Thermal Energy Management in Vehicles - 2022 - Lemort

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Thermal Energy Management in Vehicles
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Automotive Series
Series Editor: Thomas Kurfess
Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics and Modelling: A Minaker August 2019

Textbook for Engineers with Illustrations and Examples
Design and Analysis of Composite Structures for Kobelev April 2019
Automotive Applications: Chassis and Drivetrain
Advanced Battery Management Technologies for Electric Xiong and Shen December 2018
Vehicles
Noise and Vibration Control in Automotive Bodies Pang October 2018
Automotive Power Transmission Systems Zhang and Mi June 2018
High Speed Off-Road Vehicles: Suspensions, Tracks, Wheels Maclaurin June 2018
and Dynamics
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Mi and Masrur October 2017
Practical Perspectives, 2nd Edition
Hybrid Electric Vehicle System Modeling and Control, 2nd Liu April 2017
Edition
Thermal Management of Electric Vehicle Battery Systems Dincer, Hamut, and Javani March 2017
Automotive Aerodynamics Katz April 2016
The Global Automotive Industry Nieuwenhuis and Wells September 2015
Vehicle Dynamics Meywerk May 2015
Vehicle Gearbox Noise and Vibration: Measurement, Signal Tůma April 2014
Analysis, Signal Processing and Noise Reduction Measures
Modeling and Control of Engines and Drivelines Eriksson and Nielsen April 2014
Modelling, Simulation and Control of Two-Wheeled Tanelli, Corno and Savaresi March 2014
Vehicles
Advanced Composite Materials for Automotive Elmarakbi December 2013
Applications: Structural Integrity and Crashworthiness
Guide to Load Analysis for Durability in Vehicle Johannesson and Speckert November 2013
Engineering
Thermal Energy Management in Vehicles
Valeo Thermal Systems & University of Liège

Georges de Pelsemaeker
University of Liège
Vincent Lemort
Gérard Olivier
Renault
This edition first published 2023
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v
Contents
Acknowledgments xiii
List of Abbreviations xiv
About the Companion Website xxi
Introduction xxiii
1 Fundamentals 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Fundamental Definitions in Thermodynamics 1
1.2.1 System, Surroundings, and Universe 1
1.2.2 Properties 3
1.2.3 Process 3
1.2.4 Energy 4
1.2.5 Heat 5
1.2.6 Work 5
1.2.6.1 Mechanical Forms of Work 5
1.2.6.2 Nonmechanical Forms of Work 8
1.2.7 Enthalpy 8
1.3 Fluids 8
1.3.1 Pure and Pseudo-Pure Fluids 8
1.3.2 Liquid–Vapor Phase Change for a Pure or Pseudo-Pure Fluid 8
1.3.3 Computing the Properties of Pure and Pseudo-Pure Fluids 11
1.3.3.1 Phase Rule 11
1.3.3.2 The Equations of State Relating P, T, and v (Relation Between Measurable
Properties) 12
1.3.3.3 Computing Non-Measurable Properties (u, h, and s) in General Case of Real Pure
Fluids 13
1.3.3.4 Computing Non-measurable Properties (u, h, and s) in the Specific Case of Ideal
Fluids 15
1.3.4 Fluids Commonly Used in Automotive Applications 17
1.3.4.1 Oil 17
1.3.4.2 Coolant 17
1.3.4.3 Refrigerant 18
1.3.4.4 Humid Air 18
1.4 Heat Transfers 22
1.4.1 Conduction 23
1.4.2 Convection 24
1.4.2.1 Forced Convection 24
vi Contents
1.4.2.2 Natural Convection 24

1.4.2.3 Mixed Forced and Natural Convection 25
1.4.2.4 Sensible and Latent Heat Transfer by Convection 25
1.4.2.5 Convection Heat Transfer Rates 25
1.4.2.6 Laminar and Turbulent Regimes 25
1.4.2.7 Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients 26
1.4.3 Radiation 26
1.4.3.1 Emitted Radiation 26
1.4.3.2 Incident Radiation 28
1.4.3.3 Kirchhoff’s Law and the Gray Surfaces 29
1.4.3.4 Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces 29
1.5 First Law of Thermodynamics 30
1.5.1 Closed System 31
1.5.2 Open System 32
1.5.2.1 Mass Balance 32
1.5.2.2 Energy Balance 32
1.6 Second Law of Thermodynamics 33
1.6.1 Concepts and Definitions 33
1.6.1.1 Heat Reservoir, Source, and Sink 34
1.6.1.2 Heat Engines 34
1.6.1.3 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 35
1.6.2 Kelvin Planck and Clausius Statements of the Second Law 35
1.6.3 Reversible Processes 36
1.6.4 Ideal Heat Engines, Refrigerators, and Heat Pumps 36
1.6.5 Entropy 38
1.7 Flows in Hydraulic Circuits 40
1.8 Heat Exchangers 42
1.8.1 Classification of Heat Exchangers 42
1.8.1.1 Classification According to the Mechanism of Energy Transfer 42
1.8.1.2 Classification According to the Phases of Both Fluids 43
1.8.1.3 Classification According to the Flow Arrangement 43
1.8.1.4 Classification According to the Pass Arrangement 44
1.8.1.5 Classification According to the Type of Construction 44
1.8.2 Energy Balance Across a Heat Exchanger 48
1.8.3 Performance 50
1.8.3.1 Thermal Performance 50
1.8.3.2 Hydraulic Performance 53
References 53
2 Internal Combustion Engine Thermal Management 54

