FOOTSTEPS

No.25 DECEMBER 1995 FISH FARMING

IN THIS ISSUE
• Sealing fish ponds
Farming with fish
• Letters by Bob Hansford
• Building a pond
GOOD FARMERS look after their crops. Before planting they make
• Raising your own fish
fingerlings sure the soil is well prepared. They select good seed or seedlings.
They water the young plants regularly and remove weeds. They use
• Fish in the rice paddy
manure or fertiliser to increase growth and watch out for pests or
• Resources
diseases. Hard work produces a good crop, but laziness or neglect
• Bible study –
The Lord’s breakfast
will result in a poor harvest!
• Experiments with neem It is the same for farming fish. The fish
Fish need…
become the crop, the pond is the field.
• Raising fish and crops ■ Water ■ Food
Weeds are the wild or predatory fish
together
which compete for food or eat the fish.
■ Oxygen ■ Safety
• Agroforestry in the Pests and diseases are there too! Pests
Dominican Republic are the animals and birds which attack
the fish. Diseases are not too common,
but patches of woolly fungus some- ■ Water
times appear on the skin or gills and This is their most obvious and
parasitic creatures may invade the immediate need, but there has to be
gills or stomach. the right quantity and quality.
A successful fish farmer must provide Depth The water should be 1–2 metres
for the needs of the fish and protect deep at one end, with a shallower end
them from their enemies. Farmers (30cm) if the fish are to breed.
who neglect their fish will probably
Drought can be dangerous for fish.
fail!
Ideally, water should be present for
the whole year, although some types
of fish grow quickly enough to
give a crop in temporary
ponds (for about six
months of the year).
Photo: Tear Fund
 AGRICULTURE
Floods may overflow the pond banks ■ Food
FOOTSTEPS during times of heavy rainfall, allow-
ing fish to escape. Make sure the pond
There are two sources of fish food:
natural and supplementary.
ISSN 0962-2861 banks are high enough to withstand
Footsteps is a quarterly paper, linking health the highest recorded flooding in your Natural foods – plants and animals living
and development workers worldwide. Tear in the pond and dead or decaying
Fund, publisher of Footsteps, hopes that it will area. Fit a screened overflow pipe or
provide the stimulus of new ideas and enthusi- channel to take away surplus water. organic material on the pond bottom.
asm. It is a way of encouraging Christians of all Different types of fish eat different
nations as they work together towards creating Water quality depends on substances natural foods. Some will search along
wholeness in our communities.
dissolved or suspended in the water. the bottom for insects and worms. Some
Footsteps is free of charge to individuals
working to promote health and development. If the right nutrients are there in will eat submerged or trailing plants;
It is available in English, French, Portuguese sufficient quantity then the pond will others will strain out tiny plants and
and Spanish. Donations are welcomed. produce a lot of microscopic
Readers are invited to contribute views,
animals from the water.
articles, letters and photos.
organisms called plankton. Stream
water flowing through fertile Organic fertilisers (compost and
Editor: Isabel Carter manure) are usually the best and the
83 Market Place, South Cave, Brough, farmland will be rich in these
East Yorkshire, HU15 2AS, UK. nutrients and good for the pond. cheapest. Compost is made by mixing
Tel/Fax: (0)1430 422065
Water from a spring or well may not vegetable wastes, straw and animal
E-mail: imc@tearfund.dircon.co.uk
be so good, depending on the manure in a pile away from the pond.
Language Editor: Sheila Melot
underlying rock. Cover to protect from the rain, and leave
Editorial Committee: Jerry Adams, Dr Ann
Ashworth, Mike Carter, Jennie Collins, Bill to rot for 2–3 months. Sprinkling a
Crooks, Richard Franceys, Dr Ted Lankester, handful of triple super phosphate will
Sandra Michie, Nigel Poole, Jim Rowland, José
Smith, Mike Webb increase its effectiveness (1 part TSP to
Illustrator: Rod Mill Will it hold water? 40 parts compost).
Design: Wingfinger Graphics, Leeds Add organic fertiliser once a week to a
Dig a hole 1–1.5m deep on the proposed
Translation: L Bustamante, R Cawston, Dr J
Cruz, T Dew, N Edwards, G Godon, J Martinez site of your pond. If it fills with water from basket in the corner of the pond. For a
da Cruz, M Leake, O Martin, N Mauriange, A below, the site is likely to give you enough pond measuring 10 metres by 15 metres
Mulungo, J Perry, J-D Peterschmitt, C Sample water. If it doesn’t fill naturally, pour in you will need…
Mailing List: Write, giving brief details of your
some buckets of water. Come back the • 10kg of compost
work and stating preferred language, to:
Footsteps Mailing List, Tear Fund, 100 Church next day. If the water has gone, then the
Road, Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 8QE, UK.
• or 5kg of well rotted cattle manure
site is likely to be too dry unless a lining is
(Tel: (0)181 977 9144.) • or 2.5kg of well rotted chicken
used (see page 5). If the water is still there,
Change of address: Please give us the manure.
reference number from your address label then you may have a suitable site but will
when informing us of a change of address. need water from an outside source to fill If instead, you choose chemical
Articles and illustrations from Footsteps may the pond.
be adapted for use in training materials fertilisers, it is best to seek advice from
encouraging health and rural development the government fisheries department, as
provided the materials are distributed free of many different fertilisers are available.
charge and that credit is given to Footsteps, Tear
Fund. Permission should be obtained before As a guide, 150gm of urea and 400gm of
reprinting Footsteps material. TSP would be needed for a 10m x 15m
Published by Tear Fund. A company limited pond each week. Reduce the amount of
by guarantee. Regd in England No 994339.
Regd Charity No 265464. fertiliser (organic or chemical) in the dry

Measuring the natural

foods
The amount of natural food in the pond can
be measured by placing your arm in the
water until your elbow is at the water
surface. If the water is so green that you
Photo: J Hurd, SAO

cannot see your fingers, then there is a lot

of food in the water. If your fingers are
clearly seen, then you need to increase the
natural food by using manure, compost or
chemical fertilisers. If the water is so green
that you cannot see any of your arm, there
may be too many nutrients in the water.
Anxious Stop adding fertiliser or compost until the
moments – water becomes clearer.
will there be a
good harvest?

