the tip.
Continue feeding glass into the fire as
the bulge grows. The bulge should be
well centered and should turn without
wobbling as you rotate the piece.
Incidentally, you may grasp the rod
with the palm of the hand up or down,
according to your preference, but you
should make the rotation by mov­
ing your fingers and the thumb se­
quentially, much as a walking cater­
pillar moves its legs. First rotate the
rod by the thumb and index finger,
supporting the rest of the glass
against the base of the little finger
(Fig. 3-8, a). When the thumb and
index finger have reached the limit of
their travel, wrap the little finger and
its neighbor over the rod and then
draw them upward, a motion that con­
tinues the rotation (3-8, b). The glass
is now supported against the inner
surface of the index finger (3-8, c).
Midway through the stroke, wrap the
large middle finger around the rod and
similarly stroke it upward until the
index finger and thumb are again in
position to resume work (3-8 d, e, f).
The motion may be clockwise or coun­
terclockwise, according to preference.
You can, and should, practice this mo­
tion on a length of cold rod, or even a
leadpencil, during odd moments until
it becomes second nature. Both hands
must become proficient.
Within a minute or two the grow­
ing bulge at the tip of the rod will
doubtless begin to wobble. Drop the
work partially out of the fire until you
regain control. Your object is to turn
the rod in the direction and at the rate 57
that opposes the sag. If you rotate the Solid, glass:
piece too rapidly, the sagged portion basic operations
will be carried to the top; if you ro­
tate too slowly, it will be carried to the
bottom. The whole point of the exer­
cise is simply to learn the rate at
which hot glass sags, and to develop
skill in counteracting the effect. You
will learn the knack of it within
an hour or less. Don’t let the glass
become runny. If it does, move the
material to a cooler part of the fire.
Practice until you have accumulated
a nicely centered mushroom-shaped
bulge about twice the diameter of the
rod. Rotate it in the air until the glass
stiffens and then let the work cool on
a sheet of asbestos paper. Then make
five more good ones in succession.
Open your next practice session
by making still another mushroom­ d
shaped bulge of the same size. As this
bulge nears completion, gradually el­
evate your hand to bring the rod into
the horizontal position. This will
greatly exaggerate the tendency of
the bulge to droop. If the work starts
to go out of control, move the glass
out of the fire so that it stiffens a lit­
tle. When the bulge has been nicely
centered, resume heating the work.
Do not feed additional glass into the
accumulating mass. Simply rotate the
piece to keep the molten portion cen­
tered on the rod. Within seconds, sur­
face tension will convert the mush­
room shape into a sphere (Fig.
3-7, b). When a perfect, well-centered
sphere has formed, remove and cool
the piece. (It is assumed that the cen­
tering rotation is continued in air
until the glass has stiffened.) Make
five well-centered balls before you end
the session. Figure 3-8.
 Having, completed these pieces, you
are prepared to make an amusing nov­
elty. You will require at least one
rod of colored glass. If you do not
chance to have a stock in color, you
can make your own from an old col­
ored bottle or other colored scrap. As­
sume that you will make your own.
Put the colored bottle in a bag of
strong paper or cloth, gather the open
end of the bag around the neck of the
bottle, and with a hammer blow break
the glass. Take out a fragment about
1 inch square. Handle it carefully to
avoid cutting yourself. If a piece of
the desired size is not found, cut a
larger one to size by means of the
wheel-type glass cutter.
Grip the colored fragment with a
tong or tweezers and preheat it slowly
but fully in the crossfire (Fig. 3-9, a).
Move the piece up and down through
the focus of the flames, as when pre­
heating rod, and shift it from side to
side so the flame sweeps the surface
uniformly. If the fragment is about
Vs inch thick, preheating may require
up to 20 or more passes at the rate of
a pass per second.
When a slight flare-off appears at
the edges, hold one corner of the frag­
ment steadily in the fire. With your
other hand preheat and then soften
the tip of a convenient length of 6-mil-
ourn off limeter rod. Then place the softened
tip into contact with the softened cor­
ner of the fragment (3-9, b). The two
will fuse (3-9, c). Press the glasses to­
gether until the fused junction is
Figure 3-9. about twice as thick as the rod. Then
 59
Solid glass:
basic operations

lift the work out of the fire just long into an egg-shaped bulge (3-9, /).
enough for it to solidify. Time may be saved at this point by
When the fragment can be sup­ twisting the fragment so that it is
ported by the rod without sagging, re­ worked into a roughly spherical ball.
move the tweezer and, using the rod The handles must be permitted to
as a handle, commence rotating the drift inward just enough to supply the
fragment about 2 inches above the fo­ needed glass. The operation is not dis­
cus of the fire. This keeps the piece similar to that of making a spherical
hot for the next operation. You will bulge on the end of a rod, a procedure
add a second handle of rod to the op­ with which you are now familiar, ex­
posite corner (or side) of the frag­ cept that now you are using both
ment. If permitted to cool, the frag­ hands. Continue heating the glass and
ment would develop internal strain as letting the handles drift inward un­
a consequence of shrinking unevenly til the molten mass has become
and it might shatter when reheated. roughly spherical (3-9, p).
Fuse a second handle of rod to the Remove the work from the fire. Con­
opposite side of the fragment by the tinue rotation. Just as the sphere
same technique (3-9, d). When it has starts to stiffen, stretch the glass into
been joined, lift the work from the a rod by pulling the handles apart
fire. Before the glass stiffens, pull the slowly (3-9, h). Try to time the pull so
handles apart slightly, just enough that the material stretches about 4
to align the handle. If the piece wob­ inches just as it solidifies. If one end
bles when spun by the two hands, re­ of the ball starts to pull out too much,
heat the junction of the first handle move the hands so the rod is pulled
until perceptibly soft, and again pull vertically, with the softer glass at the
and simultaneously rotate the rods bottom. Rising air will then cool the
(3-9, e). The piece should roll true, as thin end faster than the top portion of
though it were a straight rod. the glass, so that the end stiffens
While being rotated, the fragment somewhat. The thicker part will then
is now lowered into the fire and kept pull out into a uniform diameter. You
in alignment, without twisting, as it now have a thin rod of colored glass
softens. Each hand will sense the mo­ (3-9, i). Let it cool. Then melt off one
tion of the other by the force trans­ handle (3-9, j). Essentially, this is the
mitted through the plastic fragment. technique employed for manufactur­
Do not pull the handles apart or ing all glass rod. The size of the fin­
push them together. Shift the frag­ ished piece is determined by the
ment back and forth through the fo­ amount of available glass, plus the
cus of the crossfire while maintaining speed of the pull and the length of the
the rotation. As the fragment becomes stretch.
molten, surface tension will pull it Now return to the amusing novelty.
60 First, seal a rod of opaque white glass
Creative to one of crystal glass, burn off, and
glass blowing let the mass flow into a doorknob
shape (Fig. 3-10, a, b). Permit the
glass to solidify but keep it hot by ro­
tating the work about two inches
above the crossfire. While thus manip­
ulating the work with one hand fuse
the tip of the colored rod (opaque
white) to the center of the doorknob,
stretch the molten glass to form a short
rod and burn it off (3-10, c). Now, by
rotating the work in a horizontal po­
sition let the short rod flow into a
sphere (3-10, d). Similarly add two
small spheres to opposite sides of the
sphere just made (3-10, e, /). Next,
select a rod of contrasting color, heat
the tip to softness, and stretch it into
a point that is bent to a right angle.
Shift the work to a position about 2
inches beneath the fire. While hold­
ing both rods horizontally, rotate the
colored rod so the tip of the point en­
ters the lower edge of the fire.
(3-10, g). With the glasses in this po­
Heat tip
sition you can easily rotate the colored
rod through a half-circle to bring the
molten tip quickly into contact with
any part of the work (3-10, h).
Stop rotating the work. Hold it in a
position such that the two smallest
spheres are aligned horizontally.
(These spheres represent the ears of
the figure). Touch the upper surface
of the work at a desired place with
the molten tip of the colored rod.
The glasses will fuse. When you pull
the rod away some of the colored glass
will stick to the surface. The thin
thread of colored glass that forms
between the sphere and the tip of the
rod will be burned off if you lift the
work quickly through the fire.
r igure 3-10. By this technique you can “draw”
 a funny face on the sphere; make the 61
eyes, nose, and mouth just as though Solid glass:
you were working with crayon (3-10, basic operations
i, j). Moreover you can draw in three
dimensions; make a projecting nose
easily by fusing the tip of the rod to
the appropriate point on the sphere
and burning it off to leave a short pro­
jection. The nose can be shaped as de­
sired by letting the sphere stiffen, re­
heating the projection, and molding it
with an appropriate tool. Other fea­
tures—ears, eyebrows, hair, and so
on—may be added in color according
to your taste and talent. When apply­
ing the features, work at the edges of
the flame. Having completed the face,
Flatten
rotate the work about an inch above
the focus of the crossfire for 2 min­
utes and then lay it aside on asbestos
paper to cool.
After the piece has cooled, make a
similar sphere on the other end of the elevate your hand so the rod points
rod (Fig. 3-11, a). When it has com­ downward into the fire. Gravity will
pletely formed, place the molten mass pull the mass into the teardrop form;
on a block of Transite and with a flat the junction between the rod and
tool, such as a putty knife, press the sphere will become increasingly nar­
sphere into a flat disk about the size row and so thin that eventually the
of a dime (3-11, b). Then, with the drop will fall, trailing a hair-like fila­
tool covering only the disk, bend the ment of glass behind (Fig. 3-7, c).
handle upward to an angle of about Remove the work from the fire just
80 degrees and hold this position until before the neck becomes as thin as
the glass solidifies (3-11, c). Slight desired. (The glass continues to stretch
wrinkles may be removed by fire­ somewhat as it cools.) The final shape
polishing surfaces. You now have a of the teardrop is thus determined by
unique stirring rod for mixing drinks. the amount that you heat the material
Such spheres can easily be modified after pointing the rod downward and
into pear shapes or teardrops. First, also by the initial diameter of the
make the sphere by the technique of molten mass. You will quickly learn Figure 3-11.
supporting the tip of the rod at an to judge these factors by experiment.
upward angle in the fire until a mush­ Teardrops of appropriate proportions
room-shaped blob of glass has col­ make attractive stoppers for miniature
lected, and then support the tip hori­ urns and similar novelties. Other ap­
zontally until surface tension pulls it plications are suggested in Sections
into a ball. When it reaches this form V and VI.
62 which the molten mass is pressed.
Creative Doubtless you will succeed in making
glass blowing a perfect maria of the end type on
your first try. Thereafter, you will
quickly learn to control its propor­
tions by experiment. Having made a
good maria of this type, round off
the opposite end of the rod and you
have a handy muddler.
Marias are frequently required at
Heat an intermediate zone along the rod.
They are not quite as easy to make
as the end type because the hands
must move in unison as the rod soft­
ens and is pushed inward to form
the bulge. To make one, grasp a con­
venient length of rod by both hands
near the ends and, after preheating a
The maria zone near the middle, rotate the work
until it softens (Fig. 3-13, a). Before
Bulges can also be made by softening the piece becomes wobbly, press the
a rod in the middle and pushing the ends inward. To the best of your abil­
ends together, or they can be made ity keep the rod straight and well
on the end of a rod simply by pushing aligned. Don’t let the softened zone
the molten tip against a flat surface, skid sideways. Observe that the
such as a sheet of asbestos paper or heated zone now bulges; its diameter
a block of solid carbon. A bulge, so has become larger than that of the
made, is called a “maria.” It has unaltered rod (3-13, b). Just before it
myriad applications. To make a maria, reaches red heat, the glass softens
heat the tip of a 6-millimeter rod to enough that the maria may be made. If
softness, remove it from the fire, point heated to redness, the material be­
the softened tip straight down, and comes increasingly difficult to con­
push it against any firm, smooth, trol; the ends that join the softened
fire-resistant surface (Fig. 3-12). zone tend to skid and to bend out of
The glass will spread out into a alignment as well as to twist when the
doughnut-shaped disk. If you have hands are rotated slightly out of step
been careful to push the rod straight with each other. Here, again, we en­
down and have prevented it from counter the cardinal rule of the glass
Figure 3-12. skidding sideways, the disk will be blower: Never heat glass hotter than
perfectly centered, and it will run true absolutely necessary for accomplish­
when you spin the rod. If it wobbles, ing your immediate objective. This
you have not pushed the rod straight rule will be mentioned again and
down, or you have let it skid, or both. again in the pages that follow. Fail­
The diameter and thickness of the ure to observe it has discouraged more
Finished maria maria are determined by the length of beginners than has anything else. To
the softened zone and by the depth to summarize: Using both hands, heat a
 zone in the middle of the glass rod.
63
Rotate the zone continuously in the Solid glass:
focus of the crossfire. As the zone basic operations
softens, push the ends of the rod
toward each other, while continuing
uniform rotation. A doughnut-shaped
bulge will form that is symmetrical
with respect to the rod. The bulge will
run true, like the wheel of an auto­
mobile, only if the ends of the rod
are kept straight, in axial alignment.
Don’t soften the glass more than neces­
sary. As the work is removed from
the fire, pull the ends slightly, just
enough to straighten the rod.
Don’t be discouraged if your first
marias wobble a bit. You can correct
this defect. Return the work to the
fire and heat the rod on one side at the
point where it joins the maria. When
the glass softens, bend the rod so the
maria is at right angles to the rod on
the side that has been softened. Let the
glass solidify. Do the same on the other
side of the maria. Remove the work
from the fire and stretch it enough
to straighten the rod. Wobbles are
caused, primarily, by skidding. The
softened zone becomes slightly S-
shaped. Watch for the S and correct
it by pushing the ends sideways, just
enough to restore alignment. Marias
may also become eccentric; that is, Push
when rotated they turn like a wheel
that is not centered on its axle. Eccen­ Marias of this type can be made in
tric marias are caused by failure to diameters as large as two or three
support the rod in a straight line. The times the diameter of the rod and,
rod is permitted to bend, to take the with practice, they can be made in rods
form of a broad V. When the ends are of almost any length. The form is used Figure 3-13.
pushed together while the rod is so in novelty glassware as the body of an
bent, an excess of glass is forced animal, ornamentation on miniature
away from the apex of the V. The ex­ candelabra, the stems of wine glasses
cess remains when the rods are and so on. In laboratory apparatus,
straightened. The result is the ob­ marias serve as stops and supports,
served eccentricity. The defect can­ filter barriers, poppet valves, and simi­
not be corrected. lar constructions.
64 Wire work
Creative
glass blowing Many artisans specialize in so-called
“wire work,” the application of bits of
molten glass to wire. Indeed, this oper­
ation was the first manufacturing en-
terprise to reach the new world from
Europe when in the sixteenth century
adventuring conquistadores founded
a glass factory in California for mak­
ing wampum. Costume jewelry of al­
most limitless variety can be made by
this technique, even by the novice.
As an introductory exercise, make
a bead of the kind used in a necklace.
You will need a stock of soft glass rod,
of approximately 8 millimeters in di­
ameter, as well as a supply of straight
wires about 10 inches long and 0.051
inch in diameter (No. 16, American
Wire Gauge). Professional glass blow­
ers prefer wire of the type known as
“low” brass. (See “Sources of Tools
and Materials,” page 189). You will
also require a pair of fixtures, or
bucks, for supporting the rod in the
fire (Section II, page 36 ). The tip of
the glass rod is heated by rotating the
rod. You can set up an appropriate fire
by removing the rear burner of the
crossfire, so the flame is directed hori­
zontally toward the back of the bench.
Place the glass on the bucks so that
one end can be slid into the fire (see
Fig. 2-19). Preheat the end by sliding
the rod into and out of the flame at the
rate of about one pass per second.
Then advance about *4 inch of glass
into the fire (Fig. 3-14, a). Let it
soften and droop. When the glass has
reached yellow heat, grasp a wire,
much as you would manipulate a slen­
der rod of glass, and preheat a zone
near the outer end. About three passes
through the flame will do.
Figure 3-14. Holding the wire horizontally, ro-
tate it between the thumb and first glass. Secondly, the glass may refuse 65
three fingers (so the top surface moves to wind onto the wire as a smooth, Solid glass:
basic operations
away from you) and touch the heated nicely rounded mass. It tends to bunch
zone of the wire to the region of the up, as a misshapen blob. This means
drooped glass—about a quarter of the that you are lifting the wire away
distance up from the bottom of the from the sagged mass too soon. As ex­
blob (3-14, b). The glass will stick to plained, the glass at the rear of the
the wire and wind around it as the sagged portion is cooler and, hence,
wire turns. Pull the wire down slightly more rigid than the forward region
as you turn it and then move it up­ that is in direct contact with the
ward, winding continuously (3-14, c, flame. If you lift the wire close to the
d). The relatively solid, inner region sagged portion, the collected glass
of the sagged glass will act as a wiper (which is quite runny) is smoothed to
during the up stroke that limits the a spherical shape by the relatively
radius of the glass which accumulates solid mass. Finally, as the piece nears
on the wire. If the glass at the point completion and is about to be with­
of contact with the wire is heated so drawn, the wire may melt. This can
that it is too thin, it will not accumu­ happen only if the wire is excessively
late. At the top of the upstroke pull exposed to the flame. Work on the re­
the accumulated mass away from the gion of the glass that has sagged out
molten blob through the lower region of the center of the flame, below the
of the flame (3-14, e). focal point of the fire.
If all has gone well—and you have Having made one good bead, con­
rotated the work continuously—an al­ tinue. Conserve wire (after becoming
most perfect sphere of glass will proficient) by spacing several beads
have formed on the wire. Continue the at Vz-inch intervals. Beginners may
rotation, reversing direction of rota­ experience difficulty when attempting
tion at will, until the bead solidifies. to space beads closely on the wire be­
When cooled, the bead may be removed cause the heat tends to crack beads
from the wire by either of two meth­ that have cooled. Speed comes with
ods. Clamp one end of the wire in a practice, however, and the trouble van­
vise, grasp the free end by a pair of ishes. As glass is consumed, advance
pliers, and stretch the metal. The wire the rod into fire with your free hand.
shrinks enough when thus stretched to When making beads for a necklace,
permit the bead to slide freely (3-14, do not strive for uniformity. Let
/). Alternatively, cut off the wire close chance determine the sizes. You can
to the glass and drop the bead into a sort the beads later for stringing.
container of nitric acid. Within a few A bead can be made on the tip of
hours the acid will have eaten the the wire, of course. Until fashion
metal away. Caution: Nitric acid is changed, hatpins that terminated in a
highly toxic and corrosive. Handle it black bead were popular. Map tacks
accordingly. and similar stickpins are still so
You may encounter three difficul­ made, and by hand! It is easy to
ties. First, the glass may not stick to change the spherical bead at the end
the wire. This indicates that the wire of a wire into a teardrop: after the
is not hot enough when touched to the sphere has formed just incline the
66 wire downward into the flame and ro­
Creative tate as though you were making a tear­
glass blowing
drop on the end of a rod (Fig. 3-15).
With practice it becomes possible to
pick up the end bead from the molten
glass and remove it from the flame at
once. By working quickly, the tear­
drop forms before the glass stiffens,
so that extra heat is not needed.
Fuse wire to glass
An end bead can also be flattened,
and converted into a maria. First,
change the sphere into a pear shape
and then push the glass straight down
against a flat surface (Fig. 3-16, a).
Do not push the wire so far that it
makes contact with the base material
(3-16, &). If the base material is
rough it may mar the outer surface of
the maria. The polish can be restored
by exposing the surface to the flame
for a few seconds (3-16, c). When the
work cools, cut the wire off at a point
about % inch from the glass and bend
it into a small loop. You now have a
button (3-16, d). The wire loop takes
the thread.
Buttons of this type make attrac­
tive glass eyes for toys. First, make
a maria of brown glass (or other de­
sired color) on the end of a wire. When
it solidifies soften the end of a black
rod about 4 millimeters in diameter
and fuse it to the center of the but­
ton (Fig. 3-17, a). Burn off the rod
and fire-polish the surface of the maria
(3-17, 6). The eye now has a black
pupil (3-17, c). Forms, such as sun­
bursts, are made by fusing colored
rod radially to the edge of the button Figure 3-15.
and stretching the material to tapered
points that are bent into zig-zags by
means of tweezers before the glass
stiffens (3-17, d). When making such
forms, keep the entire piece heated
until the work is finished. Damaging
 67
Solid glass:
basic operations

Push

Fire-polish

Straighten

Form wire loop

Figure 3-16.

Burn off

Melt

Figure 3-17.

Seal on rays
 strains will develop and the piece will
68 almost certainly shatter if it is re­
Creative heated after cooling. The variations
glass blowing
in form that can be imparted to such
pieces are limitless.
Beads also lend themselves to a
variety of shapes. For example, a
heart-shaped bead is easy to make.
Begin by forming a conventional
spherical bead near the end of a wire
(Fig. 3-18, a). When the mass has be­
Heat come fully rounded, and is molten,
place the glass on a flat surface and
squash it into a pancake with a car­
bon block, a spatula, or other con­
venient tool (3-18, b). Then return the
piece to the crossfire, supporting the
wire vertically with your hand be­
neath and slightly to one side of the
focus, so that the flame plays alter­
nately on each side of the pancake as
Pinch and pull t the work is rotated (3-18, c). The
outer edges will soften and droop, pull­
ing the glass into the form of an in­
verted heart (3-18, d).
Egg-shaped beads are wound by
shifting the wire lengthwise while it
Pinch and pull is in contact with the drooped mass.
This form can be converted into a
rectangular shape by pressing the
glass on four sides. Doorknob shapes
are made by feeding excess glass onto
Pinch and pull
the central zone of a bead that would
otherwise become a sphere.
Multicolored beads also are easy to
make. After the desired shape has
solidified, add one or more colored
stripes by touching the softened tip
of a colored rod to the rotating piece,
Figure 3-18. as when adding a pupil to the glass
eye. The stripe (or polka dots, if de­
Pull and
burn off sired) are then fired in place by ro­
tating the bead in the flame. Interest­
ing effects can also be achieved by
crushing glass of various colors into
fragments and, with a sieve, collect-
ing particles that are about the size
of granulated sugar. (The glass can 69
be pulverized safely by placing the Solid glass:
large pieces between two sheets of basic operations
galvanized iron of the kind sold by
tinsmiths, sealing the edges with ad­
hesive tape, and pounding the sand­
wich with a hammer.) The molten
bead is rolled in the mixture of col­
ored fragments and then fire-polished.
The variety of interesting shapes
into which spherical beads can be
transformed is limited only by the
imagination of the artisan. Instead
of the heart shape, for example, the Burn off end of each tier
glass can be easily pulled into a mini­ before adding next tier
ature plume with a pair of tweezers.
The sequence of manipulations are de­
picted in Figure 3-18, e to j. When
combined in symmetrical patterns,
such plumes make attractive elements
of costume jewelry.

number of pieces are to be made, a

Press molding pair of tweezers can be improvised
with built-in mold and pressure
Irregular forms, such as sculptured
miniatures in bas-relief, can be molten glass as a sphere. Pick the
molded from solid rod by a pressing sphere off the end of the rod by the
technique. A plastei' mold is first made jaws of the tool.
of a strong, heat-resistant material
such as dental stone. The open mold
is placed face up on the bench. A mass The network technique
of glass is then collected on the end of
a rod to fill the mold. As the collected Lace-like forms appear in many glass
teardrop starts to fall, move the end novelties that range in variety from
of the rod directly over the mold and ship models and bird’s nests to minia­
when the mass enters the cavity, press ture bases and Christmas tree orna­
it into place immediately with a car­ ments. Itinerant glass blowers usu­
bon block. A filament of glass will link ally describe the operation of making Figure 3-19.
the part to the rod. Break it off. The such pieces as “crocheting in glass.”
completed piece will contain a lot of Actually, the finished piece consists of
strain and must be annealed. The edge a network of finely spiralled glass rod,
of the finished piece to which the fila­ each turn of which is fused to adja­
ment was attached may then be cent turns of neighboring spirals, as
smoothed on a grinding wheel. If a illustrated (Fig. 3-19 and Plate 1 ).
70 lower surface of the flames and points
Creative away from you toward the upper left
glass blowing
(toward the ten of an imaginary
clock). The position is somewhat awk­
ward because the left hand must be
placed behind the front burner of the
crossfire. (Fig. 3-20). A convenient
length of 4-millimeter lead glass rod
is now preheated and the tip softened.
This piece is manipulated by the right
hand and is called the working rod.
The rod is inclined downward at an
angle of about 45 degrees through
the left edge of the flame. The molten
tip is now touched to the hot end of
the base rod (Fig. 3-21, a). The
glasses fuse. The working rod must
now be rotated in the counter-clock­
wise direction and simultaneously
lifted about % inch, then moved, and
then swept downward through an arc
until it again touches the heated rod
about % inch away from the first
point of contact (3-21, b, c, d, e).
Again, the glasses fuse. The motion
generates one turn of a small spiral of
glass rod, the ends of which are fused
to the base rod. The working rod is
now rotated clockwise until the thumb
and forefinger have been returned to
their starting positions, without lift­
ing the working rod from its point of
contact (3-21, /). This motion simply
prepares you to make the second spiral
loop. The fact that the molten glass
Palm faces its owner has been twisted is incidental. The
second loop is now made, then the
To make a network, first preheat a third, and so on. Completed loops are
Figure 3-20. 1-inch zone at the end of a 4-milli- moved slowly away from the fire as
meter rod of convenient length, which the working rod is advanced onward,
is called the base rod. Then with loop by loop. Thus the loops cool
your left hand (assuming that you slowly, and are partially annealed. The
are right-handed) incline the rod up­ working rod is gradually heated to the
ward from beneath the fire so that plastic state as it moves through the
the preheated zone just grazes the flame.
 The rate at which the working rod 71
becomes molten is determined by the Solid glass:
basic operations
depth to which the glass is immersed
in the fire. The beginner should ad­
vance the material through the edge
of the fire, as directed. In this posi­
tion the rod will soften at the rate of
about % inch per second; a loop can
be made every 3 seconds. The worker
gains speed with practice. After an
hour or so even a novice will find it
relatively easy to make a loop per sec­
ond. The rod must then be fed through
an appropriately hotter region of the
fire.
Having fused an inch-long spiral of
loops to the base rod, burn off the
working rod at its final point of con­
tact. A second spiral is then fused to
the first (Fig. 3-21, /). The operation
is begun by fusing the molten tip to
the upper center of the first loop of
the first spiral, and is continued by
making a loop that terminates at the
upper center of the second loop of the
first spiral. When the second spiral
has been completed, again burn off the
working rod and similarly add succeed­
ing spirals to make a network at least
one inch wide.
The charm of glass networks re­
sides in the uniformity of theii' tex­
ture and contour. The “stitches” must Add second tier
be as alike as possible, and, in form,
plane pieces should be flat and rounded
pieces, free of bumpy surfaces. The
loops should not vary too much in
thickness. Beginners will doubtless
find that the spacing between loops Figure 3-21.

tends to vary at first. Evenness of

spacing comes with a practiced eye.
Most workers acquire the knack
within eight practice sessions of an
hour each. Variation in the diameter
of the loops arises from failure to ad-
72 A glass basket
Creative
glass blowing In its present circular form the net­
work may be regarded as the bottom
of a small basket. Complete the piece
by building up the sides, as illustrated
in Figure 3-23. The direction of the
working rod now lies in the plane
of the network, as illustrated (Fig.
3-23, a). Fuse loops to the edge of the
network at an angle of roughly 70 de­
grees and add additional tiers to make
the basket about half as high as its
width (3-23, &). To make the basket
handle, fuse the tip of the rod at right
angles to any point around the rim of
the basket and soften about 2 inches
of the rod, heating it from its point of
attachment. Simply move the zone to
be softened up and down through the
vance the rod at a uniform rate, fail­ fire. When the glass has become plas­
ure to move the rod through a given tic, lift the work from the fire, invert
region of the fire, or both. For control­ the basket, and bend the rod into a
ling the position of the working rod in smooth arc separated about 1% inches
the fire, improvise an elbow rest for at the ends. In the course of bending
your right arm. It will help to steady the arc, bring the junction between
the work. the soft and solid portion to within
Having made a few flat squarish about % inch of the rim. Burn off the
networks with even stitches, try your rod at this point (3-23, d). Slowly
hand at making circular ones. Make preheat the point at which the han­
an end maria on a piece of 4-milli- dle joins the rim. Do not rush this
meter rod. Now, instead of making operation. Strain now exists in the
loops along the length of the piece, glass and abrupt heating will shatter
fuse loops around the end maria. Space the work. Then soften the material
the stitches so that the final loop just enough so the handle can be bent
meets the beginning of the first. Al­ into contact with the opposite rim of
ways burn off the rod at the end of the basket. When contact is made, pre­
the tier. Then add the second tier, just heat the work carefully at this point,
Figure 3-22. as though you were making a rectan­ soften the tip of the handle, and press
gular piece. You will find it necessary it into fusing contact with the rim
to squeeze in an extra stitch or so to (3-23, e). (Cold glass is sufficiently
compensate for the increased circum­ flexible to accommodate this small
ference of the piece. Continue until movement.) Finally, cut off the 4-
the network reaches a diameter of millimeter rod flush with the bottom
about 1 inch (Fig. 3-22). of the basket. This is done by apply-
 73
Solid glass:
basic operations

Figure 3-23.

cut off
support
74 ing the molten tip of a rod to the base
Creative rod just at the basket’s bottom, then
glass blowing nipping lightly with cold wire cutting
pliers.
A somewhat more attractive handle,
one that resembles twisted rope, can
be substituted for the plain rod. To
make the rope, gather a spherical mass
Form sphere of molten glass on the end of a rod
(Fig. 3-24, a) and immediately press
it into a disk (3-24, h) that is ap­
proximately % inch wide and perhaps
yi6 inch thick. Then fuse a handle
of similar rod opposite to the point of
attachment (3-24, c). You may think
of this form as a maria set edgewise
in a rod. Now resoften the disk, re­
move the work from the fire, and si­
multaneously stretch and rotate the
handles in opposite directions (3-24,
dj. When the center portion has nar­
rowed to the desired diameter (roughly
3 millimeters for this basket handle)
maintain just enough tension to
straighten the piece. Cut a 2-inch
length from the central portion and
install as the handle of the basket
(3-24, e).