2.1 Introduction 54
2.2 Fundamentals of Internal Combustion Engines 55
2.2.1 Characteristics of the Internal Combustion Engines 55
2.2.2 Four-Stroke Engine Cycle 58
2.2.3 Combustion Process in the Engines 59
2.2.3.1 Combustion 59
2.2.3.2 Spark-Ignition Engine (SI Engine) 61
2.2.3.3 Compression-Ignition Engine (CI Engine) 62
Contents vii
2.2.4 Pollutant Emissions 62

2.2.4.1 Driving Cycles and Pollutant Emissions 62
2.2.4.2 Pollutants 64
2.2.4.3 Trade-off and Technological Levers 64
2.2.5 Energy Analysis 66
2.2.5.1 Energy Conversion Processes in Engines 66
2.2.5.2 Engine Overall Energy Balance 72
2.2.5.3 Engine Overall Energy Performance Indicators 73
2.2.6 Quantification of the Major Heat Transfers in ICEs 74
2.2.6.1 Heat Transfer Between Gases and Engine Walls 74
2.2.6.2 Heat Transfer Between Coolant and Engine Walls 75
2.2.6.3 Overall Heat Transfer Between the Gas and Coolant 77
2.2.6.4 Heat Transfer with the Surroundings 77
2.3 Engine Cooling and Heating 78
2.3.1 Purpose of Engine Cooling and Heating 78
2.3.2 Working Principle of Engine Cooling and Heating Systems 79
2.3.3 Circulation of the Coolant through the Engine 81
2.3.4 Radiator 82
2.3.4.1 Purpose of the Radiator 82
2.3.4.2 Technologies of Radiators 82
2.3.4.3 Flow Configurations in Radiators 83
2.3.5 Expansion Tanks 86
2.3.6 Thermostat 87
2.3.6.1 Purpose of the Thermostat 87
2.3.6.2 Working Principle of a Thermostat 87
2.3.6.3 Technologies of Thermostats 87
2.3.7 Heating Systems 93
2.4 Oil Cooling 93
2.4.1 Purpose of Oil Cooling and Heating 93
2.4.2 Working Principle of Oil Cooling and Heating Systems 93
2.4.3 Technologies of Oil Coolers 94
2.4.3.1 Air-to-Oil Coolers 94
2.4.3.2 Coolant-to-Oil Coolers 94
2.4.4 Oil Temperature Control 95
2.5 Charge Air Cooling (CAC) 97
2.5.1 Purpose of Charge Air Cooling and Forced Induction 97
2.5.2 Working Principle and Technologies of Forced Induction 97
2.5.2.1 Turbochargers 97
2.5.2.2 Superchargers 99
2.5.2.3 Electric Superchargers 100
2.5.2.4 Compound Forced Induction 101
2.5.3 Working Principle and Architectures of Charge Air Cooling 101
2.5.3.1 Charge Air Cooling by Air 102
2.5.3.2 Charge Air Cooling by Coolant 102
2.5.3.3 Charge Air Cooling by Refrigerant 103
2.5.4 Technologies of Charge Air Coolers 103
2.5.4.1 Air-Cooled Charge Air Coolers 103
2.5.4.2 Water-Cooled Charge Air Coolers 104
viii Contents
2.6 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Cooling 105

2.6.1 Purpose of EGR and EGR Cooling 105
2.6.2 EGR Working Principle 106
2.6.3 Exhaust Gas Recirculation Architectures 106
2.6.3.1 High-Pressure EGR 106
2.6.3.2 Low-Pressure EGR 106
2.6.4 Technologies of Exhaust Gas Recirculation Coolers (EGRC) 108
2.7 Front-End Module 111
2.7.1 Purpose of the Front-End Module 111
2.7.2 Working Principle of the Front-End Module 112
2.7.2.1 Heat Exchangers Configuration 112
2.7.2.2 Aeraulics 113
2.7.3 Technologies of Components in the Front-End Module 117
2.7.3.1 Fan System 117
2.7.3.2 Active Grille Shutters 118
2.8 Engine Waste Heat Recovery 119
2.8.1 Exhaust Heat Recovery System (EHRS) 119
2.8.2 (Organic) Rankine Cycle Power Systems 120
2.8.3 Other Investigated Technologies 124
References 124
3 Cabin Climate Control 127

3.1 Introduction 127
3.2 Thermal Comfort 127
3.2.1 Definition of Thermal Comfort 128
3.2.2 Human Thermo-Physiology 128
3.2.2.1 Homeothermy 129
3.2.2.2 Body Energy Balance 130
3.2.2.3 Skin Sensible Losses 131
3.2.2.4 Skin Latent Losses 131
3.2.2.5 Respiratory Losses 132
3.2.2.6 Criteria to Meet to Achieve Thermal Comfort 132
3.2.3 Description of Vehicle Indoor Climate 133
3.2.3.1 Mean Radiant Temperature 133
3.2.3.2 Operative Temperature 134
3.2.3.3 Equivalent Temperature 135
3.2.3.4 Local Equivalent Temperature 137
3.2.3.5 Whole Body Equivalent Temperature 137
3.2.3.6 Control of Vehicle Indoor Climate 140
3.2.3.7 Transient Evolution of the Indoor Climate 141
3.2.3.8 Air Stratification 141
3.2.4 Evaluation of Thermal Comfort 142
3.2.4.1 PMV Approach 142
3.2.4.2 Human Subject Trials 144
3.3 Cabin Thermal Loads 144
3.3.1 Outdoor Climate 145
3.3.1.1 Solar Radiation 145
3.3.1.2 Atmospheric Radiation 148
Contents ix
3.3.2 Energy Transfer Mechanisms Involved in a Vehicle Cabin 148