2 FOOTSTEPS NO.25
 AGRICULTURE
Fishing can be enjoyed
by all the family! Can your fish breathe?
Check your pond each day, early in the
How much food? Generally fish will eat morning. If the fish are all at the surface
about 5% of their weight in supplem- gasping for air, then this means that the
entary food every day. For example, oxygen level is dangerously low. The next
100 fish weighing 250gm each (25kg morning, the fish may all be dead! Action is
total weight) will require about 1.25kg needed.
of supplementary feed each day.
Food should be supplied from the
same place each day, preferably half in
the morning, half in the evening. Fish
will soon form the habit of coming for
food. If some food is uneaten, then
reduce the amount given the next day.
• Harvest some of the fish.
• Beat the water surface with bamboo
Keep a variety of fish branches.
Mix the different kinds of fish in the pond Do not enter the pond, as the stirring
(but not predatory ones) so that all the up of the pond bed may make the
season, when there is less water in the
different foods will be used. problem worse.
pond.
Muddy water does not contain much ■ Safety
food. It is often seen in new ponds or ■ Oxygen Fish need to be protected from their
ponds with bare soil around the enemies. These include predatory fish,
The unseen need of fish is oxygen to
banks. Muddiness can be reduced by otters (or other fish-eating animals),
breathe. Fish obtain oxygen from the
planting grass on the pond banks and birds, snakes and fish thieves!
water as it passes through their gills.
by adding a measured quantity of
Some types of fish (such as catfish) can
lime to the water. Consult the
survive in water with very little
government fisheries department for
oxygen because they can breathe from
advice. A general quideline is two
the air.
teaspoons of lime per square metre.
The amount of oxygen in the water
Supplementary foods are brought in from
rises during the day, but falls during
outside as extra feed. The types used
the night with the lowest level around
will depend on the type of fish and the Predatory fish can enter a pond by
dawn.
availability of suitable materials at a various routes:
cheap price. Examples include: Oxygen shortage is usually caused by one
• an open ditch, drain or pipe – so
• rice bran of the following…
protect using screens, nets or fine
• kitchen waste and scraps • too much organic matter rotting in fish traps
the pond (dead leaves, uneaten
• termites • mixed with baby fish – examine
food, excess compost)
• chopped grass them carefully and buy from a
• too many fish trusted supplier
• various oil cakes (some may first
• too many plants or green algae in • as eggs in the mud at the pond
need heat treatment to destroy
the water (the water will look very bottom – make sure the pond is
toxins)
green and there may be a green dried and treated with lime before
• cassava peelings. scum on the water). filling and stocking.
Action required… Otters are known as udh in Bengali. You
• Add clean stream water to the may have other names for them. The
pond, taking care to screen or net only protection is to build a closed
the inlet pipe. (Well or spring water fence around the pond or to have a
will not help because they contain human guard!
very little oxygen.)
Birds can be scared away by people. It
• Reduce the amount of food, is helpful to dig the pond close to
perhaps stopping altogether for a where people live or work.
few days.
Snakes are difficult to keep out. Try
• Remove the compost basket, if there
keeping the edges of the pond clear of
is one, from the pond.

FOOTSTEPS NO.25 3
 AGRICULTURE
long grass or building tightly woven
fences. Suggested stocking
Thieves usually strike during the night
levels for tilapia… A good
and use nets and other ways of
catching fish. Some farmers fix sharp Fish size
Quantity per Quantity in
square metre 10m x 15m pond pond has…
bamboo poles into the bed of the pond 50gm 2 300 ■ green water, 1–2 metres deep
or lay tree branches in the water. This
makes theft more difficult. 200gm 1 150 ■ no large overhanging trees
Poisons Fish also need protection
■ grass growing on the banks,
against poisons. There are three main The number of fish which can live in a
sources… cut short to avoid giving cover
pond depends on four factors…
• pesticides – used against insects in for snakes
• the size of the pond
the home or field
• the types of fish stocked ■ no floating plants (unless
• cattle/sheep dips – used to control
• the size of the fish needed for fish breeding)
skin parasites
• seeds from trees. • the amount of extra food you are ■ screened or netted inlet and
able to give the fish
Never wash out a pesticide container outlet pipes
• the depth of water.
or spray machine in or near a fish
■ a fence to keep out otters
pond. Cut down the branches of any If you have a government fisheries
seed bearing trees which hang over department or other fisheries project ■ a compost basket in the
the pond. near you, ask their advice.
corner
Stocking the pond If you stock at a high rate to begin
with when the fish are small, you ■ a controlled, mixed population
To get started you will need a supply must reduce the numbers rapidly as of fish
of fish. Some of the common fish the fish grow larger. For tilapia, it is
species used are carp, tilapia and recommended that you start with a
catfish. If you are going to have more stocking rate of two per square metre.
than one kind of production figures range from 20kg to
With Indian and Chinese carp, the 50kg of fish per year from a 10m x 15m
fish, make sure stocking rates are lower – less than
they can live pond (equivalent to 1,250–3,370kg per
one fish per square metre (100 in a hectare per year).
together easily. For pond 10m x 15m).
example, catfish eat
other baby fish. If you Fish production
keep only catfish you Bob Hansford worked in Bangladesh for
This will be determined by the type six years with Tear Fund. He trained local
may have to buy or
and number of fish in the pond, the farmers in fish farming techniques. He is
raise small fish to
amount of supplementary feeding and now with the Asia Desk at Tear Fund.
feed them.
the level of management. Typical
Transporting fish
is stressful for them
and should always be done as quickly Know your fish!
as possible. So the closer your fish
supply is, the better it is for the fish.
When you get your baby fish, leave
the container of fish sitting in the pond
until the water in the container is the
same temperature as the water in the
pond. The fish can then be let out very
gradually into the pond.

Tilapia (Oreochromis species)

Oreochromis niloticus is considered the best for warm countries.