Glass icicles
The identical technique can be used
for making glass “icicles” for your
Christmas tree. After completing the
twisting and stretching operation, cut
Twist and stretch
the piece in the middle (Fig. 3-25, a).
Then soften a narrow zone of one
Figure 3-24. piece at the junction between the rod
and the twist (3-25, 5), stretch the
twisted portion until it shrinks to a
diameter of about 4 millimeters, and
simultaneously bend a full loop ap­
proximately % inch in diameter. Burn
off the excess rod close to the loop.
 75
Solid glass:
basic operations
Burn off
Even more attractive icicles can be
made from colored scraps of sheet
glass. Fuse a selected scrap to rod
handles as when preparing to convert
such scrap into rod (see page 58).
When the material softens, pull and
stretch the mass into an icicle and
form the supporting loop.

A bird’s nest
A somewhat more advanced applica­
tion of the network technique involves
the fabrication of a bird’s nest, re­
plete with the bird and colored eggs.
Even if your tastes do not run to such
knickknacks, you are urged to do the
project as a familiarizing exercise.
The skill so acquired will serve you
well when you tackle more complex
operations involving combinations of
solid and blown forms.
Begin by making the bottom of a
basket. Next, select a rod of colored
stock, soften the tip, and fuse it to a
point slightly away from the center
of the network (Fig. 3-26, a). Burn
off the rod slightly above the junction,
say, about Vs inch above. Fire-polish
the projection, just enough to round
the end (3-26, b). When viewed from
above, this glass resembles a minia­
ture bird’s egg. Add two more eggs,
arranged as desired. Complete the nest
by extending the network up and
around the eggs. The operation is sim­
ilar to making the sides of the basket,
but now you must round the side gen­
tly and extend it up and over as a
smooth curve (3-26, c). The nest and
its eggs is now complete. Figure 3-26.
76 To fashion the bird, collect a sphere
Creative of colored glass, about % inch in dia­
glass blowing meter, on the end of a 4-millimeter rod
(Fig. 3-27, a). Let the sphere solid­
ify, but keep it hot. Soften the tip of
an identical rod and fuse it to the hot
sphere. (Its position should be such
that it is pointing to the two of an
imaginary clock. Burn off the rod,
leaving just enough glass attached to
the sphere to form a ball about 3As inch
in diameter after the stub has been
rounded in the fire (3-27, b, c, d). This
ball will become the head of the bird.
Next, add the wings and tail. Proceed
by softening the tip of a 4-millimeter
glass rod of desired color. At a point
on the body, opposite the head, at ap­
proximately the ten o’clock position,
stroke the heated tip sidew’ays against
the body of the bird, much as you
would stroke with a crayon. (Work
close to the fire so the “crayon” does
not stiffen.) Then lift the tip just
enough to clear the body, return it to
the beginning position, and stroke
again. Lift and return. Make a total of
three strokes and then lift the rod
away in an arc as illustrated (3-27, e,
f, g, h). The stroking action accom­
plishes two objectives: first, the cir­
cular cross section of the rod is altered
into a ribbon shape, which is thickest
on the side that points away from the
work; secondly, the texture of the
glass becomes ribbed, approximating
the appearance of feathers (3-27, i).
You have now made half of the bird’s
figure a-zi. tail. Add the remaining half by re­
peating the operation in reverse on
the other side. The two halves of the
tail should merge at the body and di­
verge outward (3-27, ;). Similarly
form and attach the wings.
and eye The eyes are made next. Soften and
make a narrow constriction in a rod 77
of black glass. The constriction should Solid glass:
be about the thickness of a common basic operations
pin. Cut the glass at its narrowest
point. Soften the tip and immediately
apply it to the eye position on the
bird’s head. You must work quickly.
The tip becomes molten immediately
when exposed to the fire and it cools
as promptly. Withdraw the rod, and
burn off the resulting filament of
glass and fire-polish the portion that
remains attached to the head. Simi­
larly, make the second eye. Finally,
soften the tip of a yellow rod, apply it
to the beak position and withdraw.
Burn off the rod, leaving the tapered
beak attached. This completes the
bird (3-27, Zc). To perch it on the edge
of the nest, cut off the rod that has get a good bond, and then draw out
been serving as a handle and substi­ to form one half of the keel. Repeat
tute a wire holder (see Fig. 2-17, Sec­ this procedure in the opposite direc­
tion II). Reheat the bird sloivly, soften
tion to finish the keel, which will be
the region where the rod was formerly 1% inches long (3-28, a).
attached, reheat the nest slowly, and With the keel as a base, build up
fuse the bottom of the bird to the edge the hull of network, rounding the
of the nest (3-27, Z). structure approximately as suggested
by the drawing (Fig. 3-28, 6). Keep
the structure hot as you work. Next,
Glass sloop fuse a saddle across the hull at a point
about a quarter of the hull length
The apex of the network technique has from the bow, attaching the ends of
been reached (for the beginner) when the saddle to the gunwales as illus­
he completes a sailboat model. Again, trated (Fig. 3-28, c). Fuse the work­
the prime objective is not the acquisi­ ing rod to the saddle and draw out
tion of a novelty but the manipulative past the stern of the hull to form
skill that develops during the con­ the boom. Fuse on and draw a flowing
struction. To make the vessel illus­ line from the stern to the end of the
trated, start by making a network boom, and burn off. (Aside from being
circle. Add a row of loops to the top part of the vessel, this line keeps the
and bottom edges of this circle (Fig. boom rigid when the saddle softens
3-28, a). To make the keel, heat the during the placing of the mast.) In­
end of a 4-millimeter working rod and stall the mast by softening the end of
fuse it to the central area of the top a 4- or 6-millimeter rod and fusing it
of the circle, stroking a few times to to the saddle in the position shown
78
Creative
glass blowing

Add bowsprit
and booms

Lay keel and base

(3-28, d). For a realistic appearance,

the mast should taper uniformly from
bottom to top. In a model of this size
the mast should be about 4 inches tall.
Make the taper by softening a zone
Construct hull
about 34 inch long, beginning at the
gunwale, and stretching the glass just
enough to form a perceptible taper,
Add step
feeding the working rod into the fire
as the mast is drawn out to get addi­
tional glass. Burn off the rod at the
point where the gaff (top sail support)
is to be set. Now run up the heavy
side lines that are to be part of the
ladder, and any other lines you wish to
terminate at this point, and burn off.
Now apply the ladder rungs. Holding
the working rod tip in the fire until
Figure 3-28. Step mast it is runny, start at the bottom of the
ladder and work up to the top, criss­
crossing the ladder sides as you go.
Allow the runny glass to overlap the
ladder sides at each crossing. The fus­
ing will be automatic. Try to simulate
dribbling molasses. With both ladders
 79
Solid glass:
basic operations

on, fuse % inch of the top juncture. stretched, will extend to the point of
To this, apply the gaff and then the attachment, a projection such as the
rest of the mast (3-28, e, /). By the mast or bowsprit. Now, moving the
same technique, install the bowsprit hands in unison, pass the rod back and
(3-28, e). Make a practice of rotating forth through the edge of the fire until
the construction 3 or 4 inches above it softens, then make the stretch,
the focus of the crossfire during inter­ wind the glass around the desired
vals when glass is not being actually point of attachment (a projection)
applied. This keeps the work heated. and burn off (3-28, /). When the
The rigging is now to be installed. rigging is complete (3-28, </), attach a
For this operation the vessel is held pennant to the tip of the mast by the
in a horizontal position beneath the technique used for making the bird’s
flames, and the lines are drawn out al­ wing. Novelties utilizing the network
most horizontally, from left to right. technique range from simple furni­
Gravity and your judgment govern the ture, and the costumes of human fig­
graceful flowing lines. With practice ures, to ships under full sail. The vari­
and experience, your timing will be­ ety is limited only by the imagination
come perfected. of the artisan. To make a cat-rigged
Soften the end of a 4-millimeter sloop (a vessel having a single sail
rod, and fuse it to a desired point of without a gaff), leave off the gaff and
attachment. Support the rod parallel the ladders, and run all lines to the
to the mast as it solidifies. In this mast top, fusing the top juncture,
position the rod can be passed back drawing to a point, and burning off.
and forth through the edge of the fire The base rod is removed the same way
to soften a length of glass that, when it is removed from a basket.
80 Interesting pieces can also be made
Creative of solid glass. An example is the fab­
glass blowing rication of a miniature turtle. Collect
a mass of molten glass about % inch in
diameter on the end of a 4- or 6-milli-
meter rod of brownish color, let it as­
sume a slight teardrop form (Fig.
3-29, a), and quickly lay it down on a
sheet of asbestos paper. The molten
mass will flow into a flat-bottomed
dome approximating the shape of a
turtle (3-29, b). With a finely pointed
rod of contrasting color, apply polyg­
onal spots to the rounded surface
that suggest the characteristic mark­
ings of the tortoise shell (3-29, c).
Dark brown rod is conventionally
used for fusing the stubby head, feet,
and tapered tail (3-29, d). Eyes are
applied in the same way as they are to
the bird. Realistic feet can be made by
softening the tips of the legs and
pinching the glass slightly upward
with tweezers equipped with grooved
jaws (3-29, e).
Miniature candlesticks are also rel­
atively easy to make. They illustrate
a common application of the maria.
/ First, fuse and seal a 4-millimeter rod
of opaque white glass to a 6-milli-
meter length of ruby rod. To make the
seal, heat just the tips of both rods,
press them together lightly, and, as
they solidify, exert just enough pull to
straighten and shrink the bulge that
forms at the junction (Fig. 3-30, a).
Then heat the narrowest possible zone
in the ruby glass that adjoins the seal
Figure 3-29. just made. When the glass softens,
push the ends of the rod to form a
maria about 8 millimeters in diameter
(3-30, b). Now cut the ruby rod about
% inch from the maria. Soften about
inch of the end and make a maria of
the end type by pushing the softened
 Seal

Opaque white

v W'U Burn off Grasp work

with holder

zone straight down onto a flat surface

(3-30, c). When the work cools, grasp
the end maria in a wire holder. Heat a
Opaque white
narrow zone in the white rod about %
inch from its junction with the ruby
rod, stretch the glass, and burn it off
(3-30, d). Then heat the end of the Seal on
remaining portion of the white rod and drippings
make the characteristic wax drip­
pings by fusing molten stripes to the
candle. Apply the glass as though you
were making a single crayon stroke.
The effect is pleasing if three strokes
are made in differing lengths around
the candle (3-30, e). Finally, form
the wick by fusing a short, thin, rod
of black to the center of the top, as il­ Figure 3-30.
lustrated (3-30,/).
Candles somewhat more ornate can
be made by forming a shallow pan by
the network technique, fusing the
holder to the center of the pan, and
adding a wax catcher of network at
the point where the candle is sealed Figure 3-31.
to the holder. A handle attached to the
pan curves up into contact with the
wax catcher. The piece is quite light.
For this reason the top of the handle
need not be fused to the wax catcher
(Fig. 3-31).
82 A useful exercise in combining
Creative glass is involved in making exotic fish.
glass blowing Gathei' a ball of glass approximately
% inch in diameter on the end of a 10-
millimeter black rod, and incline the
rod to form a teardrop with a neck
about 8 millimeters in diameter (Fig.
3-32, a). With a rod of sharply con­
trasting color add a thick stripe to
each side of the teardrop, vertically or
horizontally (3-32, &). Then soften
the mass and press it into a disk ap­
proximately an inch in diameter.
While maintaining pressure on the
flattened portion, stretch the neck of
the teardrop about % inch (3-32, c).
This is the body of the fish. Fins are
now to be added. While keeping the
body hot, soften the end of a rod of de­
sired coloi' and by the technique of re­
peated crayon strokes make the fins
just as you made the bird wings. Make
a single, sweeping dorsal fin above
(3-32, d, e,) and a pair of adjacent
ventral fins below. These will become
“legs” on which the completed fish
will stand. If one fin turns out to be
slightly longer than the other, soften
the tip of the longer fin and pick off
the surplus glass by touching it with
the heated end of a rod. If the differ­
ence in length is slight, simply soften
the tip of the longer fin and while
holding the body vertically, press both
fins against a level surface. The longer
of the pair will flatten to equalize the
length. Next, add a short, stubby anal
fin. Finish by making the tail, just as
you made the tail of the bird, but af­
ter finishing the second part of the
tail fin let the glass solidify with the
rod still attached to the fish. This rod
will become a new handle. Next, add
the eyes (3-32, e). Opaque yellow
Figure 3-32. creates an exotic effect. Make them
just as you made the eyes of the bird. 83
After firing the eyes to a smooth, Solid glass:
hemispherical contour, add small basic operations
spots of black in the center of each eye
to make the pupils. Fire the black
so that it merges with the yellow.
When heating the eyes, support the
fish horizontally just beneath the fire
so the flames play on the eyes only.
Watch the work carefully to prevent
the fins from softening and sagging.
Burn off the black rod close to the
body (3-32, /).
Make the mouth by softening the
tip of a 6-millimeter rod of orange
glass and fusing it to the point for­
merly occupied by the black rod han­
dle (3-32, g). Burn off the orange rod,
leaving about % inch attached to the
body. Rotate the adhering bit of
orange in the fire until surface ten­
sion pulls it into a sphere. Then with
a thin, flat tool, such as the jaw of a
tweezers, press a horizontal groove
into the softened mass (3-32, h). Fi­
nally, grasp the body by a pair of
tweezers and burn off the rod handle
attached to the tail fin. Flat designs of
this type make novel brooches. To
make a brooch of the fish, omit the eye
and ventral fin on the rear side. A spe­
cial safety pin may then be attached
to the rear side with epoxy cement.
Pins made for brooches of this type
may be purchased from dealers in
jeweler’s supplies.
Amusing tops for stirring rods are
fun to improvise, and require little
skill. Examples of three versions ap­ Figure 3-33.
pear in Figure 3-33. The difficulty of
executing realistic forms varies with
the talent of the artisan. As a general
observation it can be said that if you
can make a figure in clay you can
make it in soft glass.
Creative
glass blowing

Spun glass may be used. The wooden wheel em­

So-called “spun glass” (glass that ployed by the senior author’s grand­
when heated to the molten state has father, who introduced the process in
been drawn into a continuous fila­ the United States late during the last
ment) is widely used in novelty work century, was 6 feet in diameter and
as well as in scientific apparatus. It turned at the rate of 250 revolutions
can be used for the tail feathers of per minute. Several rods of glass were
ornamental birds, a decorative acces­ heated simultaneously and were ad­
sory on Christmas tree balls, an effec­ vanced through the fire by hand as the
tive ink eraser when it is bound as a material was drawn away by the
tightly packed bundle of fibers, and an wheel. Two workers conducted the op­
inert filter for removing unwanted eration. One manipulated the glass
particles from both gases and fluids. rods. The other operated the wheel.
The material should not be confused To start the procedure one worker
with rock wool, the kinky, short-fib- grasped the molten tip of the rod by a
ered substance used for heat insula­ pair of tongs and pulled a filament to
tion. the wheel, located about 20 feet away.
As manufactured commercially, Water was then thrown on the surface
molten glass is pulled from an appro­ of the wheel and the filament was
priate container through perforations pulled against the wet rim, to which it
in a sheet of electrically heated plati­ adhered. At the end of the run the
num at speeds of a mile per minute wheel was stopped and the hank of
and more. Amateurs can make a simi­ “spun” glass removed by cutting the
lar' product with inexpensive and fibers by a sharp knife. Fibers of com­
much less complex equipment. All that parable diameter, but shorter in
is needed (in addition to the crossfire length, have been made by attaching
and a pair of bucks for supporting a one end of a glass rod to the arrow of
glass rod) is a wheel with a broad rim a crossbow and clamping the other
on which to wind the filament. The end to a rigid support. When a short
rear burner of the crossfire must be length of the rod has been softened to
shut off, thus heating the glass on the fluid state, the crossbow is fired.
only the front side. An extremely fine thread of glass
A wheel of any convenient diameter trails behind the flying arrow.
 Section IV

lass tubing: Basic operations

The seemingly infinite variety of a pointed flame; flaring, expanding

shapes into which the artisan converts the end of a tube, or other object such
glass tubing consist, essentially, of as an opened bulb, into a conical
variations and selected combinations shape; bending, altering the curva­
of only a few basic forms. Each form ture of glass tubing while preserving
is the consequence of an equally basic its circular cross section and wall
manipulation or operation. Foui' of thickness; bulb blowing, expanding
these have been discussed in Section molten glass into spherical, ellipsoidal
III: cold cutting, fire-polishing, fire- or spheroidal form; sealing, joining
cutting, and pressing. two or more pieces of glass, or glass to
Additional operations that are em­ another substance, such as metal, by
ployed, in particular, to alter the form fusing the surfaces; annealing, re­
of the tubing include pulling a point, heating and cooling glass slowly to
stretching the ends of a tube into rela­ relieve internal stresses; sagging,
tively narrow tapers that are closed at transforming glass of sheet or lump
the tips; the maria, a ring-like bulge form into desired shapes by letting
encircling a tube that is made by the softened material flow into the
pushing the ends inward while heat­ contours of an appropriate mold.
ing a cylindrical zone at some inter­ Each of the basic operations is easy
mediate location; shrinking, permit­ to master, particularly if practiced in
ting surface tension to constrict the the above sequence. You may consider
plastic zone of a heated tube; the dim­ an operation “mastered” when you can
ple, a depression made by creating a perform it confidently whenever you
partial vacuum inside a vessel while wish. The time required for attaining
softening a selected area by means of proficiency depends somewhat on the
86
Creative
glass blowing

aptitude of the individual. As in learn­ The tapered ends of well-made points

ing to drive an automobile, however, are circular in cross section, are in
anyone can do it. The practice period perfect axial alignment with the cen­
is measured in weeks, not years. As ter tubing, and have relatively thick,
with most minor arts, an hour of strong walls. When a good point is
daily practice will count much more grasped by the tapered ends and spun
than a seven-hour session once each between the thumbs and forefingers
week. Keep at it regularly and the the center section runs true—as a cyl­
knack will soon be yours. inder of metal does when rotated by
an engine lathe.
Snapping off the tip of one taper
converts that stem to an open tube
Pulling a point
through which the worker can blow
Substantially every novelty in blown into the point for making a bulb. Simi­
glass—miniature vases, urns, birds, larly, the opened end permits air to es­
animals, Christmas tree ornaments— cape. When the glass center is heated,
begins as a point. This basic form var­ the force of surface tension will con­
iously modified is also found in most strict the central portion, shrinking
scientific glassware. Its fabrication is it. The details of manipulating points
by far the most useful practice exer­ in these and related ways are endless
cise for the beginner. A typical point and occupy a substantial part of this
consists of a section of glass tubing book.
about 12 millimeters in diameter and Incidentally, glass tubing is made
Figure 4-1. 3 inches long with tapered ends aver­ in various wall thicknesses. In gen­
aging Vs inch in diameter and about eral, the heavier the wall, the more
7 inches in length (Fig. 4-1). easily one can control the plastic
The tapered ends serve a variety of glass. Doubling the wall thickness
functions. For example, they are used more than doubles the period that the
as handles for manipulating the tub­ hot material remains plastic and,
ing that makes up the central section. hence, workable. Heat that is carried
 87
Glass tubing:
basic operations

• J

away from the surface by air currents mately 30 seconds rotate the zone di­
is, in effect, replaced by that trans­ rectly in the fire. The heated portion
ferred from the interior. Moreover, will soon begin to color the flame a
the walls of heavy tubing tend to be bright yellow. This effect is known as
more uniform in thickness than those flare-off. The yellow color becomes
of lightweight tubing. When purchas­ more intense as the glass heats, and it
ing glass tubing, request heavy­ is a useful guide to the uniformity of
weight material if you are a beginner. the temperature of the glass. Within
As an initial exercise in point-pull­ seconds of the onset of flare-off the
ing, select a length of tubing approxi­ heated zone will become perceptibly
mately 12 millimeters in diameter and plastic; the tube will tend to bend out
about 2 feet long. Grasp the glass of axial alignment, and will feel wob­
near either end by one hand, at a point bly.
of comfortable balance, and about 16 Alter the motion
I of your hands to
inches from the other hand. Adjust oppose the bend, to maintain true
the crossfires as explained in Section alignment. Do not pull the ends apart
II. While rotating the tubing by the or push them together. Continue to
technique explained in Section III, rotate the tubing. Soon the heated
heat a zone of glass equal in length to zone will become quite flexible, as
about three tube diameters (Fig. 4-2, though the rigid portions of the tub­
a). The heat may be applied at any ing were connected by thick molasses.
convenient place along the tube. You are familiar with this “feel,” of
Preheat the selected zone slowly by course, because it closely resembles
passing the horizontal tube up and that of a similarly heated rod. The Figure 4-2, a.
down through the flame at the rate of glass should now stain the blue flame
about one pass per second. Simultane­ a dazzling yellow (but the glass itself
ously, shift the tube back and forth should show no color).
longitudinally to heat about an inch Lift the heated zone out of the fire
and a half of glass (in the case of 12 and, while continuing the rotation, be­
millimeter tubing). After approxi­ gin pulling the ends apart and simul-
88
Creative
glass blowing

Straighten ends

Figure 4-2, b-f.

f

Burn off
taneously bend them downward at an to pull the small center constriction, 89
angle of about 30 degrees (4-2, b, c). and third to cut or to burn off. Glass tubing:
If you find that continued rotation in basic operations
At this stage only half of the point
one direction is too difficult, rotate the has been made. The short end of the
glass alternately clockwise and coun­ tubing, together with its attached ta­
terclockwise-—making approximately per, is laid aside temporarily. The re­
a full turn in each direction while si­ maining taper serves as a handle for
multaneously stretching the material. use in making a duplicate taper a
As the glass reaches a length of about short distance beyond. This one is
12 inches turn the end sections back formed by heating to softness a sec­
up into axial alignment without in­ tion of the tubing some 3 inches be­
terrupting the stretching motion yond the first tapei* and making the
(4-2, d). Stretch the piece to a total second pull. The result is a portion of
length of about 14 or 15 inches. The tubing about 3 inches long terminated
stretching operation should be com­ by 7-inch tapers on each end.
pleted in about 3 seconds. One difficulty in pulling points that
At the end of the pull maintain just often besets the beginner is the re­
enough tension to prevent the mate­ fusal of the glass to retain its smooth
rial from sagging but not enough to tubular form when heated to softness.
stretch it beyond the specified length. As the material becomes plastic, the
In about 3 more seconds the pulled glass tends to twist out of shape. This
zone should have cooled enough to be­ is caused most often by rotating one
come rigid. Then heat the center of end of the tubing at a different rate
the pulled section. This portion of the than the other, or by permitting the
tubing should now be about Vs inch in end sections to bend out of axial align­
diameter, its wall much thinner than ment, or both. Practice soon minimizes
that of the original tubing. It will this difficulty. On the other hand,
therefore heat to the plastic state in glass blowers know a trick that can
about a second. help to make your practice pay off.
When a zone % inch long has soft­ Observe that the trouble does not
ened, promptly lift the glass about 3 appear when the glass first softens.
inches above the fire and simultane­ At this stage the material is so stiff
ously stretch the heated portion to a that the entire tube can be rotated by
length of about 1% inches (4-2, e). one hand, the other hand serving
The center of this stretched zone will merely as a loose bearing on which
be thinner than a pencil lead. Return the glass turns. The difficulty arises
the middle of this doubly stretched when the glass becomes quite soft.
portion to the fire. It will immediately Here, then, is the secret! Don’t heat
become red hot. Pull the ends apart the glass more than absolutely neces­
without lifting the glass from the fire. sary to stretch it as desired. Begin­
This is another example of fire-cutting ners tend to overheat the material.
or “burning off” (4-2, fl). Glass, when sufficiently plastic for
To pull a point, then, the glass proper manipulation, is still rigid
must be heated three times; first to enough to contribute substantial sup­
form the major constriction, second port to the end sections—and there-
90 Still another difficulty is the refusal
Creative of the tapers to assume the desired
glass blowing cross section; they come out oval­
shaped or flattened, and do not roll
smoothly between the thumbs and
forefingers. This difficulty appears
most frequently when the glass is
worked in the crossfire, suggesting
that the tubing has been most
strongly heated on opposite sides as a
consequence of nonuniform rotation.
Flattened tapers can also result from
uneven cooling. This occurs when ro­
tation is discontinued as the piece is
lifted from the fire.
In cases where the glass has been
rotated first in one direction and then
in the other—as when making the pull
—the worker may hesitate longer
than necessary before resuming rota­
Each hand can “feel” the movement of tion in the opposite direction, or he
the other through the plastic zone. may fail to make a complete rotation
Do not be discouraged if the ta­ in each direction. Uneven cooling re­
pered ends of the first point are not in sults. The corrective measure is ob­
axial alignment. This difficulty may vious. Maintain continuous uniform
be experienced for some time. Such rotation. Never hold hot glass still for
points are easily salvaged. Nick the examination whether the ■material is
tip of one taper with the file and snap in or out of the fire.
it off. Grasp the point by its ta­ Occasionally, the tapered ends be­
pers and preheat the crooked taper at come laterally displaced at the point
the point where it joins the center where they join the tubing. They
tubing (Fig. 4-3, a). When the first should be nicely centered like the han­
trace of flare-off appears hold the base dles of a rolling pin. Centering is ac­
of the taper close to, but not necessar­ complished by another trick: bending
ily inside, the hottest part of the fire. the ends downward at the angle of 30
The thin glass will quickly reach the degrees while simultaneously making
plastic state. the first part of the pull, as mentioned.
While continuing to rotate the The off-axis angle of the pull dis­
Figure 4-3. piece, drop the point out of the fire (1 tributes the plastic glass uniformly
or 2 inches below the flame), and exert around the center as the material is
a gentle pull, perhaps 8 ounces, on the stretched. The evenly distributed
tips of the tapers. This will straighten mass is then brought into precise
the bent taper and bring it into axial alignment as the ends are straight­
alignment (4-3, b). If the remaining ened just before the end of the pull.
taper is also bent, correct it similarly. The tapered ends may also become
too thin to support the weight of the The maria 91
central tube or, conversely, they may Glass tubing:
be much thicker and shorter than they As discussed briefly in Section III, the basic operations
need be. Thin, spindly tapers result maria consists of a bulge in an other­
from overheating part or all of the wise straight rod or tube. It can be
zone, or from heating a zone less than made anywhere along the piece, at the
three diameters in length, or both. ends or in between. The maria has nu­
Heat the specified length of glass just merous applications, both practical
enough to make the pull—and no and aesthetic. For example, it often
more. This assumes that the pull is appears as a finger support on stem­
commenced immediately after the ware such as a wine glass, as a wax
piece is removed from the fire. catcher on a candelabrum, and as or­
In regard to the size of the heated namentation on vases. In laboratory
zone, err if you must by heating too glassware the maria serves as the foot
much glass. Short zones result in thin on muddlers, a support for metal
tapers. Thick, stubby tapers are the parts, ridges on hose connections,
result of zones that are too long. Glass stops on tubing inserted in perforated
that is too cool stiffens before the pull corks, spacers in coaxial tubing, and
can be completed. The same difficulty so on. For acquiring the knack of
occurs when the worker hesitates be­ keeping a glass tube in axial align­
fore starting the pull. The delay of a ment when the middle has softened,
second or two permits the glass to no exercise is more effective than
cool and stiffen. Short, stubby tapers making marias.
result. Cultivate the habit of working Although the maria can be formed
promptly, continuously, and at a mod­ in any convenient length of rod or
erate pace. Avoid jerky, abrupt move­ tubing, the beginner is urged to make
ments. an initial series in glass points. The
The short end of the tubing with its tapers of the point serve as convenient
single taper that was initially laid handles of relatively small diameter
aside can now be salvaged and con­ and, therefore, minimize the finger
verted into a complete point. First, movement required for rotating the
fuse the open end of the tube to a rod glass. In addition, the beginner simul­
of convenient diameter and length, taneously acquires the “feel” of work­
as discussed in Section III. Then, as ing with points.
the glass stiffens, stretch the seal just First, select a point. With the file
enough to bring the rod into axial first nick and then snap off one tip.
alignment with the taper. Using the The opening will permit air to enter
rod as one handle and the taper as the the point through the taper and pre­
other, heat a zone near the seal and vent the formation of a dimple when
draw out the tubing into a twin of the glass is subsequently softened.
the previously formed taper. An iden­ (The dimple will form because the
tical taper will be attached to the rod, point was sealed off when hot, when
of course. Part the pair. Cut (and dis­ the air was expanding; the lowered
card) the taper that is attached to pressure of air trapped in the cooled
the rod. glass permits the pressure of the at-
92 mosphere to deform the glass inward
Creative and any area that is subsequently
glass blowing
softened, unless the inner and outer
pressures are equalized by first open­
ing the point to the atmosphere.)
Grasp the tapers between thumbs
and index fingers and test for trueness
of spin. Do not discard the piece if it
fails to run true. You can correct the
defect, as previously explained (page
90).
You are now ready to make the
maria. While rotating the point, pre­
heat the tubular body. Then concen­
trate the fire on a narrow central zone.
Continue to rotate; push the ends gen­
tly toward each other. An ounce or so
of pressure does the trick. Keep the
ends in axial alignment. Watch the
heated zone closely. A low encircling
bulge will appear that grows larger
as the glass softens, assuming the
form of a thin wedding ring (Fig.
4-4). Continued heating (and push­
ing) will transform the ring into an
expanding disk that will grow to sub­
stantial proportions—as large as two
or three tube diameters. All disks
should run true, like well made
wheels.
A wobbly maria, one that is eccen­
tric, indicates failure either (1) to
keep the tapers aligned, (2) to prevent
Push
them from becoming laterally dis­
placed, (3) to heat the glass uni­
formly, or all three. Misalignment and
lateral displacement usually encour­
age wobbling, uneven heating, ec­
Figure 4-4. centricity. Study the effect by delib­
erately making each of the three er­
rors, one at a time. Watch the incipi­
ent bulge closely during its early
stage of growth. It is important that
the glass of the maria fuse to a solid
state—the condition illustrated in-
vites cracking (Fig. 4-5). On large 93
bulb-like marias the hollow construc­ Glass tubing:
tion is quite safe (Fig. 4-6). basic operations
If the glass softens too quickly for
comfort, drop the tubing partly out of
the fire. Don’t rush. You have lots of
time. Rest your elbows on the bench.
This helps to steady your hands. The
glass configuration is unstable, of
course, because the solid ends of the
point are flexibly connected by soft
glass in the middle. They tend to buc­
kle when compressed, or to skid side­
ways, bending the softened portion
into an S shape. Heat the narrowest
possible zone just soft enough to
bulge. When buckling is observed
drop the work out of the fire and
straighten the piece by exerting a
gentle pull and, perhaps, bending it a
trifle.
If the tapers become laterally dis­ Figure 4-5.
placed, again drop the piece out of the
fire and apply the indicated corrective
force. You are already familiar with
the cure for eccentricity occasioned
by uneven heating. Apply it. Do not
attempt to make a large, disk-shaped
maria on your first try.
Begin by pushing the tapers in­
ward just enough to make a barely
perceptible bulge. Lift the work partly
out of the fire to inspect the bulge—
but keep the glass hot. Then return
the piece to the fire. By such easy
stages, let the maria grow into circu­
lar form, the wedding ring. Having
Large and hollow
succeeded, stop work for 24 hours (safe)
and think about what you have done. Figure 4-6.
During the next practice session du­
plicate the wedding ring. Make a half
dozen. Then, let a wedding ring grow
into a disk.
You can conserve glass by making
four or five small marias on each
94 point. A single point should also ac­ general, hot glass shrinks at a reason­
Creative commodate two small disks or a single able rate when its viscosity ap­
glass blowing proaches that of heavy molasses. You
large one. Practice no other operation
until you can make a maria of any size will acquire the knack of manipulat­
you wish whenever you wish. Then try ing it in easy stages.
your hand at making several in tubes Select a point and proceed as
that range in diameter from 6 to 20 though you were going to make a
millimeters. Even a rank beginner maria. As the central zone softens,
should find it possible to complete the however, neither push the ends to­
project in less than a week. gether nor pull them apart. A de­
pressed ring will form all around the
heated zone. Let the zone deepen un­
Shrinking or constricting til the center has narrowed a few wall
thicknesses. Drop the piece out of the
Frequently, tubing must be reduced fire and stretch the softened zone
in diameter—even to the point of con­ to approximately twice its original
version into glass rod. Wall thickness length. Maintain just tension enough
must also be altered—made thicker or thereafter to keep the work straight
thinner. Occasionally the artisan until the glass stiffens.
wishes to reduce the end of a large As an expert point-pullei' you doubt­
tube to the diameter of a smaller one, less found this exercise easy. Now cut
simultaneously mating the wall di­ the constriction at the middle and in­
ameters. The technique of making spect the wall thickness. It will be
all such alterations is called “shrink­ thinner than that of the tubing (Fig.
ing,” whether the wall is made thicker 4-7). Select another point and repeat
or thinner. The operation exploits sur­ the exercise, but this time heat a zone
face tension, the natural tendency of equal in length to that of the con­
fluids to behave as though covered by stricted part of the piece just made—
a thin, stretched membrane under ten­ and keep on heating the zone with­
sion that tends to contract. The prop­ out pulling or pushing on the ends un­
erty explains why raindrops and soap til it shrinks to the outer dimensions
bubbles assume a spherical shape of the constriction previously made
when they fall through the air. Molten by pulling. Don’t panic if the middle
glass behaves the same way for the twists and closes the bore.
same reason. Heat the next piece that you at­
The technique of shrinking varies tempt to shrink to a slightly lower
according to the desired result. You temperature. (The art of rotating the
will find it not difficult if you have ends in synchronism becomes more
mastered the two preceding operations difficult as the viscosity of the glass
of pulling points and making marias. decreases, of course. In addition, the
You must now, at last, learn to manip­ force transmitted by each hand to the
ulate glass in semifluid form. Heated other through the softened zone di­
glass never becomes water thin. On minishes, but it never disappears.
the other hand, it is not as viscous, Concentrate on sensing this force.
nor as easily handled as soft tar. In Remember, too, that the fingers must
 95
Glass tubing:
basic operations