3.3.3 Heat Transfer Through the Cabin Body 150
3.3.3.1 Heat Transfers at the Cabin Body Outdoor Surface 150
3.3.3.2 Heat Transfer and Storage Through the Cabin Body Materials 151
3.3.3.3 Heat Transfers at the Cabin Body Indoor Surface 152
3.3.3.4 Heat Transfer Through the Cabin Body in the Steady-State Regime 152
3.3.4 Heat Transfer Through the Glazing 152
3.3.4.1 Optical Properties of Glazing 153
3.3.4.2 Advanced Glazing Technologies 154
3.3.5 Ventilation 156
3.3.6 Infiltration 158
3.3.7 Internal Gains 158
3.3.7.1 Occupants 158
3.3.7.2 Other Internal Gains 158
3.3.8 Other Energy Transfer Mechanisms 159
3.3.9 Lumped Modeling Approach 159
3.3.9.1 Energy Balance on the Cabin Body 159
3.3.9.2 Energy Balance on the Cabin Glazing 160
3.3.9.3 Energy Balance on the Cabin Internal Masses 160
3.3.9.4 Mass and Energy Balances on the Cabin Air, Water, and CO2 161
3.4 Distribution of Thermal Energy Through the Cabin 167
3.4.1 HVAC Unit Components and Working Principle 168
3.4.2 Cabin Air Recirculation 169
3.4.3 HVAC Unit Operating Modes 172
3.4.3.1 Ventilation 172
3.4.3.2 Cooling 173
3.4.3.3 Heating 173
3.4.3.4 Demisting and Defrosting 174
3.4.3.5 Ventilation and Heating 175
3.4.3.6 Temperature and Flow Rate of the Air Flow Pulsed by the HVAC Unit 176
3.4.4 Cabin Air Quality 177
3.5 Production of Cooling Capacity 177
3.5.1 Working Principle of a Vapor-Compression Refrigerator 177
3.5.1.1 Evaporator 178
3.5.1.2 Compressor 178
3.5.1.3 Condenser 179
3.5.1.4 Throttling Device 179
3.5.2 Integration of the Air-Conditioning Loop into the Vehicle 179
3.5.3 Compressor 180
3.5.3.1 Mechanical Versus Electrical Compressors 180
3.5.3.2 Compressor Capacity 182
3.5.3.3 Piston Compressors 183
3.5.3.4 Sliding Vane Compressors 187
3.5.3.5 Scroll Compressors 189
3.5.3.6 Expression of the Compressor Displaced Mass Flow Rate 191
3.5.3.7 Expression of the Compressor Power 192
3.5.3.8 Oil Circulation Ratio 195
3.5.4 Evaporator 195
x Contents
3.5.4.1 Air-Heated Evaporators 195

3.5.4.2 Water-Heated Evaporators (“Chillers”) 197
3.5.5 Condenser 197
3.5.5.1 Air-Cooled Condensers 197
3.5.5.2 Water-Cooled Condensers 199
3.5.6 Throttling Device 199
3.5.6.1 Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TXV) 199
3.5.6.2 Electronic Expansion Valve (EXV) 203
3.5.6.3 Orifice Tube (OT) 204
3.5.7 Receiver, Accumulator, Drier, and Filter 204
3.5.7.1 In-line Receiver 205
3.5.7.2 Integrated Receiver 206
3.5.7.3 Accumulator 209
3.5.8 Internal Heat Exchanger 210
3.5.9 R744 (CO2 ) as Working Fluid 211
3.5.9.1 Internal Heat Exchanger with R744 211
3.5.9.2 Gas Cooler 211
3.5.9.3 R744 Versus R1234yf 212
3.5.10 Cabin Climate Control 213
3.5.10.1 A/C Loop Pressure and Temperature Switches/Sensors 215
3.5.10.2 Control of the A/C Loop Cooling Capacity 216
3.5.10.3 Optimization of the Condenser Fan Speed 217
3.5.11 Interaction Between the Major Components of the A/C Loop 218
3.6 Production of Heating Capacity 224
3.6.1 Heating with the Engine Coolant Loop 224
3.6.2 PTC Heaters 224
3.6.3 Heat Pump Systems 225
3.7 Local Cooling and Heating Systems 225
3.7.1 Heated, Cooled, and Ventilated Seats 226
3.7.1.1 Heated Seat with an Electric Mat 226
3.7.1.2 Seat with Peltier Cells 227
3.7.1.3 Ventilated Seat 227
3.7.2 Heated Steering Wheel 227
3.7.3 Electric Radiant Panels 227
3.7.4 Head Cooling 228
3.8 Thermal Energy Storage 228
3.8.1 Sensible Thermal Energy Storage 228
3.8.2 Latent Thermal Energy Storage 229
3.8.2.1 Phase Change Materials and Ice 229
3.8.2.2 Evaporator with Latent Thermal Energy Storage 230
3.8.3 Sorption Energy Storage 230
3.8.4 Thermal Insulation 230
3.8.5 Energy Density 230
References 231
4 Thermal Energy Management in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles 235

