Wind Energy Storage and Conversion - 2024 - Inamuddin

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Wind Energy Storage
and Conversion
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Wind Energy Storage
From Basics to Utilities
Mohammad Luqman
and Conversion
Tariq Altalhi
Inamuddin
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Contents
Preface xi
1 Wind Energy: From Past to Present Technology 1
Madhur Babu Singh, Pallavi Jain and Prashant Singh
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Historical Background 3
1.3 Use of Wind Energy in Specific Countries 5
1.4 Wind Technology 5
1.4.1 Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) 6
1.4.2 Electric Generator 7
1.4.3 Evolution of Power Electronics 8
1.4.4 Energy Storage Technology 8
1.5 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs) 9
1.5.1 History 9
1.5.2 Design 9
1.5.3 Components 10
1.5.4 Working Principle 10
1.5.5 Applications 10
1.6 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) 11
1.6.1 Working Principle 11
1.7 Current Technologies in Wind Power Generation 12
1.7.1 Buoyant Airborne Turbine (BAT) 12
1.7.2 Offshore Floating Wind Technology 12
1.8 Advantages 13
1.9 Disadvantages of Wind Energy 14
1.10 Conclusion 14
References 14
2 Environmental Consequences of Wind Energy Technologies 17
Adarsh Kumar Arya and Ashish Kapoor
2.1 Introduction 17
v
vi Contents
2.2 Impact of Wind Energy on the Environment 20

2.3 Key Environmental White Paper Issues Related to
Wind Power 21
2.4 Individual Effects on Population Impacts 23
2.5 Comprehending the Overall Effects of Wind Power
on Wildlife 24
2.6 Considerations for the Environment when Making Choices 25
2.7 Wind Power and Risk Management 26
2.8 Concerns About Using Wind Energy 27
2.9 Conclusion 29
References 30
3 Important Issues and Future Opportunities for Huge
Wind Turbines 33
Anjali Tripathi, Vinay Kumar Pandey, Shivangi Srivastava,
Rashi Mishra and Ashish
3.1 Introduction 34
3.1.1 Visual Impact 34
3.1.2 Noise 36
3.1.3 Wildlife 37
3.1.4 Intermittent Energy Generation 39
3.2 Worldwide Wind Energy Forecast 41
3.2.1 Canada 41
3.2.2 Russia 42
3.2.3 India 42
3.2.4 United States of America 43
3.2.5 China 44
3.2.6 Germany 45
3.3 Increased Wind Penetrating Techniques 45
3.3.1 Energy Storage Systems 45
3.3.2 Advanced Forecasting Tools 46
3.3.3 Bucket Foundation 46
3.3.4 Advantages of Bucket Foundation 46
3.3.5 Limitations of Bucket Foundation 47
3.3.6 Monopile Foundation 47
3.3.7 Jacket Foundation 47
3.3.8 Floating Foundation 48
3.3.9 Tripod Foundation 48
3.4 India’s Perspective for Wind Energy 49
3.4.1 Intermittency and Variability 51
3.4.2 Land Acquisition 51
Contents vii
3.4.3 Transmission Constraints 51

3.4.4 Limited Wind Resource Data 51
3.4.5 Financing Constraints 52
3.4.6 Environmental and Social Impacts 52
3.4.7 Policy and Regulatory Uncertainty 52
3.5 Progress of Technology 52
3.5.1 Larger and More Efficient Turbines 53
3.5.2 Advancements in Turbine Design 53
3.5.3 Improvements in Manufacturing and Installation 56
3.6 Conclusion 56
References 57
4 Wind Hybrid Power Technologies 63
Momina, Haq Nawaz Bhatti and Amina Khan
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Types of Hybrid Power Systems 64
4.3 Wind Hybrid Power Technologies 65
4.3.1 Wind Diesel Hybrid Power Technology 65
4.3.2 Wind Solar Hybrid Power Technology (WSHPT) 70
4.3.3 Wind Hydrogen Hybrid Power Technology (WHHPT) 72
4.3.4 Wind–Hydro Hybrid Power Technology (WHHPT) 75
4.3.5 Wind–Photovoltaic (PV) Hybrid Power Technology 77
4.4 Summary 79
References 79
5 Theories Based on Technological Advances for Wind Energy 83
Muhammad Azam, Laiba Zafar, Haq Nawaz Bhatti
and Amina Khan
5.1 Introduction 84
5.2 Theoretical Background 87
5.2.1 Basic Principles of Wind Energy Conversion 87
5.2.2 Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines 88
5.2.3 Control Systems for Wind Turbines 89
5.3 Theories Based on Technological Advances 91
5.3.1 Wind Turbine Design Theory 92
5.3.1.1 Rotor Blade Design Theory 93
5.3.1.2 Aerodynamic Design Theory 94
5.3.2 Power Control Theory 95
5.3.2.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking Theory 96
5.3.2.2 Load Control Theory 98
5.3.3 Wind Farm Layout Theory 99
viii Contents
5.3.3.1 Turbine Placement Theory 100

5.3.3.2 Wake Effect Theory 101
5.3.4 Grid Integration Theory 103
5.3.4.1 Power Quality Theory 104
5.3.4.2 Stability Theory 106
5.4 Advancements in Wind Energy Technologies 107
5.5 Future Research Directions 108
5.6 Conclusion 110
References 111
6 Wind Energy Hybrid Power Generation System with
Hydrogen Storage 115
Mehmet Bugdayci and Mesut Yilmazoglu
6.1 Introduction 116
6.2 Hydrogen Storage Systems 120
6.2.1 Solid-State Hydrogen Storage in Materials 121
6.3 Wind Energy Systems 123
6.4 Wind Energy Hybrid Power Generation System with
Hydrogen Storage 125
6.4.1 Design and Optimization of a Wind Energy Hybrid
Power Generation System with Hydrogen Storage 126
6.5 Conclusion 127
References 128
7 Technologies Based on Reusable Wind Turbine Blades 133
Abhinay Thakur and Ashish Kumar
7.2 Wind Power Generation and the Importance of
Wind Turbine Blades 137
7.2.1 Global Demand for Clean and Sustainable Energy 137
7.2.2 Role of Wind Turbines in Wind Power Generation 139
7.2.3 Impact of Wind Turbine Blades on Performance
and Viability 141
7.3 Conventional Wind Turbine Blade Materials and Limitations 142
7.3.1 Overview of Conventional Blade Materials 142
7.3.2 Limitations in Terms of Recyclability and
Environmental Impact 145
7.4 Advancements in Materials Engineering for Reusable
Wind Turbine Blades 147
7.4.1 Composite Materials in Blade Design 147
7.4.2 Bio-Based Resins for Sustainable Blades 150
Contents ix
7.4.3 Additive Manufacturing Techniques for