Stretch

move sequentially when rotating the width little by little until you can
glass—like .the feet of a crawling cat­ shrink a 1-inch zone in 15-millimeter
erpillar. This motion must become sec­ tubing within 30 seconds.
ond nature. Practice it with a lead Select three pieces so made and,
pencil now and then when you are with the aid of the file, cut one at the
away from the bench. Don’t skimp middle of the shrunken zone, another
either hand during this practice. Both about a third of the distance to the
must be equally trained.) The cooler edge of the zone and the third close to
glass may require as much as a min­ the edge of the
I zone. Examine the wall
ute to shrink to the desired dimension. thickness of each. It should not differ
The present objective is not speed, substantially from that of the uncon­
however, but a constricted piece of stricted tubing (Fig. 4-8, a). If it is
circular cross section and of normal thicker, make another constriction,
wall thickness. slightly narrower, and stretch the
If you still have difficulty at the glass to the full width just before it
lowered temperature, decrease the stiffens. The exact amount that is
width of the softened zone on the suc­ meant by "slightly narrower” must be
ceeding attempt. By trial and error learned by trial and error.
you will soon discover the minimum Next assume that you wish to re­ Figure 4- 7.

temperature at which the glass will duce the outer diameter of a tube and,
shrink at a reasonable rate and the simultaneously, to increase the wall
maximum zone-width that you can thickness of the constriction. Just
manipulate without twisting and clos­ heat the zone as before but this time
ing the tube. Thereafter, increase as the work is rotated, let the ends
both the temperature and the zone­ move toward each other slowly as the
 in from the adjacent tubing and, fi­
nally, blow the constriction to the de­
sired outside diameter, stretching the
softened portion just enough to
straighten the tube (4-8, b, c).
A tube, can be partially or fully
closed simply by rotating the end in
Cork the fire, as you have already discov­
ered for yourself. You have observed
the excessive thickening of the edges
as the bore narrows and the end be­
comes rounded. Little practical use is
found for this form. It is not an ex­
ample of end shrinking in the sense
that we have been considering.
Strictly speaking, ends as such are
rarely shrunk. A tube with a con­
stricted end is made by shrinking an
intermediate portion of tubing (that
may be near an end). This constric­
tion is then cut either by nicking the
glass transversely and pulling the
piece apart (4-8, cZ), or by fire-cutting
(the fire cut would be made by shrink­
glass becomes fluid. If the bore threat­ ing the middle of the constriction
ens to close in the middle of the con­ completely shut, pulling the closed
striction, blow into the point enough portion into a thread, burning off the
to keep it open. In effect, you are feed­ thread, and, finally, heating the tip,
ing additional glass from the tubing blowing a small bulb and cracking it
into the constriction (4-8, i>). off).
If the wall in the center becomes
disproportionately thicker than at
the edges of the constriction, alter­
The dimple
nately blow the material to a diameter
slightly larger than the tubing and In laboratory glassware dimples can
shrink it back again. This kneading be used as pivots to limit the motion
action will tend to distribute the glass of other parts including pointed rods
uniformly. or spheres, as finger grips, as a means
Figure 4-8. Occasionally the need arises to con­ to increase surface areas for the radi­
strict the bore of a tube without alter­ ation of heat, and so on. The reverse
ing the outside diameter. Having mas­ side of the dimple, the inward bulge,
tered the above operations you will also serves a variety of functions. The
find this an easy exercise. Simply convex surfaces can act as stops to
shrink the tubing to make a wall of restrict the motion of internal com­
maximum thickness by feeding glass ponents and to separate surfaces such
 97
Glass tubing:
basic operations

Suck

as coaxial tubing, and as barriers that The size of the resulting dimple will
retard the flow of gases and liquids. depend on the diameter of the heated
As a decorative device, the dimple is area. Its depth will vary in proportion
popular as a design element in vases, to the force and duration of the suc­
tumblers, costume jewelry, and, par­ tion. Make several dimples of various
ticularly, in the baubles used as orna­ sizes. Then make a number of the
ments on Christmas trees. same size—preferably in one piece of
The dimple is so easy to make that tubing.
you will turn out a good one on your
very first try. Select a point, open one
of the tapers at the tip, warm the cen­
Flaring
tral portion of tubing carefully, and
lift it up under the fire so the flames Expanding the end of a tube (or the
play on a selected area near the center opened end of a glass bulb) into a con­
at the top. When the glass softens, a ical or funnel shape is termed “flar­ Figure 4-9.
shallow depression will form. Heat the ing.” This form appears as an element
center of the deformed area to yellow­ of design in objects as diverse as vac­
ish orange (Fig. 4-9, a). Remove uum pumps, ornamental urns, wine
from the fire and suck gently on the glasses, and medicine droppers. The
open tip. Atmospheric pressure will end of the tube (or the opened end
force the soft glass inward (4-9, 6). of the bulb) is softened in the fire
98 diameters and, in shape, from a gen­
Creative tle taper to a fully developed, right-an­
glass blowing
gular flange.
As an initial exercise you may man­
ufacture a useful tool: the mouthpiece
of a blowing hose. Select a convenient
length of 6-millimeter tubing. Preheat
one end and while rotating the glass
in the fire watch for the onset of flare-
off, then continue heating until the
edge is nicely fire-polished. Remove
the work from the fire (Fig. 4-11, a).
While continuing to rotate the piece,
promptly insert the warmed tine of a
file (or similar flaring tool) to a dis­
tance of about % inch into the bore of
the tubing.
The tool must not touch the glass;
particularly, do not let the metal tip
touch the inner wall. Now lift the side
of the tool lightly into contact with
the inner edge of the glass. A percep­
tible bead will form that encircles the
edge (4-11, &).
If the work has stiffened, remove
the tool and return the piece to the
fire. When it has reheated to its
former working temperature remove
the glass from the fire, replace the
• flaring tool, and again lift the soft
edge. In effect you are stretching the
material a bit at a time at its point of
contact with the metal.
Once the small portion in contact
and rotated at a constant rate. A with the tool has been thus stretched
smooth metal rod, called the flaring it tends to retain its new shape until
tool, is placed in the opening and gen­ the next revolution carries it into con­
tly pulled against the plastic edge of tact with the metal where it is
Figure 4-10. the glass. stretched a little more. Expand the
The resulting force stretches the end into a cone about % inch long and
glass and therefore expands the end approximately % inch across at the
of the tube into a cone (Fig. 4-10). base, or open end. All of this should
Flares can range in size from a barely require only a matter of seconds; the
perceptible ring of thickened glass to glass should still be at working tem­
a taper equal in length to many tube perature. If it has cooled, however, re-
 99
Glass tubing:
basic operations

move the flaring tool and return the

work to the fire. Then remove the re­
heated piece from the fire, reinsert
the flaring tool, and lift the outer edge
by increasing the angle between the
axis of the tool and that of the tube—
in effect, sweep the tool around like
the hand of a clock. This motion ex­
pands the base of the cone without in­
creasing its altitude or height.
Your object is to transform the cone
almost but not quite into a right-an­
gular flange: a cone that slopes up­
ward, say, about 80 degrees. The base
of the completed flare should measure
about % inch in diameter (4-11, c).
After the piece cools, return the tub­
ing to the fire and heat a zone about an
inch long at a point about an inch
away from the flare.
When the glass softens remove it
from the fire, support the tubing hori­
zontally, and let the flared end droop
to an angle of about 70 degrees. You
have now made a “bend” (4-11, d).
Then cut the tube about 2 inches from
the bend and fire-polish the cut end
(4-11, e, f). Insert the polished end
into the blowing hose. You have a
glass mouth piece, a very good one.
In use, let it dangle from the mouth
with the flare just behind the teeth. Fire-polish
(It will not fall out even when you talk and cut end

while working.)
100 made by lifting the hot glass, not by
Creative prying or pushing it. Do not attempt
glass blowing
to flare the work in the fire.
There are exceptions to this rule,
but not for the beginner. When mak­
ing a small flare the application of
heat can be general. The portion of
the glass to be expanded may be
heated uniformly. Larger pieces—
those of 10-millimeter diameter and
greater—require more heat at the
outer edge of the flare to compensate
for the greater stretching in this re­
gion of the glass. In addition, the soft­
ened outer edges must be supported
by glass that is increasingly rigid to­
ward the apex of the cone; this means
that the center portion must be cooler
than the edge. Should the inner
portion of the flare be heated more
than the outer edge, the flare will tend
to buckle. Graded heating is achieved
by the lateral motion of the glass in
the fire; the flame is permitted to play
on the outer portion of the flare for
longer intervals than on the inner por­
tion.
During this introductory exercise Never let the flame play on the tool.
in flaring, several things can go Glass “wets” hot metal and sticks to it
wrong. First, you may jab the flaring like chewing gum. Keep the tool warm
tool into the softened glass instead of but not hot. Sometimes you must cool
inserting it into the space of the bore. the tool. (It picks up heat from con­
This is simply a case of poor marks­ tact with the hot glass.) Many pro­
manship. Aim for the bore. fessional glass blowers simply plunge
Cultivate the habit of resting your the working blade into a block of bees­
elbows on the bench, a position that wax. This not only cools the metal but
takes a lot of jitter out of your hands. deposits a film of wax on the metal
Secondly, resist the temptation to that discourages the glass from stick­
Figure 4-12. place the tip of the flaring tool against ing to the tool.
the inner bore of the tubing beyond Do not attempt to expand tubing
the softened zone where it can find into a right-angled flange by a single
solid support acting as the fulcrum operation on your first try. Make the
of a lever. You will merely gouge the flare in at least two steps, first a cone
glass and encourage the softened part and then the flange.
to wind onto the tool. A flare must be Make a half dozen mouthpieces.
 You will need them later because, un­ 101
fortunately, they appear to be magi­ Glass tubing:
cally attracted by floors, particularly basic operations
those made of concrete, and are accord­
ingly expendable. Tubing largei' than
8-millimeters is flared more easily
with the aid of a set of hand rollers.
Cork or stopper the far end to avoid
the rush of heat through tube. Rest
the glass on the rollers and rotate it
by stroking the palm of one hand back Stretched
excessively
and forth across the tubing. Shift the
piece longitudinally by pushing the Inadequate
palm sideways. stretching
Place the roller so the tubing is or heating
Bending
level with the focal point of the flames.
The end of the tubing should point to­ Anyone can easily make a good bend
ward the focal point of the flames and of 90 degrees in glass tubing of 6 mil­
be located at a distance such that the limeters or less in diameter, as you
work can be slid into and out of the discovered when you made your
fire as desired. Manipulate the flaring mouthpiece. Simply rotate the tube in
tool by the free hand. The size of the the fire while simultaneously shifting
flaring tool should be proportionate it back and forth longitudinally to
to the diameter of the tubing—narrow soften a zone about an inch long, re­ Inadequate
blowing
enough to enter the bore and wide move the glass from the heat and lift
enough to make contact with at least the ends to the desired angle. Diffi­
10 angular degrees of the inner edge. culty appears when relatively sharp
At first you may have difficulty in bends must be made in 10-millimeter
making flares that run true. They may tubing, and it increases in proportion
wobble or show eccentricity or both. to the diameter thereafter.
d
The wobble develops most frequently When tubing is bent, whether made
from attempts to expand the glass too of glass or metal, the material on the
quickly. The cure: slow down. Eccen­ outer radius of the bend must be
tricity can arise from failure to cut stretched and that on the inner radius
the tubing square (so the cut end is must be compressed—the outer wall Good bend
perpendicular to the axis), or it can of the bend must become thinner; the
arise from failure to heat the end uni­ inner wall, thicker. Moreover, the
formly, or both. The cure is obvious forces of tension and compression
(see pages 98 and 100). Now make tend to shorten the radius of the Figure 4-13.
about 100 flares of various sizes in outer wall, to pull the material inward,
tubing ranging from 10 to 25 milli­ and to buckle the inner wall (Fig.
meters in diameter. Few techniques 4-13). The glass blower sets up coun­
in the glass blowrer’s bag of tricks are teracting forces by a combination of
more useful. Bulbs are flared by the stretching the soft glass longitudi­
identical procedure. (Fig. 4-12). nally and expanding it by blowing.
102
Creative
glass blowing

One end of the tubing is corked and the glass too much. This is the com­
the blowing hose is attached to the mon error of beginners. Excessive
other. A zone of the glass where the stretching results in a piece that, in
bend is to be made is preheated slowly effect, contains a pair of 45-degree
and then softened, usually to a deep bends connected by a short, relatively
red color. The piece is then removed straight run of tubing. Insufficient
from the fire and simultaneously bent, stretching results in buckling the
stretched, and blown—all in a fraction inner wall of the bend.
of a second (Fig. 4-14). The stretch It is possible for even a rank be­
should be as little as possible to pro­ ginner to bend tubing successfully
duce symmetry, and should not exceed on the very first try if time is no ob­
one tube diameter. The stretching ma­ ject and the worker is willing to set­
neuver prevents the inner wall of the tle for a bend that is functional but
bend from buckling. A 90-degree bend not necessarily of professional appear­
of a 1-inch radius in 10-millimeter ance. Clamp the tubing in the horizon­
tubing would tend to compress the in­ tal position at one end. Let one end
ner wall of the bend about ^io inch. project over the edge of the work­
The outer wall, having greater radius, bench and place a weight on the other
would tend to be stretched about 50% end. With a hand torch equipped with
more than the inner wall was com­ fishtail burners to produce a cross­
pressed. (To this must be added the fire, preheat a zone of the tubing at
Figure 4-14. stretch that is applied by the glass a point at least 15 tube diameters from
blower.) the projecting end. The preheated
The outer wall of the bend tends to zone need be only a couple of tube di­
expand readily, in contrast to the ameters in length. Support the pro­
inner wall, because of the diminishing jecting end by one hand, just enough
wall thickness. Now, try it. The secret to limit its motion when the tubing
here is speed. At first you may stretch softens. Now heat the zone until you
 103
Glass tubing:
basic operations

Blow

Bend and stretch

feel the glass sag about 14 inch. Re­ 15-millimeter tubing these marks
move the heat. When the glass stiff­ might be placed 6 to 8 inches apart at
ens, apply the torch again, this time a the approximate center of a tube 30
small fraction of an inch closer to the inches long.
projecting end. In effect, you will be Adjust the burner to develop a rib­
making a series of small bends. Nei­ bon of fire about 10 to 15% longer than
ther the inner nor outer wall can mis­ the bend to be made. (Modern ribbon
behave seriously because the softened burners are equipped with an adjust­
zone is supported in cylindrical form able slide that can be set for masking
by the stiff adjacent glass. The radius any desired portion of the burner sur­
of the bend must be controlled by eye, face.) The same result can be achieved
of course. Even helical coils can be in the case ofI old-fashioned burners
made by this technique. by covering part of the surface by a
The formation of long, sweeping wet strip of asbestos paper, as illus­
curves and circles that appear in some trated in Figure 4-15, /.
scientific apparatus and in the gas dis­ Grasp the tube by the ends with the
charge tubes of advertising signs re­ palms of the hands up and support the
quires the use of the ribbon burner, as marked portion of the glass in the
described in Section II. Making bends flame about % inch below the flame
with the use of this burner in tubing tip. Rotate the tube continuously and
up to 16 millimeters in diameter is simultaneously shift it from side to
almost child’s play. Proceed by stop­ side about 1 inch. When the glass
pering one end of the tube with a starts to soften, change from rotation
cork, then mark the glass by means of in one direction to alternate clockwise
ordinary blackboard chalk at two and counterclockwise rotation but con­
points that designate the location tinue the alternate side to side move­
and length of the proposed bend. For ment (Fig. 4-15, a). •
an introductory practice exercise with When the glass becomes wobbly and
104
Creative
glass blowing

threatens to droop into an S form stop

the rotation and immediately change
to a lengthwise see-saw motion, like
rocking a boat (4-15, 6). Two or three
motions will remove any kink-like dis­
tortions that may have appeared in the
glass. Step away from the burner
and, with the heated portion of the
e
glass bending toward the floor, adjust
the arms of the tube to any desired
Continue bend angle (4-15, c). The technique takes
advantage of the natural tendency of
hot glass to sag. Finally, blow into the
open end of the tube to restore full­
ness to the bent portion; then hold in
a fixed position until the material
cools and solidifies. If a circle is de­
sired continue making successive
bends (4-15, d, e). To bend tubing of
larger diameter, up to about 35 milli­
meters, follow the same procedure—
but first accumulate a lot of experience
in bending the smaller sizes. (Large
tubing is costly and errors are accord­
ingly expensive.)
The tricks are three: (1) Never
heat the glass in preparation for
making a second bend until the mate­
rial has been out of the fire about
three times longer than the interval gles to the 90-degree handle, as illus­ 105
required for heating it to softness. In trated in Figure 4-15, g. Now, let the Glass tubing:
basic operations
other words, permit the material to work solidify—as when making a sim­
solidify completely after each bend ple bend. Finally, return the piece to
but do not let it cool to room tempera­ the fire and reheat another portion of
ture. Failure to observe this precau­ the tubing—remembering to soften
tion will tend to produce kinks at the approximately 20% of the bend just
end of the first bend. (2) When re­ made. Thereafter continue to bend,
heating the glass for the second bend portion-by-portion, until you com­
always heat at least an inch of the plete a helix of the desired number of
preceding bend. This encourages turns (4-15, h).
bends of smooth continuity. (3) Hav­
ing made one bend, you can no longer
rotate the glass continuously in one
Bulbs
direction when heating for subsequent
bends. You must therefore rotate the If you can make a soap bubble don’t
work in alternate directions through hesitate to blow one in glass. It will
half turns, 180-degree arcs, grasping be just as much fun, your product
the previous bend by one hand and the will be just as pretty—and the bubble
straight portion of the tubing by the will last longer. Try it. Select a length
other. Always pause between bends of tubing of, say, 10 millimeters in
for the work to solidify before pro­ diameter and 2 feet in length. Draw
ceeding with the next bend. off one end with a piece of rod, as in
Helical coils may also be made by making a point. Burn off close to the
means of the ribbon burner. First tube. Rotate the end in the fire until it
make a right-angled bend at the end melts. Then, remove the piece from
of the tubing, a short length, say, 6 the fire, rotate it in the air about 4
inches long. This will subsequently seconds, and then puff gently into the
serve as a handle for manipulating open end. Examine the result. The
the piece (4-15, /). On the assumption end should have expanded into a hem­
that the diameter of the completed isphere. The thickness of the wall in
helix will be, say, 1% inches and the blown portion should approximate
will be made of 8-millimeter tubing, that of the tubing.
next soften a zone approximately 3 If the end has not fully rounded,
inches long. Rotate the work alter­ reheat the glass and blow either more
nately (half turns), shifting it length­ forcefully or longer on the second try.
wise and from side to side. (Ribbon Conversely, the glass may have ex­
burners tend to develop “hot spots” panded into a small bulb of greater di­
along their length. The compound mo­ ameter than the tubing. If so, reheat
tion tends to even out these inequali­ the work and shrink it. Try again, us­
ties.) When the glass softens, step ing less pressure. Within three or four
back from the fire and, by the tech­ attempts you will doubtless have
nique previously described, make the achieved the desired hemispherical
bend (a third- to a half-circle, depend­ shape. If so, you have now made the
ing on your proficiency) at right an­ bottom of a conventional test tube.
 106 the open end. A huge bubble will
Creative form, one of irregular shape perhaps
glass blowing
3 feet long (4-16, 5). If you keep blow­
ing hard enough it will explode into a
cloud of iridescent flakes. If the bub­
ble fails , to break, maintain pressure
and strike the glass with your
knuckle. The accompanying “bang”
may shatter your nerves but will do
no harm (4-16, e). The colorful flakes
(synthetic “snow”) have numerous
applications as decorative material.
On examination the flakes are found
to be as flexible as plastic film and
will not cut the skin, even if you crush
them in your hand. The first portions
of the bubble formed will be relatively
Blow forcefully heavy, and can cut you, however. The
flakes can be collected in quantity by
exploding bubbles in a large container,
such as a box.
Next, blow a spherical bulb—one
with a wall of substantial thickness.
To make this shape, select a point,
open one tip for use as a blowpipe, and
while rotating the glass heat a nar­
row zone uniformly at a point in the
tubing about two and a half diameters
from the junction of the opened taper
(Fig. 4-17, a). A constriction will form
in this zone.
When the zone reaches an orange
Reheat the hemisphere, remember­ color slowly stretch the glass. After
ing to rotate the glass uniformly. By the material has been stretched 4 or
the time the material reaches yellow 5 inches concentrate the fire on the
heat, the bottom will have shrunk and hot glass adjacent to the tubing at­
thickened substantially. Heat at least tached to the blowpipe. Continue pull­
% inch of tubing, elevating the cool ing. The glass will quickly narrow to
Figure 4-16. end about 45 degrees to form a tear­ thread-like dimensions and part at the
drop shape (Fig. 4-16, a). Remove the junction, leaving a thickened drop at
piece from the fire and point the the center of the tubing to which the
heated end directly at the floor. Blow blowpipe is attached. This thick drop
gently until a “sausage” starts to is called a “bleb.” It must be made
form, 1 to 2 inches long, then blow smaller by removing some of the
forcefully for as long as you can into molten glass (4-17, 6).
 To do so, retrieve the discarded 107
taper with your free hand, snap off Glass tubing:
the thread of glass now attached to basic operations
it, and, after warming the large end,
remove both pieces from the fire and
promptly touch the large end of the
taper to the tip of the bleb (4-17, c).
The molten bleb will adhere to the
taper. Simultaneously rotate the taper
(to wind a thread of hot glass from
the bleb onto the large end of the
taper) and pull the two apart. This
should remove most of the glass that
makes up the bleb. If it does not, re­
peat the operation.
When the size of the bleb has been
reduced substantially, reheat the end
of the tubing and blow it into a hem­
isphere (4-17, d, e). Next, heat the re­
mainder of the tubing uniformly
from the hemispherical end to the
junction of the blowpipe. Rotate the
piece so the tubing does not sag. The Bleb removed by rod
technique is much the same as that
of gathering a spherical ball of glass
on the end of a rod, as described in End heated

Section III.
When the glass has heated to a deep
red, remove it from the fire, hold the
End rounded Blow
piece vertically with the heated part
down, and, after about 2 seconds, blow
into the end of the taper to form a
bulb about an inch in diameter, as­
suming that you start with a 15-milli-
meter point (4-17, f, g). Always ro­
tate the tubing as you blow. Next,
make an identical bulb, but incline
the piece about 10 degrees from the
vertical. Then proceed with still other Figure 4-17.
bulbs of the same size and made in
precisely the same way, except that
each in succession is inclined farther
and farther from the vertical. The
final bulb should be blown in the hori­
zontal position.
108
Creative
glass blowing