4.1 Introduction 235
4.2 Classification of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles 237
Contents xi
4.2.1 Electric Vehicles 237

4.2.1.1 Battery Electric Vehicles 237
4.2.1.2 Integration of EVs in Electricity Grids 238
4.2.1.3 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles 239
4.2.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 244
4.2.2.1 Classification According to the Degree of Hybridization 244
4.2.2.2 Powertrain Architectures 246
4.3 Cabin Thermal Control in HEVS and EVs 247
4.3.1 Technical Challenges Associated with Cabin Thermal Control in Electrified
Vehicles 247
4.3.1.1 Vehicles with Stop & Start Functions 247
4.3.1.2 Vehicles with Regenerative Braking 248
4.3.1.3 Vehicles with Electric Driving Mode 248
4.3.2 Heat Pump Systems 253
4.3.2.1 Air-to-Air Heat Pumps 254
4.3.2.2 Air-to-Water Heat Pumps 258
4.3.2.3 Water-to-Air Heat Pumps 259
4.3.2.4 Water-to-Water Heat Pumps 260
4.3.2.5 Back-Up Electric Resistance Heating System 261
4.3.3 Local Heating Systems 263
4.3.4 Thermal Energy Storage 264
4.4 Battery Thermal Management (BTM) 265
4.4.1 Description of a Battery 265
4.4.1.1 Battery Pack, Modules and Cells 265
4.4.1.2 Operating Principle of Lithium-Ion Battery Cells 266
4.4.1.3 Battery Technical Characteristics 267
4.4.1.4 State of Charge (SOC) 267
4.4.2 Battery Charging 270
4.4.3 Battery Aging 271
4.4.3.1 Calendar and Cycling Aging 271
4.4.3.2 State of Health (SOH) 272
4.4.4 Battery Management System (BMS) 273
4.4.5 Energy Balance Across a Battery Cell 273
4.4.5.1 Heat Generation inside the Cell 273
4.4.5.2 Heat Exchange with the Ambient and with the Heat Transfer Fluid of the BTMS 274
4.4.6 Undesired Effects of Battery Operating Temperature 275
4.4.6.1 Cell Temperature Level 275
4.4.6.2 Battery Temperature Gradient 276
4.4.6.3 Battery Thermal Inertia 277
4.4.7 Battery Thermal Management Systems (BTMS) 277
4.4.7.1 Air-Based Systems 279
4.4.7.2 Liquid-Based Systems 284
4.4.7.3 Refrigerant-Based Systems 287
4.4.7.4 Dielectric Fluid-Based System 288
4.4.7.5 Mutual Impact of Cabin Climate Control and BTM 289
4.4.7.6 Coupling of Battery Modules on Coolant/Refrigerant Plates 289
4.4.7.7 Comparison between Air Cooling and Glycol-Water Cooling Solutions 290
4.4.7.8 PCM and Other Technologies 291
xii Contents
4.5 E-Motor and Power Electronics Cooling 295

4.5.1 Power Electronics 296
4.5.2 Electric Motor (e-Motor) 298
4.5.2.1 Types of Electric Motors 298
4.5.2.2 Losses in Electric Motors 300
4.5.2.3 Operating Temperature Range of e-Motors 301
4.5.2.4 E-Motor Cooling System 302
4.5.3 Combined e-Motor and Power Electronics Thermal Management 304
4.6 Overall Thermal Energy Management of Electrified Vehicles 305
4.6.1 Fluids Loops and their Connections 305
4.6.2 Front-End Module Configuration 307
4.6.3 Pumps and Fan-Motor Assembly 307
References 308
Index 311
xiii
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank all the people who have contributed to the content of this book by
sharing their knowledge. This content has relied heavily on the technical documentation prepared
over the years by many Valeo and Renault experts. It is not possible to list all of them, but the
authors hope that they will recognize each other.
In addition, many colleagues from the University of Liège and other universities as well as
industrial partners took the time to answer the many technical questions they received. The
authors would like to thank them for their time and consideration. Again, it is not easy to provide a
complete list without forgetting anyone, and the authors hope that no one will take offense.
Finally, the authors would like to thank their families and their beloved for their support during
this long project.
Above all, Vincent Lemort thanks his wife, children, family, and friends for their patience during
these last two months of writing.
xiv
Nomenclature
List of Abbreviations
AC accumulator
A/C air-conditioning
ACAC air-cooled charge air cooler
BDC bottom dead center
BEV battery electric vehicle
BMEP brake mean effective pressure
BMS battery management system
BPHEX Brazed Plate Heat Exchanger
BTM battery thermal management
BTMS battery thermal management system
BOL beginning of life
CAC charge air cooler
CC cooler core
CFC chlorofluorocarbon
COP coefficient of performance
CP compressor
DN direct normal
DOC diesel oxidation catalyst
DP damper
DPF diesel particulate filter
ECV externally controlled valve
EG ethylene glycol
EGR exhaust gas recirculation
EGRC exhaust gas recirculation cooler
EHRS exhaust heat recovery system
EM electric motor
EOL end of life
EREV extended range electric vehicle
EV electric vehicle
EXV electronic expansion valve
HC hydrocarbon
HEV hybrid electric vehicle
HP high pressure
FC fuel cell
Nomenclature xv
FCEV fuel cell electric vehicle