4 FOOTSTEPS NO.25
 AGRICULTURE
method first on a small pond. feet – beginning work from the

Sealing Clay lining

Another ‘traditional’ method of water-
proofing a pond was used many
centre outwards. The clay layer
should be at least 5–6cm thick and
must be kept wet all the time.

fish ponds
• As more clay is added, the centre of
hundreds of years ago in the UK. Dew the pond must be kept filled with
ponds were built on the chalk downs water. If the clay is allowed to dry it
which normally hold no water at all. will crack and leak.
• The pond site is prepared as above. Hundreds of years later, many of
• A thick covering (2–4cm) of lime is these dew ponds are still in use for
FEW FARMERS use aquaculture livestock.
added to prevent damage by
in Latin America, though it earthworms.
could have great potential there. • Heavy clay is then dug and Information on gleying from ECHO, USA
and William McLarney and J Robert
One of the reasons is that the carried from elsewhere
Hunter. Information on dew ponds
soils are often too porous – they and puddled in with the
from Mike Withers, Bishop
do not hold water well. It is
possible to make artificial linings
– using polyethylene or rubber
sheets or cement. However,
these methods are expensive.
FROM THE EDITOR
Gleying
There is one way of sealing ponds If you give a person a fish, they will have food for one day. But if you teach them to
which does not cost anything. It is not a fish, they will have food for the rest of their life. ANCIENT CHINESE PROVERB
new method – it was first used in
Russia, but has been rediscovered and THIS PROVERB is a very well known one. In some parts of the world –
adapted. particularly communities living near lakes and large rivers – fishing is part of
their traditional way of life. In many other parts of the world, fish farming is a
• Dig the pond and compact the soil
recent idea – maybe even a totally new one. Bob Hansford helpfully com-
really well.
pares fish farming to all other types of farming. In this issue we look at small
• Clear the pond of stones and rocks.
scale fish farming – in ways that would be easy for anyone to try out on a
• Cover the bottom and sides with a small piece of land. If the idea of fish farming (or aquaculture, as it sometimes
thick layer (2–3cm) of fresh manure called) is new to you, we hope this issue will give you enough confidence to
– pig manure is best.
try it out for yourself. The resources page gives details of further information,
• Cover the manure with a layer of resource centres and training. You may also find your local department of
fresh grass cuttings or fine chopped agriculture or fisheries very helpful.
leaves (eg: bananas).
• Add a layer of soil and press down If fish farming is not new to you, maybe this issue will be useful in training
firmly all over. You can use your feet and enthusing other farmers. In a world where there is a growing shortage of
to compact the layers. The soil keeps food, especially protein food, not only do fish provide a valuable source of
out the air and allows a biological protein and vitamins, but there are benefits to crop growing, too, from
process known as ‘gleying’ to take combining fish and crop farming – as we learn from ITAG’s experience.
place. Raising fish or fingerlings can also be a useful source of income.
• Leave to dry for 2–3 weeks without
Fish farming is well suited to community groups. Building the pond is a lot of
disturbing the layers. Do not try this
work – much easier when shared. Harvesting the fish is also fun if a com-
during the rainy season.
munity group are all involved.
After 2–3 weeks, fill the pond with
water. Tests using this method have In this our 25th issue, the circulation of Footsteps has now reached 25,000. This
been tried with great success in Costa is very encouraging as circulation is only increasing as you, our readers, tell
Rica and on sandy soil at ECHO in others about it. We now have posters explaining Footsteps, together with a
Florida, US. promotion pack – ideal to use if you are running a workshop or training
You will need to be careful not to course. If you would find one useful please write with details of the event.
disturb the bottom of the pond too
much by scooping out the bottom mud,
walking or stirring with sticks. Try this

FOOTSTEPS NO.25 5
 LETTERS
box – the operation is called shuffling. because they say hemp gives them
It is necessary first to get training from strength to work and to hunt. Do
a beekeeper and either buy or make readers have any advice about this
THE EDITOR the necessary tools. Bees are very hard problem?
FOOTSTEPS ACE
83 MARKET
PL working – they work from 6 am until
Emilu Ezabo Bob
SOUTH CAVE about 6.30 pm. In our community,
Bamande Pygmy Project
BROUGH which is in the jungle, there are plenty
HIRE c/o Green House Nyankunde
EAST YORKS of local trees and forest flowers which
HU 15 2A S PO Box 21285
the bees like. We keep bees on a family
UK Nairobi
basis and find the products easy to
Kenya
sell. Honey should be extracted
naturally, never cooked or boiled.
Rural and urban animation
Bees for beginners Bees’ worst enemies are ants – these THROUGH LUCK, issue No.22 of Pas
THANK YOU FOR PASO A PASO. In can be kept away by spreading hot à Pas fell into my hands. After
issue 10 of the magazine it mentions ashes around the hive. I have found a studying it, I want to tell you how
that many farmers who are unable to few difficulties. The bees in our area much I have appreciated it. I hope I
keep cattle, instead keep sheep or are very aggressive. I also find it can share some experiences in training
goats. They provide a source of cash difficult to change the wax in the others through my work with APICA.
when needed to pay for school fees, breeding combs since some of the
hospital bills etc. hives are three or more years old. I I regard animation as the ability of a
would appreciate hearing some new person or a social group to recognise
Why not think of beekeeping as well?
ideas. the reality in which they live – to
This doesn’t require planting and
analyse it, to identify gaps and
looking after crops, nor herding Silas Santiago Leiva potential – and then to consider
animals in and out. It’s only necessary Comunidad Campesina Paz y Esperanza solutions to make it better.
to decide to keep them and provide Apartado 18
them with a hive or box. Then their Moyabamba Whether in a rural or urban environ-
products can be obtained – honey, San Martin ment, the aim of the individual or
pollen, wax, propolis, honeycomb and Peru community is identical – to improve
even medicine from their poison. living conditions. Often this animation
EDITOR: may come from people from outside
Honey has a high nutritional value Bee keeping is a subject that we plan to look at
the area (development workers). Their
from childhood to old age. Bee in detail in a future issue. Please send in your
task is to lead the people to examine
keeping is easy to do – by both women experiences in this subject.
and analyse their environment,
and men. Bees also bring benefits to
encouraging awareness which will
farming as they pollinate crops and Bamande Pygmy Project
result in positive activities.
trees, giving more fruit and seeds. THANK YOU for our copies of Pas à
Pas. The issues on literacy, the Often development workers ask about
Here in Peru, swarms of Italian bees
environment and drug abuse were of the differences in animation between
can be purchased for as much as $50
particular interest. I work with the rural and urban settings. At village
but native bees can be found in any
Bamande Pygmy Project in the centre level, there are often poor
corner of the forest, in hollow trees,
of the equatorial forest in Zaire. It is communications, lack of organisation
houses, literally crying to be put in a
not easy for these forest dwellers to in trading and marketing, poor wages,
understand the dangers facing them if an ageing population due to the
they destroy the forest. migration of young people to the
urban areas and few social structures.
It is very important to understand
how the pygmies live and to respect In towns, there are differences in
their traditional customs in order to social status, unemployment leading
gain their trust. Each group of to anti-social behaviour and poor
pygmies is linked to a patron or social models such as theft, violent
chairman (mukpala in the local dialect). crime, prostitution and drunkenness.
He has authority over them and offers It seems that the key differences lie at
them equipment, food, clothing and the level of the problems to be tackled
other things. The pygmies prefer and not in the steps leading to
Photo: Silas Leiva

listening to him than to any outsider. animation. Animation comes through

The pygmies are heavy drinkers and questioning which leads to reflection,
smokers. In particular, they like to then to awareness.
smoke Indian hemp. Even small All animation work centres around
The children also help – although they also like children are encouraged to smoke such fundamental questions as:
to fill themselves up with honey!