By this practice you will master the

art of rotating the soft glass so that it
does not sag and also so that it cools
uniformly while being blown. Air cur­
rents are set up by convection around
all hot objects, including hot glass.
Cold air rises from beneath the object,
is heated by the glass, and carries off
the heat above. For this reason the
bottom of hot glass tends to cool more
quickly than the top. Constant rota­
tion assures uniform cooling and
therefore symmetrical bulbs.
Before proceeding to the next prac­
tice exercise, you can now make an in­
teresting magnifying glass. First,
provide a glass of water and a few
square inches of any cloth that can
be folded to serve as a potholder. Next,
rotate one of the glass bulbs (that you
have just made) close to the fire but
not in contact with the flame. Your ob­
jective is to heat the air inside the
bulb and thereby expand it. The ex­
panded air escapes through the blow­
pipe (Fig. 4-18, a).
Now quickly invert the piece and
thrust the open end of the blowpipe
into the glass of water. After a few
seconds the trapped air will contract
and a small amount of water will be
sucked up into the bulb (4-18, 6).
Next, grasp the blowpipe by means of
the folded cloth potholder, and hold
the bulb close to the fire until the wa­
ter comes to a boil. Because a few
drops of scalding water may be shot
 109
Glass tubing:
basic operations

out of the blowpipe, do not point the

opening at anyone. The object of us­
ing the potholder now becomes appar­
ent. The glass taper becomes scalding
hot (4-18, c). When steam has been
issuing from the blowpipe for, say, 5
seconds, quickly reinvert the tip of the
blowpipe in the glass of water. Soon
water will rush up into the bulb. In­
deed, it may rush in and out several
times when repeatedly turned to
steam by the hot but cooling glass.
After a short while, things will settle
down and the bulb will fill completely
except, perhaps, for a small bubble
(4-18, d). The initial heating expands
the air, which, when contracted, draws
only a limited amount of water up into
the bulb. Converting the water to
steam expels all the air, and causes eye and bring any object close to the
the bulb to fill completely with water other side of the bulb. The object will
when the steam condenses. appear grossly distorted near the
Remove the blowpipe from the glass edges, but a clear, greatly enlarged
of water and invert the piece so the re­ image will occupy the center field
maining bubble enters the blowpipe. (Fig. 4-19).
If you now tap the bulb against the Having mastered the trick of blow­
palm of your hand the bubble will rise ing spherical bulbs on the end of a
to the open tip of the blowpipe. Then, glass tube, you are prepared to tackle
holding the water-filled bulb with the egg shaped, round, and doorknob­
blowpipe uppermost, expose the tip of shaped bulbs made in the middle of
the blowpipe to the hottest region of tubing. Begin practice by making an Figure 4-19.
the fire. It will promptly seal shut elliptical bulb. This is easy. Select a
(4-18, e). point, open one end, and straighten
You now have rather an excellent the tapers if necessary. Then soften
magnifying glass of high power. The a central zone equal in length to about
blowpipe serves as the handle. Hold two and a half tube diameters. Remove
the bulb about % inch away from your the piece from the fire.
110 fingers. It should run true, just as the
Creative point did. If it wobbles you will imme­
glass blowing
diately recognize the cause: nonuni­
form heating or cooling (Fig. 4-20).
Make three or four elliptical bulbs
in various proportions (Fig. 4-21, a).
Then heat the glass at the junction
where the closed taper joins the bulb
and remove the taper by pulling it to
a thread and melting the thread so
it separates. Having burned off the
taper, remove the bleb from the bulb
by the same procedure that was used
when making the magnifying glass.
Next, heat a zone of the taper that
is still attached to the bulb—about
an inch long—and close to the bulb.
When the thin tubing softens bend it
into a U shape and burn off the end to
form a small hook. Now you have the
beginning of a handsome Christmas
tree ornament, as you will see if you
next dip it in colored enamel and dust
generously with glass snow.
Although elliptical bulbs are easy
to make, doubtless you will find that
some practice is needed for turning
out a series identical in size and pro­
portion. Learning to judge size and
Promptly blow and simultaneously proportion by eye comes with experi­
pull, while rotating the piece, to form ence.
a bulb about an inch in diameter. By Next tackle bulbs of the doorknob
the way, when blowing bulbs, apply shape (4-21, 6). They require more
gentle air pressure at first, then grad­ hand control than elliptical bulbs be­
ually but promptly increase the force. cause you must simultaneously rotate
Otherwise you may accidentally blow the hot glass and blow it while push­
an oversized bulb, one that may even ing the tapers toward each other,
explode. Blow from the cheeks rather rather than stretching as when form­
Figure 4-20. than the lungs. The length of the el­ ing elliptical bulbs. You can think of
liptical bulb will depend on how much the doorknob bulb as rather a large
you stretch the glass. Elliptical bulbs maria. Similar skills are required for
can be made in any desired propor­ making both.
tions, short and stubby like fat eggs, The tubing that supports each end
or long and thin. Spin the completed of the softened glass must be kept in
piece between the thumbs and fore­ axial alignment despite the natural
tendency of the hot portion to buckle 111
or bend sideways into an S form when Glass tubing:
pressure is applied to the ends. More­ basic operations
over, a new “feel” will appear when
the bulb is blown; the expanding glass
exerts a perceptible pressure against
the ends of the attached tubing in
opposition to the force applied by the
hands. This “new” pressure increases
in proportion to the size of the bulb.
If the applied force is relaxed the ta­
pered ends tend to move apart. In
other words, the bulb behaves some­
Elliptical bulb
what as a rubber balloon that is Blow and pull strongly
squeezed.
To make a bulb shaped like a door­
knob (an oblate spheroid), open the
tip of a point and heat the center tub­
ing just as when preparing to make
an elliptical bulb. Then, instead of
Spheroidal bulb
pulling on the tapered handles, simul­ Blow and push lightly
taneously blow, and as the bulb ex­
pands push the handles toward each
other about a quarter of an inch.
The completed piece should run
true when spun between the thumbs
and forefingers. Doubtless the first Spherical bulb
one you make will wobble. If the glass Blow and pull lightly
has been heated uniformly (which
ought to be a safe assumption at this work just enough to straighten the
advanced stage of practice) the wobble piece. Then promptly complete the
must be the consequence of failure to bulb.
maintain the handles in axial align­ You must work quickly because the
ment. Either the hot glass was permit­ glass soon cools. The hand motions
ted to bend or the handles, although should be smooth and deliberate. Lat­
parallel, became displaced laterally. eral displacement of the handles be­
Blowing an oblate spheroid is not comes immediately apparent; instead
one of the easier operations. On the of remaining centered, the junction
other hand, corrections can be made between the bulb and handle that Figure 4-21.
while the bulb is expanding. Watch serves as the blowpipe moves in a cir­
the work carefully, particularly when cular path that increases in radius in
the bulb is in the early stage of expan­ proportion to the lateral displacement.
sion. If the hot glass bends so the ta­ The correction is obvious; when
pered handles form an angle, stop evidence of the circular motion ap­
blowing momentarily and stretch the pears, promptly exert just enough lat-
112 eral pressure to center the blowpipe. useful shapes found in glassware,
Creative The earlier the correction is applied, both scientific and ornamental.
glass blowing The blowing of spherical bulbs
the easier it is to make.
Do not discard wobbly bulbs. Line comes next (Fig. 4-21, c). The sphere
them up on the bench in the order they is the unique form that lies midway
were made and examine them sequen­ between ■ the ellipsoid and spheroid.
tially from time to time. They are a To make it, blow without stretching
record of your progress. Suppose, the glass until the initial elliptical
however, that after collecting an array bulb becomes spherical. In this case
of twenty or thirty bulbs you can de­ it is easier to tell you what to do than
tect no progress ? how to do it. Success in blowing spher­
In this unlikely event you may wish ical bulbs in the center of a glass
to backtrack a little. Return to the tube comes largely writh the develop­
exercise of making elliptical bulbs. ment of a good eye and a sensitive
This time you should vary the tech­ touch.
nique slightly. Instead of stretching A soap bubble assumes the spheri­
the glass as you blow the bulb, hold cal shape automatically because the
the handles in their original position; internal air pressure exerts a symme­
neither push them together nor pull trical outward force against the soap
them apart. Also, blow the bulb to a film; only gravity acts as a distorting
diameter only half again as large as force. The same forces operate in a
the tubing. glass bulb that is blown at the end
This small bulb will be elliptical and of a single tube. In the case of a bulb
you will have no difficulty in making blown between a pair of glass han­
a symmetrical one that runs true. dles, as when a point is converted into
Having made one or two of these, a spherical bulb, additional nonsym-
blow another small one but, this time, metrical forces can be introduced by
push the handles together slightly. the handles. This is where the diffi­
Thereafter blow a succession of bulbs culty arises.
each a trifle larger than the last and The weight of the closed taper (the
simultaneously push the handles to­ one that has not been cut off at the
gether more and more until at last tip) must be supported by the glass
you are moving them a full quarter of blower. No longitudinal force—nei­
an inch. ther push nor pull—may be exerted
Doubtless this sounds like work. It between the two handles. In essence,
is. But it does not require nearly as the bulb, supported by the handles,
much effort as most enthusiasts spend must float in air and must be rotated
in perfecting a new dance step and it at a rate that precisely counteracts the
is just as interesting. Naturally, one force of gravity tending to make the
consumes a lot of glass tubing. For­ bulb droop. In other words, strive for
tunately, glass is cheap. So, as con­ a light touch.
venience permits, keep at it. Finally, Bulbs that are slightly elliptical
having overcome the wobble, make a can be corrected during the last split
dozen or so spheroids of identical size second by puffing just a trifle harder
and proportion. It is one of the most and pushing the handles together
lightly. Conversely, spheroidal bulbs 113
can often be made spherical by pulling Glass tubing:
slightly on the handles while main­ basic operations
taining the internal air pressure.
Spherical bulbs can also be made
by at least two other techniques. One
requires the use of the time-honored
blowpipe of rigid metal.
Procure a 12-inch length of iron
tubing of Vs-inch inside diameter.
Square off one end on a grinding
wheel and smooth the other end to 'Mi ?; m. r;
serve as a mouthpiece. Stainless steel
Preheat end of metal pipe
makes a nicer blowpipe but is scarcely
worth the extra cost. Next, warm
and then heat to softness the end of an
8-millimeter rod of soft glass. Simul­ , I ‘ < i • C : .V ?///•> 5 < i i > ‘

taneously heat the squared end of the Wind glass on end of pipe
blowpipe, but not to redness (Fig. 4-
22, a). Wind a small amount of molten
glass onto the end surface of the
/ }■ » z r f J :
heated blowpipe and manipulate the / <4/ ■’ J ? i < J L '

blowpipe so the glass closes the open­ Blow small bubble

ing of the pipe (4-22, &).

Remove the pipe from the fire and
promptly blow a small bubble in the
molten glass (4-22, c). More glass will
Wind more glass onto pipe
be added subsequently, but unless the
small bubble is blown at this stage the
pipe will become plugged. Do not per­
mit glass to flow up over the outer sur­
face of the pipe. It must “wet” only
the end edge, the face that you
ground on the wheel. Now, while
keeping the bubble hot with one hand,
heat % inch or more of the glass rod
until it becomes runny. Then wind
this softened glass onto the hot bubble
—as though you were making a glass
bead on a wire (4-22, d).
Continue to heat the accumulated
blob. Blow from time to time as neces­
sary to maintain the size of the bub­ Asbestos cushion
ble. (It will shrink as the glass heats.)
The blowpipe must be rotated contin- Figure 4-22.
114 an angle that encourages the glass to
Creative creep up the outer surface of the pipe.
glass blowing When the accumulated glass reaches
yellow heat, and is about the consist­
ency of thick molasses, remove the
blowpipe from the fire and, while
maintaining uniform rotation, blow
the bubble into a bulb by a series of
short puffs from the cheeks (4-22, e).
To detach the completed bulb, strike
the outer end of the blowpipe smartly,
downward, against a solid object such
as a heavy iron rod or pipe. The shock
of impact will crack off the bulb at the
Fuse tubing to rod
point where it joins the metal (4-
22, /). The completed bulb may be
caught on a sheet of asbestos paper
cushioned by a pad of folded cloth be­
neath. Bulbs up to 2 or 3 inches in di­
ameter that have reasonably substan­
tial walls can be made by a blowpipe
of this size.
Spherical bulbs can also be formed
without an external source of air pres­
Dum on > sure. To make one, preheat the end of
;v 7. <

a convenient length of 4-millimeter

rod, and simultaneously preheat the
closed end of a similar length of 15-
millimeter tubing (Fig. 4-17).
Now rotate the hot ends of each
piece just inside the flame of the cross­
fire. The ends should face each other
on opposite sides of the fire and be in
axial alignment. When the tips of each
end have become molten, bring the
two into contact. They will promptly
fuse (Fig. 4-23, a). Do not press the
uously, of course, to prevent the hot pieces together with enough force to
Figure 4-23. glass from sagging. During most form a maria. Simply let them join.
of the operation the blowpipe should Now drop the work out of the fire.
be angled downward about 30 degrees Continue the rotation. As the glass
(glass at the lower end) but may be begins to solidify, exert just enough
occasionally held horizontally to main­ pull on the pieces to straighten the
tain the spherical shape of the blob. joint. When the glass has stiffened,
Never point the blowpipe upward at return it to the fire. Heat a narrow
zone that girdles the tubing about y2 jections, deep indentations, or under­ 115
inch away from the fused joint cuts. Cubes and other polyhedrals pre­ Glass tubing:
(4-23, b). When the glass softens, basic operations
sent no problems, and neither do small
pull the piece apart (4-23, c) and burn bottles or similar shapes. Figures such
off to leave a closed half inch of tub­ as miniature Santa Clauses used as
ing attached to the rod (4-23, d). ornaments on Christmas trees require,
Using the rod as a handle, return in general, molds made in a number
the tubular portion to the fire. Rotate of independently removable sections
the piece to prevent sagging. As the so that indented or projecting parts
tubing softens, the cylindrical shape of the figure do not bind in the cavity
will slowly expand into a perfect during disassembly.
sphere that gradually increases in
size. A bulb is being “blown” by
trapped and expanding air.
Sealing
When the sphere has developed
fully, lift the glass slowly upward and Joining glass parts by the technique
finally out of the fire—taking at least of placing molten surfaces lightly in
30 seconds. This procedure permits the contact until they solidify is perhaps
bulb to cool and yet keeps the trapped the most basic and useftil stratagem
air sufficiently expanded to support of the glassworker. It is known as
the spherical shape until the glass “sealing.” The procedure has been
solidifies (4-23, e). Tipless bulbs so fully discussed with respect to solid
made have applications in the poppet objects in Section III. Frequent need
valves of scientific apparatus and clap­ arises for butt seals, straight tubing
pers in all-glass hand bells. of various sizes and all proportions,
Bulbs of irregular shape are easiest joined end-to-end as well as to rod,
to make by the technique of mold­ bulbs, and so on. The applications of
blowing, expanding the hot glass in a this sealing technique are myriad.
cavity of refractory material that lim­ As an introductory exercise, cut two
its the distribution of the material to pieces of 8-millimeter tubing about a
a predetermined form. Anyone who foot long. Stopper the end of one
can blow a spherical bulb in air can length. Fit one end of the second
do mold-blowing as a matter of rou­ length with a blowing hose equipped
tine. The making of molds, however, with an L-shaped swivel, as described
is an independent field of craftsman­ in Section II. The hose connection of
ship that will be discussed only the swivel may be joined to the glass
briefly. The interested reader should by an inch or so of rubber tubing that
consult one or more of the excellent makes a snug fit with each.
references on molding techniques that Grasp a length of glass in each
are listed in the bibliography (see hand and bring the pair roughly into
page 191). Neither will we discuss in axial alignment, with the facing ends
detail the art of making models, the separated about % inch. Now, rotate
objects to be duplicated in glass. In the tubes alternately clockwise and
general, the model should be reason­ counterclockwise, about one-fourth of
ably smooth, and free of extended pro­ a turn in each direction at the rate of
116
Creative
glass blowing

about one turn per second. Strive to

keep the pieces moving in synchro­
nism. Don’t be discouraged if you fail
to do it perfectly. No one, not even the
most skilled artisan, can. It is also im­
possible to support unattached tubes
in perfect axial alignment by hand.
Just do the best that you can.
Now, while maintaining the best
possible synchronism and alignment,
transfer the tubes to the crossfires
and preheat the ends. Take it easy.
You have lots of time. Just move the
glass up and down through the fire
at the rate of about one pass per sec­
ond—as you have been doing in other
practice exercises (Fig. 4-24, a). After
15 or 20 seconds support the edges of
the cut ends just barely inside the
flames while continuing the quarter­
turn rotations at the same unhurried
pace. Soon the yellow flare-off will ap­
pear and the sharp edges will soften.
When the edges become red hot to a
depth of perhaps V32 inch, and fully
rounded, bring them lightly into con­
tact.
Observe how easily the tubing can
now be rotated in synchronism. The
force exerted by each hand is plainly
felt by the other.
When the surfaces have made con­
tact, drop the joint out of the fire im­
mediately and, after about 2 seconds,
e puff lightly into the blowhose to ex­
pand the glass about one wall thick­
ness. Then, while continuing the alter­
nate rotation, stretch the piece a lit­
tle, just enough to straighten the seal.
The appearance of this first seal
Figure 4-24. may not please you (4-24, 6). Doubt-
 117
Glass tubing:
basic operations

less, an irregular ridge of thickened by supporting the work at a slight up­

glass will extend completely around ward angle. Seal the cut ends.
the joint. Perhaps you did not suc­ Sealing tubes of unequal diameter
ceed in bringing the molten edges to­ must be accomplished either by
gether in perfect register; they may shrinking one end of the larger tub­
be slightly offset. Even so, this seal ing to the diameter of the smaller, or
would be functional for many pur­ by flaring the end of the smaller tube
poses. The ridge and partial offset, so that it matches the diameter of the
if they exist, can be eliminated. larger. The technique of shrinking has
Simply return the seal to the fire been discussed on page 94 and flaring
and, while maintaining alternate ro­ on page 97.
tation, let the glass shrink to about After the diameters of the ends have
half the diameter of the tubing been matched by either technique,
(4-24, c), then blow it out to full di­ make the seal just as though the tubes
ameter or even a little more, drop it were of equal size. The subsequent ma­
out of the fire, and straighten the nipulation involved in completing the
work (4-24, d). You may have to re­ seal differs somewhat from that of
peat the blowing and shrinking sev­ sealing uniform tubes, of course, be­
eral times in the case of gross ridges. cause of the unequal diameters of the
The finished seal, if well made, should tubes. One set of fingers must travel
closely resemble straight tubing farther than the other to rotate the
(4-24, e). pieces synchronously. Practice the ma­
Having made this first seal, nick the nipulation briefly with cold glass prior
tubing (when cool) about an inch to attempting the first seal.
away from the seal with the file, pull Tubes of differing wall thickness
the glass apart, and repeat the proce­ as well as unequal diameter must be
dure. joined on occasion, particularly in
You can make at least a dozen prac­ fabricating scientific glassware. When
tice seals in each pair of tubes. the larger tube has the thicker wall,
Within an hour you will be highly the job is easy. Simply heat a zone of
pleased with your work. Then shift to the larger tube and draw it out to
tubing of 15 millimeters in diame­ matching size.
ter. Traces of the old defects may now Usually the smaller tube has the
reappear, but you know the cure. Ap­ thicker wall; capillary tubing of the
ply it. type used in thermometers and ba­
Next, cut a point in half and seal rometers is an example. If the bore
the center tubing. The tapered han­ of the capillary exceeds 2 millimeters
dles of the point do not provide the in diameter, the end can be opened
rigid support of full-sized tubing. conveniently by the flaring technique.
Being thinner, they tend to bend If not, it must be expanded by blow­
under load. This is counterbalanced ing an end bulb and opening it.
118 To “expand” a small capillary by
Creative this technique, first blow a bulb of ap­
glass blowing proximately the same diameter and
wall thickness as that of the tubing to
which the piece is to be sealed. When
the bulb. solidifies, heat the outer
hemisphere strongly and blow a sec­
ond bulb about twice the diameter of
the first. The wall of the second bulb
will be paper thin. Strike it off with
the edge of the file (Fig. 4-25). Re­
Blow bulb Blow turn the jagged edge to the fire and
heat until the glass gathers into a
smooth rim. Seal the rim to the larger
tubing. If the flare, or rim of the
blown-out capillary, is too thin, you
have not heated a sufficient area of
glass to form the bulb that was blown
first. •—
Capillary tubes of equal size are
sealed by much the same stratagem.
The bore is so small (frequently only
a fraction of a millimeter) that, unless
enlarged, it will promptly close when
the glass softens. For this reason the
ends must be expanded and then
sealed. In consequence, a cavity is
formed in the otherwise smooth bore
but this can be taken into account
when the piece is designed, or, if abso­
lutely necessary, it can be shrunk
to any desired diameter.
Frequent occasion arises for mak­
ing T seals, that is, joining one tube to
another at a right angle. The proce­
dure entails making a hole in the
crossarm of the T at the desired point
of attachment and then sealing the leg
of the T to the opening. Seals of this
type can be made in the crossfire.
In fact, skilled glass blowers make
T’s by means of the crossfire as a mat­
ter of casual routine and think little
of manipulating what amounts, in ef­
Figure 4-25. fect, to three lengths of tubing joined
 by a mass of soft glass. Beginners do The following discussion assumes
not find this procedure so easy. that you have acquired a pair of hand
For this reason, the novice is urged torches. In addition, you should im­
to acquire two hand torches: one of provise an armrest, one located a
the crossfire type equipped with a few inches higher than the work. It
pair of fishtail burners and the other may be placed on either side of the
with a simple burner that develops a work, depending on whether you are
needle-point flame. Both torches can right-handed or left-handed.
be made at home for an outlay of Thus equipped, clamp a 12-inch
about $15.00, as explained in Section length of 12-millimeter tubing near its
II, or they may be purchased ready­ ends to prevent the tube from buck­
made for about $30.00. ling downward when the middle of the
Hand torches are rarely used in nov­ glass has been softened. Two of the
elty glasswork—such as miniature many possible clamping schemes are
utensils, animals, costume jewelry, depicted in Figure 4-26. Stopper one
and so on—but they are indispensable end, and fit the blowhose to the other. Figure 4-26.
for assembling scientific apparatus Then, using the fishtail torch, pre­
such as rigid systems of tubing. More­ heat about an inch of glass in the mid­
over, they are worth many times their dle of the tubing. The procedure dif­
cost to the beginner when he is learn­ fers from preheating in the fixed
ing how to make small pieces, such crossfire only in that the torch is
as T seals. moved instead of the glass.
 When the first trace of flare-off ap­ Now, stoppei’ one end of the tubing
pears, substitute the needle-flame that will become the leg of the T and
torch for the fishtail burners. Direct hold it vertically over the hole just
the flame squarely downward so the made in the crossarm. The openings
bright, inner cone of the fire is almost should be spaced about Vs inch apart.
but not quite in contact with the cen­ Utilize the armrest for holding the
ter of the tubing. Yellow flare-off will tube steady.
promptly appear. Within seconds a Preheat both the end of the tubing
small area of glass will redden and and the edge of the hole with the fish­
sag slightly to form a shallow dimple tail torch and then concentrate the
(Fig. 4-27, a). flame simultaneously on edges of the
Let the dimple expand to a width of two openings (4-27, /). (If updraft
about V4 inch. Remove the fire and from the fire becomes uncomfortable
blow the dimple into a bulge about as to the hand that supports the leg of
high as it is wide (4-27 &). Then heat the T, stop work and fit the tubing,
Figure 4-27. the top of the bulge with the needle­ near the top, with a heat shield in the
flame until half of the area sags (4- form of a 4-inch square of asbestos
27, c). Remove the fire and blow a paper perforated in the middle to
bulb about % inch in diameter (4- make a snug fit with the glass.)
27, cZ). Break off the bulb with the Rotate the torch alternately clock­
edge of the file and brush the frag­ wise and counterclockwise to heat the
ments away (4-27, e). glass all around until the end of the
 121
Heat edges Glass tubing:
basic operations

Straighten

Blow

tubing shrinks to the diameter of the Close the leak by the technique just
hole. If necessary to this end, concen­ described. Apply suction again. When
trate more flame on the tubing than the joint constricts, indicating a good
on the edges of the hole. When the seal, blow the glass out to its former
edges become molten, and match in dimension and, while holding the tube
size, lower the tubing until the sur­ motionless, continue to heat the work
faces make light contact and fuse until the junction shrinks about 20%.
(4-27, g). Remove the fire and inspect Remove the fire (4-27, h).
the joint. Let the material cool about 3 sec­
If a small hole is found, reheat, and onds. Then simultaneously stretch
then incline the tube in the direction the glass and expand it by blowing
of the leak, wobbling it a bit if neces­ until the bore and wall thickness of
sary to close the hole. Then return the the seal match that of the tubing (4-
tube to the vertical position and lift 27, i). Cool gradually by passing the
it a fraction of an inch to stretch the flame up and down over the glass—
glass slightly. Remove the fire and im­ to anneal the joint partially.
mediately suck on the blowhose just You have now made a T seal. The
enough to constrict the joint percepti­ procedure may seem somewhat diffi­
bly. Failure of the joint to constrict cult in prospect, but experience will
under the partial vacuum may indi­ demonstrate that it is easier than
cate the presence of a second, previ­ making a simple butt seal in the cross­
ously undetected leak. fire.
122
Creative
glass blowing

Occasionally it becomes necessary,

when making special T seals, to join
a leg of narrow tubing to a crossarm
of greater diameter, or vice versa. If
you are making a T seal with a nar­
row leg, the job is easy. Simply blow a
small hole of matching size in the
crossarm and proceed as though the
tubes were of equal size. On the other
hand, if the leg is the thicker member
of the pair, shrink one end to the di­
ameter and wall thickness of the cross­
arm, and then proceed.
The technique of executing a Y seal
differs from that of the T only to the
extent that the diverging arms of the
Y are prepared first by making a V
bend in the tube that would otherwise
form the cross of the T. The bent piece
is supported by the clamps as an in­
verted V and the hole blown in the
apex.
Complete the seal by alternately
blowing and shrinking to form
smooth contours (Fig. 4-28). Crosses,
or X seals, may be assembled by in­
stalling a second, opposing leg on the
T or, alternatively, by sealing the
apexes of a pair of V’s that have first
been opened as though a Y seal were
to be made.
Sometimes a seal must be made
Blow without the use of air pressure. In
making these, proceed just as though
you were making a T seal except that,
at the point where you would normally
blow the dimple into a bulge, you
Figure 4-28. touch the centei' of the heated area
with the preheated end of a thin glass
rod (Fig. 4-29, a). When the end
of the rod fuses to the heated area
(4-29, t>), pull the glass out to a sharp
point (4-29, c). Break off the point
with a stroke of the flat file (4-29, d).
Then heat the opening that has been
made so that it runs down forming
a hole about % inch in diameter
(4-29, e).
While the glass is still soft, insert a
thin, round rod of either carbon or
steel into the opening and quickly ro­
tate it, at a slight angle (4-29, f). This
operation will result in a raised,
thickened ring around the hole. Re­
peat the operation until the ring that
borders the hole is equal in thickness
to that of the wall of the tubing.
The end of the tubing that is to be
sealed to this opening should be flared
slightly to compensate for any sub­
sequent shrinkage. Next, proceed as
for a normal seal; heat the edge of the
flared tubing and the ring until soft,
and place them in contact so they fuse
(4-29, g). In this operation there is no
room for error. The facing edges
must be evenly and well heated to as­
sure an air tight joint at the first
touch. Permit the seal to cool for a
few seconds. Then reheat the work
and knead the glass by pulling the leg
member up and down slightly for dis­
tributing the glass (4-29, A) and,
after about 3 seconds, pull just
enough to align the work (4-29, i).
The seal is then ready for annealing.
 124
Creative
glass blowing

Frequent occasion arises for seal­

Remove support ing a small tube inside a larger one, in
Blow
coaxial arrangement. Several proce­
dures have been devised for making
Blow and stretch slightly such pieces. In one, for example, the
end of the smaller tube is flared so
that it fits snugly within the bore of
the larger. The flared end of the
c smaller tube is then slid into the
larger, so it rests at the desired posi­
tion (Fig. 4-30, a, 6). A means must
Assemble be devised for independently support­
ing the inner tube. One way is to wind
just enough asbestos tape around a
part of the smaller tube so that it fits
snugly within the bore of the larger
tube (4-30, c).
For the roll of asbestos tape, you
can substitute a rubber stopper, one
that has an accurately centered per­
foration, which fits snugly around the
small tubing, plus another off-cen­
tered perforation to which a blowing
hose can be connected. If the small
Figure 4-30. tube is to extend beyond the larger,
simply push it through the center per­
foration of the rubber stopper and in­
sert the stopper into the larger tube.
On the other hand, if the smaller
tube must be completely contained by
the larger, push an appropriate
 125
Glass tubing:
basic operations

length of glass rod through the cen­ Immediately rotate the completed seal
ter perforation of the rubber stopper in the hot region of the fire just above
and couple its inner end to the un­ the flames (but not so close that flare-
flared end of the smaller tube by a off occurs) and lift it out of the heat at
short length of thick-walled rubber a rate of about an inch per minute
hose. The stoppei' now supports the rod for a period of 3 minutes. Wrap the
which, in turn, both closes and sup­ completed piece in several folds of pre­
ports the smaller tube. Connect blow­ heated asbestos paper and reheat in
ing hoses both to the open end of the direct flame for 3 seconds with rapid
large tube and to the off-centered per­ compound motion before cooling to
foration of the rubber stopper. room temperature.
To fuse the flare to the inner wall Many versions of the ring seal ap­
of the larger tube, first preheat the pear in scientific glassware, including
larger tube in the vicinity of the flare the insertion of two or more flares in
and then concentrate the fire in a nar­ an envelope of larger tubing. All
row zone completely around the flare must be fully annealed before use be­
(4-30, d). The wall of the larger tube cause damaging strain develops when
will shrink into contact with the edge the fused region shrinks around the
of the flare and fuse. Lift the work relatively cold flare. (See “Annealing,”
out of the fire. Incidentally, the roller page 134.)
becomes a most useful tool for mak­ Another common seal involves
ing seals of this type. what, in effect, amounts to inserting
Promptly puff into first one and a tube through the wall of a larger
then the other of the blowing hoses piece—perhaps inserting the smaller
(these may be connected with a T to a tube through the bottom of a test
single blow hose for ease of opera­ tube or the side of a flask, or extend­
tion) to expand the larger tube to its ing a centered coaxial tube out
former dimension and simultaneously through the side of its envelope.
stretch the hot glass just enough to Joints of this type are known as
straighten the work. You have now “triple seals” because they are fre­
made a “ring seal” (Fig. 4-30, e). quently made of three pieces of glass.
126 The end of the small inner tube is
Creative first placed against the inner wall of
glass blowing the larger tube at the point where the
seal is to be made and, if necessary, it
is clamped or otherwise supported in
this position by an improvised fixture.
A blowing hose is attached to the other
end of the small tube. The general area
of the seal is then preheated.
Finally, the flame is concentrated
Heat on the outer wall of the larger tube,
as though a dimple were being made
over the end of the inner tube (Fig.
4-31, a). The glass softens, sinks
slightly, and fuses to the inner tube,
Blow bulge closing the end. The soft glass is then
blown out, by pressure applied to the
Blow inner tube, and the bulb cracked off
(4-31, b, c, d, e). A second length of
small tubing is then sealed to the
opening, by the same technique that is
used for making a T seal (4-31, f, g,
h). The joint is then kneaded by al­
ternate shrinking and blowing, to
eliminate any irregular contours (4-
31,i).
In some applications, a variation of
the triple seal is made with only two
lengths of tubing. An example is a
small tube that runs coaxially
through the bottom of an otherwise
conventional test tube. This arrange­
ment is a nice practice exercise in
making triple seals.
e Begin the project by making a test
tube about 8 inches long from 25-mil-
limeter tubing. First, shrink and burn
off a convenient length of tubing and
Figure 4-31. then blow the hemispherical bottom.
Be sure to remove the bleb. Next,
blow a hole in the bottom that
matches the outside diameter of 8-
millimeter tubing.
In a convenient length of 8-milli-
meter tubing make a small maria and
 127
Glass tubing:
basic operations