FMEP friction mean effective pressure
GWP global warming potential
HC heater core
HVAC heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
HFC hydrofluorocarbon
HFO hydrofluoroolefin
HHV high heating value
ICD internal condenser
ICE internal combustion engine
ICT information and communications technology
ICV internally controlled valve
IEV internal evaporator
IMEP indicated mean effective pressure
IR infrared
LHV low heating value
LP low pressure
LT low temperature
MEP mean effective pressure
NEDC new European driving cycle
NTU number of transfer units
ORC organic Rankine cycle
OCR oil circulation ratio
OCV open circuit voltage
OHEX outdoor heat exchanger
OT orifice tube
PCM phase change material
PE power electronics
PHEV plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
PMV predicted mean vote
PPD predicted percent dissatisfied
PTC positive temperature coefficient
PVB polyvinyl butyral
RC Rankine cycle
RMS root mean square
SCR selective catalytic reduction
SHGC solar heat gain coefficient
SHR sensible heat ratio
SOC state of charge
SOH state of health
TDC top dead center
TIM thermal interface material
TXV thermostatic expansion valve
WCAC water-cooled charge air cooler
WCD water-cooled condenser
WLTP worldwide harmonized light vehicles test procedure
ZEV zero emission vehicle
xvi Nomenclature
Nomenclature
a specific Gibbs free energy [J kg−1 ]

A area [m2 ]
AU conductance [W K−1 ]
B bore [m]
c specific heat [J kg−1 K−1 ]
C speed, velocity [m s−1 ]
C heat capacity [J K−1 ]
C clearance factor [−]
C concentration [−]
e specific total energy [J kg−1 ]
e thickness [m]
e amount of excess air [−]
E total energy [J]
E emissive power [W m−2 ]
f fuel–air ratio [−]
F force [N]
F view factor [−]
g gravitational acceleration [m s−2 ]
g specific Helmoltz free energy [J kg−1 ]
G irradiation [W m−2 ]
h specific enthalpy [J kg−1 ]
h convective heat transfer coefficient [W m−2 K−1 ]
H enthalpy [J]
H height [m]
i working cycle frequency [−]
I irradiance [W m−2 ]
I electric current [A]
k spring constant [N m−1 ]
k thermal conductivity [W m−1 K−1 ]
L length [m]
m mass [kg]
ṁ mass flow rate [kg s−1 ]
MM molar mass [kg kmol−1 ]
n number [−]
N rotational speed [Hz]
P pressure [Pa]
q heat flux [W m−2 ]
Q̇ rate of heat transfer [W]
r ratio [−]
R heat transfer resistance [K W−1 ]
RH relative humidity [−]
rpm rotational speed [rpm]
T temperature [∘ C or K]
s specific entropy [J kg−1 K−1 ]
S entropy [J K−1 ]
S stroke [m]
Nomenclature xvii
t time [s]
T torque [N m]
u specific internal energy [J kg−1 ]
U internal energy [J]
U overall heat transfer coefficient [W m−2 K−1 ]
v specific volume [m3 kg−1 ]
V volume [m3 ]
V̇ volume flow rate [m3 s−1 ]
Vol volume [m3 ]
w specific work [J kg−1 ]
W work [J]
Ẇ power [W]
x displacement, distance [m]
x quality [−]
X ratio [−]
X concentration [ppm]
z elevation, altitude [m]
Subscripts
a acceleration
a air
adiab adiabatic
amb ambient
atm atmospheric
avg average
aux auxiliaries
b boundary
b black body
bod body
c cold
c cylinder
c combustion
c cutoff
c convection
cab cabin
cc combustion chamber
cd condenser
cl cloth
cond conduction
cond condensate
cool coolant
cp compressor
cr crank chamber
CV control volume
d displacement
d diffuse
xviii Nomenclature
d discharge
diff diffusion
dh diffuse horizontal
dp dew point
el electric, electrical
eng engine
eq equivalent
ex exhaust
exf exfiltration
exp expander
ev evaporator
f saturated liquid
f fluid
f fuel
f fin
f free
f final
form formation
fric friction
g gravity
g saturated vapor
g gas
gc gas cooler
gen generated
gw glycol water (coolant)
glaz glazing
h hydraulic
h hot
ha humid air
he heat engine
i initial
in inside, indoor, internal
in indicated
inf infiltration
int internally
k kinetic
l liquid
l leakage
lat latent
m maximum
m mechanical
m metabolism
m masses
mech mechanical
mod module
n natural
o operative
occ occupant
Nomenclature xix
out outside, outdoor

p constant pressure
p potential
p piston
plas plastic
pp pump
r radiated
r refrigerant
rad radiator
rec recirculated
ref reference
rel relative
rev reversible
s isentropic
s surface
s swept
s solar
sa sol-air
sat saturated
sens sensible
sf secondary fluid
sh shaft
sk skin
st stoichiometric
su supply
surf surface
th thermal
th theoretical
tot total
tp two-phase
turb turbine
v constant volume
v vapor
vent ventilation
w water
w wall
wb wetbulb
wf working fluid
wg waste gate
0 at 0∘ C
0 clearance
II second Law of Thermodynamics
∞ freestream
Exponents
∘
ideal gas contribution
r residual contribution
xx Nomenclature
Greek Symbols
𝛼 absorptivity [−]
𝛽 solar altitude [rad]
𝛾 specific heat ratio [−]
𝛥 difference [−]
𝜀 emissivity [−]
𝜀 effectiveness [−]
𝜂 efficiency [−]
𝜃 specific total energy of flowing fluid [J kg−1 ]
𝜃 crank angle [rad]
𝜆 wavelength [m]
𝜇 dynamic viscosity [kg m−1 s−1 ]
𝜌 density [kg m−3 ]
𝜌 reflectivity [−]
𝜎 Stefan–Boltzmann constant [5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4 ]
Σ surface tilt angle [rad]
𝜏 transmissivity [−]
𝜏 time [s]
𝜙 solar azimuth [rad]
Φ equivalence ratio [−]
𝜓 surface azimuth [rad]
𝜔 specific humidity [kg kg−1 ]
xxi
This book is accompanied by a companion website:

About the Companion Website
www.wiley.com/go/lemort/thermal
This website includes:

EES files
●
xxiii
Introduction
1 Genesis
The paternity of the automobile is still debated between several inventors among whom are
Francesco di Giorgio Martin (1470), Roberto Valturio (1472), or Leonardo da Vinci whose sketches
can be found in the Codex Atlantico (1478) and whose drawings are preserved in his engineering
notebooks. A study of a self-propelled wagon probably for a theatrical machine, able to move for a
short stretch on a stage, is known. For a long time, it was wrongly interpreted as a kind of ancestor
of the automobile (Figure 1).
However, thanks to the first functional models of the Belgian Jesuit Ferdinant Verbiest
(1623–1688), we can discover the description of a thermodynamic system that allows the move-
ment of the vehicle. In 1672, to put into practice his studies on boilers, he installed one on a small
cart. The jet of steam actuated a paddle wheel which drove the wheels through a set of gears.
The drawing in Figure 2 is by the hand of the inventor, as in his description, published in 1685,
in Latin, in his treatise “Astronomia Europea.”
The Frenchman Joseph Cugnot presented his “Fardier (or steamer)” developed during the period
1769–1771, a cart propelled by a steam boiler. As shown in Figure 3, it was difficult to brake the
steamer, leading to probably the first car accident in history.
Other models followed, but steam propulsion was a stalemate in terms of the relationship
between weight and performance. This is how the automobile evolved towards the electric car.
The first electric car model was built by Sibrandus Stratingh (1835).
We could not resist quoting Camille Jenatzy’s electric car, “La Jamais contente (or Never-Happy)”
(Figure 4). This is the first motor vehicle to reach the 100 km h−1 mark.
This electric car, in the shape of a torpedo on wheels, set this record on 29 April 1899 in Achères
(France).
The first times of the electric car remained chaotic and inefficient. So, the German Carl Benz
built the first automobile in history driven by a thermal engine (1886).
Several revolutions followed that led to changes to steam engines, electric, gasoline, diesel, fuel
cell, and electric propulsion again.
Each time, the thermal systems have been adapted or reinvented themselves to meet the new
challenges that the automotive industry has encountered. The necessary revolution towards carbon
neutrality has accelerated those changes.
Figure 1 Self-propelled wagon as drawn by da Vinci. Source: Leonardo da Vinci – http://history-computer
Figure 2 One of the ﬁrst steam-driven cars by Belgian Ferdinant Verbiest. Source: Unknown
.com, public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=14619567.
author/Wikimedia/Public Domain.
Introduction
xxiv
xxv
Introduction
“La Jamais contente (or Never-Happy)”. Source: Unknown author/Wikimedia/Public Domain.

Cugnot’s Steamer (“Fardier de Cugnot”), tested in Paris in 1770.
Figure 3
Figure 4
xxvi Introduction
2 Vectors of Evolution of Thermal Systems

The vectors of the evolution of the automobile world and of its motorization were successively: a
race for speed record, increase in the reliability of the engines, increase in the specific power of
the engines, introduction of heating and then of air conditioning of the passenger compartment,
reduction of vehicle consumption, regulatory constraints governing the environmental impact of
engines, reduction in vehicle weight, conservation of the autonomy of electric vehicles, and finally,
an improved comfort for passengers of electric and autonomous vehicles.
With each step, the thermal management of the vehicle has evolved toward more performance
and functionality, less weight, and lower cost.
To cope with these new challenges, the number of independent thermal systems has increased
initially, their interconnection has evolved, and today, many of these systems are fully connected
to ensure optimal energy management.
3 The Regulatory Constraints of Change

Pollution regulations have been important vectors for the evolution of propulsion systems and they
asked for the energy sobriety of the auxiliaries (all components and systems not directly contribut-
ing to propulsion, such as heating, air-conditioning, battery thermal management systems, etc.)
The evolution of the allowed emission limits, in CO2 per kilometer, for the four main geographical
areas, namely the USA, Europe, Japan, and China, is shown in Figure 5.
European CO2 pollution standards imposed since 1992 refer to the New European Driving Cycle
(NEDC). In addition to CO2 reduction, the European regulations have imposed limitations on emis-
sions of other pollutants, including NOx , CO, particulate matter (PM), and HC + NOx .
As an example, Figure 6 gives the allowed emission limits for diesel engines from July 1992
(Euro 1) to September 2015 (Euro 6).
To comply with these emission regulations, car manufacturers and tier one suppliers have devel-
oped major new systems such as turbocharger, fuel direct injection, high-pressure and low-pressure
Worldwide emission standard for passenger cars