6 FOOTSTEPS NO.25
 LETTERS
• What sort of economic set-up are The footsteps are getting closer Bottle-feed your trees
we considering changing? THIS IS A STRATEGY which I have I AM WORKING in Northern Nigeria
• What situations are working against worked out and would like to share on a variety of agroforestry and
improvements in social and with readers. Many communities agriculture projects and would like to
economic conditions? today find that the difficulties and share a simple technique for watering
• What economic mechanisms losses of everyday life have left them trees.
prevent development of the area? vulnerable, powerless and feeling
The long dry season of 5–7 months
• What potential resources are there inferior. To challenge this feeling of
makes it difficult to encourage tree
which could be used to encourage powerlessness, we need to find
planting. Watering trees during the
development? approaches that will encourage
dry season takes a lot of work and
involvement.
The actions and attitude of the needs a lot of water, which is often in
animator should be influenced by the My strategy has three parts: short supply.
state of mind of each social group and 1. Step by step This encourages One way to avoid these problems is to
their particular surroundings and communication. It is a democratic bury a container beside each seedling
problems, whether rural or urban. process which encourages everyone to when it is planted, about 40–50cm
This is the only real difference, I express themselves and to develop away. It can be an old tin can or
believe. their thoughts. This process is a slow cracked plastic water bottle. Before
Philippe Nkounkou one in which new ideas are discussed burying the container, two or three
APICA and considered at length. small holes should be punched in the
BP 7485 bottom and sides if there are none
2. The footsteps are getting closer When
Yaounde already. Bury the container in the soil
trainer and trainees have accepted each
Cameroon so that only the lip can be seen.
other, this will create openings to
analyse their situation. If people want During the dry season the container is
to attain power they will have to: filled with water and then covered
• analyse their strengths and with a stone to reduce evaporation. In
weaknesses this way the water is slowly released
into the soil at a lower level,
• analyse their resources and potential
Problems with alcohol encouraging deeper root
• plan to use these resources well development. Almost no water is lost
FOLLOWING ISSUE 23 on drug • obtain necessary information. through evaporation. With this
problems, I would like to share about system, the trees only need to be
the problems we have in Karamoja Our villages have a history – not just of
watered one to three times a week.
with alcohol. Traditionally we had one their ancestry, but also the tradition of
One bucket of water is enough for
type of local alcohol available which their constant battling with their
5–10 trees, depending on the size of
was distilled in the towns of Moroto environment. This long experience in
the container. This system is so
and Kotido. This was called regular. A rural life leads to traditional practices
effective that tree seedlings can
potent brew called lira-lira was first and knowledge. From these traditions
actually be planted during the dry
introduced in 1986, and now people may appear new ideas and organis-
season, when the demands of farming
have shifted to drinking this instead. ations that may help with tackling
are low.
environmental problems. This stock of
Young men began selling off their knowledge, together with the capacity Timothy A Volk
animals in order to raise cash to buy to react and adapt to any situation can MCC Nigeria
this liquor – the people here are provide a rich resource. When PO Box 42
pastoralists. Elders raised complaints communities begin to reflect on and Jos
and also say that this strong drink has organise their potential, one can say, Plateau State
reduced the fertility rate in the area. ‘The footsteps are getting closer.’ Nigeria
Some weaker family members are
dying because there is often not 3. The footsteps have merged When groups
enough money left for food. progress with the organisers towards
solutions for solving problems, we can
The authorities (Resistance Councils) then talk of ‘merged footsteps’.
are trying to stop the buying and
selling of this alcohol but it remains a I hope this brief outline of my strategy
big problem. Do any readers have any may help other readers.
advice? Nohoune Lèye
Peter Buiton PO Box 10
Karamoja Seeds Scheme Khombole
PO Box Kotido Republic of Senegal
Uganda

FOOTSTEPS NO.25 7
 RESOURCES
from the bottom. Moisten this soil and

Building a Pond squeeze a handful of it into a ball,

throw it about 50cm into the air and
then catch it. If the ball falls apart in
your hand this means it is not good for
building ponds. Look for another site
by Dennis and Meredith Murnyak or use one of the methods of lining
ponds described on page 5. If the ball
holds together it probably has enough
Choosing the site clay for a fish pond.
You will need a good source of water –
such as springs, streams and ground Pond design
water. You can also rely on rain water. Fish ponds should be built so they can
Rain-filled ponds often dry up in the not good be filled easily and drained
dry season, so you must harvest the completely. Rectangular ponds are
fish before the water level falls too low. easier to build and harvest than round
or square ponds. The smallest pond
Soil containing clay is the best for we recommend is 10m x 15m (150
building fish ponds because it holds square metres). Ponds can be much
water well. To examine the soil, dig a good larger, but for family use it is better to
hole 1m deep and take a sample of soil have several small ponds than one

1
Prepare the site

3
Dig the pond and build the walls
Remove trees, vegetation and rocks.
Measure and stake out the pond.
Remove the top layer of soil and keep it outside
As you dig down, use the soil to build up the walls. Compact the soil
as you build the walls by trampling it with your feet or pounding it with
a heavy log. If you find poor sandy soil, throw this outside the pond area – don’t
5
pond ban
the pond area. use it for building the walls. The pond walls should be about 30cm above the topsoil th
water level in the pond. They should have a gentle slope, rising 1m in height for you start
every 2m in length. Plant gra
protect th
2m
If you get

2
Build a clay core 1m
(if you are building a contour pond) runoff wa
A clay core is like a foundation for the pond bank which
makes it strong and prevents leaks. Dig a trench 50cm wide and
30–60cm deep (or until you reach the clay subsoil). This trench should
be just outside the lower side of the pond and halfway up each side of
the pond. Fill in the trench with good clay
soil, well compacted down. This will

4
Build the inlet and outlet
now provide a strong foundation
The inlet pipe carries water for filling the pond. This
for the pond walls.
water often contains a lot of soil which could make
the pond very muddy. When digging the channel to bring in the
water, dig a hole beneath the inlet pipe. This will allow soil to settle
and prevent the pond from filling up with dirt.
The inlet pipe runs through the pond wall into the pond. It should be
screened to prevent wild fish from entering. It should be about 15cm
above water level. This prevents fish from escaping through it and
mixes air into the water as it splashes into the pond.

silt catchment basin inlet pipe overflow pipe

pond bank screen
water

ground
screen
clay core

8 FOOTSTEPS NO.25
 large one. The water should be 30cm
deep at one end and 1m deep at the Dugout Ponds are built in flat areas
other. You can dig it deeper, but make by digging out the soil.
sure all the water can be drained out Water level is
for harvesting the fish. below the
original ground
level.