Blade Production 153
7.5 Challenges in Implementing Reusable Blade Technologies 155
7.5.1 Structural Integrity of Reusable Blades 155
7.5.2 Fatigue Resistance and Durability 156
7.5.3 Manufacturing Scalability and Cost-Effectiveness 158
7.6 Implications of Reusable Wind Turbine Blades 160
7.6.1 Cost Reduction and Enhanced Energy Production 160
7.6.2 Environmental Benefits and Reduction of
Carbon Emissions 162
7.6.3 Policy Frameworks and Industry Collaboration 164
7.7 Testing, Modeling, and Simulation for Reliable Reusable
Blade Designs 165
7.7.1 Importance of Rigorous Testing 165
7.7.2 Modeling and Simulation Techniques for
Design Optimization 167
7.8 Future Prospects and Research Directions 168
7.8.1 Interdisciplinary Approaches for Sustainable Innovation 168
7.8.2 Collaboration Among Researchers, Engineers,
and Stakeholders 170
7.8.3 Potential Directions for Future Research 173
7.9 Conclusion 175
References 177
8 Wind Turbine Assessment: A Step-by-Step Approach 185
Figen Balo and Lutfu S. Sua
8.2 Analytic Hierarchy Strategy 191
8.3 Results and Discussion 194
8.4 Conclusions 197
References 201
9 Effect of Aerodynamics on Wind Turbine Design 207
Mahadi Hasan Masud, Md. Forhad Hossain Hemal,
Mim Mashrur Ahmed, Md. Fyruz Ibna Alam Taki,
Md. Hasibul Hasan Himel, Anan Ashrabi Ananno
and Peter Dabnichki
9.2 Air Properties Affecting Wind Turbines 210
9.3 Classical Blade Element Momentum Theory 212
9.4 Aerodynamic Performance Testing 215
x Contents
9.4.1 Wind Tunnel Testing and Field Testing 215

9.4.2 Performance Testing of a Counter-Rotating
Wind Turbine System 217
9.5 Effect of Aerodynamics on Wind Turbine Design Parameters 220
9.5.1 Solidity 223
9.5.2 Number of Blades 224
9.5.3 Different Ratios 226
9.5.3.1 Chord/Radius Ratio (c/R) 226
9.5.3.2 Height-to-Radius Ratio (H/R) 227
9.5.3.3 Blade Aspect Ratio (H/c) 229
9.5.4 Pitch 230
9.5.5 Strut Connection Point 232
9.5.6 Blade Reynolds Number (Re) 233
9.5.7 Strut Effects 234
9.5.8 Strut Arrangement 236
9.6 Wind Turbine Loads 238
9.7 Conclusions 239
References 240
Index 247
Preface
With the depletion of fossil fuel-based energy resources, the development

of alternative sources of energy is becoming extremely crucial. Meanwhile,
the planet is on the brink of an energy disaster due to the rapidly rising
global need for energy. Additionally, the widespread use of fossil fuel-based
energy resources aggravates global warming and harms the environment.
However, there are reliable and eco-friendly substitutes to fossil fuels, like
wind and many other sustainable energies. Considering its low operational
costs and easy accessibility, the wind is among the most cost-effective and
efficient renewable energies. With the increased use of wind energy, the
need for storage has become critical. In addition to various storage proce-
dures, fuel cells and batteries are two primary sources of compensation for
renewable energy (RE) systems. The wind technological system is on the
cusp of development, but numerous improvements are required to make
this technology cost-efficient, overall.
In this book, various energy storage and conversion methods for wind
power applications are explored. By going through this book, one can learn
more about excellent illustrations of the usefulness of adopting renewable
energies, particularly in light of the widespread use of wind-based devices
and the in-depth presentation of several developments in wind techno-
logical systems concerning applications and operational approaches.
Additionally, this work covers the costs associated with the electrical out-
put in wind-powered power plants as well as the financial and environ-
mental plans that describe the installation of wind technological systems.
For those interested in this field, this publication is a great resource for
academics, researchers, environmentalists, and professionals.
Chapter 1 provides a concise scientific overview of wind energy’s histor-
ical development, technological advancements, and significance as a major
renewable energy source. It highlights offshore wind farms, improved effi-
ciency, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions, making wind energy vital
for a sustainable future. It also covers ongoing research for enhanced tur-
bine designs.
xi
xii Preface
Chapter 2 analyzes the direct and indirect environmental consequences

associated with wind-energy technologies. It examines their potential
impacts on living beings and the environment. These concerns may pose
challenges to the progress of wind energy projects, underscoring the
importance of thoughtful consideration and the implementation of effec-
tive mitigation strategies.
Chapter 3 discuss the visual impact of wind turbines and also their
impact environment as noise pollution and wild life. The international
wind energy generation and world energy forecast is discussed in details.
Chapter 4 discusses the types of wind hybrid power technologies. It
focuses on the components and role of each hybrid system. The advantages
and disadvantages of each hybrid system are also given. Careful integration
of these systems can lessen their shortcomings and generate maximum
electric power.
Chapter 5 extensively reviews wind energy theories driven by technolog-
ical advancements. It starts with the fundamental principles and aerody-
namics of wind turbines, moving to practical applications, control systems,
and design aspects. It further explores advancements such as innovative
materials, turbine designs, enhanced control systems, and smart grid inte-
gration, reinforcing wind energy’s efficiency and competitiveness.
Chapter 6 discusses the wind-energy hybrid power generation system
with hydrogen storage. Additionally, it details hydrogen storage systems
and wind energy systems. It concludes with the design and optimization
of a wind-energy hybrid power generation system with hydrogen storage.
Chapter 7 investigates the growing global demand for clean and sustain-
able energy sources and how they have propelled the rapid development of
wind power generation. Wind turbines, as key components of this industry,
require efficient and cost-effective solutions to maximize their potential.
One critical aspect is the design and manufacture of wind turbine blades,
which significantly impact the overall performance and economic viability
of wind farms. This chapter also explores emerging technologies centered
on reusable wind turbine blades, highlighting their advancements, chal-
lenges, and implications. The chapter provides an overview of conventional
wind turbine blade materials and their limitations in terms of recyclability
and environmental impact. It then delves into recent research and inno-
vations in materials engineering, such as composite materials, bio-based
resins, and additive manufacturing techniques. Furthermore, the chapter
examines the challenges faced in implementing reusable blade technolo-
gies, including structural integrity, fatigue resistance, and manufacturing
scalability.
Preface xiii
Chapter 8 details how to balance and choose the best alternative for the
criteria after calculating significant aspects in the evaluation of a wind tur-
bine technology following the principles of sustainable development for
analytical hierarchy process (AHP). Based on the findings, the most opti-
mal alternative is chosen.
Chapter 9 discusses different aerodynamic properties like solidity,
blade number, pitch, pitch angle, strut effect, and Reynolds number as
they directly affect turbine performance. The optimum values of all these
parameters for improved performance are also summarized.
Key features:
• Provides a broad overview of wind energy technology

• Describes prospects for energy storage and conversion
systems
• Analyzes economic and environmental plans for the devel-
opment of wind energy systems
1
Wind Energy: From Past to
Present Technology
Madhur Babu Singh1, Pallavi Jain1* and Prashant Singh2†
Department of Chemistry, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Delhi-NCR