gr CO2 km−1
240
USA
230
Grams of CO2 per kilometer normalized
to new european driving cycle (NEDC)
220
210 China
200
190
European
170
150 Japan
USA Trump target
130
110
USA Biden target
90
70
50
30
10
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Figure 5 Yearly evolution of the allowed emission limits in CO2 per kilometer.
Introduction xxvii
European emission standards for passenger cars (Category M*), g km−1
Diesel
NOx
PM Euro 5
Euro 6
CO
Euro 4
Euro 3
Euro 2
Euro1
HC + NOx
Figure 6 Allowed emission limits for diesel engines from Euro 1 (1992) to Euro 6 (2015) regulations.
exhaust gas recirculation systems (EGR), selective catalytic reduction (SCR), and diesel particulate
filter (DFP).
Each of these systems requires optimal operating conditions and specific cooling or heating sys-
tems, which have complicated the thermal architecture of the vehicle.
The introduction of electrical motorization created new demands, which included cooling of the
battery, fast cooling of the battery during charging, and compensation of the thermal deficit in
winter for passenger comfort, and the problem is even more important for fuel cell systems.
The optimization of thermal energy for full electric vehicles is no more an option but a condition
to secure vehicle range.
Despite the demands for reduction in the consumption of internal combustion engine vehicles
following the oil crises (1973 and 1979) and finally since 1992, the increasingly stringent depollu-
tion regulations enacted, the GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions of the transport sector are the only
one increasing compared to other sectors responsible of GHG emissions (power generation, indus-
try, buildings, etc.). The index shown in Figure 7 is a relative measurement of the emissions of gases
responsible for the greenhouse effect.
In addition, the share of road transport represents 11.9% of GHG emissions. Figure 8 shows
the distribution of the GHG emission per sector. The energy sector represents 73.2% of the global
emissions.
For this reason and following the Diesel Gate (2008–2015), state and city standards have been
tightened, and the NEDC standard has been replaced by the worldwide harmonized light vehi-
cles test procedure (WLTP) standard, which represents more real-time driving of the vehicle by
integrating the consumption of accessories.
Furthermore, real driving emissions (RDE) pollution standards were introduced. These stan-
dards refer to a fleet of vehicles in real use during their lifetime and not only for a new vehicle.
Figure 9 shows that the reduction of the pollution has accelerated mainly after the Diesel Gate.
Figure 10 shows a schematic illustration of average CO2 emission levels in the EU between 2014
and 2030, assuming a 3.9% per year and 6.8% per year CO2 reduction scenario.
xxviii Introduction
Indexed evolution of EU GHG emissions per sector

140
Indexed EU‐28 GHG emission (1990 = 100)
120 Transport
100 Power generation
Industry
80
Buildings
60
Agriculture
Waste
Decarbonization target 2050
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Figure 7 Evolution of the European GHG emissions relative to 1990 per sector. Source: Data from
Transport & Environment (1998), UNFCC (1990-2016 data) and EEA’s approximated EU greenhouse
inventory (2017 data).
Global Greenhouse gas emissions by sector

(2016 40.4 Billion tonnes CO2 equivalent)
Waste
Industry green house gas

ry
st
du
In
Ag
r
Agriculture, forestry, land use for icultu
e
& l stry, re,
a
use nd
En
er Bu
gy ildi
rs ng
he
Ot
Transport
ng
tion
ppi
Road
Avia
Shi
Energy Industry green house gas Waste Agriculture, forestry, & land use
Figure 8 Global greenhouse gas emissions per sector.

Evolution of regulations regarding pollutant emissions.
Figure 9
xxx Introduction
180 RW: 170

New car average CO2 emissions level g km−1
160
38%gap
140 RW: 134
Introduction of RW: 118

120 WLTP from 2017
NEDC: 123
23%gap –24%
100
WLTP: 109 RW: 90
NEDC: 95 RW: 90
80 WLTP: 90 31% gap

NEDC: 78
WLTP: 69
–35%
NEDC: 55
60 WLTP: 78
NEDC: 68 RW: 60
RW + conformity factor
–7%/year for
40 new vehicle
WLTP: 48
WLTP + conformity factor
NEDC: 42
20 RW : real world
NEDC : new european driving cycle
WKTP : worldwide harmonized light‐duty vehicle test procedure
0
2013 2015 2020 2025 2030
Figure 10 CO2 emission level for RW, NEDC, and WLTP regulation evolutions.
4 The First Three Revolutions of the Twenty-First Century

Three major revolutions are shaking the automotive industry, namely decarbonization, driving
automation, and connectivity, which makes it possible to create more and more embedded digital
services and a better transition between modes of transport, home, and road.
Because of their emissions of nitrogen oxide and fine particles, real or perceived values, diesel
engines have been discarded to the benefit of the hybridization of gasoline engine (hybrid electric
vehicle [HEV]) and electric motors (battery electric vehicle [BEV]).
The ratio of sales of diesel to gasoline vehicles is reversed in less than a year and several develop-
ments of heat engines have been discontinued and replaced by developments of electric motors.
Fuel cell motorization is seen as a potential alternative to electric vehicles.
This electric revolution is causing new constraints such as cooling the batteries to prevent battery
cell degradation during use or rapid charging under hot conditions.
With the arrival of electric motors, the energy consumed by the auxiliaries and, first and
foremost, the comfort in winter leads to a strong reduction in the driving range of vehicles when
the temperature falls.
In addition to decarbonization (electricity) constraints, new needs are emerging for autonomous,
connected, and shared vehicles, such as cooling of on-board computers or adaptation and
personalization of passenger comfort.
Since 1769, thermal systems have evolved as multiple, connected, complex, efficient, and
adaptive.
Challenges linked to the revolutions of the twenty-first century, electrification of the powertrain,
automation of connected vehicles, and digital mobility will allow once again the thermal manage-
ment of the vehicle to evolve with elegance toward global management.
5 Ambition of the Authors