Contour Ponds are built in areas with sloping land.

The soil on the upper side of the pond is
dug out and used to build up a
dam on the lower side. Adapted with permission
The dam must be from Raising Fish in
strong because the Ponds by Dennis and
water level in the pond Meredith Murnyak (see
will be above the page 12). Illustrations by
original ground level. Barbara Knutson.

Protect the ditch to divert

6
Build compost
run-off
pond banks fences and add
When you finish building the fertiliser
nks, cover them with the Build the compost fences when the pond is dry,
at you saved when using sticks that will not rot. Fill the baskets and
ed digging the pond. spread a layer of manure on the bottom of the
ss on the banks to pond, before filling
hem from erosion. with water.
t heavy rains, dig a run off ditch along the upper side of the pond to carry
ater away from the pond, preventing damage to the walls.

7
Filling the pond
Place rocks on the pond bottom where the water
will splash in from the inlet pipe. This will keep the
The outlet is an overflow pipe through the pond wall which is water from digging a hole and eroding the pond bottom. Do
only used in emergencies. Water should not normally flow not over fill the pond so that water flows out.
out of the pond. The outlet should always be screened to Fill the pond at least two weeks before you stock the fish.
stop fish leaving the pond. This allows the pond water to become warm and fertile
before fish are stocked. The pond may seep water at first,
Suitable screens (right) can be made from…
but should seal eventually as mud and fertiliser build up on
• wire mesh
the bottom.
• a clay pot with holes
• a piece of metal with holes
• mosquito netting.

FOOTSTEPS NO.25 9
 AGRICULTURE
until the sun has baked the soil

Raising your completely dry to kill any insects that

might eat the newly hatched fry. Once
the soil surface is full of cracks, let fresh
Raising Tilapia
Tilapia mature at 3 to 4 months of age.

own fish
When breeding begins, the male makes a
water into the pond. When the water is
round nest on the pond bottom by waving
at least 50cm deep, the spawning pond
his tail back and forth. Then he attracts a
is ready for breeding stock. A mat of
female to lay eggs in the nest. The male

fingerlings pond weeds such as water hyacinth,

covering no more than a quarter of the
pond area, encourages spawning as
fertilises the eggs, then the female picks
them up and keeps them in her mouth to
protect them. After several weeks the eggs
eggs are laid among the roots.
develop into ‘fry’. They begin to swim
Choosing carp for around but keep near their mother’s mouth
IF YOU WANT to raise fish, you in case of danger. They leave the mother
need a supply of young fish. spawning
after two more weeks.
You can raise your own baby When choosing carp as breeding stock,
choose big, healthy adults that are A female tilapia can reproduce 3 or 4 times
fish instead of buying them or ready to spawn. Females that are ready a year, producing up to 1,000 eggs each
catching them in the wild. to spawn have soft swollen bellies. time. It is easy to understand how a fish
Males that are ready to spawn will pond can quickly become overcrowded
Newly hatched baby fish are called fry with small tilapia! Small fingerlings can be
and when they are finger size they are secrete a white milky substance when
gently squeezed. Choose about ten of removed from the pond edges and sold to
called fingerlings. With a little extra other farmers. When you see many small
time and care you can have fingerlings the biggest, healthiest females and ten
of the biggest, healthiest males. fish in your pond, this means it is time to
to put in your ponds and to sell to prepare for a total fish harvest as over-
other farmers. It takes only one day for the fish to crowded fish will not grow well.
Here is a way to produce common spawn. After one day, remove the
adults from the spawning pond and D & M Murnyak
carp. You will need two ponds – a
spawning pond and a nursery pond. put them back in the pond.
Spawning is when adult fish breed Carp eggs hatch in about two days. In a
and lay their eggs. A spawning pond few days the fry will be about the size
is a pond where fish can breed and lay of an eyelash – 0.5cm long and very
eggs. The spawning pond is also thin. When the fry are at least 1cm
where the eggs will hatch into fish fry. long, put them in a nursery pond. You
can catch them by using a very fine
The spawning pond Let the soil bake in the sun. When the
mesh net or a net made out of loosely
soil is full of cracks, sprinkle well
In a separate spawning pond more woven cloth. Handle them very
rotted manure or compost and slowly
baby fish will hatch and survive carefully.
fill the pond. The nursery pond must
because there are fewer predators and
The nursery pond have an inlet for fresh water coming
less disease.
into the pond and an outlet for water
When choosing a site for the spawning The nursery pond is a little shallower
to leave the pond. The outlet will
pond, look for soil that holds water. than the spawning pond, but it is
prevent the pond from overflowing
Dig a pond about 2m x 3m in size and prepared in the same way. Dig a pond
and washing away the carp fry. Don’t
about 1m deep. Leave the pond empty about 6m x 6m and about 70cm deep.
forget to cover the inlet and the outlet
with a fine mesh to keep the fry in and
Know your fish! the predators out.
If possible, feed the fry first with a
little powdered egg yolk and, later,
finely powdered oil cake (heat treated)
and rice bran. Carp fry also eat small
plants and animals that live in the
water, and they will reach finger size
in six to eight weeks. When your carp
are fingerlings you can transfer them
into your fish ponds or sell them to
other farmers.

Adapted from DCFRN Notes No.35

Common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
10 FOOTSTEPS NO.25
 AGRICULTURE
Fish can be raised with
most crops that grow in
paddies.