1
Campus, Modinagar, India

2
Department of Chemistry, Atma Ram Sanatan Dharma College, University of Delhi,
New Delhi, India
Abstract
Humans have used wind energy for centuries. In the 7th century, ancient Persia
used it to grind grain and pump water. The concept of using wind to produce
electricity was initially investigated in the late 19th century, and in recent years,
wind energy has emerged as a major player in the renewable energy market, with
numerous nations investing in wind power projects. With numerous turbines
positioned far from the shore, where the winds are steady and strong, offshore
wind farms have grown in popularity. With the potential to produce electricity
even in the absence of wind, wind energy has become more reliable and cost-
effective thanks to technological improvements. This renewable energy source is
crucial in the shift to a more sustainable future since it lowers greenhouse gas
emissions while meeting the rising demand for electricity. As the world continues
to move towards sustainable sources, wind energy is expected to offer a larger
portion of energy needs. Scientists are researching novel wind turbine designs that
might increase their output and efficiency. Wind energy is a potential renewable
energy technology with a lengthy history and a bright future.
Keywords: Wind energy, turbine, environment, sustainable development
*Corresponding author: palli24@gmail.com

†
Corresponding author: psingh@arsd.du.ac.in
Inamuddin, Tariq Altalhi and Mohammad Luqman (eds.) Wind Energy Storage and Conversion:
From Basics to Utilities, (1–16) © 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLC
1
2 Wind Energy Storage and Conversion
1.1 Introduction
Energy is a crucial aspect of our sustainability, playing a significant role in
promoting human civilization and shaping our lives. The social and eco-
nomic progress of modern society relies heavily on a steady and reliable
source of energy. However, the rapid and unchecked growth of human
civilization and industrialization has led to a detrimental effect on the
environment and energy resources. Fossil fuels are a finite resource, and
if the present rate of consumption continues, they will likely be depleted
in the coming centuries [1]. The rise in carbon dioxide levels in the lower
atmosphere has prompted the search for ecologically acceptable clean
and sustainable energy options. Carbon dioxide build-up has had a neg-
ative influence on the climate, creating catastrophic weather events such
as excessive rainfall, floods, and drought [2]. Every country is respon-
sible for improving the quality of its energy supplies and, when feasi-
ble, replacing non-renewable fossil fuels like coal and oil with renewable
sources like wind, solar, and other kinds of energy. This approach has the
potential to reduce the negative environmental consequences of carbon
dioxide emissions [3]. In order to address the issue of depleting natu-
ral resources and environmental deterioration, future technologies must
incorporate sustainable development concepts and criteria throughout
their technological processes, products, and operations. This notion has
been recognized globally, and many initiatives have been established to
promote the integration of these concepts. Sustainable development is
not only beneficial for the environment but also for society and the econ-
omy in the long term. By merging environmental and social consider-
ations into the design and production of new technologies, it is possible
to create products and services that are not only eco-friendly but also
efficient and cost-effective.
One of the key components of sustainable development is to minimize
waste and pollution throughout the life cycle of the product. This can be
achieved by using renewable resources, reducing energy consumption, and
maximizing the product’s lifespan. Furthermore, sustainable technologies
offer opportunities for creating new industries and jobs, improving pub-
lic health, and creating more equitable societies. Wind energy, which has
been used by humans for millennia for purposes such as sailing, grinding
grains, and pumping water, is a feasible form of renewable energy that can
help mitigate the negative environmental consequences of non-renewable
energy. However, it was not until the late 19th century that wind power was
harnessed to generate electricity [4]. Since then, wind energy technology
Wind Energy: From Past to Present Technology 3
has undergone significant advancements, making it one of the rapidly

developing renewable energy sources worldwide. The earliest recorded use
of wind energy was in Persia (present-day Iran) around 5,000 BC. Persians
used wind energy to power their sailing ships, grind grains, and pump
water. Similarly, ancient Egyptians and Greeks also used wind power to
propel their ships. However, it was not until the 12th century that the first
windmill was developed in Europe. These windmills were used primar-
ily to grind grains and pump water. Windmills continued to evolve and
become more efficient, and by the 19th century, they had become a com-
mon sight across Europe and North America [5].
The first electricity-generating wind turbine was developed by Charles
Brush in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1887. Brush’s wind turbine had a rotor diam-
eter of 17 m and generated around 12 kW of electricity. However, it was not
until the 1940s that the first large-scale wind turbines were developed in
the United States. These turbines had a rotor diameter of around 30 m and
generated up to 100 kW of electricity. In the 1950s, wind energy began to
be used to power remote locations such as farms and ranches.
Wind energy technology has undergone significant advancements in
recent decades, making it a cost-competitive and reliable source of electric-
ity. In addition to technological advancements in wind turbines were var-
ious significant developments in wind farm design and operation. Wind
farms are designed to take advantage of the prevailing wind patterns in a
particular region, and turbines are placed strategically to maximize energy
production while minimizing environmental impacts. Wind farm opera-
tors use advanced software to monitor and control the turbines, allowing
them to optimize energy production and minimize downtime [6].
1.2 Historical Background

Wind energy has been used throughout human history from ancient
times, long before coal and refined petroleum were discovered. Notably,
the Egyptians used windmills for water pumping some 3,000 years
ago, while Chinese farmers used vertical-axis wind turbines to empty
rice fields several centuries before their European counterparts. The
horizontal-axis windmill is said to be originated in Europe and was
first mentioned in the Duchy of Normandy around 1180 [7]. The gen-
eration of electricity using windmills began in 1887 when Prof. James
Blyth built a windmill in Scotland for this purpose. In 1888, Bruch and
his colleagues successfully developed a wind machine that was put into
operation on the Atlantic coast. Wind power technology continued to

evolve and develop over time. Kurt Bilau, in 1920, incorporated the
Ventikanten blade, which utilized an aircraft air-foil developed by him
and Betz, into modern windmill designs. Small wind machines (less than
1 kW) and windmills without an electrical system proliferated in rural
areas of the United States during the 1920s and 1930s. The stages of wind
technology development are given in Table 1.1. With almost 600,000
units erected at this time, windmill use in the US reached its height in
popularity. Developed in the US for the first time in 1941, the contempo-
rary horizontal-axis wind turbine was primarily utilized to supply elec-
tricity to farms without access to power lines. However, from the 1950s
onward, the market for wind turbines slowly started to decline due to the
widespread expansion of electric power lines [8].
Table 1.1 Stages of wind technology development.