The target audience of this book are not engineering students but also more experienced engineers
who wish to perfect their knowledge in thermal sciences (heat transfer, thermodynamics, and fluid
mechanics) applied to vehicle thermal management systems.
Introduction xxxi
The authors were inspired by several reference works published; some of them were published
several decades ago and have been the reference of several generations of students. Among these
reference works, we would like to mention the following books:
● “Automotive Climatization (La climatisation Automobile)” from André Colinet (1993)
● “Technical refrigeration manual – Le Pohlman” translated in French by Maake et al. (1993). This
reference is the evolution of a pocketbook published in 1908 (Taschenbuch der Kältetechnik) for
refrigeration technicians. In 1908, the 1st International Cold Congress was held in Paris, which
brought together all the minds interested in low temperatures.
● “Automotive Air conditioning and Climate control systems” by Steven Daly (2006)
● The classroom Manual For Automotive Heating & Air Conditioning written by Schnubel (2016)
The present book goes one step further by presenting the impact of electrification on the overall
thermal management of vehicles. The present book also introduces some simple modeling
techniques of vehicle thermal management components and systems.
6 Organization of the Book

The book is organized as follows. The first chapter covers the fundamentals of thermal systems
and highlights applications to vehicle thermal management components. The second chapter
presents the thermal management systems associated with internal combustion engines. The
third chapter is dedicated to passenger thermal comfort and cabin air conditioning. Finally,
the last chapter explains the specific thermal management solutions for hybrid and electric
vehicles.
In Chapters 2–4, several examples of numerical problems are proposed. Equations implemented
in Engineering Equation Solver (EES) software are presented. The EES files are available for down-
load on the website associated with the book. EES is a software developed by Prof. Sanford Klein
from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. This software combines an acausal equation solver
and an accurate database of thermodynamic and transport properties of working fluids typically
used in vehicle thermal management systems (humid air, refrigerants, aqueous solution of glycol,
etc.). EES allows for solving large systems of coupled nonlinear algebraic equations and differential
equations. The acausal feature of the solver allows to focus on the physical modeling of thermal
systems (in both steady-state and transient regimes) rather than on the numerical solving of the
models. One very interesting feature of EES is its tool for conducting parametric analyses. This
is very convenient to investigate the sensitivity of a thermal component or system to a change in
operating conditions or design parameters. More information is available on the F-Chart website
(https://fchartsoftware.com/ees/).
References
Colinet, A. (1993). La climatisation automobile. Editions techniques pour l’automobile et l’industrie.

Daly, S. (2006). Automotive Air Conditioning and Climate Control Systems. Butterworth-Heinemann.
Maake, W., Eckert, H.-J., and Cauchepin, J.L. (1993). Le Pohlmann : manuel technique du froid, vol. 2, 1,
1204. PYC Livres.
Schnubel, M. (2016). Today’s TechniciansTM : Classroom Manual for Automotive Heating & Air
Conditioning, 6the. Boston, USA: Cengage Learning.
Transport & Environment (1998). EU publishes climate strategy to exit oil. Available: https://www
.transportenvironment.org/discover/eu-publishes-climate-strategy-exit-oil/ (accessed 9 May 2022).

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10.1002/9781119251767.fmatter, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119251767.fmatter by Republic of Macedonia Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [18/01/2024].

Series Editor: Thomas Kurfess

Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics and Modelling: A Minaker August 2019

Valeo Thermal Systems & University of Liège

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Applied for:

Cover Design: Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Chennai, India

1.4.2.2 Natural Convection 24

2 Internal Combustion Engine Thermal Management 54

2.2.4 Pollutant Emissions 62

2.6 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Cooling 105

3 Cabin Climate Control 127

3.3.2 Energy Transfer Mechanisms Involved in a Vehicle Cabin 148

3.5.4.1 Air-Heated Evaporators 195

4 Thermal Energy Management in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles 235

4.2.1 Electric Vehicles 237

4.5 E-Motor and Power Electronics Cooling 295

FCEV fuel cell electric vehicle

a specific Gibbs free energy [J kg−1 ]

out outside, outdoor

This book is accompanied by a companion website:

This website includes:

“La Jamais contente (or Never-Happy)”. Source: Unknown author/Wikimedia/Public Domain.

2 Vectors of Evolution of Thermal Systems

3 The Regulatory Constraints of Change

Worldwide emission standard for passenger cars

2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040

European emission standards for passenger cars (Category M*), g km−1

Indexed evolution of EU GHG emissions per sector

100 Power generation

Decarbonization target 2050

1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050

Global Greenhouse gas emissions by sector

Industry green house gas

Figure 8 Global greenhouse gas emissions per sector.

180 RW: 170

Introduction of RW: 118

80 WLTP: 90 31% gap

4 The First Three Revolutions of the Twenty-First Century

5 Ambition of the Authors

6 Organization of the Book

Colinet, A. (1993). La climatisation automobile. Editions techniques pour l’automobile et l’industrie.

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