Fish
in the TEST YOUR
rice
paddy
RICE PADDIES have lots of and about 1 metre deep. Slope the
sides of the pond to help prevent
AIDS
AWARENESS
natural food for fish. This is one
erosion. As you dig out the pond, add
of the advantages of raising fish soil to the banks of the pond to help
and rice together. Fish help the prevent the pond from overflowing THIS QUIZ has proved a useful tool in
farmer by eating weeds and during heavy rains. discussion groups and AIDS teaching
insects in the paddy field. Fish One side of the pond should open into sessions. It was prepared by Karen
Homer and Deborah Ventimiglia.
manure fertilises rice and the rice paddy. This way the fish can
swim in and out of the pond, and the Answer true or false for each of the
increases rice yield. following questions and then check
pond will be a refuge for the fish when
It costs very little to keep fish in your the water level is low. When you drain your answers below.
paddies. You may even save money the paddy for the rice harvest, do it
because keeping fish in your rice
paddies reduces the need for
expensive pesticides and fertilisers.
slowly to give the fish time to retreat
to their pond. When the field is 1 Most HIV infected persons do not
know they are infected.
drained, all the fish will be in the pond
Keeping fish in rice paddies is not a
new idea. Fish such as catfish or
and they will be easy to catch. If the
fish are not yet big enough to eat, you
2 One child in three born to an HIV-
infected mother will be infected.
can feed them in the pond until the
mudfish used to live naturally in rice
paddies. Your grandparents may even field is ready for rice again. 3 One can tell by people’s appear-
ance if they are HIV-infected.
remember catching them. Fish dig and swim around rice plants,
Making a pond
searching for food. If you have just
transplanted your rice seedlings, wait
4 Talking about sex with children
encourages them to try it.

You will need a pond next to the

paddy so the fish will have a place to
about ten days to three weeks before
you put fingerlings in the paddy. This 5 Most people with the virus caught
it through unprotected sex.
go when you harvest your rice or way the rice transplants will be well
when there is a shortage of water.
Choose an area of the field
established and the fingerlings
cannot disturb them.
6 There is little time between HIV
infection and AIDS-related illness.
that holds water. This is
often the lowest spot in the
field.
7 Fifty percent of the world’s new
HIV infections are women.
Adapted from DCFRN

Your pond should be

about 6 metres square
Notes, No.35
8 Mosquitoes can transmit HIV and
AIDS.

9 Research indicates that a vaccine

will be developed soon.

With thanks to Together No.47

for permission to include this.

7 True 8 False 9 False

1 True 2 True 3 False 4 False 5 True 6 False
TEST YOUR AIDS AWARENESS – answers:

FOOTSTEPS NO.25 11
 RESOURCES
Raising Fish in Ponds Water Harvesting and
A Farmer’s Guide to Tilapia Culture Aquaculture Manuals
by Dennis and Meredith Murnyak
The International Center for Aqua-
This booklet results from many years’ culture and Aquatic Environment,
experience raising tilapia in Tanzania. Auburn University, produce a wide
It is very highly recommended – range of very useful books on fish
straightforward to read with excellent farming, covering all kinds of subjects
illustrations and very practical. A in detail. There are too many titles to
section of the book has provided the list here but they include:
information for the centre pages on Organic Fertilisers for Fish Ponds
building a pond. The booklet has 76
Fish Culture in Rice Paddies
pages and costs $6.00 (including
postage) from: Feeding your Fish
Heifer Project International Transporting Fish
Box 808 Introduction to Tilapia.
Little Rock Pictures,
All titles are available in English,
AR 72203
French and Spanish. They are also People and Power
USA. by Bob Linney
available on computer disc
(Macintosh). Please write, asking for Published by Macmillan and TALC
further details of booklets and cost, to: This book is for people who want to
ICAAE Publications make and use pictures for development.
Swingle Hall It is aimed at health and community
Auburn University workers and gives practical guidelines
Alabama 36849 for those who are not artists!
USA. The book is divided into two parts. The
first part looks at the ways in which
How to Grow Fish in the visual aids are used. The second part
Mountains looks at practical ways of encouraging
by Joseph Richter the local production of appropriate
This booklet is written for the farmer – pictures. It includes sections on how to
A KiSwahili version is also available
simple, yet containing a lot of practical use colours, how to copy and adapt
and costs $5.00 including postage
information and well illustrated. pictures, how to make people-centred
within East Africa only. Write to…
Topics include: why grow fish?, visual aids and how to plan workshops
D and M Murnyak on visual communication.
common cultured fish, pond
Fish Farming Project
construction, fingerlings and their The book has 195 pages and is available
ELCT Diocese
production, sexing brood fish, for £7.50 surface mail and £8.00 airmail
Box 519
predators, feeding, harvesting and from TALC:
Arusha
common mistakes. TALC
Tanzania.
The booklet has 40 pages and costs PO Box 49
Raising Healthy Fish under $3.00, including postage. It can be St Albans
Primitive Conditions ordered from: Herts
AL1 5TX
This booklet – and there are currently Farms International Inc UK.
seven in the series, covering various PO Box 270
animals – is produced by the Christian Knife River
Veterinary Mission. It contains ten
Freshwater Fish Pond Culture
MN 55609
sections, covering subjects such as: USA.
and Management
water quality, facilities, nutrition, by M Chakroff
management, fish health, economics Published by VITA
and shrimp culture. The booklet has
80 pages, is well illustrated and A practical manual covering planning,
provides detailed information. It is construction, management, harvesting
available free of charge from: and preserving fish. Available for £14.40
(including postage) from:
Christian Veterinary Mission
Box 33000 IT Publications
Seattle 103–105 Southampton Row
Washington 98133 London
USA. WC1B 4HH.