Time period Key developments in wind energy technology
Ancient times Windmills used for milling grain and pumping water
Late 1800s Charles F. Brush builds the first large-scale wind turbine
in Ohio, USA
1920s–1930s First electricity-generating wind turbines developed in
Europe
1940s–1950s Utility-scale wind turbines developed for remote areas
with no access to a power grid
1970s Advancements in aerodynamics and materials lead to
more efficient wind turbines
1980s Wind power begins to gain popularity as a viable source
of renewable energy
1990s Introduction of variable-speed turbines and the use of
power electronics to improve efficiency
2000s Continued improvements in turbine design, including
larger rotor diameters and higher hub heights
Present day Advancement of offshore wind farms and increasing use
of wind energy storage technologies
1.3 Use of Wind Energy in Specific Countries

Wind energy has rapidly come into utilization in the US since the 1980s,
with tax breaks playing an important role in stimulating investment. As a
result, the price of wind-generated power has dropped significantly from
35 to 4 cents/kWh. The Stateline Wind farm, which is now under develop-
ment, will be the biggest in the world. Furthermore, wind power capacity
in the US has increased rapidly [9].
However, with an average annual growth rate of 22% over the previous
6 years, Europe has overtaken all other regions as the world leader in wind
energy. The European Wind Energy Association has increased its estimates
for Europe’s wind capacity in 2010, and offshore projects are starting to
materialize off the shores of numerous European nations [10].
Germany, which in 1997 outperformed the United States in terms of
wind capacity, has since emerged as Europe’s future trendsetter. Denmark,
which has the third-largest wind energy and is the top manufacturer and
exporter of wind turbines, intends to source 50% of its domestic energy
from wind by 2030. Other nations with large increases in wind capacity
include Spain, Canada, India, and Japan, all of which have set goals or
incentives to promote future expansion [11].
1.4 Wind Technology

Wind power can be harnessed directly as mechanical power or indirectly
as electrical energy through the conversion of wind’s kinetic energy (KE).
All wind energy systems must include a wind turbine because it transforms
the KE of the wind into mechanical power which can be used for various
tasks. The wind turbine generates electricity by using the wind’s energy to
move a rotor, which powers a generator.
In the early 1900s, the first wind turbine intended to produce energy
was developed. Since then, substantial technological and design develop-
ments have improved the efficiency and dependability of wind turbines.
Today, various varieties and sizes of wind turbines exist, from small ones
used to power homes and small businesses to large ones used to produce
electricity on a large scale for utilities. While wind turbine technology
has been gradually improving, there have been remarkable advancements
in turbine design [12]. In particular, modern innovations and optimiza-
tions in turbine technology have led to significant improvements in both
power output and efficiency. Additionally, the development of specialized
generators and the use of power electronic devices have enabled gearless
turbine designs. Currently, wind turbines are typically divided into two
main types: horizontal-axis turbines (HAWTs) [13] and vertical-axis tur-
bines (VAWTs). HAWTs are more commonly used in the wind industry
due to their higher efficiency compared to VAWTs [14].
1.4.1 Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS)

The wind turbine serves as the primary part of the WECS and facilitates
the conversion of KE into mechanical energy. A coupling device gear train
connects the wind turbine to an electrical generator [16]. To prevent dis-
ruptions and safeguard the system or network, an appropriate controller
is used to transmit the generator’s output to the electrical grid [17]. Wind
turbines, which employ specifically created blades to convert the KE of
the wind into rotational energy, are employed to capture wind energy. The
generator uses this mechanical energy to turn it into electrical energy. The
generator is linked to the rotating blades via a shaft, allowing mechanical
energy to be transferred. The layout of a wind energy conversion system is
shown in Figure 1.1.
The generator’s output may either be used to power a stand-alone load,
such as a house or a small town, or it can be fed into the grid through
a transformer. Specialized knowledge and skill in the domains of aero-
dynamics, mechanics, electronics, and control systems are necessary to
enable the efficient and effective conversion of wind energy [18, 19]. Such
abilities may be used to optimize wind energy systems so that they produce
the most electricity possible while having the least negative environmental
effect.
AERODYNAMICS AND
MECHANICAL ASPECTS ELECTRICAL ASPECTS
WIND FLOW
LOAD/
GRID
TURBINE GEAR GENERATOR POWER
ROTOR BOX CONVERTOR
Figure 1.1 Layout of a wind energy conversion system [15].

1.4.2 Electric Generator

Due to their high dependability and effective energy collection, perma-
nent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG) and double-fed induction
generators (DFIG) are becoming more and more popular as the preferred
generators in WECS. Synchronous generator-powered wind turbines are
frequently referred to as gearless or direct-drive wind turbine generators
[20, 21]. The PMSG has lately attracted interest since it creates a magnetic
field using permanent magnets and is self-exciting without the need for
a DC source. Induction generators, meanwhile, are frequently employed
because of their brushless design, excellent dynamic response, straightfor-
ward operation, and reduced cost [22]. The size, power output, and opera-
tional needs of the wind turbines are only a few of the variables that affect
the generator technology choice. To increase their effectiveness, depend-
ability, and overall performance, WECS generator technologies have
undergone extensive research and growth in recent years. The broad adop-
tion of wind energy will be greatly aided by the progress of new generator
technologies as the need for renewable energy keeps rising. However, they
require reactive power to generate a magnetic field, which is drawn from
the grid in grid-connected applications, but in standalone applications, a
power electronics converter or capacitor bank is employed to provide reac-
tive power. A self-excited induction generator (SEIG) is created when a
capacitor is connected to an induction generator [23]. Figures 1.2 and 1.3
represent the general outline of a power converter.
WIND TURBINE
VARIABLE SPEED DOUBLE

GEAR-BOX FED INDUCTION GENERATOR
LOAD/GRID
AC DC
DC AC
Figure 1.2 Variable-speed synchronous/induction generator with full-scale power

converter [24].
WIND TURBINE
PMSG
TRANSFORMER
DC LINK
AC DC
LOAD/GRID
DC AC
Figure 1.3 Variable-speed, gearless multi-pole PMSG-based WECS [24].
1.4.3 Evolution of Power Electronics

The aim of power electronics in WECS systems is to improve reliability,
energy efficiency, and performance while reducing mechanical stress. As a
result, the complete system may connect more fluidly with the grid and func-
tion as an adjustable power producing unit. Power electronics are especially
important in variable speed wind turbine systems, as they allow for better
control over the generator. In fixed speed wind turbine systems, thyristors
can act as soft starters. Although expensive, power electronics can signifi-
cantly simplify the mechanical design of wind turbines, reduce mechanical
stress, and lessen the effects of wind gusts. Additionally, they can do away
with the need for gearboxes, which are a frequent cause of failure and losses
in wind turbines. Researchers are creating advanced power electronic tech-
nologies that can convert power at greater voltage levels to fulfil the rising
demand for wind energy. As an interface for a full-scale power converter,
galvanically separated DC–DC converters using a cascaded H-bridge con-
verter architecture with a back-to-back arrangement are one possible alter-
native [25]. This concept makes use of a transformer that operates within a
medium-frequency range of several kilohertz, greatly reducing the size of the
transformer. To enhance the capability and dependability of wind turbines,
make them more profitable, and encourage the wider usage of wind energy,
sophisticated power electronics technologies will be essential to develop.
1.4.4 Energy Storage Technology