Blow
128
Creative
glass blowing

Heat spot

Blow bulge

Shrink

Blow bulb

Strike off

Figure 4-32.
cut the tubing at a point about 2 is similar to that shown in Figure 4- 129
inches distant. When the test tube has 31, a-e.) x Glass tubing:
cooled, stopper the large end. Push the basic operations
Now transfer the operation to the
2-inch length of the small tubing crossfire or the fishtail torch. Keep the
through the hole until the maria rests seal hot but not soft. Stopper one end
snugly against the bottom on the of a similar length of small tubing,
outside (Fig. 4-32, a-f). Fit the preheat the other end, and butt-seal it
blowing hose to small tube, preheat to the opening in the bottom of the
the junction, fuse the maria to the test tube. (This procedure is similar
rim of the hole, and by alternate blow­ to that shown in Figure 4-31, /-i.)
ing and shrinking convert the sur­ Preanneal in the crossfire.
faces into smooth contours (4-32, g, To make a seal of this type in the
h, i). Rotate to prevent the softened wall of an envelope such as a flask or
inner tube from sagging; it must be other bulb, bend the inner small tube
kept centered by eye. Anneal the triple at a right angle so that the end butts
seal (partially) by the procedure used against the wall at the point where
for the ring seal. the seal is desired. Support the tube in
Having made a few triple seals by this position by a perforated rubber
this simplified procedure, prepare an stopper or equivalent device and pro­
an identical test tube. Into this tube ceed as discussed above.
insert, coaxially, a smaller glass tube Incidentally, it is almost impossible
of about tw’ice the length of the test to reheat an annealed triple seal of
tube so that the end of the smaller soft glass without breaking the work.
tube rests firmly against the hemi­ The coefficent of expansion is so great
spherical bottom. It can be rigidly that rupturing stresses develop
supported in this position by a cen­ when heat is applied to the accessible
trally perforated rubber stopper that surfaces. Both triple and ring seals
fits snugly in the opening of the test must be annealed in an oven that
tube. Fit the blowing hose to the heats all parts uniformly at a rate not
smaller tube. exceeding 10 degrees Centigrade per
With the glass assembly in the ver­ minute (21 degrees Fahrenheit).
tical position and the hemispherical Occasionally the need arises for
end uppermost, heat the center of the sealing a U-shaped tube into the side
bottom by means of the needle-flame of a vessel, which may be a tube of
hand torch until a circular area of larger diameter, a flask, or a bulb.
glass shrinks into contact with the Usually the width of the U greatly ex­
smaller tube and seals to the end of ceeds its height, and its arms bend at
it. Let the glass stiffen (just until it 90 degrees.
shows no red color), and then reheat, Whatever the proportions, start by
in the center, a spot that is about two- making two bends to produce a U of
thirds of the diameter of the smaller the desired width; one of the bends
tube. Blow a bulge of approximately should be 90 degrees and the other
equal width and height. Reheat the about 45 degrees. Cut the arms of
top of the bulge, blow a thin-walled the U to the desired length. Then
bulb, and crack it off. (This operation at one of the points in the vessel to
 >>mU|
Heat

Blow

which the U will be attached blow a the second T seal (4-33, c). If the U is
hole that matches the diameter of the fairly wide and consists of slender
U tubing. (Make a bulge. Then blow tubing you will find that the glass is
and crack a small, thin-walled bulb, sufficiently flexible that it can be bent
as shown in Figure 4-33.) Seal the enough to bring the molten surfaces
arm with the 45-degree bend to this into contact. If it is not wide, the
opening by means of the now familiar bend in the opposite leg of the U must
technique of the T seal. Apply the be softened simultaneously so that the
heat by the hand torches. molten ends can be placed in contact.
Next, locate the point in the vessel The services of a helper can be en­
at which the other end of the U is to be listed to wield a second torch to this
sealed and mark it with a china-mark­ end, or you may accomplish the same
ing pencil. Blow the second hole. Pre­ result by rapidly transferring one
heat and then soften the 45-degree torch back and forth between the
Figure 4-33. bend. Now bend the softened glass so bend and the T seal. The strain that is
the open end of the U is located caused by the surfaces being forced
squarely over the hole but not quite in into contact will be relieved by sub­
contact with the edge of the opening; sequent annealing. An alternative
it should be within inch of contact method of attaching the U tube, where
(4-33, b). space permits, is to prepare the larger
Preheat the surfaces and complete vessel by setting on it two 1-inch stubs
of tubing to receive the U ends, and
butt-sealing the U ends to the stubs,
using the fishtail hand torch.
Among the more difficult seals for
the beginner to make is the so-called
Dewar seal: joining at one end two
coaxial tubes of substantially the
same diameter to form a re-entrant
edge. This seal is found at the mouth
of the Dewar flask, or “Thermos” bot­
tle. To tackle this ambitious project,
first make a conventional test tube of,
say, 25 millimeters in diameter. Flare
the opening so that it fits snugly
within a larger tube of, say, 35 milli­
meters in diameter. At about an inch
from the end of the 35-millimeter tub­
ing, seal a short length of 6-milli-
meter tubing, a typical T seal (Fig. 4-
34, a). Such so-called “side arms” of
small tubing are known as “tubula-
tions” and are used both for blowing
and, in some scientific apparatus, for
exhausting the air from vessels. At­
tach the blowing hose to the tubula-
tion.
Next, insert the test tube into the
35-millimeter tubing and, by means of
an improvised support, fix its position
so the flare is in contact with the end
of the 35-millimeter tubing. Stopper
the other end of the 35-millimeter
tubing, and then fuse the flare to the
end of the 35-millimeter tubing. By
alternate shrinking and blowing,
knead the seal to remove irregular
contours. Remove the improvised sup­
port (4-34, b). Finally, shrink the 35-
millimeter tubing at a point just be­
yond the bottom of the test tube, burn
off, remove the bleb, and blow the
closure into a smooth hemisphere, as
illustrated (4-34, c). Anneal the fin­
ished piece in the oven (4-34, d).
132 Sealing rod to hollow forms
Creative
glass blowing
Certain ornamentation can be applied
to blown work, either by sealing glass
rod to tubing and then blowing the
combination, or by applying the soft­
ened end of a rod to the surface of a
bulb and blowing the rod into a hol­
low configuration as the heated mass
softens the wall of the bulb. In addi­
tion, the end of a glass rod can be
sealed to hollow ware and subse­
quently bent as desired to form the
handle of a pitcher or comparable ves­
sel, or to be a brace in scientific ap­
paratus.
To make an ornamented bulb, first
preheat the body of a point and then
support it close to the flame, but not
immersed in it. Simultaneously pre­
Heat
heat and then soften the tip of a rod
of colored glass. When the tip be­
comes molten touch the soft glass to a
spot near one end of the body of the
point and draw it lengthwise along
the body, much as you would make a
Heat stroke with a crayon (Fig. 4-35, a).
Having completed the stroke, burn
off the rod. You have now sealed a line
of colored glass to the body, the color
Twist being parallel to the axis of the tub­
ing. Now rotate the point slightly and
similarly seal another line of color to
the body. Continue until six or more
equally spaced stripes of color have
been applied around the body (4-
35, b, c).
Next, heat the region you have just
striped until the glass softens enough
so that you can twist the material
(4-35, d). Make a twist of about one-
third of a revolution, 120 degrees of
arc (4-35, e). The body may shrink
somewhat. Having made the twist, re­
Figure 4-35. turn the work to the fire and heat it
just enough for blowing the body out 133
to its original size, not more. Then, if Glass tubing:
basic operations
desired, make another twist, but not
more than one-third of a revolution.
Again, restore the body to its original
size by blowing (4-35, /).
Continue this sequence until the
stripes acquire the desired amount of
twist. Finally, restore the point to its
original size and, while soft, blow it
into a bulb of the desired size and
shape (4-35, g). A polka-dot effect
can be achieved by applying spots of
color instead of stripes.
To blow a rod into hollow form,
heat the end and apply it to the pre­
heated wall of a bulb (Fig. 4-36, a).
The molten tip of the rod will in­
stantly fuse to the thinner wall of the
bulb and soften it (4-36, b). Blow into
the bulb. A bubble will form in the
end of the rod that will become tubu­
lar* in form if the rod is simultane-
ously pulled away from the bulb (4-
36, c). The shape and proportions of
the bubble can be controlled as de­
sired by the same techniques that
have been described for altering the
form of the tubing. Indeed, having
made a hollow projection with blown
rod, you can make a second projection
of like form on the wall of the first,
and so on. Just burn off the rod from
the bubble, reheat its end, and repeat
the procedure by applying the heated
rod to the hollow projection instead
of to the bulb (4-36, d).
When handles of rod are applied to
hollow ware such as miniature vases,
it is customary to blow the work
slightly immediately after the rod
has been fused to the vessel. The re­
sult is a seal in which the thickness of
the rod diminishes gradually (because
of the incipient bubble) to the thick- Figure 4-36.
134
Creative
glass blowing

Blow beginning of bubble

ness of the wall of the bulb (Fig. 4-

37). Seals so made have less tendency
to crack than those in which the
heavy rod abruptly joins the thin
wall. Rods that soften at somewhat
lower temperature than the bulb ma­
terial are the easiest to blow.

Annealing
As pointed out in Section I, glass ex­
pands when it is heated and contracts
when it cools. Internal stress de­
velops when molten glass cools; the
outer part solidifies and cannot yield
as the inner part continues to con­
tract. Stress develops betw’een the
two regions. When it exceeds the ten­
sile strength of the glass, the piece
breaks.
The development of internal stress
can be prevented by cooling molten
glass so slowly that all parts of the
Completed piece piece solidify at substantially the
same rate and at the same time. Small,
Figure 4-37. relatively simple pieces can be fully
annealed in the crossfire by slowly re­
moving them from the heat—at a rate
of about 10 minutes per inch of move­
ment. This assumes that the work is
continuously rotated. The rotation
distributes the stresses uniformly; it
prevents the growth of local stresses
 135
Glass tubing:
basic operations

in any region of the surface from ex­ perature-controlled oven that need be
ceeding the tensile strength of the large enough only to accommodate the
glass. work.
A partial anneal, one that reduces Glass is said to have a “strain
the stress enough so that work will point,’’ an “annealing point,” and a
not break during ordinary changes “melting or working point”; this im­
in room temperature, can be made by plies that at one temperature the ma­
completing the removal from the terial can be stretched, at another in­
flame in 3 or 4 minutes and then pro­ ternal strain is relieved, and at a still
tecting the work from drafts until it higher temperature the glass becomes
cools to room temperature. Even more semifluid. As mentioned in Section I,
effective partial anneals are made by glass by its nature is in the fluid state
shutting off the air supply and rotat­ even at room temperature, but with a
ing the work in the smoky flame until viscosity so high that it is for all
it acquires an opaque coating of soot. practical purposes a rigid solid.
Better still is a container of asbes­ In other words, glass behaves like
tos wool maintained at a temperature very stiff tar or pine pitch. Its tend­
of 600 to 750 degrees Fahrenheit. ency to flow varies continuously with
Work is simply buried in the hot its temperature. For this reason in­
asbestos until the end of the ses­ ternal stress should automatically
sion. The heat is turned off and the disappear in time from a glass piece
asbestos permitted to cool slowly. at room temperature—perhaps in a
This is an ideal method of annealing few million centuries! Heating the
small novelties, miniature vases, urns, object merely accelerates the process.
parts for costume jewelry, and so on. The heating must not be carried too
Models of sailing ships in glass, far, however, because the object is
which include fine rods (forming the continuously subjected to another
rigging) and similar pieces, cannot force, gravity. Fortunately the grav­
be successfully annealed. The finer itational force is much weaker than
lines sag out of shape long before the the forces of internal stress. An ob­
heavier parts anneal. Larger pieces ject that weighs an ounce, for
such as ash trays and scientific glass­ example, may contain an internal
ware that contain other than simple stress of 20,000 pounds per square
butt seals must be annealed in a tem­ inch or more. The annealing pro-
136 cedure takes advantage of this differ­ ders, should be supported by braces
Creative ential. The piece is heated just enough made from Transite or similar heat-
glass blowing resistant material. When it is imprac­
to permit the glass to yield under the
great internal forces without sagging tical to brace the work, or to rest it
appreciably under the force of grav­ on a flat base as in the case of the in­
ity. ner tube of a coaxial pair, suspend
Ordinarily internal stresses in soda the piece vertically. It may elongate
lime glass (that is 1 millimeter thick) slightly. This should be anticipated
are relieved in 4 minutes at a tem­ during design.
perature of 510 degrees Centigrade Attempts to prevent distortion by
(950°F). The annealing time, which annealing at low temperature for a
varies with the square of the thick­ long period invariably fail. Glass re­
ness, is determined by multiplying sponds without favor to all mechani­
the square of the thickness by the cal forces, including gravity. Time
4. Hence, a piece 2 millimeters thick and temperature merely determine the
would require an annealing interval rate of its response.
of 16 minutes, a piece 3 millimeters
thick would require 36 minutes, and
so on. Huge pieces, such as glass
Sagging
blanks for telescope mirrors, remain
in the annealing oven for many Sagging, the bane of the annealer, be­
months. As a general rule, small, com­ comes a prized technique to the
pact objects are placed in the oven, craftsman intent on making glass ob­
heated gradually during an interval jects of irregular shape. A sheet of
of 15 to 20 minutes, and then main­ glass of appropriate shape is placed
tained for 5 minutes at the annealing on a mold of fireclay, dental stone,
temperature. The heat is then shut plaster of paris, or equivalent refrac­
off. A well-made oven requires about tory substance, and it is softened in
3 hours for cooling to room tempera­ the annealing oven. The glass sags
ture. No sagging due to gravity - into contact with the mold, conform­
should be evident in annealed work. ing roughly to the contours. The
On the other hand, you must take shape of the mold is limited to open
into account the gravitational force contours. The glass cannot sag to fill
when you are annealing other than undercuts. Scientific glassware, such
compact pieces. For example, a 10- as watch glasses that take the form of
inch tube of thick-walled capillary 8 uniform spherical sections, petri
millimeters in diameter will develop dishes, and similar shapes are easy to
pronounced sag during the anneal if make. Comparable novelty forms in­
supported only at the ends. When pos­ clude ash trays, candy dishes, and so
sible, rest such pieces on a flat sur­ on. The novelty forms may be orna­
face, such as a heavy plate of metal, mented by placing bits of colored
or in the V of a straight length of glass in the forms of thin rod, or frit
angle iron. (glass in granular form) on the ob­
Projections, such as slender tubes ject prior to firing.
sealed to the sides of flasks or cylin­
 Section V

This section introduces the art of terials within easy reach of the work
combining the basic operations of position before lighting the fires. A
glass blowing to form novelties and hot piece laid aside, while the worker
trinkets. By duplicating the pieces to hunts for a special kind or size of
be described, the beginner will ac­ glass, will cool and is likely to break
quire the knack of selecting se­ when reheated. It is possible, of
quences of operations that minimize course, to provide a furnace in which
the expenditure of time and materi­ to store hot work. If one is acquired,
als when making pieces of other de­ it too should be located within easy
sign. The urge to improvise may then reach of the work position.
be given free play. No attempt will be In general, too, the sequence of op­
made to explain how novel designs are erations should be planned so that all
created. This is largely a matter of details within a given region of a
natural endowment. However, the piece are completed before work is un­
pages that follow will explain the gen­ dertaken at a remote region. For ex­
eral rules of procedure and the tech­ ample, in making a vase, complete the
niques through which creative talent top and attach the handle before
can find expression. starting work on the bottom—or vice
The exercises have been arranged versa. Thin parts, such as bulbs, can
so that skills acquired when making usually be reheated locally without
the first pieces are subsequently ap­ risk of breakage. Even so, beginners
plied. The beginner is urged to do the are urged to cultivate the habit of
exercises in the order of their presen­ keeping each region hot until it is fin­
tation. A few rules should be ob­ ished.
served. First, place all required ma­ Avoid abrupt transitions in thick-
138
Creative A glass candlestick
glass blowing
A relatively simple exercise that il­
lustrates the order in which glasses
are heated when making a piece in­
volves the fabrication of a miniature
candlestick. The materials may con­
sist of a 20-inch length of 12-milli-
metei’ ruby tubing, a 10-inch length
of 8-millimeter opaque white tubing
and two 10-inch lengths of 6-milli-
meter rod, one of crystal and the other
of opaque orange. The sizes and colors
are not critical nor are the dimensions
of the completed piece. In novelty
glass work proportions are deter­
mined not by the yardstick but by
Blow off
the aesthetic tastes of the artisan.
Begin the construction by pulling
a point from the ruby tube. Shrink
the center to the diameter of the
ness when making seals. Such discon­ opaque white tubing and make a
tinuities encourage the development maria as illustrated (Fig. 5-1, a). The
of internal stresses and lead to spon­ point should have been straightened
taneous breaks. When attaching a and opened at one end, of course.
handle of rod to a thin bulb, for ex­ Next, heat the constricted tubing
ample, always blow into the bulb close to the maria on the opened side
lightly when the molten end of the rod of the point (5-1, b). Blow off and
is placed in contact with the thin discard the opened taper (5-1, c).
wall. The molten end of the rod will Next, flare the maria slightly so that
immediately soften the wall and a its inner diameter matches that of
bubble will start to form in the end the opaque white tubing (5-1, d). Seal
of the rod in which the thickness the opaque white tubing to the maria
gradually increases. This tapered (5-1, e). Then heat and blow off the
form minimizes internal stress. remaining taper (5-1, /). The base of
Watch the growing bubble carefully the candlestick is now made with the
and stop blowing when it becomes a flaring tool. Open the ruby bulb into
Figure 5-1. perceptible depression. (Continued a funnel shape and continue by
blowing will cause the seal between sweeping the soft glass up and over
the wall and rod to expand into a con­ in the form of a re-entrant edge as il­
ventional bulb and spoil the piece). lustrated (5-1, g). When forming a re­
Finally, always let the completed verse curve of this type, keep the
piece cool slowly, preferably in an an­ outer edge of the flare substantially
nealing oven. hotter, and hence softer, than the in-
ner zone. If the inner zone becomes
softer than the edge, the glass will
buckle.
Next, attach the handle (5-1, /?). If
desired, the rod may be first heated,
partly flattened, and twisted to simu­
late the strands of a rope, or a plain
handle may be made according to the
Seal opaque y
tastes of the worker. Having added the white tubing to ruby
handle, rotate the piece at a distance Heat and
of about 2 inches above the fire and,
during an interval of a minute or so,
lift the work gradually to a height of
about 4 inches. This slowly lowers the
temperature of the base. Next, warm
a holder, grasp the base in the jaws,
and burn off the opaque white tubing
at a point approximately 2 inches
from the base (5-1, i). Finally, apply
“wax drippings” of crystal glass to
the top of the candle (5-1, j) and add
a “flame” of orange rod. A realistic
flame can be simulated by heating the
tip of the orange rod and flattening
the soft glass between the serrated
jaws of a tweezers. The outer tip of
the flattened portion is then pulled
into a stubby point by the tweezers.
Seal this tip to the tip of the candle,
soften the orange glass at a point
just beyond the seal, stretch the mass
into the shape of a flame, and burn off
(5-1, k). Anneal the completed piece
(5-1,Z).

A toy top
Many novelties involve the fabrication
of distorted bulbs. One such novelty is
the glass top, in which a flattened bulb
serves as the spinning mass. To make
the top, pull a point in 15-millimeter
tubing of any desired color. Shrink
 heats will be required until the draw
can be completed in one heat. Next,
heat and blow a doorknob-shaped
bulb in the remaining portion of the
body (5-2, d, e). Soften the outer rim
of the bulb, then blow and simultane­
ously compress the glass to form a
shape resembling a large, hollow
maria (5-2, /). The glass must be
heated to the plastic state but it must
not be allowed to become so soft that
the walls of 'the bulb twist out of
control. Do not let the flame play di­
rectly on the thin wall of the bulb.
Sufficient heat is provided by the
edge of the fire. Burn off the closed
taper (5-2, p). During this operation,
keep the glass well centered so that
the top will spin true on the tip that
remains fixed to the body. Finally,
nick the straight tubing with the file
an inch or so from the body, break off
the taper (5-2, /i), and fire-polish the
cut end.

A tea set
One of the more popular products of
itinerant glass blowers who give
demonstrations at amusement cen­
ters, schools, and so on, is the minia­
ture tea set, consisting of a tea pot,
sugar bowl, and creamer. The pieces
Fire-polish
may be made in any convenient sizes
and colors. Fifteen-millimeter tubing
the body of the point near one end, as is frequently used. To make the tea
illustrated (Fig. 5-2, a). Next, soften pot, pull a point with a body about
Figure 5-2. one shoulder of the body (5-2, b) and % inch in length and form a maria
stretch the material to form a tube of close to one shoulder, as illustrated
uniform diameter about 2 inches in (Fig. 5-3, a). Heat the remainder of
length (5-2, c). Beginners may find the body and blow a doorknob-shaped
the operation easier if the tube is bulb (5-3, b). Burn off the closed
formed by making a succession of taper (5-3, c). Apply a handle of rod
heats and draws. With practice, fewer stock and blow a slight depression
into molten seal (5-3, cZ). Soften the 141
handle and bend it into final form, us­ Novelty glass work
ing the warmed tip of the rod as a tool
(5-3, e). Similarly, apply the spout
(5-3, /). Next, soften the bottom of
the bulb and press it against a flat
surface, such as a block of Transite
that has been covered with a sheet
of asbestos paper (5-3, 7i). Do not use
a block of xmcovered carbon. Carbon
chills the glass so quickly that severe
internal stress develops. Grasp the
bulb in a holder and burn off the
taper (5-3, Z).
This is a tricky operation, but rel­
atively easy to master. The difficulty
arises from air that is trapped inside
the bulb when the taper is burned off.
The trapped air is at atmospheric
pressure. Upon cooling, it creates a
partial vacuum in the bulb. If the
glass is now softened, the higher ex­
ternal pressure may cause the ma­
terial to collapse. On the other hand,
when the trapped air is strongly
heated, the softened wall may bulge
outward. The solution consists in
burning off the taper and immediately
moving the bulb just above the fire.
Watch the softened glass closely. If
the glass starts to collapse, lower the
bulb; if a bulge appears, raise the
bulb. In a few seconds the glass will
solidify—and the trick is turned.
Finally, seal the end of a colored
rod to the tip of the lid that was
formed when the taper was burned
off. Burn off the rod (5-3, /) and rotate
the adhering mass horizontally in the
fire until the knob of the pot becomes
pear-shaped (5-3, Zc). Watch for dis­ Anneal tea pot

tortion that may be caused by

trapped air and heat or cool the bulb
to counteract the effect, as discussed.
Anneal the completed pot (5-3, Z). Figure 5-3.
 Figure 5-4.
142
Creative
glass blowing

Add second handle

and anneal sugar bowl

The sugar bowl of the set is made

by an identical sequence of operations
except that twin handles, instead of
one handle and the spout, are applied
(Fig. 5-4). Making twin handles is
one of the more difficult operations en­
countered in novelty work. No one can
make two things exactly alike by
hand. Just do your best.
The operating sequence involved in
making the creamer of the tea set in­
troduces a flaring operation. The con­
ventional point is pulled and the bulb
blown. The handle is then added and
blown because the bulb must be
opened for the flaring operation. (The
handle cannot be blown aftei’ the bulb
is opened but may be applied to the
rim of the flares.) Soften the point
(Fig. 5-5, a). Blow the bulb (5-5, b).
Apply and blow the handle (5-5, c).
Burn off the closed taper and open the
bulb (5-5, d). The opening should be
kept small, not exceeding one quarter
of the diameter of the bulb. Otherwise,
sufficient glass will not accumulate
at the edge of the flare to form a sub­
stantial bead around the rim of the
vessel (5-5, e). Heat a portion of the
beaded rim diametrically opposite to
the handle and, by means of the flar­
ing tool, form the spout (5-5, /).
Next, grasp the rim in the jaws of the
holder, burn off the remaining taper
(5-5, g), flatten the softened bot­
tom (5-5, hj, and anneal the com­
Figure 5-5. pleted creamer (5-5, i).
 143
Novelty glass work

A miniature vase
A sequence of operations that in­
volves both flaring and stretching re­
sults in a miniature vase. A point is
first shrunk in the middle to about
half of the diameter of the tubing, as
shown by Figure 5-6, a. One shoulder
is then softened (5-6, b) and stretched
to form a straight taper (5-6, c). The
remaining half of the body is next
softened (5-6, d) and blown into a
doorknob-shaped bulb (5-6, e). Next,
heat the large end of the taper
strongly (5-6, f) and blow off the
softened glass with as much force as
possible (5-6, g). A cleaner separa­
tion may result if the glass is simul­
taneously blown and stretched. This
pulls the expanding glass into an
elongated ellipsoid, or melon shape,
that breaks easily. Flare the opened
end to about two-thirds the diameter
of the bulb at an angle of about 45
degrees (5-6, h). Soften the hot, flared
end and, with the flaring tool, scal­
lop the edge by pressing the tool
against the glass at equally spaced
points (5-6, z). Grasp the scalloped top
in the jaws of a holder, burn off the re­
maining taper, and flatten the bottom
(5-6,/).
144
Creative
glass blowing
An ornamental pitcher
Heat
By introducing a few variations, you
can convert a simple vase into an
ornamental pitcher. First, heat a rel­
Shrink and stretch
atively broad zone in the body of a
point near one end (Fig. 5-7, a) and
stretch the softened portion into an
Form maria
elongated section that tapers outward
from the middle (5-7, b). Form a
maria in the tapered portion close to
the larger portion of the body of the
point (5-7, c). Next, apply narrow
Blow
strips of colored rod to the body (5-
Twist, then rotate 7, d). Heat the body to softness and,
and blow bulb
while applying just enough air pres­
Blow sure to maintain the normal diameter
Burn off taper
and open neck of the body, twist the taper handles
gently in opposite directions. The
twist converts the colored lines into
Flare spirals. Reheat the body and blow a
conventional doorknob-shaped bulb
(5-7, e). Strongly heat the closed
taper at the point where it joins
the body of the point and blow it off
(5-7, /). Flare the open end slightly
(5-7, p), and seal a handle to the
flared edge. In this case the seal be­
tween the handle and the vessel can­
not be blown. If the seal is made
Burn off close to the thickened edge, however,
internal stress will not usually exceed
the breaking strength of the glass and
the piece will remain intact for an­
Flatten
nealing. While the top of the pitcher
bottom is still hot, soften the rim at the point
directly opposite the handle and, with
the flaring tool, form a spout (5-7, Z).
Grasp the top of the pitcher in the
holder and burn off the remaining
taper (5-7, j), flatten the bottom
(5-7, Zc), and anneal the completed
pitcher (5-7, Z).
A brandy snifter
Stemware is made by shrinking a
zone in tubing until the glass col­
lapses to form a solid rod. Both ends
of a point are opened, the shrinking
operation is performed, and then bulbs
of appropriate size are blown, opened,
and flared to form the bowl and base
of the vessel. A relatively simple ex­
ample is the brandy snifter. The body
of the prepared point is heated at a
point about one quarter of the length
from one end (Fig. 5-8, a), it is shrunk
until the glass collapses (5-8, b), and
a spherical bulb is blown in the smaller
portion of the body (5-8, c, d).
Anneal
The remaining portion of the body is brandy
then softened (5-8, e) and blown into a snifter
doorknob shape (5-8, /). The smaller
bulb is softened (5-8, p), blown open Figure 5-8.
146
Creative
glass blowing
A fruit bowl
With additional flaring, the brandy
snifter would become a dessert dish,
a wine glass, or a fruit bowl. A fruit
bowl, for example, requires for the
step shown in Figure 5-8, n, a broad
flare instead of a bead (Fig. 5-9, a).
To complete the fruit bowl, make a
series of shallow scallops around the
edge (5-9, b).