12 FOOTSTEPS NO.25
 RESOURCES
Step by Step Surgery of
Vesicovaginal Fistulas
As a follow-up to the last issue of BIBLE STUDY
Footsteps, this detailed description of
the surgical repair of fistulas is an The Lord's breakfast
excellent guide for doctors involved in
such surgery. Available free of charge by Dr Paul Brand
from:
AMREF THE TILAPIA FISH is also known as a catch! But Peter knew now that this
PO Box 30125 Saint Peter’s fish. In this study we look at was Jesus’ catch, not his own. As they
Nairobi the disciple Peter. joined Jesus for breakfast, this became a
Kenya. When Jesus first came into his life (John time of truth for Peter.
1:40–42), Peter was a fisherman – rough, Jesus asked Peter, ‘Do you love me more
How to Manage a Health tough and resentful of the rule of the than these?’ Some people think Jesus
Centre Store Romans over Israel. It took real courage was asking if Peter loved him more than
for Peter to give up his boats, his nets the other disciples did, or if Peter loved
A revised edition of this book has just
and fishing and follow Jesus. He be- him more than his other friends? But if
been published by AHRTAG. The 66 lieved the risk was worth it and was we think of the beach, and the huge pile
page manual provides practical prepared to fight against the Romans. of fish lying there, I’m sure Jesus was
guidelines for health workers and No doubt he was puzzled at Jesus’ lack asking Peter which came first in his life –
pharmacists responsible for ensuring a of military preparations, but recognised his skills and pride in fishing or his love
reliable supply of essential drugs. It that people had to repent and turn for Jesus, which might mean giving up
describes how to: humbly to God so that the people of his fishing and following a life of serv-
Israel could once again be God’s special anthood.
• plan and prepare the store
people. He reacted strongly when Jesus
• arrange the store to make best use To discuss:
spoke of coming suffering and death –
of space which Peter felt was going too far • What kind of difficult choices did you make
(Matthew 16:21–23). when choosing to follow Jesus?
• make storage equipment
Then came the crucifixion. All that Peter • Were there things you needed to put to one
• calculate quantities needed, order
had believed and lived for was shatter- side?
and receive supplies
ed. He denied his connections with Jesus • Are you still putting off decisions about
• issue and pack supplies and three times (John 18:17, 25–27). He wept things you need to put right in your rel-
organise a dispensary. bitterly – for the loss of Jesus and for the ationship with Jesus?
frustration of three years lost out of his Jesus chose the early hours of the day for
It is written in clear English and well
life. Then, to his amazement, Jesus came some of the prayers that meant the most
illustrated. Copies can be ordered for back to life and appeared to the disciples
£7.50 surface mail or £8.00 airmail in his life. He is ready to meet with us as
(John 20:19–21). His hopes were raised we set aside time to renew our faith each
from TALC (address above). again – until Jesus spoke to them, ‘As the day at ‘The Lord’s Breakfast’. Do you
Father has sent me, so I am sending you.’ take time to meet with him each morning
With this, Jesus made it clear that there before rushing into the day’s work?
was to be no glorious, earthly future for
Training courses the disciples, no victory over the Rom- Condensed from a chapter of Dr Brand’s book, The
in fish farming ans, no thrones or crowns. They were to Forever Feast. Text and illustration used with kind
continue to live and work as Jesus had permission of Servant Publications.
A training centre has recently opened in done, facing rejection, poverty, perse-
Dareda, Babati District, 175km south of cution and possible death.
Arusha, Tanzania. The centre has about
Read John Chapter 21:1–17. Peter was
30 fish ponds for research and demonstra- very confused. He needed time to think.
tion. In the surrounding area there are He told the others he was going fishing
about 200 ponds owned by local farmers. and they joined him. For Peter, this night
The courses provide training in raising of fishing was a time of temptation – his
tilapia and include a lot of ‘hands-on’ chance to run away from Jesus. He
practical work and visits to farmers. They thought his old skills in fishing would
are taught in KiSwahili. Courses are return. Maybe he could start again as a
usually 2 weeks long for 32 students each fisherman.
time. If there was sufficient demand, the But that night they caught nothing…
courses could be held in English. For Nothing until a man on the shore told
further information write to: them to cast their nets on the other side.
A huge catch of fish – 153 great fish –
D & M Murnyak, Fish Farming Project, which threatened to break the nets. What
ELCT Diocese, Box 519, Arusha, Tanzania.

FOOTSTEPS NO.25 13
 AGRICULTURE
in rice growing areas in Southeast
Asia.

Experiments
An even better way of using neem is
to coat urea with neem cake powder
before broadcasting it in the field. The
neem slows nitrifying bacteria in the

with neem
soil and prolongs the useful life of
urea. The result is both a higher grain
yield and the control of mosquito
breeding.
by Dr Rachel Reuben
Neem cake must be used when fresh.
THE NEEM (Azadirachta indica) is a common tree in towns and Heat and moisture cause the growth
of fungus, making the neem less
villages in India. Its distinctive leaves and sprays of small, white, effective. This can often be a problem
sweet smelling flowers are a familiar sight in avenues and gardens. because farmers may not be able to get
It is sometimes called ‘Nature’s Pharmacy’, because of its many good quality neem cake when they
uses as a mild antibiotic, pesticide and insect repellent. need it. It is also very bulky to store.
An alternative is to use commercially
available neem fractions that are now
At least 35 active chemical principles April in South India, and the ripe fruit available in India in handy sachets.
have been found in its leaves, bark fall off the tree and can be collected in They have the advantage of being
and seeds. The use of neem as a about July. Birds and ants eat the relatively stable and cheap at 2.8 US $
pesticide and the practice of cleaning flesh, but leave the bitter tasting skin per hectare. Experiments carried out at
one’s teeth with neem twigs have and seeds. These must be carefully our centre showed that, when mixed
already been mentioned in Footsteps, dried or they will grow fungus. with urea and broadcast in the rice
and there are many other uses for this fields, they were just as effective as
A lot of seeds are now being bought
tree. For example, fresh green leaves neem cake.
up by industry, but there are still
mixed with grain in closed containers
plenty available for local use. The
will keep the grain free from pests for Grow your own
seeds are crushed in either bullock-
two to three months. Farmers in So, if you live in a part of the world
powered grinders in the villages, or in
Pakistan know this, and regularly where the climate favours the growing
mechanical grinders, to extract the oil,
plaster the inner surfaces of large of neem, plant some trees for your
which has many uses – from soap
storage bins for wheat with a mixture own use. Put the leaves in your rice or
making to medicinal uses. The residue
of mud and neem leaves. Neem leaves wheat storage containers, your clothes
after the oil is removed is known as
dried in books and kept at the bottom and your books. Replace the leaves
neem cake, and is traditionally used as
of drawers and in woollen clothing, every month or two, but take care not
a fertiliser in rice fields and to control
keep away silverfish and moths. to remove too many leaves from
root nematode in the cardamon crop.
Harvesting the seeds young trees, as this might damage
Neem cake their growth. Boil the leaves to get a
The most effective of the chemicals mildly antiseptic solution which is
Modern science has confirmed many
found in neem is azadirachtin. The very soothing for prickly heat and
of the traditional beliefs about the
highest concentrations are found in minor skin ailments. Pound the seeds
properties of neem, and has
the seed kernels. Neem flowers in yourself if there is no grinder available
discovered several new possibilities.
and plough them into your fields.
Mixing neem cake into the soil of rice Check whether commercial neem
fields at the rate of 250kg per hectare fractions are available in your area
(1kg for a 10m x 4m plot) protects the and use these when possible. The
crop from attack from sucking pests small investment involved will bring
such as brown plant hopper, which rewards of better harvests and fewer
has developed resistance to all the disease-bearing mosquitoes.
commonly used chemical insecticides.
At the same time, active neem
chemicals discourage the breeding of Dr R Reuben is the Director of the Centre
Culex mosquitoes in the rice-field for Research in Medical Entomology, PO
water. This is important, because these Box 11, Chinna Chokkikulam, Madurai
mosquitoes include species which 625002, India.
carry the virus of Japanese encepha-
litis, which kills large numbers of
children up to the age of twelve years