The wind’s movement is unpredictable, making it difficult to generate con-
sistent power. Unstable wind power can create significant issues for power
system operation, stability, and planning. Wind energy requires the efficient
control and use of intermittent wind power. During times of little or no wind
availability, excess wind-generated electricity may be stored and retrieved by

means of energy storage technologies. Numerous storage technologies have
been thoroughly investigated, including batteries, compressed air energy
storage (CAES), flywheels, and pumped hydro storage (PHS). These technol-
ogies have distinctive qualities, benefits, and drawbacks. Careful attention
must be given to elements including energy density, efficiency, scalability,
environmental impact, and cost-effectiveness when choosing an appropriate
storage system for wind energy. To ensure dependable wind energy produc-
tion, an energy storage system (ESS) is needed [26]. In WECS, extra electri-
cal energy is stored in the ESS and then delivered to the load in the event of a
power outage. Batteries are the most often utilized energy storage technology
in this context, despite the existence of other energy storage technologies,
due to their capacity to store energy as electrochemical energy [27].
1.5 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs)

Since the first windmill was built in ancient Persia, the wind turbine indus-
try has advanced significantly. The most common and largely utilized form
of wind turbine in modern times is the HAWTs. These turbines consist of
a rotor with many horizontally revolving blades that face the wind. The
wind’s kinetic energy causes the blades to begin rotating, which, in turn,
powers a generator to generate electricity. HAWTs are favored in the wind
energy sector because of their exceptional efficiency, aerodynamic design,
and capacity to capture wind from many directions [28]. In this chapter,
we will discuss the history, design, components, working principles, and
applications of HAWTs.
1.5.1 History
The first horizontal-axis wind turbine was made in Scotland in 1887 by
Professor James Blyth. It had a 10-m-diameter rotor and generated elec-
tricity to light his cottage. Later, in the 1930s, a Danish engineer, Poul La
Cour, developed HAWTs that were used to power homes and farms. In the
1970s, the oil crisis led to a surge of interest in wind power, which acceler-
ated the development of modern HAWTs [29, 30].
1.5.2 Design
A tower, nacelle, and rotor are the components of a HAWT system. The
hub of the rotor, which is attached to a main shaft, is made up of two or
three blades. The gearbox, generator, and other components that change
the rotor’s rotational energy into electrical energy are housed in the nacelle,
which also acts as a containment. The tower supports the rotor and nacelle
and can be made of steel, concrete, or hybrid materials [31, 32].
1.5.3 Components
The blades of HAWTs are typically made of fiberglass, carbon fiber, or other
composite materials. The hub and main shaft are made of steel, while the
gearbox is usually made of cast iron or aluminum [33]. The generator can
be a conventional synchronous generator or a newer technology such as a
permanent magnet generator. The control system of the turbine includes
sensors, actuators, and a controller that regulates the pitch of the blades
and the speed of the rotor [34].
1.5.4 Working Principle

HAWTs work on the concept of the aerodynamic lift principle. The tur-
bine’s blades are made to generate a pressure differential between their
top and lower surfaces when the wind blows over them, which causes the
blades to rotate.
The primary shaft, which rotates in reaction to the motion of the blades,
is connected to the generator. The mechanical energy generated by the
blades’ spinning is subsequently changed into electrical energy with the
use of a generator. The power grid subsequently receives this electrical
energy for distribution and utilization. HAWTs use complex fluid dynam-
ics and mechanics to convert wind energy into electrical energy, which
calls for careful design and engineering to maximize the efficiency of the
turbine. HAWTs have emerged as a significant renewable energy source in
recent years, and addressing the rising need for sustainable energy sources
will depend on their continuing growth and improvement.
1.5.5 Applications
HAWTs are used to generate electricity for a variety of applications, includ-
ing residential, commercial, and industrial. They can be installed onshore
or offshore, depending on the availability and quality of wind resources.
HAWTs can also be combined with other renewable energy sources such
as solar power and energy storage systems to provide a stable and reliable
power supply.
1.6 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

VAWT are often used in homes as a sustainable energy source. It is made
up of a rotor shaft and two or three vertically moving blades that mimic
the action of spinning coins on their edges. Unlike standard turbines, the
generator is located at the bottom of the tower, with the blades around the
shaft [35].
1.6.1 Working Principle

The vertically oriented blades of the vertical-axis wind turbine, which
revolve around a vertical shaft and use wind energy to generate electricity,
are essential to the device’s operation. The generator through which the
rotor is attached to changes the mechanical energy generated by the wind
into electrical energy. The blade, shaft, bearing, frame, and blade support
are among the turbine’s crucial parts [36].
Displayed below is a block diagram depicting the components of a
VAWT. The energy produced by this turbine can be utilized by any form
of load, with an automatic lighting system serving as an example. This dia-
gram (Figure 1.4) consists of a VAWT, gearbox, generator, battery, LDR
circuit, and LED.
VERTICAL AXIS RECHARGEABLE

GEAR BOX GENERATOR
WIND TURBINE BOX
LDR CIRCUIT
LDR
Figure 1.4 Block diagram depicting the components of a vertical-axis wind turbine.
1.7 Current Technologies in Wind Power Generation

Airborne wind energy is an auspicious technology that employs tethered
airborne devices to exploit wind power. These airborne machines, also
known as kite turbines or airborne wind turbines, generate electricity by
flying in certain patterns that allow them to collect the energy of the wind
at greater heights [37]. This electricity may be used for a variety of reasons,
including powering homes, businesses, and remote places without access
to traditional power systems. Airborne wind energy has various advan-
tages over regular wind turbines, including a lower environmental effect,
lower installation and maintenance costs, and the ability to generate power
in regions where standard wind turbines are infeasible [38, 39].
1.7.1 Buoyant Airborne Turbine (BAT)

BAT is a technology that uses wind energy via a wind turbine mounted to
a helium-filled blimp-like object. This contraption can float up to 2,000 ft
in the air, capturing strong and persistent winds. The wind moves the
turbine’s blades, creating power that is delivered to the ground through a
tether. BAT offers various benefits over standard wind turbines, including
the capacity to operate at higher elevations, where winds are more consis-
tent and forceful, and the potential to be employed in isolated and offshore
sites. Furthermore, BAT takes less material to construct and less area to
operate, resulting in a lower environmental effect.
1.7.2 Offshore Floating Wind Technology

Offshore floating wind technology involves the installation of wind tur-
bines on floating platforms in deep oceans distant from the shore. These
platforms, sometimes known as floating wind farms, use cables to tether
the turbines to the seabed and transfer the power generated back to land.
Offshore floating wind technology has a number of advantages over tra-
ditional offshore wind turbines. It can capture stronger winds in deeper
oceans where standard turbines cannot, and it can be utilized in a larger
range of places, expanding the possibilities for renewable energy produc-
tion. Furthermore, because floating wind farms do not require permanent
foundations in the seabed, they have a lower environmental effect than
typical offshore wind turbines [40]. Offshore floating wind, while being
a relatively new technology, has displayed outstanding output in terms of
efficiency, dependability, and cost-effectiveness and is predicted to per-

form a significant part in the future of renewable energy [38].
1.8 Advantages
VAWTs have a number of benefits, including worker safety and the abil-
ity to produce power from wind that is blowing in any direction. Their
gearbox, generator, and other components are positioned on the ground,
making them expandable and not needing a sturdy supporting tower.
They are simpler to install and more cost-effective to design than hori-
zontal-axis turbines. Additionally, they are transportable, making it simple
to relocate them from one place to another. These turbines pose less of a
threat to people and birds because they have less speed blades. They can
function in any weather, even in steep areas with changing winds. They can
also be placed close to the ground, which lowers the cost of construction
and maintenance. They can operate quietly in residential areas because of
their straightforward design. Additionally affordable, efficient, and silent,
VAWTs are a perfect renewable energy source for residential use, especially
in metropolitan settings [41]. A list of countries utilizing wind power as a
source of electricity is given in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 List of countries utilizing wind power as a source of electricity.