The epergne
If you make the fruit bowl with a hol­
low stem, it can be used as the lower
member of an epergne. To make the
hollow stem, the point is collapsed ab­
ruptly at one end and tapered gradu­
ally at the other. Otherwise, the pro­
cedure is identical with that used for
making the fruit bowl (Fig. 5-10, a).
The centerpiece of the epergne is made
(5-8, //.), and flared to form the base by a technique similar to that used for
of the vessel (5-8, i). The base is forming the neck of the simple vase
grasped in a holder and the opposite (Fig. 5-6, a, b, c). One end of the body
side of the large bulb is softened in of a point is collapsed to form a solid
the edge of the fire (5-8, j). As in the tapered rod and the remainder is
case of the glass top (Fig. 5-2, /), the stretched to form a straight taper
material must not be heated directly (Fig. 5-10, b, c, d). The piece is then
in the fire. The thin wall of the bulb blown open at the wide end (5-10,
softens quickly. If overheated, it can e, f), flared (5-10, g), and scalloped
flow out of control. Stretch the soft­ (5-10, h). The scalloped end is then
ened zone until the bulb assumes a grasped by the holder and the taper
pear shape (5-8, /c). Heat the narrow burned off (5-10, i). The small end of
Figure 5-9. end of the resulting bulb (5-8, Z), the piece must be adjusted so that it
and open it by simultaneously stretch­ fits snugly into the hollow stem of the
ing the glass and blowing (5-8, m). bulb (5-10, j), an operation that calls
Heat the ragged edge of the opening for some judgment. If the fit is too
and form it into a smooth bead by loose, heat the tip and thicken. Con­
means of the flaring tool (5-8, n). versely, if the tip is too large, heat
Anneal the completed vessel (5-8, o). and stretch the glass.
 147
a

Shrink

Figure 5-10.
148
Creative
glass blowing

a very gentle blow (5-11, e, f). Then

An urn
strongly heat the junction of the re­
An urn can be made of a single length maining taper and blow it off (5-11,
of tubing and a rod. The construction g, h). This opens the small bulb. Flare
begins with a point. the opening to form the base of the
The body of the point is first shrunk urn (5-11, i). When the work has
at two zones about a tube diameter cooled, close the bottom of the urn with
from each end; this step violates the a cork and grasp the base by a holder
general rule of completing all details (5-11, j). Strongly heat the remaining
in a heated zone before transferring taper at the point where it joins the
operations to a remote zone. The small straight tube and blow off (5-11, fc).
bulb at the open end of the point Bead the ragged edge by means of the
is then softened (Fig. 5-11, a) and flaring tool (5-11, Z) and complete the
blown slightly until it is about five- urn by adding a pair of symmetrical
eighths of the diameter of the body handles (5-11, m).
(5-11, b). Approximately three-fourths
of the glass remaining in the central
Figure 5-11. portion of the body is then softened The swan set
adjacent to the portion just heated and
is blown into a doorknob-shaped bulb Few trinkets of glass have more
(5-11, c, d). The wall of this bulb, charm than sets of miniature swans.
which faces the closed end of the Their fabrication involves the bend­
point, is next softened and stretched ing of tubing and making small ta­
to form a straight taper by means of pered bulbs of solid rod. Realism may
 149
Novelty glass work

Add spiral
handles

Blow

Blow open
150 be accentuated by the use of opaque your first attempt. Two of the most
Creative white tubing. If 15-millimeter tubing common failures are illustrated by
glass blowing is used, a point should be pulled with a Figures 5-12, h and i. The form
body about 2 inches in length. Soften shown in h results from applying too
half of the body as shown in Figure much air pressure to stiff glass, or, al­
5-12, a, and blow an elliptical bulb ap­ ternatively, from working so slowly
proximately 1*4 inches in diameter and that the- glass has cooled, stiffened,
2 inches long. Promptly flatten a por­ and kinked. Much the same result is
tion of the bulb by pressing the sof­ observed when the neck is first pulled,
tened glass against a block of Transite then blown, and finally bent. All three
at an angle of approximately 20 de­ operations must occur at the same
grees (5-12, b). The flattened portion time. The bend is started before the
should be about 1 inch long. Next, heat pull is completed. At the opposite ex­
the opened taper at a point where it treme is the example in 5-12, i, in
joins the bulb and bend it upward at which the glass has been overheated,
an angle of about 5 degrees (5-12, c). stretched, and bent—but with insuf­
The angle enables you to judge the rel­ ficient air pressure.
ative position of the flattened zone When the neck has been formed,
during subsequent operations. It com­ strongly heat the taper attached to
plicates the manipulation of the piece the head of the bird and separate it
slightly because the tapered points from the head by lifting the taper up­
are now out of alignment, so the ward, a motion that forms the bony
body of the point no longer runs structure above the base of the bird’s
true. This will cause no great in­ beak (5-12, .?). Next, seal a yellow
convenience, because extended rota­ rod to the beak position (5-12, fc). By
tion will not be required. Next, soften simultaneously blowing and stretch­
the remaining portion of the body of ing the molten tip, blow the rod into a
the point. Uniform heating can be tapered bulb that forms the beak (5-12,
achieved by rotating the work first I). After the rod has been burned off
one way and then the other. Ignore (5-12, m), fuse to each side of the
the wobble. The softened zone should head the eyes, which must be blown
extend from the large bulb almost to slightly to distribute the added glass
the point where the closed taper joins so they introduce no abrupt change
the body of the point (5-12, d). The in thickness (5-12, n). Then apply
head of the bird and its S-shaped pupils to the eyes (5-12, o'). Complete
neck are now formed by simultane­ the swan by heating the remaining
ously blowing, stretching, and quickly taper strongly at the point where it
bending the S curve. The stretched joins the bulb. Then lift the taper off
glass is forced upward and backward (don’t pull off) to form the bird’s
in a continuous sweep that must be tail (5-12, p). (Eyes may be put on
completed in not more than a second. before the beak if desired.) You can
The whole success of the operation make swans assume a variety of
depends upon the speed with which poses by bending the neck in the form
the bend is made (5-12, e, f, g). Do not of other characteristic attitudes, as il­
become discouraged if you fail on lustrated by Plate 7.
 151
Novelty glass work

Figure 5-12.
152
Creative
glass blowing

points into contact. The axis of the

The hurricane lamp
assembly must make an angle of ap­
The miniature hurricane lamp illus­ proximately 45 degrees with re­
trates an application of the triple spect to the vertical so that the candle
seal. The required materials include will slide into contact with the molten
a 10-inch length of opaque white tub­ seal. When the pieces fuse, remove
ing of 5 millimeters in diameter, and the assembly from the fire, blow to
two 20-inch lengths of 12-millimeter preserve the diameter of the seal, and
tubing, one of ruby and the other of simultaneously rotate the piece so
crystal. that the candle becomes accurately
Begin the construction by burning centered in the crystal tubing
the opaque white tubing in two (Fig. (5-13,/).
5-13, a). With the file, make a square Now form the base of the lamp by
cut at a distance of about 1 inch from blowing a doorknob-shaped bulb in
the point where the tube was burned the body of the ruby tubing (5-13, g,
off. The resulting piece will become Ji). The triple seal must not be per­
the candle of the hurricane lamp. mitted to cool during this and subse­
Next, use the file to cut off the tip quent operations. Next, soften a zone
of the candle, but retain as much of in the body of the crystal point adja­
the pointed end as possible (5-13, b). cent to the triple seal. The zone should
This step opens the tube so that air be about a tube diameter in length
can pass through the candle. From (5-13, i). Blow a spherical bulb about
the crystal tubing next pull one taper 50% larger in diameter than the crys­
of a point and insert the candle in the tal tubing (5-13, /). Next, soften a
body of the point so that its squared zone of the crystal tubing about 1V4
end rests against the taper (5-13, c). - inches long that includes the upper
Then pull the second taper and, with hemisphere of the spherical bulb just
a file, cut off the first taper close to blown (5-13, fc) and stretch the soft­
the body, but not so close that the re­ ened glass to form a straight taper
sulting opening is larger than the (5-13, I). Seal the handle of the lamp
diameter of the candle (5-13, d). Next, to the base (5-13, m). The triple seal
make a similar point of ruby glass may now be cooled slowly. Next, heat
and in the same manner remove one and blow off the outer end of the crys­
taper (5-13, e). tal point (5-13, n, o), flare the ragged
The two points just made will con­ edge of the chimney (5-13, p), reheat
stitute the base and chimney of the the flared end, and form a pattern of
lamp. Now join them by a triple seal scallops (5-13, q). Clamp the scalloped
that includes the candle. Soften the end of the chimney in a holder, burn
ends of the two major pieces in the off the taper of the ruby point (5-13,
edge of the fire, and then, with r), and flatten the base of the com­
the crystal piece uppermost, bring the pleted lamp (5-13, s).
 153

Heat tube of opaque white

to form candle

, । Burn off
i -*~
t..... '
Cut' \ Cut
Cut
I '

Pull ¥2 of point and burn off

(crystal glass) Transfer candle
to crystal point

Figure 5-13.
 An all-glass hand bell
The final exercise is the fabrication
of an all-glass bell and clapper assem­
bly. It incorporates a shape formed
by superimposing portions of two
bulbs and stretching the junction into
a tapering curve. Start by pulling
points of 15-millimeter ruby and 20-
millimeter crystal glass, cutting off
one taper of each and sealing the
squarely cut ends as illustrated (Fig.
5-14, a.) Heat and stretch the ruby
tubing into a straight taper that in­
creases in diameter uniformly toward
the outer end (5-14, &). The tapered
section will become the handle of the
bell. Next, soften approximately %
inch of the crystal tubing adjacent to
the seal and blow a doorknob-shaped
bulb about 1 inch in diameter (5-14,
c, d). Then heat the remaining portion
of the crystal tubing and, adjacent to
the first bulb, blow a second doorknob­
shaped bulb about IV2 inches in diame­
ter (5-14, e, f). Heat the zone be­
tween the two bulbs. Blowing as
necessary, stretch the softened glass
into a bell-shaped curve (5-14, g, h).
Burn off the closed taper close to the
bulb and blow the bulb open (5-14, i,
]"). The diameter of the opening
should be about % inch. Soften the
opened end and flare the material into
the classical bell shape (5-14, k). Two
Figure 5-14. or more heats may be required for
 155

to ruby point

completing the flare. When it is cool, (5-14, s). When the bulb has cooled, Blow bulb by heating
close the open end of the bell by a cut the rod and form an open hook
large cork which has been fitted with in the end (5-14, Z). The distance be­
a glass tube and a blow hose. Preheat tween the hook and bulb should be
with care and burn off the ruby tapei' made slightly less than the depth of
and blow the closed end of the handle the bell. The assembled clapper will Form hook
into a hemisphere (5-14, Z). Anneal then swung free when the completed
the completed bell. bell rests on a flat surface. The cor­
The clapper assembly is made in rect length of the clapper assembly,
two parts: the clapper rod and ham­ which includes the linkage piece first
mer, and a linkage for supporting the made (see 5-14, o'), must be esti­
clapper in the bell. Make the linkage mated by eye. Next slip the hook Link parts and
close softened
first. Use 2- or 3-millimeter crystal through the loop of the linkage piece, hook-
rod. Form a maria in the middle of a heat the outer portion of the hook,
convenient length of the rod (5-14, and bend it into a closed loop (5-
?n) and, without permitting the glass 14, u). When performing this opera­
to cool, heat a %-inch length of rod tion, remember to warm the linkage
adjacent to either side of the maria piece slowly to avoid cracking the
and make a loop. The internal diame­ maria. Complete the bell by cutting
ter of the loop should be about 7 mil­ the rod of the linkage piece about %
limeters, or slightly larger (5-14, n). inch from the maria. Coat the result­
Epoxy
Burn off the excess rod, heat the end ing stub with epoxy cement and slip
of the loop strongly, and, with tweez­ it into the opening of the inverted bell into

ers, bend the helical shape into a true handle (5-14,??). of completed bell
loop. Seal the free end to the maria With the completion of the bell, you
(5-14, o). Let the completed piece cool graduate from the status of begin­
slowly. ner. You are equipped with all of the
Next, from rod of the same size, essential skills of the novelty glass
form an end maria (5-14, p) and seal blowei’ and need not hesitate to
the maria to the squarely burned off tackle more complicated projects.
end of a ruby point (5-14, q). Burn off Some of these are suggested by the
the body of the point about one tube examples in Plates 1 through 8. Nu­
diameter distant from the maria (5- merous others will be suggested by
14, r) and rotate the small resulting the objects and living forms that sur­
bulb in the fire until trapped air ex­ round you. Remember, if you can mold
pands the glass into a true sphere it in clay, you can blow it in glass.
Section VI

cientific glassware

Although the fabrication of scien­ trodes, contacts, springs, reeds, sup­

tific glassware entails essentially the ports, and torsion fibers. Finally, in
same skills as novelty work, it differs devices that measure some quantity,
somewhat in concept and general ap­ such as a simple graduate, or in those
proach. For example, the use to which that alter a velocity, such as a vac­
an apparatus will be put, rather than uum pump, the precise control of di­
aesthetic considerations, largely dic­ mensions becomes a critical factor.
tates its size and shape. This is not These requirements can be met by
to suggest that a well-made piece need careful planning. Before undertaking
be unattractive. On the contrary, lead­ the construction of an apparatus, the
ing art museums have on more than experienced craftsman learns how the
one occasion exhibited chemical ap­ device is supposed to work and iden­
paratus in support of the thesis that tifies its critical parts and dimen­
pleasing forms can arise from purely sions. A working plan is developed
functional design. The same approach and the operations to be performed
guides the selection of raw materials. are listed in sequence. In general, in­
Glasses used in apparatus are chosen ner parts are assembled first and pro­
for such physical properties as gressively enclosed by outer parts.
mechanical strength, chemical inert­ Full-scale outline drawings of the
ness, and resistance to thermal shock. more complex parts, as well as of the
In addition, designs frequently spe­ complete assembly, are made on as­
cify materials other than glass: bestos paper. Hot parts may be placed
ceramics; enamels; and natural sub­ directly on the drawings for checking
stances, such as mica and a variety of dimensions. Alternative working pro­
metals in forms that include elec­ cedures may be possible. Select the
 157
Scientific glassware

procedure that seems best and try it.

A stirring rod
Experience thus gained may sug­
gest modifications. If so, rewrite the When commencing work with strange
plan and try again. This approach will glass always try out a length of rod
conserve not only glass but your in the fire, preferably a piece 6 to 8
temper and, if you are a beginner, millimeters in diameter. Plunge an
your confidence in your growing skill. end of Pyrex rod directly into the
The exercises in this section have flames. Observe the color as the glass
been arranged roughly in order of heats, the time required for it to be­
increasing complexity. Having con­ come fire-polished, and the length of
structed the series of pieces, you time the softened portion remains
should have no difficulty in improvis­ plastic after the piece has been re­
ing a working plan for other designs. moved from the fire. Heat each end
Unless specified to the contrary, all until surface tension pulls the glass
parts are to be made of Corning into a hemisphere. The product is a
7740 Pyrex or equivalent glass and stirring rod.
are to be worked in oxygen-enriched
fires. Didymium goggles should be
worn when the glass is heated. They
A glass propeller
will protect your eyes from the blind­
ing flare-off. Borosilicate glass may Make a second stirring rod, but this
feel strange during your first hour of time continue heating the second end
practice. It hardens in less time than until about a centimeter of the glass
soda-lime or lead glass and must has become plastic. From it make an
therefore be worked promptly. Even end maria. Return the completed
so, don’t hurry. You will have ample maria to the fire. When the glass has
time to complete the basic opera­ become plastic, cut the maria in two
tions. If the glass should become stiff at opposite points on the diameter
before an operation is complete, sim­ by means of a pair of tin snips or a
ply return it to the fire. Nothing will wire cutter as illustrated (Fig. 6-1, a).
be lost but time. Borosilicate glasses Reheat the glass. Then, by means of
up to 3 millimeters in thickness re­ tweezers fitted with tips in the form
quire little if any preheating. If a of flat plates, grasp the halves of the
piece should crack, preheat the work maria and twist them to an angle of
uniformly in the vicinity of the break, about 20 degrees to form a small pro­
apply a needle flame to the inner end peller (6-1, &). Next, hold the com­
of the crack and sweep it slowly to­ pleted propeller blades in the flame of
ward the outer end. Usually the crack a Bunsen burner until a pale violet
will close beneath the flame as though flare-off is seen (6-1, c). (Do not wear
the torch were the slide of a zipper. didymium goggles during this exami-
 from the bulb and the other about 3
centimeters distant. Fire-polish the
a cut ends (Fig. 6-2, a). Make the test
tube of 20-millimeter stock. First
Fire-polish burn off one end of a 30-centimeter
length, of tubing (6-2, b). Blow the
end to hemispherical shape. Be sure
to remove the bleb (6-2, c). When the
work has cooled, cut the tubing at a
point about 15 centimeters from the
closed end. With the flaring tool, make
a bead approximately 2 millimeters
Blow thick around the open end (6-2, d).
Anneal both ends in the Bunsen
flame.

Figure 6-2. Wash bottle

No chemical laboratory would be
nation.) Place the hot end on asbes­ complete without a dispenser for dis­
tos paper to cool. (The Bunsen flame tilled water. The device consists of a
anneals the glass.) When the piece 1-liter flask, a two-hole rubber stop­
has cooled, wrap an inch or so of the per, and a pair of specially shaped 6-
rod near the rounded end with a millimetei’ glass tubes as illustrated
single layer of adhesive tape. When (Fig. 6-3). Air blown into the flask
the taped end is chucked in a vertical by the mouth forces water from the
drill press, the piece becomes a motor- nozzle of the longer tube. Make the
driven stirring rod, one that is rela­ longer tube first. In a piece of tubing
tively inert chemically. approximately 40 centimeters long,
pull a constriction with uniform
walls about 27 centimeters from one
A pipette and test tube end. Cut the constriction in the mid­
dle and lightly fire-polish the end.
Articles such as pipettes and test Then cut the tubing about 3 centi­
tubes are so inexpensive that it does meters from the constricted end,
not pay to make them except as prac­ and fire-polish both cut ends. This
tice exercises. Making them can be completes the nozzle. Next, at a point
an effective means for acquiring the about 5 centimeters from the cut end
“feel” of borosilicate glass, however, of the tube, make an angle of approxi­
particularly during the first hour that mately 30-degree bend. The radius of
you work with the material. To make the bend as measured at the center
the pipette, first pull a point in 8-mil- of the tubing should be about 3 centi­
limeter tubing. With the file, cut one meters. Fire-polish the unconstricted
Figure 6-3. taper approximately 6 centimeters end of the tube. Finally, connect the
nozzle to the short end of the bent 159
tube with a short length of rubber Scientific glassware
tubing. (The flexible nozzle permits
the stream of water to be directed as
desired).
Next, cut a second tube to a length
of 16 centimeters, bend a V of 135 de­
grees at a point about 7 centimeters
from one end. Fire-polish both ends. a
Select a rubber stopper that has
been perforated for 6-millimeter glass
tubing, and wet the perforations and
the glass. Assemble the dispenser as
illustrated. (Always wear a thick
leather glove when pushing glass
tubing through the perforations of
rubber stoppers. The glass may shat­
ter when forced into the rubber and
cause a bad cut. Grasp the tubing close
to the stopper.)

Funnels
To acquire the “feel” of borosilicate
glass during an extended flaring oper­
ation make up a pair of funnels, one
conventional and the other of the
thistle-tube type. Stopper one end of
a piece of 12-millimeter heavy­
walled tubing about 40 centimeters
long. Near the center make a constric­
tion 8 millimeters in diameter at the
narrowest point. By stretching the
glass and blowing as required, con­
vert the larger portion of the constric­
tion into a straight taper, as illus­
trated (Fig. 6-4, a, b, c). Cut the tub­
ing at a point about 50 millimeters
beyond the end of the straight taper
(6-4, d). Flare the end just cut to a
diameter of 50 millimeters to make
a cone of approximately 45 angular
degrees (6-4, e). Return the edge of
the flare to the fire and form a 3-mil-
160 A cylindrical graduate
Creative
glass blowing Small graduates and similar vessels
used for measuring the volume of flu­
ids make little demand on the skill of
the glass blower. Such vessels must
be calibrated, however, an operation
that requires the measurement of the
volume in precise intervals as well as
the placement of permanent markings
on the glass, such as fiducial lines,
numerals, and lettering. The fabrica­
'hicken wa tion of a cylindrical graduate demon­
strates the art of marking glass.
Make the graduate 10 milliliters in
capacity of 15-millimeter tubing.
First, form a maria in the middle of
Open bulb Blow a convenient length of the tubing
(Fig. 6-6, a). Burn off the tubing close
limeter bead around the edge. Com­ to the maria on one side and remove
plete the funnel by grasping the top the bleb (6-6, b). Reheat the tip and
in a wire holder and fire-polishing the work the glass to uniform wall thick­
end of the spout (6-4, /). ness by alternately blowing and
Make the thistle tube funnel by shrinking. Then press the end squarely
first pulling a point with thick, broad against a sheet of asbestos papei' that
tapers. (To make the tapers thick and is supported on a flat surface of
broad, heat about twice the normal Transite (6-6, c). The tube is now
F are
length of glass until plastic but stiffer closed by a flat flange that serves as
than normal, just hot enough that you the base of the graduate. Anneal the
can make a pull of about half the nor­ base. Cut the tubing at a point about
mal length.) Open the tip of one taper 12 centimeters from the base, then
for blowing (Fig. 6-5, a). Heat the grasp the maria in a wire holder, and
body of the taper, alternately blowing flare the open end to a diameter of
and returning the glass to the fire until about 18 millimeters (6-6, d). Heat
the wall thickens to about three times one edge of the flare and, with the
its normal weight (6-5, &). Blow a flaring tool, pull the molten glass into
spherical bulb approximately 35 mil­ a spout that protrudes about 6 milli­
limeters in diameter (6-5, c). Burn meters (6-6, e). Stand the vessel up­
Cut and fire-polish off the closed taper, remove the bleb, right on a smooth flat surface. If it
and blow out the area formerly oc­ tends to wobble, make a slurry of No.
cupied by the taper (6-5, d). Flare 120 carborundum grit mixed with
the opening to a diameter of approxi­ water and grind the bottom of the
mately 25 millimeters (6-5, e) and vessel against a piece of *4-inch plate
make a bead around the flared edge glass. Simply grasp the tubing imme­
Figure 6-5. as illustrated (6-5, /). diately above the maria, press it into
the slurry with a force of about 1 161
pound, and grind with an elliptical Scientific glassware
motion (6-6, /). From 20 to 30 strokes
should suffice to remove all high spots.
To calibrate the graduate, stand
the washed and dried vessel on an
analytical balance that is capable of
supporting a load of at least 500
grams and that is sensitive to a
centigram. Add sufficient weight to
the empty pan to balance the beam.
Then add exactly 1 gram of distilled
water to the graduate. (One gram of
water is equal to one milliliter.) Then,
with an artist’s brush, from which
all hairs but one have been removed,
apply a thin line of india ink to the
glass at the level of the bottom of the
meniscus formed by the water. Simi­
larly calibrate the vessel to 10 milli­
liters by adding the second gram of
water, marking the meniscus, and so
on. Finally, divide each milliliter into
10 equal intervals.
The markings may now be made
permanent either by etching, enamel­
ing, or a combination of both. To etch
the piece, first warm the glass to a
temperature of about 180 degrees
Fahrenheit (82°C) and coat the en­
tire surface, both inside and outside,
with a mixture composed of equal
parts of beeswax and ceresin wax.
Let the glass cool to room tempera­
ture. Then, with the ink marks as
guides, cut fiducial lines through the
wax with a steel needlepoint mounted
in the handle of an artist’s brush and
similarly cut appropriate numerals as
illustrated (6-6, </). If frosted mark­
ings are desired, invert the engraved
markings over a shallow container of
hydrofluoric acid for 2 hours. Fumes
from the acid will attack the exposed
glass. All spaces between the edge of Figure 6-6.
162
Creative
glass blowing

the vessel containing the acid and the thick coating is applied, or if the
graduate should be closed with thin enamel is fired to a high gloss, the
sheets of wax of the kind used by color will crack or craze upon cooling
dentists for preparing models of den­ to room temperature. Because the sur­
tures. face of fired enamel is the surface of
Alternatively, hydrofluoric etching the glass, the surface of the piece is
ink of the kind described in Section thus crazed and is weakened accord­
I may be applied directly to the glass. ingly. The borosilicate glasses can
This technique yields polished grooves nonetheless be enameled success­
that are difficult to see. They may be fully by (1) applying the color as
filled with an opaque enamel. If de­ thinly as possible, (2) firing the
sired, enamel may be applied directly enamel only to a semiluster, and (3)
to the surface of unetched glass. This not retiring the ware. The coefficents
results in raised markings. Enamel of thermal expansion of most enamels
is a form of glass that softens at rela­ approach those of the soft glasses.
tively low temperature. It is made in For application to glass, the pow­
a wide range of colors and consists of dered enamels are mixed with an oily
a flux containing lead oxide, boric ox­ vehicle. The mixture may be a thin
ide, silica (plus minor amounts of paste or a thick fluid, depending upon
other oxides that increase the re­ whether it is to be applied by print­
sistance of the material to the action ing, by stenciling, or with a pen. In
of acids and alkalis), and selected me­ quantity production the application is
tallic oxides that impart the color. frequently made by the silk screen
Enamel is sold in the form of a finely process, a form of stenciling. A rela­
milled powder. Like all glasses, it ex­ tively viscous mixture is best for fill­
pands and contracts with changes ing in the depressions of an etched
in temperature. Unfortunately, no piece. The application is made by
enamel has yet been compounded rubbing the color over the grooves and
with a thermal coefficient of expan­ wiping off the excess. The piece is
sion which matches that of the boro­ fired to a temperature of 530 to
silicate glasses. To minimize the 645 degrees Centigrade (988° to
strain that always develops when 1193°F) until the enamel’s surface be­
enamel is fired to borosilicate glass, comes semiglossy. The authors prefer
the color is applied in the thinnest red enamel No. 2330 in squeegee oil
film that provides good visibility and as prepared by B. F. Drakenfeld and
it is fired only to a semigloss. If a Company, New York, New York. For
 163
Scientific glassware

applying enamel to an unetched sur­ ware is Drakenfeld black, No. 2949.