14 FOOTSTEPS NO.25
 AGRICULTURE

Raising fish and Fish and

crops together ducks

Fish farming is also ideal for

combining with duck farming. The
A SYSTEM has been developed in Thailand by a group known as duck house can be built either over
ITAG (International Technical Assistance Group) which combines the pond or on the bank (see below).
Manure from the ducks goes directly
fish farming with the growing of vegetables and crops on raised into the water, providing fertiliser.
beds. Long narrow fish ponds are dug in between long narrow raised The ducks can be shut up at night so
beds. Both ponds and raised beds are about 2m x 15m. The ponds are that eggs can be collected.
about 1m deep. The top-soil (the top fertile layer of soil about
30–40cm deep) from digging the ponds is added to the raised beds.

The soil is double dug in the raised There are many benefits from
beds. First, the top layer of soil is dug combining the two together. Both fish
well and mixed with compost. Then and vegetable husbandry benefit.
the top-soil (30–40cm deep) is Traditional methods produce 1–2.5
removed at one end of the bed and tons/ha/year. However, these
placed to one side. The lower layer of methods produce 5 tons/ha in the first
the soil is then loosened. Top-soil is year, 10 tons/ha in the second and 20
turned over onto the loosened subsoil tons/ha in the third year – a huge
and the process repeated right along increase in production! The amount of
the bed. This method allows water – labour is greatly reduced as there is no
both from the pond and from rain – to need to transport compost or water for
soak deep into the soil. irrigation. In addition, by using simple
sand filters, water can be cleaned for
A mixture of crops and fruit trees are
household use.
planted on the raised beds. Water
from the pond will seep into the soil,
allowing the roots to grow deeply, This process was developed for ITAG in
resulting in healthy plants. Because Thailand by Dr Richard Neve.
the beds are raised, they cannot be
flooded. Mud from the pond bottom
is added to the raised beds and is a Know your fish!
valuable fertiliser. Plant wastes and
weeds can be added to the pond for
feeding the fish.
The fish species commonly used are
tilapia, catfish and carp. The narrow
pond allows for careful observation of
fish for any signs of disease or
parasite infections. Fish that show any
sign of poor health are removed
immediately.
Catfish (Clarias species)
FOOTSTEPS NO.25 15
 AGRICULTURE

Agroforestry ‘Re-afforestation is a
social issue. Its main
in the aim should be the
Dominican Alley cropping. improvement of the
Republic cultivation to survive. As in many
Latin American countries, 2% of
living conditions of
by Joachim Boehnert
farmers are landlords, owning nearly the rural people’.
half of the land – particularly the
Jesus Enrique A Rius, President of PROGRESSIO
better land. Most farmers have very
little, poor land on which to survive.
OUR ORGANISATION – Nearly 75% of the streams and rivers
NATURALEZA – works in the have dried up during the last ten years alley cropping and hedges we look for
due to the clearing of forests. trees with these characteristics…
Dominican Republic,
• easy to grow
encouraging agroforestry work. We plan activities that need little
labour and resources. We encourage • rapid growth
Our first priority was soil
alley cropping and hedge planting. • deep root system
conservation. Then we began to
When people clear the forest these • will regrow easily after cutting back
establish community tree methods help to protect the soil from • easy to clear
nurseries and hedges. erosion. Farmers can then continue to
use the land instead of moving to clear • different uses – fuel, fodder, fruit,
We work in cooperation with eight etc
small farmers’ groups (campesinos) and new forest after a few years. We use
A-frames to measure out the contours • leguminous – adding plant foods to
four women’s groups. We are
and then plant hedges on them. the soil
encouraging these groups to form a
federation to take over project We cut back the hedges to 50cm when • drought resistant
planning and management in the they reach a height of 2m, and then • resistant to pests and diseases.
future. We work in a mountainous spread the cut leaves in the alleys to These are the species we use so far…
area in the province of Santiago improve the soil. They can also be
Rodriguez. Much of the land here is used for animal fodder. Instead of • Acacia angustissima
only suitable for forest. However, using just one or two species of trees, • Calliandra calothyrsus
because land is in such short supply, we try to encourage growing a variety • Crotalaria anagyroides
people still practise slash and burn of trees, particularly local species. For • Diphysa robiniodes
• Fleminga congesta.
Planting trees that are out of reach of livestock We are also trying out other species.
In countries with long dry seasons, newly planted trees have to survive both lack of water and Farmers plant traditional crops in the
livestock browsing. Fences are often ineffective. An alternative idea is to plant much larger alleys. Local farmers are very
seedlings which are then out of reach of livestock. interested in this ‘new form’ of
In Zambia we find that around hospitals, schools or low density housing, many self-sown trees (or agriculture. We work together with
wildings) can be found. These can often be easily transplanted during wet spells with a ball of soil them to find out the best combinations
attached. It is helpful to remove all but the topmost leaves to reduce loss of water through of trees and crops. We meet with other
transpiration. organisations involved in this sort of
work to exchange ideas and
We also find that large cuttings can be made from branches of many trees. You will need to information regularly.
experiment, as some root much more easily than others. Allow the cut base to dry out first, then
plant very deeply and remove the leaves. Here is a list of those we have found grow readily from Published by
cuttings:
■ Commiphora africana ■ Euphorbia tirucalli Ronald Watts
■ Manihot glaziovii ■ Morus nigra St Francis Hospital
Private Bag 11
■ Moringa oleifera ■ Pterocarpus angolensis Katete
■ All Ficus species Zambia
100 Church Road, Teddington, TW11 8QE, UK
Editor: Isabel Carter, 83 Market Place, South
Cave, Brough, East Yorkshire, HU15 2AS, UK
16