Percentage of electricity
Country Wind power capacity from wind power
China 281.5 GW 10.4%
United States 127.2 GW 8.4%
Germany 65.8 GW 27.2%
India 40.5 GW 5.6%
Spain 28.4 GW 22.7%
United Kingdom 24.2 GW 24.2%
France 17.8 GW 8.1%
Brazil 18.8 GW 9.3%
Canada 16.5 GW 8.5%
Italy 12.8 GW 9.9%
1.9 Disadvantages of Wind Energy

Before relying solely on wind energy, it is vital to consider its drawbacks.
For starters, storing energy during peak output periods could be costly.
Second, wind energy is unreliable due to its unpredictability. Furthermore,
wind farms necessitate large open places for construction since wind tur-
bines might have a negative visual effect on the surrounding area. Wind
turbines also contribute to noise pollution, which is an issue. Furthermore,
wind energy can be generated only in areas with strong, consistent winds,
which may be remote from areas with high electricity demand, raising the
cost of transmission. Furthermore, because wind turbines have a lower
average efficiency than fossil fuel generation, a greater number of turbines
may be necessary to achieve equal results.
1.10 Conclusion
Wind power has evolved significantly technologically over time, from
its early use for grinding and pumping to the current large-scale energy
generation via wind turbines. These developments in materials science,
aerodynamics, and computer control systems have considerably increased
wind energy harvesting efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Wind energy is
now a crucial component of the global energy mix, and it is well posi-
tioned to play a critical part in the transition to a low-carbon, sustainable
future. Given the current rate of innovation and investment in the field,
wind energy is very likely to advance and emerge as a critical source of
renewable energy for future generations.
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2
Environmental Consequences of
Wind Energy Technologies
Adarsh Kumar Arya and Ashish Kapoor*
Department of Chemical Engineering, Harcourt Butler Technical University, Kanpur,

Uttar Pradesh, India
Abstract
In light of rising public interest in environmental and social problems, govern-
ments throughout the globe are evaluating the impacts of pollution on the energy
paradigm. Power plants employ sustainable energy sources, including wind,
solar, and hydro, to lessen their environmental impact. Wind energy, one of these
global commons, has recently emerged as a promising new energy source. Wind
energy is becoming a more significant component of the power sector when there
is increasing anxiety over the expenses and long-term ecological effects of using
petroleum-based fuels and nuclear energy. Because of its low environmental
impact, wind power has received government backing through subsidies and tax
credits. However, the development of wind projects has been hampered by fears of
some adverse effects from onshore and offshore wind farms. The concerns are due
to the possibility of major effects on birds and species of bats and marine animals
as well as direct and indirect impact on humans that may halt, scale down, and
significantly delay the progress of projects. The chapter investigates and discusses
several elements of the environmental impacts caused by wind energy technology.
Keywords: Renewable energy, wind power, pollution, fossil fuel,

environmental impact, green technology
2.1 Introduction
Energy is a crucial component of our daily life and is a fundamental require-
ment for the advancement of civilization. Modern society and the global
*Corresponding author: ashishkapoorchem@gmail.com
17
economy depend on reliable and renewable energy sources. However,

modern civilization’s rapid and unpredictable advancements and indus-
trialization severely impact the environment and energy resources [1–5].
Reduced reliance on nuclear and fossil fuel power, reduced environmen-
tal risks, and the possibility of cheaper energy generation all contribute
to the attractiveness of renewables [6]. Sustainable development concepts
and criteria execution in technological processes, goods, and operations
are essential if we are to halt the consumption of resources and the deteri-
oration of our environment in the future [7–12].
Governments throughout the globe have declared targets to increase
the usage of renewable energy sources. Among other renewable sources,
wind energy has emerged as one of the most rapidly expanding renewable
energy sources, making important contributions to the world’s energy sup-
ply. Renewable energy sources like wind power are the key to a low-carbon
future. The projections estimate that wind energy could contribute up to
nearly 20% of the entire United States electricity by 2030 [13].
According to the published reports [6], there was a record growth of
273 TWh (17%) in wind-generated power in 2021. This increase was the
largest of all renewable energy sources, 55% larger than the rise expected in
2020. A record-breaking increase in wind capacity growth enabled this rapid
rise; in 2020, wind power capacity reached 113 GW, up from 59 GW in 2019.
The Net Zero Emissions by 2050 scenario predicts that wind power will
account for over 7,900 TWh of electricity output in 2030. Figure 2.1 shows
the cumulative installed capacity of wind power, and Table 2.1 shows the
onshore wind installed capacity of important European countries as of 2019.
800
742.7
Global Wind Power Capacity
700
650.8
591.1
600
Cumulative Capacity (GW)
540.8
488.5
500
436.8
400 371.3
318.9
300 282.9
236.8
196.9
200 159.7
120.9
93.92
100 74.11
47.68 59.01
24.32 31.18 39.3
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Year (2001 to 2020: 1 to 20)
Figure 2.1 Global wind power cumulative capacity (GW) (2006–2019). Reproduced from
[15] under Creative Commons CC-BY license.
Environmental Impact of Wind Energy 19
Table 2.1 Onshore installed wind power of representative countries in Europe.