face, we use the procedures recom­ It is applied and fired by the same
mended by Ray Andrews, director of procedures.
research of the B. F. Drakenfeld
Company. Lines are drawn on the
clean glass by a pen equipped with a
The closed-end manometer
crow-quill nib. The “ink” consists of
two parts of No. 2330 powdered To the laboratory that operates a vac­
enamel mixed with one part of ethy­ uum system the closed-end manom­
lene glycol. The mixture is ground in eter is an indispensable instrument
a small ball mill to assure the disper­ for measuring pressures between 1
sion of lumps. and 10 torrs. (Standard atmospheric
For applying numerals and letter­ pressure at sea level is equal to 760
ing, we use an alternate procedure, torrs.) The device consists of a cap-
also recommended by Mr. Andrews, ilary U tube closed at one end. The
that involves a rubber stamp. A film bore may be about 3 millimeters. The
of boiled linseed oil is first applied to bend at the bottom of the U and the
a sheet of plate glass by means of a full length of the closed arm are filled
brayer. The oil film is then picked up with clean, triple-distilled mercury.
from the plate glass by the rubber When the system has been evacuated
stamp and applied to the glass object. below 0.1. torr, the mercury seeks its
Powdered enamel is next picked up own level, and stands midway in both
by a tuft of absorbent cotton and arms of the U. When the vacuum is
dusted on the oil impression. Particles broken, air exerts pressure on the
of color adhere to the tacky oil and mercury in the open arm and drives
produce remarkably sharp lettering. the metal upward against the closed
Firing is done in two stages. The tem­ end. If the vacuum is broken
perature is first raised to 400 degrees abruptly, the metal may strike the
Centigrade (752°F) and maintained closed end with sufficient force to
for 15 minutes. This evaporates the break the glass. To prevent this it is
printing oil. The work is then heated customary to make a constriction
to about 600 degrees Centigrade about % millimeter wide near the bot­
(1112°F) and maintained at this tem­ tom of the closed arm. This narrowed
perature until the enamel takes on the portion of the bore limits the velocity
semigloss finish. Anothei' satisfactory of the rising column of metal and re­
color for marking borosilicate glass­ duces the impact to a safe value.
164 To make the manometer, first seal
Creative one end of a 3-millimeter capillary 30
glass blowing
centimeters long, blow a small bulb,
break off the bulb, and fire-polish the
ragged edge (Fig. 6-7, a). This ex­
pands the bore at the end, a useful
provision for subsequently admitting
mercury to the instrument. Next seal
the opposite end and anneal fully.
Heat a 1-centimeter length of the tub­
ing 12 centimeters from the end just
sealed. Rotate the glass uniformly in
the fire and permit the bore to shrink
to a diameter of % millimeter as
judged by eye, w'ithout pulling or
pushing the ends of the tubing (6-
7, b). Next, at a point 4 centimeters
distant from the open end, bend the
tube to a right angle (6-7, c). Fi­
nally, make the U bend adjacent to the
constriction (6-7, d). The distance be­
tween the arms of the U is not criti­
cal, but the U bend should be made in
the same plane as the right-angled
bend. Next, hold a 20-centimetei’
length of 3-millimetei' capillary tub­
ing over a shallow container, such as
a cake pan, and with a small pipette
place a column of mercury 15 centi­
meters long in the tubing. (The pan
will catch such mercury as may be ac­
cidentally spilled.) Transfer the quan­
tity of mercury so measured to a small
beaker. Next, make a short point in
12- to 15-millimeter tubing. Cut off
the tapers about 2 centimeters from
the bulb. Assemble the bulb to the
completed manometer by means of
Figure 6-7. vacuum rubber tubing. While hold­
ing the open end of the manometer
tubing in the vertical position, pour
the measured quantity of mercury
from the beaker into the bulb, connect
the bulb to the vacuum system, lay
the bulb and U tube on their sides,
and start the pumps (Fig. 6-7, e). is used principally for measuring the 165
When the system has been thoroughly pressure of a gas admitted to a pre­ Scientific glassware
exhausted, return the assembly to the viously exhausted system—as in the
vertical position. The metal will run case of noble gas admitted to a gas
into the capillary and flow to the discharge tube.
closed end. Bubbles that become The device consists of a closed sys­
trapped anywhere along the column, tem: an O tube fitted with a sin­
or at the closed end, can be dislodged gle outlet and a stopcock (Fig. 6-
by rocking the tube in see-saw fash­ 8, I). The O can be considered a slen­
ion and jolting the glass gently. der U closed at the top. The lower
Heating gently to boil the mercury half of the U is filled with butyl
and outgas the glass is helpful but phthalate. With the stopcock open,
hazardous because the fumes of mer­ the system is exhausted to the limit
cury are toxic. The objective is to fill of the pumps. The stopcock is then
the closed arm of the U completely, closed. Any gas subsequently admit­
so that the metal extends as an un­ ted to the system exerts a force on the
broken column through the constric­ fluid in one arm of the U, causing the
tion and around the bend. Air is then fluid to fall in that arm and rise in the
admitted slowly and the filling-bulb is other. The relative pressure above the
removed. The manometer is mounted fluid is read from a metric scale
on an appropriate base which may be mounted adjacent to the two arms.
made of wood and fitted with a scale The instrument is subject to one
that may consist of a 10-centimeter operating hazard: If the manometer
strip of metric graph paper, as illus­ is abruptly connected to an ex­
trated (6-7,/). hausted system before the stopcock is
opened, air trapped beneath the stop­
cock will expand and drive the work­
ing fluid into the vacuum system. To
The open manometer
prevent this accident, bulbs large
A somewhat more elaborate and sen­ enough to contain the working fluid
sitive manometer is one of the open are sealed to the tops of the U, and
type that employs butyl phthalate (or the inlet to one bulb is bent at a right
alternatively any of the oils used in angle, as illustrated (6-8, k).
vacuum pumps of the diffusion type). Making a manometer of this type
The specific gravity of this fluid ap­ will introduce the beginner to the
proaches unity. A pressure of 1 torr problem of fabricating a closed sys­
will therefore support a column of tem that contains a stopcock and a
butyl phthalate 13.5 millimeters triple seal.
high. Because a manometer can be Begin by making a full-scale out­
read with good accuracy to 0.5 milli­ line drawing of the system. Typically,
meter, the butyl phthalate manometer the arms of the U measure approxi­
is capable of measuring pressure dif­ mately 50 centimeters, an adequate
ferences of 0.037 torr, or 37 microns. size for measuring pressure differen­
The instrument indicates relative, not tials of about 35 torrs. Eight-mil­
absolute, pressure. For this reason it limeter tubing may be used. The bulbs
to which the arms of the U are sealed
may be made of 20-millimeter tubing
approximately 15 centimeters long.
The spacing between the arms is not
critical, although it should be ade­
quate for sealing the stopcock in
place.
Make all of the parts before start­
ing the assembly. Pull points for the
two bulbs, burn off one taper, and
open one end of each bulb as illus­
trated (Fig. 6-8, a). Next, make a
maria in a convenient length of 8-mil-
limeter tubing (6-8, 6), draw the tub­
ing to a point on one side of the
maria, bend into a broad U, and cut in
the narrowest zone (6-8, c). Attach
the curved tube and maria to one of
the bulbs and complete the triple seal
(6-8, d). Blow an opening in the oppo­
site end of the bulb in preparation for
making a butt seal between the bulb
and a length of 8-millimeter tubing
(6-8, e). Seal a 20-centimeter length
of 8-millimeter tubing to the opening
of the second bulb (6-8, f) and blow
out the opposite end in preparation
for sealing to 8-millimeter tubing
(6-8, g). Next, make a right-angled
bend in one outlet tube of a stopcock
(6-8, h). The outlet tubes of the stop­
cock should have a diameter of ap­
proximately 8 millimeters. When seal­
ing stopcocks, remove the plug and
clean the glass thoroughly. Close the
openings of the shell with a pair of
corks of the same size. The large end
of the tapered shell opening should be
closed by the large end of a cork.
When heating the outlet tube, keep
the flame at least 2 centimeters from
the shell. When heat must be applied
beneath a stopcock, always shield the
shell with a sheet of asbestos paper.
Next, seal the two bulbs to a
straight length of tubing that will be other types, such as thermocouple 167
bent into the arms of the U. Mark the and ionization gauges. It is a reliable Scientific glassware
center of the tubing with chalk, heat, instrument for measuring permanent
and complete the bend. Seal a side gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen
arm to the inlet about 10 centimeters and the noble gases, but the presence
above the bulb and cut off the tubing of condensable gases, such as water
about 2 centimeters from the seal, as vapor and the vapors of pump oils,
illustrated (6-8, j). Finally, cut the degrades its performance.
outlet tubes of the stopcock to fit and A number of schemes have been
seal into the system. The seal be­ devised for manipulating the mercury
tween the stopcock and bulb should that is used to trap and compress the
be made first. The flexibility of the gas in the reservoir. One simple de­
rigid tubing permits the bent portion sign that is convenient for measuring
of the stopcock tubing to be manipu­ the pressure of helium and neon in a
lated for completing the second seal gas laser tube is illustrated in Figure
(6-8, k). 6-9. In this gauge, mercury is trans­
The manometer may be mounted on ferred between the two bulbs by ro­
a base of plywood by U clamps. Shims tating the instrument in the vertical
of sheet rubber should be placed be­ plane. In the standby position, the
tween the glass and metal clamps. A gauge is horizontal with the larger
scale of metric paper may be cemented bulb at the bottom. The centei' arm of
to a sheet metal base containing slots the device is connected through flex­
for mounting screws. The slots permit ible tubing to the vacuum system. Gas
the scale to be moved up and down for pressure in the gauge then equals
adjusting the zero point to the level that in the system. When the gauge
of the fluid. is rotated to the vertical position,
mercury flows under gravity from the
large bulb into the smaller one (Fig.
6-9, 6). All gas in the gauge beyond
The McLeod gauge the seal of the center arm is trapped
An even more sensitive instrument by the descending column of mer­
for measuring low gas pressures is cury. Accordingly, the gas is com­
the McLeod gauge, essentially a U pressed into the closed-end capillary
tube containing a reservoir of known on top of the smaller bulb. The
volume from which gas is compressed closed-end capillary and the center
by mercury into the closed end of the arm of the gauge constitute a ma­
manometer. The pressure resulting nometer; the difference in the level at
causes a sensible difference in the which mercury stands in the two arms
level of mercury in the two arms of is an absolute measure of the pres­
the U. Such gauges may be designed sure in the system. The pressure
for measuring gas pressures from 10 range of the gauge is determined by
torrs to a millionth of a torr. The the ratio of the volume of the smaller
McLeod gauge measures absolute bulb to the volume of the closed-end
pressure and therefore is used as the capillary. A McLeod gauge made of
standard for calibrating gauges of standard wall tubing 13 millimeters
168
Creative
glass blowing

6 cm
54 mm

18 mm

48 mm

10 cm

33 mm

Figure 6-9, a-h.

5 cm

54 mm

I
 position

in diameter and capillary tubing of 2- d, e) and make the bend as indicated

millimeter bore will have a useful on the layout. Next, remove a taper
range extending from 3 torrs to .01 and blow an opening in the 54-milli­
torr, if made to the dimensions speci- meter bulb. To this opening, seal a
ied by Figure 6-9, a. 20-centimeter length of capillary
To make the gauge, first draw the (6-9, /). Similarly, seal a 20-centime-
layout (6-9, a) full scale on a sheet of ter length of capillary to the 6-centi-
asbestos paper. Pull two points in 13- meter bulb. Remove the remaining
millimcter standard wall tubing: one taper of this bulb and blow the end
with a 54-millimeter bulb and the into a hemisphere. Seal the central
other with a 60-millimeter bulb. At the arm of the manometer to a 29-centi-
end of a convenient length of 8-mil- meter length of capillary at a point
10 centimeters from the 6-centimeter x and y
limeter standard wall tubing blow a
spherical bulb of 18 millimeters in bulb as indicated in 6-9, g and on the
outside diameter (6-9, c). layout. Finally heat and make the bend
Check the dimensions of each part, indicated (6-9, h~).
as made, against the layout. Open the Because the structure that has been
spherical bulb and to it seal a 20- made in this way is fragile, me-
centimeter length of capillary (6-9,
170
Creative
glass blowing chanically, it should be braced. Braces
may be added. First, heat and close
the end of the capillary of the 54-
millimeter bulb. In making the clos­
ure, pull a bleb from the capillary and
bend it at a right angle with respect
to the plane of the gauge so that it
stands out about 8 millimeters. The
brace will be fused to this stub (6-9,
Z). Fuse a similar stub to the 18-milli-
meter bulb. Finally, fuse the end of a
6-millimeter rod to the 6-centimeter
bulb, and bend it into position for
sealing first to the stub on the 18-mil-
limeter bulb and next to the stub at
the end of the 83-millimeter capil­
lary, as illustrated (6-9, j). Anneal
all seals and bends. (If the instru­
ment is made of soft glass, the entire
gauge must be annealed in an oven.)
The completed glasswork is
mounted as illustrated (6-9, fc). The
mounting includes a scale plotted in
torr that is placed adjacent to the
closed capillary, the zero graduation
coinciding with the closed end. Grad­
uations representing higher pres­
sures are plotted at appropriate dis­
tances below the zero graduation.
Only two quantities must be deter­
mined to compute the locations of the
graduations: (1) the volume of the
closed capillary plus the volume of
the bulb to which it is attached and
the volume of the capillary that con­
nects this bulb to the middle leg of
the gauge; (2) the cross-sectional
area of the closed capillary.
To measure the volume, first weigh
the glassware (to a tenth of a gram),
then fill the volume to be determined
with mercury, and weigh it again.
vacuum
system Figure 6-9, i-k. Subtract the weight of the glass from
 171
Scientific glassware

that of the glass and the mercury A gas-air mixer

combined to determine the net weight
of the mercury. Divide the net weight Serviceable mixers for combining the
of the mercury by .0135 to determine gas and air supply for a glass fire can
the volume of the glassware in cubic be made of glass. When provided with
millimeters. The cross-sectional area air compressed to approximately 1
of a 2-millimeter capillary is approxi­ pound per square inch (equivalent to
mately 3 square millimeters. the weight of a column of water 27.7
To determine the distance in mil­ inches in height), the device will de­
limeters at which mercury will stand liver fuel to the burners at a pressure
below the zero graduation for any of 6 ounces or more (equivalent to
pressure, first multiply the volume about 10.4 inches of water). The pre­
just measured by the given pressure. cise pressure at which fuel is deliv­
Then divide this product by the cross- ered, as well as the ratio of gas to air,
sectional area of the closed capillary. is controlled by needle valves or stop­
The square root of this quotient is corks inserted in the gas and air in­
equal to the distance in millimeters. lets to the device. The capacity of the
For example, assume that the position mixer is fixed by the diameter of the
of the graduation is desired for a air jet and the small end of the ven­
pressure of 1.5 torr, that the volume turi tube. In an appropriate mixer for
of the closed capillary and its associ­ supplying fuel to a burner consisting
ated bulb and connecting tubing is of a single No. 3151 JC glass fire,
4500 cubic millimeters, and that the which has a fuel capacity of 1825
cross-sectional area of the closed cap­ Btu per hour, the air jet should have
illary is 3 square millimeters. The dis­ a diameter of about 1 millimeter and
tance between the zero graduation the diameter of the venturi inlet
and the desired graduation is then would be about 4 millimeters.
equal to the square root of 1.5 x The diameter of the jet is made
4500/3, or 47.4 millimeters. To com­ proportionately larger for supplying
pute the entire scale, make a list of burners of greater capacity. In the
selected pressure intervals, such as case of a crossfire that uses a total of
.1, .5, 1, 1.5, and so on, and do the ten No. 3151 glass fires with a ca­
arithmetic. Plot the resulting dis­ pacity of 18,250 Btu per hour, for ex­
tances in millimeters as graduations ample, the diameter of the jet would
on a cardboard scale and cement it to be increased to approximately 3 mil­
the closed capillary with the zero in­ limeters and the venturi inlet to about
dication adjacent to the closed end. If 9 millimeters. The dimensions are
the volume of the closed capillary, its not particularly critical. Errors of as
associated bulb, and connecting tub­ much as 50% can be tolerated.
ing is approximately 4500 cubic mil­ To fabricate a mixer of this type,
limeters, a 75-millimeter scale will first make the usual full-scale outline
span the range of pressure from 0 to 3 drawing of the device, as depicted in
torrs. Figure 6-10, j. Then pull a point of ap-
172
Creative
glass blowing

propriate size (6-10, a) and shrink glass may contract and reduce the
the bulb in the middle (6-10, b). The diameter of the opening.
inside diameter of the narrowest zone Now seal the maria to the shell of
of the constriction should equal the the mixer. If the layout was followed
size of the desired venturi opening. closely when the parts were made, the
Soften the glass on one side of the tip of the nozzle will extend just in­
constriction and pull it to form the side the inlet of the venturi and pro­
conical portion of the venturi, which vide support for the nozzle when the
is equal in length to approximately triple seal is made. The softened glass
five times the diameter of the narrow will tend to sag under gravity but, by
end (6-10, c). Next, reheat the glass keeping an eye on the venturi and ro­
beyond the end of the venturi and pull tating the work, you can keep the
into a tube with straight walls equal nozzle centered in the opening of the
in diameter to the large end of the venturi. If this operation proves to be
venturi (6-10, d, e). Convert the end too difficult, support the tip of the
of the straight portion into a conven­ nozzle by means of a holder made of a
tional hose connection, burn off, and wooden dowel with a stiff wire pro­
open as illustrated (6-10, /). This jecting into the nozzle (6-10, h). Com­
completes the shell of the mixer. plete the piece by sealing a side arm
The nozzle is made by first forming to the shell for admitting gas (6-10, i)
a maria in a convenient length of 8- and convert both this side arm and the
or 10-millimeter tubing (depending air inlet into serrated hose connec­
upon the desired capacity of the tions (6-10, /). i
unit). Make a constriction 2 centime­
Figure 6-10. ters beyond the maria (6-10, g). When
the constriction is cut, the portion at­
A simple condenser
tached to the maria becomes the
nozzle. The diameter of the nozzle The separation of substances accord­
must be judged by eye when the con­ ing to differences in vapor pressure
striction is pulled. Do not fire-polish by the process of distillation has been
the tip of the nozzle; the softened a favored procedure of the chemical
 173
Scientific glassware

laboratory almost from the days when

the first alchemist set out to brew the
elixir of life. Up to the turn of the
present century glass stills continued Serrate
to take the form of the alchemist’s re­
tort—a simple boiler consisting of a
glass bulb that opened into a slender,
tapered spout bent at a right angle
close to the bulb. Vapors condensed
in the air-cooled spout. Modern stills
still employ glass bulbs for boilers but
the spout has been displaced by the
more effective water-cooled con­
denser, a device that incorporates one
or more triple seals that are subjected
to widely differing temperatures. The
high resistance of the borosilicate
materials to thermal shock made pos­
sible the construction of the modern
glass condensers.
The simple condenser consists of a )
straight tube surrounded by a jacket
through which cooling water is cir­
culated (Fig. 6-11, d). Vapors enter­
ing the tube condense on the chilled
walls. The effectiveness of the device Gas inlet
varies directly with the length of the
cooled tube, a dimension that is fixed
by the nature of the materials to be
distilled. Normally, the cooled tube is
attached at the ends to the sur-
174
Creative
glass blowing (Fig. 6-11, a). Make the water jacket
of 25-millimetei' tubing and to one end
seal a length of 13-millimeter tubing.
Cut this tubing to a length of about
3 centimeters and to it seal a conven­
ient length of 8-millimeter tubing
(6-11 b). Complete the jacket by add­
ing the hose connections, closing
the large end, and blowing in it an
opening about 11 millimeters in diam­
Flare eter (6-11, c). Assemble the innei’
iviaria tubing and the water jacket and make
the triple seal. Blow the seal to a
nicely rounded contour. The flare of
the center tube will rest against and
be supported by the inner wall of the
13-millimeter section of the jacket
while the triple seal is made. Finally,
make the ring seal. Both sides of this
seal must be blown. You can accom­
plish this by fitting the blowing hose
with a Y connection. Connect one arm
of the Y to one of the hose connections
and the other arm to the 8-millimeter
tubing. Stopper the remaining hose
connection and the other end of the
8-millimeter tubing. Anneal the com­
pleted piece.

The Graham condenser

The amount of heat liberated by a va­
rounding jacket by means of triple por when condensing to the liquid
seals. We have simplified the struc­ phase varies with the nature of the
ture by substituting a ring seal for substance. Water vapor, for example,
Figure 6-11. one of the triple seals. releases more heat than the vapor of
Having made an outline drawing alcohol. For this reason the cooling
of the apparatus, form a maria about tube of a condenser designed for dis­
12 millimeters in diameter in the mid­ tilling water must be made longer
dle of a 40-centimeter length of 8-mil- than one designed for distilling alco­
limeter tubing and flare one end to a hol, indeed, awkwardly long. There is
diameter of about 10 millimeters no such size problem with the Graham
 175
Scientific glassware
condenser, which contains a condens­
ing tube in the form of a helix.
The sequence of operations for
making a Graham condenser is begun
by forming the coil, as described in
Section IV. Add a maria and flare to
the straight ends of the helix, as il­
lustrated (Fig. 6-12, a). Then prepare
the water jacket of appropriate tub­
ing for housing the coil. Close one end Asbestos
and blow an opening through which support

the coil is threaded (6-12, b). The as­

sembled coil is supported by a holder
of asbestos tape and inserted in the
open end of the water jacket. Then
make the triple seal and add the adja­
cent hose connection before the seal
cools (6-12 c). It is always desirable
to install water connections close
enough to the ends of the coil that as
many turns as possible are exposed to
running water. Triple seals are se­
verely stressed when reheated because
the fire acts only against the outer
parts of the glass. For this reason wa­
ter connections or other parts that
must be installed close to a ring seal
should be added before the triple seal
cools. The hose connections may be
prepared in advance and kept hot over
a separate burner while the triple seal
Glass-to-metal seals
is being made. When the connection
has been sealed, remove the asbestos Frequent occasion arises for sealing
holder, shrink the water jacket into glass to metal. For example, a handy
contact with the flare at the end of the dissection needle can be quickly im­
coil (as indicated by the dotted lines provised by pushing the eye-end of a
in 6-12, c), burn off the excess glass heavy darning needle into the molten Figure 6-12.
of the jacket, and blow the opening at end of a glass rod. Holders of various
the end of the coil. Add the second kinds can be similarly made of glass
hose connection (6-12, d) and com­ rod and short lengths of wire or sliv­
plete the remaining triple seal by ers of sheet metal. Almost any kind of
adding a convenient length of tubing glass and most of the base metals, if
that matches the coil (6-12, e). not more than a millimeter in diame­
176
Creative
glass blowing

ter, can be so joined. The bonds have the seal is made, the molten glass
reasonable strength. In general, how­ must “wet” the metal. This is an easy
ever, the thermal coefficient of expan­ requirement. The metal need only be
sion of metal greatly exceeds that of oxidized slightly at its point of con­
glass. Copper, for example, expands tact with the glass. The glass dis­
167 parts in 10 million for each degree solves the oxide and in effect unites
Centigrade of temperature rise, with the metal in a smooth chemical
whereas soft glass, such as Corning transition. The two materials are
code 0080, expands 92 parts in 10 mil­ compatible because glass is composed
lion for each degree, and Pry ex 7740 largely of metallic oxides.
expands only 32.5 parts. As the The thermal coefficients of expan­
joint cools, the metal contracts more sion of only two metals approximately
than the glass and tends either to pull match those of common glasses. Plati­
away from the bond or to set up a se­ num, which expands 90 parts per 10
vere strain in the glass. A steel rod 1 million per degree Centigrade, is an
millimeter in diameter, if sealed to excellent match with the soft glasses
soft glass, would contract about 5 such as soda lime and lead that ex­
microns upon cooling from the an­ pand from about 87 to 92 parts per 10
nealing temperature of soft glass to million. Tungsten expands 48 parts
room temperature. Although the seal per 10 million per degree Centigrade,
would doubtless appear mechanically compared with Corning 7740 Pyrex
strong, the chances are great that the at 32.5 parts and 7720 Pyrex (better
metal would pull away from the glass, known as “Nonex”) at 36 parts per
a matter of no consequence in the case 10 million per degree Centigrade.
of a dissection needle. But a seal even Uranium glass (Corning No. 3320)
slightly cracked could not be tolerated expands 40 parts per 10 million per
in an incandescent lamp bulb or other degree Centigrade. As suggested by
application involving high vacuum. these data, platinum of any size can
The joint would leak. For sealing be sealed directly to the soft glasses
leads or other metal parts into vessels to form a vacuum-tight joint. A simi­
that must be exhausted and main­ lar seal can be made between tung­
tained at low pressure, the thermal sten and either 7720 glass or 3320
coefficients of expansion of the metal glass. These glasses, in turn, seal to
and glass must match within about 7740 Pyrex. Oddly enough, copper,
1 part per million. Moreover, when which expands 168 parts per 10 mil-
 177
Scientific glassware

lion parts per degree Centigrade, can small laboratories have access to ther­
be sealed to any glass. This is made mostatically controlled hydrogen
possible by the great ductility of furnaces, we will not discuss the use
copper. Plastic flow in the metal re­ of these alloys. Those who wish to
lieves the stress of the cooling seal be­ pursue the topic are referred to the
fore it reaches the breaking point of excellent professional reference, Sci­
the glass. The technique of making entific and Industrial Glass Blowing
such seals was developed in the early and Laboratory Techniques, by W. E.
1920’s by William G. Housekeeper of Barr and Victor J. Anhorn (Instru­
the Western Electric Company. ments Publishing Company, Pitts­
Subsequently, a number of alloys burgh, Pa. 1959).
with thermal coefficients of expansion
that closely approximate those of spe­
cially compounded glasses, as well as
Dumet seals
those of conventional soft glasses,
have been compounded. Most, such as One alloy that is compatible with the
Kovar, developed by the Westing­ soft glasses requires no degassing.
house Electric Company, and Fernico, This is a copper-coated composition
a product of the General Electric of nickel and iron known as Dumet.
Company, are compounded princi­ The alloy is used for sealing leads
pally of nickel, cobalt, and iron. They into electric lamp bulbs, in electrodes
made possible the development of the of neon signs, and so on. Dumet
“all-metal” electron tubes. Another comes in the form of wire in sizes
is Sealmet, a product of the Higrade ranging from about 20 to 28 gauge,
Sylvania Corporation. Unfortunately, precut to a length of about 6 centi­
these alloys require extended heat meters. Normally, the wire is inserted
treatment at about 1000 degrees Cen­ through the end of a glass tube of ap­
tigrade (1832°F) in an atmosphere propriate diameter and sealed by
of hydrogen bubbled through water, softening the glass and squeezing the
and they must be used within a ends of the glass and the wire to­
few hours of this degassing proce­ gether. The result is known as a
dure. If the alloys are not so treated, “press seal.”
fine bubbles appear in the seal that To make a seal using Dumet leads,
weaken the bond and cause leaks. Be­ first soften the end of a tube as in
cause few beginners, students, or Figure 6-13, a. Crimp but do not com-
178 letely close the softened end (6-13,
Creative 6). Insert the Dumet leads. (It should
glass blowing be noted at this point that some de­
vice will usually be connected to the
inner ends of the leads—perhaps a
cylindrical electrode, a filament, or a
miniature metallic crucible contain­
ing a substance such as an alkali
metal. If so, the metal assembly may
be inserted in the open end of the tube
with the Dumet leads facing the par­
tially closed end.) Then incline the
tube so the assembly slides to the par­
tially closed end with the leads pro­
truding (6-13, c). Soften the glass,
squeeze into intimate contact with the
metal, stretch about 3 millimeters,
and then heat strongly to assure that
it wets the metal (6-13, d). Surface
tension will thicken the molten glass
(6-13, e). Restore the seal to its for­
mer thickness by squeezing the end
/||t Seal
with a pair of tweezers (6-13, /). An­
neal (6-13, g).

Sealing tungsten to
borosilicate glass

/Gas-tight seals between tungsten and

borosilicate glass are not quite as
easy to make as those between Dumet
and the soft glasses. The metal itself
tends to be leaky. Tungsten is re­
claimed from its ore as a powder that
is subsequently converted into billets
by sintering. The billets tend to be
tungsten to 3320 glass slightly porous. Wire drawn from
them may contain microscopic chan­
k nels capable of conducting gases. To
make the wire gas-tight another
3320 glass ready metal such as nickel may be butt-
for sealing to
Pyrex welded to the ends. Tungsten wire
used for conducting electric current
Figure 6-13. through glass is usually made by
welding a flexible coppei* lead to one the glass of a good seal ranges from 179
end and a nickel wire to the other yellow to reddish-brown. A film of ox­ Scientific glassware
(Fig. 6-13, h). Such leads are avail­ ide that is too thick causes a black in­
able commercially. terface. Such seals may occasionally
Tungsten oxide does not enter into be corrected by maintaining the glass
solution with molten glass as readily in the molten state for a minute or so.
as does copper oxide. Yet, the glass If the treatment is successful, the
must dissolve the oxide down to the black interface will turn reddish-
metal if the seal is to be gas-tight. brown. Conversely, oxide films of in­
A thick, partially dissolved film of sufficient thickness do not make good
oxide may leak. In addition, tungsten seals. The glass does not adequately
must be degassed before it is sealed wet the metal. The interface has the
to glass, or bubbles will form at the color of the unoxidized tungsten.
interface between the glass and the The metal must always be coated by
metal. The bubbles weaken the seal a glass that has a thermal coefficient of
and may encourage a leak. Finally, expansion intermediate between that
the thermal coefficient of expansion of of tungsten and that of Pyrex. If the
tungsten differs so much from that of thickness of the wire does not greatly
Pyrex glass that the two must be exceed 1 millimeter, we use Corning
joined through a glass of intermedi­ 3320 (uranium glass) or Corning
ate expansion, a so-called “sealing” 7720 (Nonex). For thicker wires, we
glass, if the metal is more than % mil- fuse 3320 glass to the metal, 7720
limeter thick. glass to the 3320, and Pyrex 7740
We recommend the use of commer­ to the 7720—a structure known as a
cially prepared tungsten leads, those graded seal. (See the table at the end
that have been plugged by butt-weld­ of Section I, page 18.)
ing. The tungsten portion of the lead To apply the sealing glass to the
is degassed by bringing the metal to wire, first draw an 8-millimeter tube
white heat in an oxygen-enriched fire. of 3320 glass to an inside diame­
After the metal cools to a dull red, rub ter slightly ■ larger than that of the
the tungsten against a lump of potas­ metal. Cut the small tube to the same
sium nitrate and wash thoroughly in length as the tungsten to be covered
distilled water. This treatment should (Fig. 6-13, z). Slip the tube over the
remove the oxide. If blotches of dark lightly oxidized wire and fuse it in
oxide remain, repeat the treatment place by concentrating the heat on
until they disappear. Then reoxidize one end of the glass tubing. As the
lightly by heating the tungsten to glass shrinks into contact with the
dull red for a few seconds. The thick­ metal, move the heat gradually to the
ness of the resulting oxide film var­ other end (6-13, j). All air must be
ies with both the temperature and the squeezed from the interface by the
heating time, quantities that must be shrinking glass. Cool the seal slowly
determined by experiment. A film of to minimize the development of strain
correct thickness is easy to identify (6-13, k).
after the seal has cooled. The color of Tungsten so coated may be used in
the interface between the metal and a press seal, just as Dumet is sealed
180 to soft glass. Alternatively, a single tion, the property that accounts for
Creative lead may be sealed through the wall the usefulness of the substance as a
glass blowing
of a bulb or other apparatus by apply­ welding flux. Sheet copper up to 0.5
ing the sealing glass to the metal in millimeter in thickness and 25 milli­
the form of a bead. The bead is then meters in width may be similarly
sealed into a hole of smaller diameter sealed.
in the Pyrex. Incidentally, tungsten Copper tubing is prepared for
is a relatively brittle substance at sealing to glass tubing by filing or
room temperature. It may be bent if otherwise sharpening the end of the
heated to a bright red. copper to a feather edge at an angle of
approximately 10 degrees (6-14, g).
A holder of some sort must be im­
Housekeeper seals provised that will plug the tubing and
enable you to manipulate the hot
Coppei' in any one of four shapes r — metal. We use a tapered plug of
wire, thin sheet, tubes, or disks-—may Transite into which a handle of 8-
be sealed to either the soft or the millimeter glass rod is cemented with
borosilicate glasses. If you are using sodium silicate. Coat the heated tube
wire, first flatten the section that will with borax and then seal into a glass
come in contact with the glass to tube just large enough to slip over the
a thickness of not more than 0.5 milli­ end of the metal. The glass must not
meter and then file the edges to extend beyond the point at which the
knife-sharpness (Fig. 6-14, a, b, c). thickness of the copper exceeds 0.5
As viewed in cross section, the flat­ millimetei' (6-14, h). Then burn off
tened and sharpened portion may take the glass just beyond the end of the
the form of a parallelogram (6-14, d). metal and blow off the resulting bulb
Heat the piece until the color changes (6-14, z). Coat the inner surface of the
to a reddish-brown, indicating the metal by spinning the unattached por­
formation of a light film of oxide, and tion of the glass over the edge by
immediately paint it with a concen­ by means of a flaring tool (6-14, j).
trated solution of borox or drop it Promptly seal the glass coating to
into the solution (6-14, e). For a any desired tubing before the metal
solution, the Borateem variety used as cools (6-14, k). Pyrex can be joined
a household detergent works nicely. successfully to soft glass via a cop­
When dry, the wire should be uni­ per sleeve, and successful seals as
formly covered by a white film of large as 15 centimeters in diameter
borax. The metal may then be incor­ have been made. They are rather weak
porated into a press seal. Confine the mechanically, but vacuum-tight. When
molten glass to the flattened portion joining Pyrex to soft glass by this
of the wire and concentrate the fire technique, make the Pyrex-to-metal
more on the glass than on the metal seal first.
(6-14, /). Heat converts the borax into Occasion also arises for closing the
a form of glass that not only helps to end of glass tubing with a metal disk
dissolve the oxide but shields the cop­ in some types of gas discharge tubes
per from excessive additional oxida­ and for sealing electrical conductors
 181
Scientific glassware

Flatten wire

Top

Paint with
borax solution

Press seal

Blow

Figure 6-14.
182 of large diameter into evacuated ap­
Creative paratus. Copper disks of any desired
glass blowing
diametei' and up to 0.5 millimeter in
thickness seal readily to the flared
ends of glass tubing. Just heat and
lightly oxidize the disk, drop it while
it is hot into the concentrated solu­
tion of borax, and dry (Fig. 6-15, a).
Place the disk on a hot block of
carbon and bring the softened edge
of the flare lightly into contact with
the copper. The glass will melt the
borax and adhere to the tacky film
(6-15, b). Pick up the adhering disk
with the glass and make a conven­
tional butt seal to a second tube that
has been flared to the same diameter
(6-15, c, d). Pull a point in the sec­
ond tube close to the disk (6-15, e).
By blowing and simultaneously pull­
ing, expand this point into a long,
thin bulb (6-15, /). Strike off the bulb
and remove the jagged edges by
stroking with a piece of wire screen­
ing that has been tacked to a wooden
paddle (6-15, g). Fire-polish the edges
and anneal (6-15, A).
A conductor can be supported by
the disk, of course. Simply drill the
disk, insert a conductor of the de­
sired size, and braze it in place with
an alloy that melts at a reasonably
high temperature, such as silver
solder. Drop the hot brazed assembly
into a pickling solution consisting of
one part of sulfuric acid in nine parts
of tap water. The pickling solution
removes the excessive oxide formed
by the brazing operation. Rinse the
piece thoroughly to remove the acid.
Then reheat to oxidize lightly and
coat with borax (6-15, Z). Support the
and anneal metal assembly in the flared glass
tube by means of a roll of asbes­
Figure 6-15. tos tape, as illustrated (6-15, ;). Make
the seal and form the glass ring on 183
the outside of the disk as previously Scientific glassware
explained (6-15, fc).
In general, Housekeeper seals are
relatively weak, mechanically. They a
are also subject to attack by a num­
ber of chemicals as well as by Mer­
cury. They may be electroplated eas­
ily, however, and thus protected
against selected substances.