Data from [16].
S. no. Country Power (MW) S. no. Country Power (MW)
1 France 523 8 Netherlands 83
2 Denmark 6 9 Portugal 57
3 Sweden 459 10 Ireland 51
4 Croatia 10 11 Bosnia 36
5 Poland 17 12 Turkey 229
6 Russia 50 13 Spain 148
7 Belgium 72 14 Greece 201
The projection assumes that yearly capacity additions would increase to

about 250 GW. This continuous capacity increase requires far more work,
with permission for onshore wind being the most important area for
improvement, followed by lowering expenses for offshore wind [14].
However, government agencies have had concerns about the successful
use of wind energy. The purpose of this study is to review and summarize
the issues that arise due to the incorporation of wind power generation
into the networks. Figure 2.2 shows the environmental impact of using
wind energy technologies on the environment.
Wind energy technologies have both positive and negative impacts on
the environment. On the positive side, wind energy is a renewable source
that reduces greenhouse gas emissions, mitigates climate change, and helps
Impact on
local weather
Noise pollution
Endangerment
to birds Visual impact
Figure 2.2 Impact of wind energy technologies on the environment.

diversify the energy mix. However, wind farms, while beneficial, require
land and can potentially disrupt natural habitats, leading to endanger-
ment of wildlife populations. Birds may collide with the rotating blades
of wind turbines, necessitating careful site selection and the use of avian
deterrents to minimize such risks. Additionally, wind turbines can have
an effect on local weather patterns by altering wind flow in their vicinity.
Noise pollution is another concern, as the spinning blades generate noise
that can impact nearby residents [17]. Moreover, wind turbines can have
visual impacts on the landscape, which some find unsightly or disruptive
to the natural aesthetics of an area. Wind energy’s intermittency neces-
sitates complementary energy sources or storage systems. Additionally,
manufacturing and installation have environmental consequences, but the
energy payback period is relatively short. Proper maintenance practices are
crucial. Overall, wind energy is considered more environmentally friendly
than fossil fuels, but careful planning and monitoring are necessary to
maximize its benefits and minimize any adverse effects. A holistic analysis
is essential to give the technologists a comprehensive understanding of the
subject. It also equips policy makers with all relevant information, allow-
ing them to make more informed decisions and implement more effective,
long-term solutions to the problems associated with wind power’s incor-
poration into electrical grids.
2.2 Impact of Wind Energy on the Environment

The effects of wind-generating infrastructures (such as turbines, tow-
ers, and transmission lines) on wildlife have been studied and recorded
for decades, but the data are not always readily available to the public.
Despite the substantial uncertainties connected with environmental issues
restricting expansion, the established land-based wind industry and the
more immature offshore wind sectors continue to expand [18, 19]. In
this scenario, scientists would have access to data on the environmental
impacts of both onshore and offshore wind farm construction. They will
be in a stronger position to argue for further investment in wind power
and highlight the benefits to endangered species. It is possible to use the
insights gained from analyzing these patterns and data to adjust machin-
ery and procedures that have fewer negative effects on animals and their
habitats, which may aid in the siting and consenting processes. Agencies
like “Working Together to Resolve Environmental Effects of Wind Energy”
(WREN) are online communities where people work together to spread
information and promote the global understanding of wind energy.
Researchers, authorities, designers, and key stakeholders connect and

interact via the WREN Hub to comprehend the possible implications of
wind energy on animals, ecosystems, and ecological processes [20]. White
papers and other anticipated products are only two examples of how the
WREN Hub facilitates collaboration to support WREN’s global operations.
The WREN Hub is located on Tethys. Tethys was created and is main-
tained by the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory in the United States
to gather and distribute scientific data on the outcomes of wind and
marine renewable energy projects. The collection on Tethys is always being
expanded with the help of journal papers, technical papers, demonstra-
tions, and other media items contributed by the WREN Hub. Such com-
prehensive knowledge base has over 3,500 carefully selected papers, of
which over 2,300 are especially pertinent to wind power.
New Tethys content, advancements, and upcoming events are high-
lighted in user updates published every 2 weeks. A quarterly recorded
webinar series, as are recordings of previous webinars, is also available.
According to the metrics for how often researchers utilize Tethys resources,
the WREN Hub encourages sharing new findings and reduces duplicate
efforts to study important themes [20]. The WREN Hub remains a depend-
able resource that aims to increase the knowledge on how wind energy
growth affects wildlife. It alleviates worries and settles disagreements
over expanding this environmentally friendly energy source. To sustain-
ably expedite the wind power sector’s development as countries switch to
renewable energy sources, widespread information sharing and collabora-
tive activities are essential.
2.3 Key Environmental White Paper Issues Related

to Wind Power
White papers are one of WREN’s core operations, and they are written on
issues of significant importance to WREN participants but about which
there is little information in the current public literature. These white
papers address a wide range of subjects related to environmental manage-
ment, including adaptive management (AM), environmental risk manage-
ment, and environmental trade-offs. WREN participants have agreed that
these are significant areas in which the current academic literature is defi-
cient. Every year until 2020, a minimum of one white paper was released.
When all papers are finished, a report is written on how they relate. These
articles appeared in WREN and other scholarly publications.
Many different kinds of development have employed AM, a learning-

based management strategy [21], to decrease scientific uncertainty. AM
has been recognized as a means to improve risk management in the wind
energy sector by allowing monitoring and mitigation strategies to evolve
with each new project. This is accomplished through hypothesis-driven
data collection. However, AM use in wind energy production has been
restricted; the United States is the primary location, while other nations
have adopted some of the same practices [22]. The WREN nations have
published a white paper to understand better how AM concepts are used
in the wind power sector in different countries. Implementing AM in
wind energy development might not be easy because it requires a versatile
procedure that does not impede project funding or slows the permitting
procedure.
For instance, when power purchase contracts are signed, it may not be
easy to establish an adaptive mechanism that allows or mandates devel-
opers to scale down, alter operations, or implement mitigation measures.
Constant monitoring expenses and potential revenue loss from neces-
sary mitigation measures like operating restrictions are significant issues
for wind power stations implementing AM [23]. The absence of laws or
regulations that mandate and define AM and the dearth of supporting
resources only adds to the difficulty of implementing it consistently. Most
WREN nations have neither an official usage for AM nor any legislation or
regulations. However, in certain countries, AM or the implementation of
its principles is explicitly included in natural resource law, regulation, and
recommendations for the construction of wind energy projects. It was dis-
covered that AM had been used in several wind energy projects. However,
numerous important animal species may be impacted by wind energy at far
larger geographical and chronological ranges than those of a single project
site. Because of this scale mismatch, it is difficult for a single initiative to
contribute effectively to lowering scientific uncertainty and fostering itera-
tive learning. For AM to be most successful, it has to be implemented on a
broader scale than individual projects in terms of space and time.
Scientific uncertainty may be reduced by fine-tuning AM’s utilization of
geographical and temporal scales. Using environmental impact data from
ongoing projects to inform the preparation and oversight of future proj-
ects requires establishing institutional procedures and institutions within
national or provincial regulatory authorities. Scientific uncertainty may be
decreased, and lessons learnt will guide the licensing and management of
new wind energy production globally if AM for wind energy projects is to
be enhanced.
2.4 Individual Effects on Population Impacts