A helium-neon laser tube

One of the more important scientific
advances of the middle twentieth cen­
tury has been the development of the
laser, actually a family of devices
used for generating an intense beam
of coherent light—light of a single
frequency in which all waves travel in 57 cm
step. A detailed discussion of coher­
ent light and laser technology is be­ 57 centimeters (including the end
yond the scope of this volume but the windows) (6-16,5).
fabrication of an amplifier tube of The capillary assembly may be
the helium-neon type is a nice exer­ made of borosilicate glass but the en­
cise for the beginner. When filled with velope should be of lead glass which,
a mixture of seven parts of helium in contrast with the borosilicate
and one part of neon, at a pressure of glasses, is relatively impervious to
2.7 torrs, and inserted between a pair helium. Short side arms are first
of appropriate mirrors, this tube will, sealed to the envelope tube, two for
when energized, develop a beam of co­ the subsequent attachment of elec­
herent light of 3-milliwatt intensity trodes at the ends and one for con­
at a wavelength of 6328 Angstroms. necting a gas reservoir, as illustrated
The tube consists of a 2-millimeter (6-16, b). The envelope must not be
capillary equipped with enlarged ends permitted to bend during the attach­
(short lengths of 10-millimeter tub­ ment of the side arms. If desired, the
ing) that make a snug fit with an tube may be held in alignment during Figure 6-16.

envelope of 13-millimeter tubing (Fig. the sealing operation by means of a

6-16, n). supporting fixture of the type previ­
The envelope of the tube, when ously described (see page 119). The
used between spherical mirrors of 60- reservoir should have a minimum
centimeter focal length (a typical length of 30 centimeters. A side arm
size), may have an overall length of of the reservoir supports a so-called
184 “KIC getter” assembly, a pair of min­ inders; the inner surface of each is
Creative iature crucibles of nickel-iron alloy coated lightly by a mixture of barium
glass blowing
that contain a few milligrams of me­ strontium carbonate suspended in col­
tallic barium. (The getters are com­ lodion that has been diluted by 100
mercial items.) When heated by a parts of acetone. (The solution may be
current of 7 amperes, the vaporized applied with the end of a cotton
barium condenses as a black film on swab, in case you make your own.)
the walls of the glass where it unites The coated electrodes are spot-
chemically with gaseous impurities in welded to a pair of Dumet wires.
the helium-neon gas mixture and thus (Two- wires are used for good me­
immobilizes the impurities. chanical support.) The getters are
Proceed in the following sequence connected in series with the Dumet
when fabricating the tube: first add leads. Seal the reservoir to the en­
one of the side arms at the end, and velope, add the brace and then the
equip it with a side arm of 6-mil- electrodes. Finally, attach end win-
limeter tubing. Form a small dimple . dows of fused quartz, 1 millimeter in
in the envelope on the inner side of thickness, to the envelope by means
the seal. The dimple serves as a stop of epoxy cement.
for restricting the movement of the
capillary assembly. Then add the side
arm for the reservoir. After the work
The Urey apparatus
has cooled, insert the capillary assem­
bly, add the third side arm, and form An interesting apparatus, which in­
the second dimple. The edge of this volves sealing platinum directly to
dimple should not make contact with borosilicate glass and the fabrication
the enlarged end of the capillary. Al­ of a heating unit as an integral part
low a clearance of about 2 millime­ of the glasswork, is the tube devised
ters. Anneal the envelope assembly. by the chemist Harold Urey for sim­
Annealing will require the use of an ulating the origin of amino acids, the
oven. Next, cut the ends of the envel­ building blocks of life, in the earth’s
ope tubing at an angle of 34 degrees, primordial seas. As the earth’s early
34 minutes and precisely in the same environment was reconstructed in
plane of orientation. This may be ac­ theory by Urey and associates, the
complished with the use of either initial atmosphere consisted prima­
a carborundum wheel or a hacksaw rily of a mixture of hydrogen, meth­
equipped with a copper blade fed with ane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and
a slurry of carborundum grit. (For water vapor. The hot earth kept the
comprehensive details on a simple and seas near the boiling point. Lightning
inexpensive technique of cutting laser continuously ionized the gases, en­
tubes at this critical angle, see “The couraging the molecules to recombine
Amateur Scientist,” Scientific Ameri­ in new and increasingly complex com­
can, December, 1964.) The electrodes pounds. Urey postulated that the
of the laser may be made or pur­ amino acids would appear among the
chased. Standard neon sign electrodes compounds thus synthesized. To test
may be used. They consist of iron cyl­ this contention a tube was con-
structed of borosilicate glass that con­
tained some 200 millimeters of sterile
water. The volume above the water
was filled with the postulated mixture
of gases. Spark discharges between
platinum electrodes near the top of
the envelope simulated lightning. The
water was kept at the boiling point
by a mantle of nichrome wire ener­
gized by an electric current. After the
tube had operated continuously for a
week, the water turned pink. Analysis
proved that the solution now con­
tained some eight of the twenty amino
acids. Other experimenters have now
synthesized the remaining acids,
some of which have spontaneously
combined into structures that may
constitute the beginning of the living
cell. lope (6-17, bl). While the seal is hot
The construction involves in part add the adacent hose connection
sealing a 25-millimeter tube inside a (6-17, b6). In making these seals,
35-millimeter envelope. All parts are stopper one end of the envelope and
made of Corning 7740 Pyrex. The in­ use the other end for blowing the
ner tube must be supported by a spe­ seals to correct contour. A blowing
cial holder when the seals are made. hose fitted with an appropriate
An adequate holder can be made by adapter may be employed if desired.
pulling a point on a 20-centimetei' The remaining ring seal is now made.
length of 20-millimeter tubing, re­ Both sides of this seal must be blown,
moving the taper, blowing out the of course. This may be accomplished
end, and sealing a convenient length conveniently by coupling the blowing
of 8-millimeter tubing to the open­ hose to both the open end of the en­
ing. A roll of asbestos tape on the 20- velope and the inlet of the water
millimeter tube makes a snug fit with jacket by a Y fitting made of 8-milli­
the interior wall of the envelope (Fig. meter tubing. While the seal is hot,
6-17, a). The electrodes (6-17, b2) add the second hose connection. The
consist of 20-gauge platinum wire bottom of the envelope may now be
with flattened zones filed to sharp closed. Add the stopcocks (6-17, b3,
edges for sealing by the Housekeeper b7). Seal the brace to the inlet tube
(1923) technique. Platinum seals to of the upper stopcock (6-17, b3) at a
Pyex by this technique as readily as point about 2 centimeters from the
does copper. Begin the assembly by shell. Seal the other end of the brace
inserting the holder and sealing one to the envelope. Finally, add the elec­
end of the 25-millimeter water jacket trodes. Use an electrode holder when
(6-17, b5) to the 35-millimeter enve­ making the seals.
186
Creative
glass blowing

Seal venturi
tube at top

i, Asbestos holders Asbestos

holder

assembly

Table of dimensions for diffusion pump (Fig. 6-18)

Part number Diameter in millimeters Length in millimeters

25 30
35 240
18 60
15 65
25 150
8 35
8 96
10 60
9 8 30
10 8 210
Figure 6-18. 11 60 60
12 8 35
***
13 25

* Inner diameter of the constriction, 7 millimeters

** inner diameter of the nozzle, 3 millimeters
*** Adjust for overall pump length of 480 millimeters
 The heating mantle is made by chased or made. Currently, mercury 187
wrapping the bottom of the envelope diffusion pumps capable of exhaust­ Scientific glassware
with two layers of asbestos paper 12 ing gases at the rate of 3 liters per
centimeters in width. Saturate the pa­ second are priced at about $100. The
per with sodium silicate (water glass of which they are made is worth
glass) when the wrapping is made about $2. The artisan who has com­
and tie it in place with a few turns of pleted all the exercises in this volume
thread. Over the paper wind a single will find that an adequate diffusion
layer coil of nichrome wire. Space the pump of this size is not difficult to
turns at least 2 millimeters apart. make by hand. (See Fig. 6-8, a and
Suitable wire for the heater is Plate 9).
available in the form of a 300-watt re­ First make up the parts, the noz­
placement unit at most hardware zle of the first-stage jet (6-18, a4,
stores. The units come in the form of alO), the boiler (6-18, all), the
a helix. The wire can be straightened venturi (6-18, a5), the trap (6-18,
by slipping one end of the helix over a alO), the boiler (6-18, all), and the
finishing nail clamped in a vise. Sim­ flue (6-18, al3), observing the dimen­
ply grasp the end of the wire with a sions listed in the table. In a pump of
pair of pliers and pull. The coil read­ this type, mercury vapor from the
ily unwinds. Apply a second wrapping boiler enters the second nozzle. Here
of asbestos paper over the heating the flow divides, and part of the vapor
coil, saturate the paper with sodium escapes through three equally spaced
silicate, and bind it in place with four holes in the throat of the second-stage
or five loops of tie wire. The heater is nozzle and enters the throat of the
operated from a variable voltage first-stage nozzle. The holes should
transformer, such as a Variac. When have a diameter of about 3 millime­
the sodium silicate dries, the tube is ters and may be “picked” in the bulge
ready for use. (as drawn to scale in Fig. 6-18, 6).
The technique of picking holes is dis­
cussed on page 123 of Section IV.
This stage is assembled to the first-
A two-stage mercury stage nozzle (6-18, a4) by a ring seal
diffusion pump (6-18, c). Anneal. The subassembly is
Few modern laboratories, particularly next sealed to the water jacket (6-18,
those concerned with the disciplines a2). A point is first pulled on one end
of physics or chemistry, are complete of the water jacket to serve as a han­
without a high vacuum system com­ dle. The second-stage nozzle is cen­
posed of at least a mechanical fore­ tered in the jacket by a holder of as­
pump and a two-stage diffusion bestos paper and a second holder fit­
pump. Adequate forepumps can be ted to the open end of the jacket
improvised from used refrigerator to serve as a handle for making the
compressors by removing the check ring seal, as illustrated (6-18, d). Af­
valve and using the former exhaust ter this seal is complete, and the
port as the inlet. Diffusion pumps, on holders have been removed, anneal the
the other hand, must be either pur­ work. After it cools, seal the upper
188 end of the venturi (6-18, 25) to the materials are combined and fired, the
Creative jacket (6-18, e). When making mixture becomes lime glass. (For titles
glass blowing
this seal support the venturi by of books on glass making, see the
a holder of the type suggested in bibliography, page 191.)
the illustration. Carefully center the The mass can be transformed into
nozzle of the second stage in the ven­ rod or tubing by means of two simple
turi constriction before the glass tools: a convenient length of iron pipe
hardens. Add the upper hose connec­ and an iron rod capped with a disk of
tion of the water jacket before the iron. The latter tool, called a puntil
ring seal cools (6-18, a6). Next, seal (pronounced “punty”), may be made
on the side arm that serves as the in­ by welding an iron washer about 2
let of the pump (6-18, a3). The lower inches in diameter to the end of an
end of the venturi is sealed to the iron rod % inch in diameter. The
jacket. The second hose connection molten glass is gathered on the iron
(6-18, al2) and exhaust tube (6-18, pipe and partially blown as discussed
a8) are added while the glass is hot. (page 113). If tubing is desired, the
The remaining seals may be made in disk of the puntil is first heated and
any desired sequence. attached to the outer end of the bulb
by a helper. Tubing is formed by si­
multaneously blowing and stretching
A final recommendation the bubble as the artisan and his
helper move apart. A moist wooden
The individual who becomes profi­ board may be placed on the floor for
cient in the simple arts discussed in catching the soft tubing. To make
this volume will discover that the fas­ rod, a second puntil is substituted for
cinations of glass continue without the blowpipe. A gather is made, the
limit. It is one thing to convert glass second puntil is attached, and the rod
rod and tubing into attractive novel­ is stretched to desired diameter.
ties or scientific apparatus and quite Such procedures lie close to the his­
another to accomplish the same end toric beginnings of glass technology.
by commencing with raw, white sand. At the other extreme are machines
Yet, with only modest facilities—a that accept molten glass from the pot
small crucible, a few fire bricks, some and convert it into substantially every
iron pipe, and a gas burner—the ama­ product known to commerce.
teur can learn to make his own glass Arrange a visit to a glass factory
in any desired form or color. The raw and watch these machines in opera­
ingredients may consist of such com­ tion and, if possible, also the crafts­
mon materials as silica in the form of men who still make masterworks of
diatomaceous earth, lime and soda glass by hand. A tour of the Corning
that are available in most communi­ Glass Center, Corning, New York, for
ties from local suppliers of hardware, example, where artists in glass work
building materials, and poultry feed. still create Steuben Ware by hand,
A common mix would be the follow­ can be an invaluable and unforgettable
ing: 50% cullet (broken glass), 34% experience.
silica, 11% soda, 5% lime. When these
 ources of tools materials

Glass tubing and rod Etching chemicals

in all sizes, kinds, and colors.
Fisher Scientific Company
Kits for beginners,
633 Greenwich Street
air compressors, and related supplies
New York, New York 10014
Techno-Scientific Supply Company, Inc.
P.O. Box 191 Glass fires and gas burners
Baldwin, New York 11510 American Gas Furnace Company
Elizabeth, New Jersey 07207
Glass ivorking tools
Techno-Scientific Supply Company, Inc.
Arthur H. Thomas Company P.O. Box 191
Vine Street at Third Baldwin, New York 11510
P.O. Box 779
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19105 Glass-to-metal seals
Fisher Scientific Company Associated Engineering, Inc.
633 Greenwich Street Glen Ridge, New Jersey, 07028
New York, New York 10014
Techno-Scientific Supply Company, Inc.
P.O. Box 191
Baldwin, New York 11510
190
Creative
glass blowing

Uranium glass Motion Pictures

Houde Glass Company Willard Pictures, Inc.
Box 296 45 West 45th Street
Keyport, New Jersey 07735 New York, New York 10036
Motion picture films in full color (si­
Kovar, Dumet
lent or with sound), in which James
Westinghouse Electric Corporation Hammesfahr demonstrates all of the
Blairsville, Pennsylvania 15717 basic operations of glass blowing de­
scribed in this volume, are available.
Colored enamels They are suitable for school or home
B. F. Drakenfeld & Company showing.
45 Park Place
New York, New York 10007
 ibliography

Barr, W. E., and J. Victor Anhorn. Park-Winder, William E. Simple Glass

Scientific and Industrial Glass Blcnv- Blowing for Laboratories and Schools.
ing. Pittsburgh: Instruments Publish­ London: Crosby, Lockwood & Son,
ing Company, 1959. Ltd., 1947.

Corning Glass Works. This Is Glass. Phillips, C. J. Glass the Miracle Maker.
New York: Corning, n.d. New York: Pittman Publishing Corp.,
1941.
Day, R. K. Glass Research Methods. I
Chicago: Industrial Publications, Inc., Right, R. W. Manual of Laboratory
1953. Glass Blowing. Brooklyn: Chemical
Publishing Co., Inc., 1943.
Gunther, R. Glass Tank Furnaces.
Sheffield, England: Thornton, Hallam, Scholes, S. R. Modern Glass Practice.
1958. New York: Industrial Publications,
Inc., 1952.
Housekeeper, W. G. The Art of Seal­
ing Base Metals Through Glass. Jour­
nal of the American Institute of Elec­ Sealing Glass to Kovar. Bulletin #145.
trical Engineers, Vol. 42, 1923, pp. Latrobe, Pa.: Stupakoff Ceramic and
954-960. Manufacturing Co.

Morey, W. The Properties of Glass. Shand, E. B. Glass Engineering Hand­

New York: Reinhold Publishing Corp., book. New York: McGraw-Hill Book
1954. Co., 1958.
192
Creative
glass blowing

Stanworth, J. E. Physical Properties Weyl, W. A. Colored Glasses. Cam­

of Glass. New York: Oxford Univer­ bridge, Mass.: Robert Bently, Inc.,
sity Press, 1938. 1951.

Stong, C. L. The Scientific American

Book of Projects for the Amateur
Scientist. New York: Simon and
Schuster, Inc., 1960.

Strong, John, H. Victor Neher, Al­

bert E. Whitford, C. Hawley Cart­
wright, and Roger Hayward. Proce­
dures in Experimental Physics. Engle­
wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1938.

Tooley, F. V. Handbook of Glass Man­

ufacture. New York: Glass Publish­
ing Co., 1960.

Waugh, Sidney. The Art of Glass

Making. New York: Dodd, Mead &
Co., 1938.
Abbe, Ernst, 6 Borosilicate glass, 6
Adjustment: glass fires, 26; blast burner, Brandy sniffer, miniature, 145
28 Brazing, 32
Aging of glass, 15 Broken glass, making rod from, 59
Agitator. See propeller Bucks for holding glass, 36
Air compressor, 25 Bulbs: flaring of glass, 101; how to apply
Air dryer, 33 colored stripes to, 132; how to blow,
Aluminosilicate glass, 9 105
Ammonium fluoride as etching agent, 14 Bunsen burner, 20
Annealing: oven, 43 ff.; point, 14; tech­ Burner: blast, 21; fish-tail, 27; oxygen,
nique, 134; theory, 11 29
Asbestor paper, use of, 31 Butt seals, 115
Asbestos wool, use of for annealing glass,
135
Ash tray, 136 Cadmium sulfide, coloring effect of, 4
Calcium fluoride, coloring effect of, 4
Balls of solid glass, 55 Calibration of pyrometers, 47
Basic operations: glass tubing, 85; solid Candlesticks, 138
glass, 49 Candy dish, 136
Basket, miniature, 72 Capillary tubes, sealing and flaring, 118
Beads, 64 Cellophane, use of in stress detection, 42
Beeswax as lubricant for flaring tool, 100 Cerium, 6
Bell, 154 ff. Charcoal, coloring effect of, 4
Bending glass tubing, technique of, 101 ff. Check valve, 24
Beryllium, 6 Christmas tree ornaments, 74, 110; ap­
Bird’s nest, 75 ff. plying colored stripes to, 132
Blast burner, 21; adjustment of, 28 Closed-end manometer, how to make, 163
Bleaching agent for glass, 4 Coaxial tubes, how to make, 126
Bleb, how to remove, 106 Cobalt, 4
Blowing hose, 33 Coils, technique of making, 103 ff.
Borax, use of for sealing metal to glass, Condenser: construction of Graham type,
182 174 ff.; construction of simple type,
Boron, 6 172 ff.
194 Constricting glass tubing, technique of, borosilicate, 6
Creative 94 ff. chemical machining of, 10
glass bloiving Copper: coloring effect of, 4; sealing to cleaning of, 15
glass, 182; thermal coefficient, 176 cutters, 39
Corks, use of, 31 didymium, 9
Corning glasses, characteristics of, 18 fire, adjustment of, 26
Corrosion, removal of from glass, 15 fires, 19 ff.
Cracks, how to seal in Pyrex glass, 157 flaring of tubes, 101
Cream pitcher, miniature, 142 foam, 6
Crocheting, technique of with molten high silica, 8
glass, 69 ff. history of, 1
Crosses, how to make from tubing, 122 holders for, 34 ff.
Crossfires, 22 how to make, 188
Crystal, rock, 4 jewelry, 67 ff.
Cutting cold glass, 49; with fire, 53; tools lead, 6
for, 39 lime, 4
optical, 9
Devitrification, 19 photochromic, 10
Dewar seal, how to make, 131 photosensitive, 10
Didymium glass, 9; goggles, 157 polishing by fire, 54
Dies, use of for forming glass shapes, 48 pure silica, 8
Diffusion vacuum pump, how to make, Pyrex, 6
187 ff. rod, how to make, 58
Dimple, technique of making in tubing, 96 rollers for rotating, 38
Disk, how to make at tip of glass rod, 61 rotation of molten, 57
Doorknob shapes, how to make, 56 sealing of, 115
Dumet seals, how to make, 177 soda lime, 6
solder, 10
Electrodes for gas discharge tube, 184 spinning of, 84
Enameling, how to apply to glass, 162 storage of, 15, 31
Epergne, 146 tempering, 11 ff.
Erbium, 6 thermal expansion of, 7
Etching, techniques and solutions, 14 tubing, basic operations, 85
Exotic fish, 82 Vycor, 9
Eyes, how to make of glass for toys, 66 weathering of, 15
welding of, 115
Ferinco, 177 working temperature of, 62
Fiducial lines, how to etch into glass, 161 Glasses, characteristics of, 18
File: special for cutting glass, 39; Ward­ Goggles, Didymium, 43
ing Bastard type, 50 Gold, function as coloring agent, 4
Fire: cutting glass with, 53; glass, 19 ff.; Graduate, how to make, 160 ff.
polishing glass with, 54 Graham condenser, how to make, 174 ff.
Firing glass enamel, 163
Fish, how to make exotic, 82
Fishtail burners, 27 Hand torch, 23, 27 ff.
Fixtures for supporting glass, 31 Heart, miniature, 68
Flare-off: definition, 87; protection of Helical coils, how to make of glass tubing,
eyes from, 43 103 ff.
Flaring glass tubing: technique of, 97 ff.; Helium-neon laser, how to make tube for,
tools for, 37 183 ff.
Fluxes, 6 History of glass, 1
Foam glasses, 6 Holders, glass, 34 ff.
Fruit bowl, 146 Hose, blowing, 33
Funnel, how to make glass, 159 f. Hot wire, method of cutting glass, 39
Housekeeper seals, 177, 180
Gas-air mixer, how to make, 171 ff. Hurricane lamp, miniature, 152
Getter, use of in laser tube, 184 Hydrofluoric acid as etching agent, 14
Glass: aging of, 15
aluminosilicate, 9 Icicles, 74
annealing of, 11 ff. Ink, glass enamel type, 163
Jewelry, 67 Policeman, use of, 31 195
Polishing glass with fire, 54
Kovar, 177 Praesodymium, 9 Index
Laboratory glassware, 156 ff. Prince Rupert’s drops, 13
Lamp, miniature, 152 ff. Propeller, how to make, 157
Lanthanum, 9 Pump, how to make two-stage vacuum,
187 ff.
Laser tube, how to make, 182 ff. Puntil, 188
Lead: function as flux, 4; glasses, 6; use
of for calibrating pyrometer, 47 Pyrex glass, 6, 157; test for identifying,
16
Lime glass, 4
Pyrometer, how to make and use, 46 ff.
Litharge, function as flux, 4
Magnifying glass, 108 ff. Ravencroft, George, 4
Manganese dioxide, coloring effect of, 4 Refractive index, use of for identifying
Manometer: how to make closed-end type, glass, 16
163 ff.; open-end type, 165 ff.; for use Ribbon burner, 28
with glass fire, 25 Ring seals, how to make, 124
Map tacks, how to make, 65 Rock crystal, 4
Maria: technique of making in solid rod, Rod: how to blow into hollow bulb, 133;
62 f.; technique of making in tubing, how to make of scrap glass, 58; sealing
91 ff.; uses of, 63 to hollow forms, 132
McLeod vacuum gauge, how to make, Rollers, for rotating glass, 38
167 ff. Ruby glass, 4
Melting point of glass, 135
Metal-to-glass seals, 175 ff. Sagging, technique of molding glass, 136
Metric graph paper, use of for scales, 167 Schott, Otto, 6
Mica, splitting of, 42 Scientific glassware, 156 ff.
Mixer, gas-air, 24 Sealing, 115 ff.
Mold, blowing, 115 Sealing test, for termal expansion, 16 ff.
Molten glass, technique of rotating, 57 Sealmet, 177
Mouthpiece for blowing hose, how to Seals, glass-to-metal, 175 ff.
make, 33, 98 ff. Sheet glass, how to cut, 50
Museum, Corning Glass Center, 188 Ship, glass, 77 ff.
Shock, termal, 7
Neodymium, 9 Shrinking glass tubing, technique of,
Network, how to make of glass, 69 ff. 94 ff.
Neutralization of stain, 4 Silica, 6
Niobium, 6 Sloop, glass, 77 ff.
Nonex, use in sealing metal to glass, 176 Smoky flame, use of for annealing, 135
Novelties, 60 ff., 137 ff. Snow, how to make glass, 106
Soda lime glass, 6
Open-end manometer, how to make, 165 ff. Solder glass, 10
Optical glasses, 9 Solid glass, basic operations for shaping,
Oven, annealing, 43 ff. 49
Oxygen-gas fire, 28 f. Spheres, how to make with solid glass,
55 ff.
Petri dishes, how to make, 136 Spheroids, oblate of solid glass, 56
Photochromic glass, 10 Spring clips, use of, 32
Photosensitive glass, 10 Spun glass, 84
Pipette, how to make, 158 Stannic acid, coloring effect of, 4
Pitcher, ornamental, 144 Steuben Ware, 188
Platinum, sealing to glass, 176 Stirring rod, how to make, 157
Pliny the Elder, 1 Storage of glass, 31
Point, pulling of, 86 ff. Strain point of glass, 135
Polariscope, instrument for stress detec­ Sugar bowl, miniature, 140
tion, 40 Swans, miniature, 148 ff.
Polarized light, detection of stress with, Swivel, blowing hose, 33
12 Swizzle sticks, ornamental, 83
Polaroid, use of for detecting stresses, 12,
41 T seals, how to make in tubing, 118
196 Tapers of points, flattening of, 90 U tubes, how to seal into vessel, 129
Creative Tea set, 140 Uranium, 6
glass blowing Tear-drops, glass, 56 Urey apparatus, how to make, 184 ff.
Temperature: measurement of, 46 ff.; Urn, miniature, 148
best for working glass, 62, 135
Tempering, 11 ff. Vacuum pump, how to make two-stage
Test tube, how to make, 158 diffusion, 187 ff.
Test solution for Pyrex glass, 16 Valve, check, 24
Thermal expansion of glass, 7 Vase, miniature, 143
Thermal shock, 7 Venturi gas-air mixer, 24
Thermocouple, how to make and use, 47 Vycor glass, 9
Thermometer, use of for callibration, 47
Thorium, 9 Wash bottle, how to make, 158 ff.
Tin, 6 Water glass, 2
Tools: cutting, 39; flaring, 37; glass Welding. See sealing
blowing, 19 ff. Wire work, 64
Top, how to make toy, 139 ff.
Workbench, 30
Torches, hand, 27 ff.
Triple seals, how to make, 125
Tubing: how to bend, 101; how to coil, X seals, 122
103; how to cut, 51; how to make, 80;
standard dimensions of, 15 Y seals, 122
Tungsten: degassing of, 179; sealing to
glass, 176 ff. Zeiss, Karl, 6
Turtle, glass, 80 Zinc, use of for temperature calibration,
Tweezers, use of, 32 47
666.1

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A step-by-step guide to the basic techniques of glass blowing.

reative
lass blowing
SCIENTIFIC AND ORNAMENTAL
By James E. Hammesfahr & Clair L. Stong
Foreword by Charles H. Greene

This comprehensive and detailed introduc­

tion to the craft of glass blowing was written
by a descendant of a long line of professional
glass blowers in collaboration with an ex­
perienced science writer. In clear, concise
language the authors explain, step-by-step,
how to perform the basic techniques of glass
blowing, from rounding a sharp edge and
joining glass parts to blowing bulbs. Exer- /
cises are provided throughout that give the
reader practice in making glass structures. I
More than 150 illustrations are included to
help the reader visualize both the proce?
dures and the finished products of glass
blowing. Whether for pleasure or practical
application the reader will find this an easy-
to-follow guide for creating glass structures.
James E. Hammesfahr is by vocation a glas^s
blower. Following in the tradition of his
family, he learned the craft of glass blow­
ing at an early age, from his father. He hap
blown glass of all kinds —scientific, novelty
and ornamental. He was also the founder of
a manufacturing business that specialized
in the production of blown glass. •
C. L. Stong was an amateur glass blower and i
professional writer and a member of the
Board of Editors of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.
In addition he wrote a monthly column en­
titled "The Amateur Scientist” for SCIEN­
TIFIC AMERICAN.
Cover photos courtesy of Bernard Armuller

W. H. FREEMAN AND COMPANY

660 Market Street, San Francisco, California 94104
58 Kings Road, Reading, England RG1 3AA ISBN 0-7167-0088-