There is much evidence documenting the negative effects of wind-gener-
ating installations on wildlife all around the globe, particularly birds, bats,
and marine animals. Collisions may directly cause death, but they can also
have indirect impacts, such as stress on the body, the loss of a habitat, or
even relocation. The cumulative impact of these factors on a population’s
long-term viability has to be considered. The licensing framework often
looks at the consequences on people within a limited period and geo-
graphic area. However, from a conservationist’s perspective, it is important
to extrapolate these results to the population as a whole. The costs to wild-
life must be weighed against the broader social advantages of wind energy.
Therefore, a shift in strategy and decision-making is essential. The Wind
Research and Education Network (WREN) produced a white paper titled
“Individual Effects to Population Impacts,” highlighting and examining
the methodological challenges of evaluating the impacts of wind energy
installations on whole populations. Delimitation based on biogeography
or genetics has scholarly merit but may be challenging to put into practice.
Nonetheless, we suggest that the definition includes the species’ present
conservation status and past population dynamics. Another option is to
use a tiered strategy to help bring together the different levels of impor-
tance [24]. Problems also arise in defining population impact, making
accurate predictions, and seeing them when they occur.
There are a variety of demographic parameters that can be used as
impact evaluation metrics, such as the number of people or density [25],
population growth rate [26], and mortality [27]. They had a reference point
to measure the change in these variables. Both temporal (as in a before–
after design) and spatial (as in a control–impact design) approaches can
be taken [28]. When research strategies are combined [29], the results are
more reliable since they consider possible changes in the total environ-
ment. These metrics are particularly useful in the framework of risk-based
decision-making, whereby the size of a change, as well as its variability and
probability, may be stated [30].
Extrapolating existing data to cover bigger regions and longer periods
is the most fundamental of the various statistical and modeling tools that
may be used to estimate consequences during preconstruction assessment
[31]. Population viability analysis uses sophisticated techniques such as
matrix models of populations [32] to estimate a population’s vulnerabil-
ity to extinction [33]. Individual-based models have been created more
recently, replicating all people’s birth, death, and migration inside the
model domain in discrete time steps. Despite their impressive strength,

such models are computationally expensive and data-heavy. How to
establish impact thresholds is the ultimate issue that has to be solved by
decision-makers. Ecological, utility, and choice thresholds are the three cat-
egories that may be drawn from this concept. Population models are used
to determine ecological thresholds, which are then activated by changes in
system dynamics (such as when a population’s growth rate becomes nega-
tive). When the significance of a management result changes, utilities are
activated. The maximum sustainable harvest rate is an excellent illustration
of this principle. Appropriate biological change [34] and prospective bio-
logical removal [24, 29] are methods for determining utility thresholds.
Finally, decision thresholds represent the situations that should provoke a
reaction from management. Ecological and utilitarian criteria will usually
guide such choices.
From a policy viewpoint, it is important to consider reconciling pre-
cautionary and risk-based approaches regardless of the methodological
technique employed to analyze population-level consequences and how
thresholds are determined. When evaluating possible effects on species of
concern, it is vital to account for the inherent ecological and demographic
stochasticity in population dynamics as well as the limitations of any model.
Policies that promote AM, aiming to minimize scientific uncertainty while
protecting biodiversity, would encourage the adoption of population-level
analyses to achieve a fair balance between the increase of wind energy and
the protection of animal populations.
2.5 Comprehending the Overall Effects of Wind

Power on Wildlife
Wind farms attract investment from countries operating on land and at sea.
Wind energy is expanding so quickly and on such a massive scale that it is
difficult to predict (much alone verify) its effects on biodiversity. Collisions
are an example of direct impacts, whereas the destruction of habitat and
barrier effects are examples of indirect impacts [35]. Most species-specific
impact evaluations done for wind farm licensing have shown that the risks
to wildlife are manageable, with or without mitigation. It is inevitable that
as wind farms proliferate, the potential for animal harm will grow—for
instance, although a single wind farm would not cause much trouble, an
expanding number of wind farms and the infrastructure they need might
significantly affect local populations or whole ecosystems. The absence of
good evaluation techniques, however, means that these widespread effects

on the environment are often ignored.
Social and legal acceptance of wind farm licenses requires data-driven
judgements regarding ecological and economic spatial planning. However,
the complexity of the cumulative impact assessment makes it challenging
to collect accurate data and conduct rigorous evaluations—for instance,
the temporal and geographical dimensions that should be used in cumula-
tive effect analysis (CEA) are not certain. The question of dealing with the
multiplicity of uncertainties present in a CEA has been the subject of much
discussion. Furthermore, the oceanic environment makes it more difficult
to gather data and understand biological processes related to offshore
wind. Worldwide investigations, surveys, master plans, and administrative
procedures increasingly require standardized approaches, standards, and
tools to assess the impact of wind energy on the environment.
2.6 Considerations for the Environment

when Making Choices
Increased wind energy production has raised environmental issues,
including habitat losses, disturbances, and collisions among animal pop-
ulations. Environmental protection and renewable energy are public
goods, but their costs and benefits may be evaluated differently depend-
ing on the geographic scale. Concerns about the local environment and
the (international) advantages of growth in terms of lowering emissions of
greenhouse gases might be difficult to balance. However, environmental
impacts at larger dimensions may result from fragmented growth. Even
in places where wind energy seems well established, such difficulties are
cropping up in various worldwide societies. The two sides in this dispute
are often called “Greens.” Although it should go without saying that all
human acts have effects, some of which may be negative, it is not always
the norm to see environmental outcomes as public goods. Understanding
different solutions’ possible costs and advantages is crucial for optimizing
local and global environmental and climatic benefits. It may be helpful to
solve these challenges to transition to greener energy sources while main-
taining natural ecosystems. Implementing renewable energy to safeguard
against climate change has global advantages, including intrinsic value and
social and economic advantages. Decision-making processes for devel-
oping wind energy must thus consider such trade-offs, finding a happy
medium between environmental protection and the implementation of
wind power. The expansion of wind energy is only one industry that has
a ripple effect on the natural world. Wind power, on the other hand, helps
cut down on harmful emissions of greenhouse gases. Prioritization and
trade-offs across sectors and geographical scales (e.g., roads against wind
energy, afforestation versus wind energy) must be examined concurrently.
Including all public goods in some way impacted by the expansion of
wind energy and other humanitarian operations in the decision-making
framework and accompanying tools may be beneficial. A WREN white
paper will provide an in-depth discussion of these points of view. To guar-
antee that the right metrics are considered for the intended result, com-
plicated processes and systems might benefit greatly from using more
sophisticated trade-offs and priority management techniques.
2.7 Wind Power and Risk Management

Risk-based management identifies potential dangers and ranks them in
order of severity to minimize, monitor, and control negative consequences.
This is done while accounting for the system’s inherent uncertainties. Risk-
based management will guide permits and operational choices in the wind
energy sector, reducing the likelihood of unintended consequences like
animal effects while increasing output. Risk is generally agreed to be pro-
portional to the frequency with which an event might occur and the sever-
ity of its potential outcomes. Because of this lack of data, authorities often
err on caution when deciding whether or not to green-light a wind energy
project. This method might exaggerate the potential effects on wildlife or
fail to account for crucial unanticipated results [36]. A WREN white paper
is now in the works, and it will examine and offer ways for more accurately
assessing risk at both onshore and offshore wind farms. Better risk estima-
tions will help guide the construction of wind farms in the future and make
it easier to gather and analyze data. The purpose of this white paper is not
to add unnecessary complexity to existing consenting/permitting proce-
dures for wind farms but rather to provide a foundation of information
and analysis that will speed up future wind development. Permitting wind
farms often takes a conservative approach, especially in untested regions,
and this strategy considers that the presence of even a single animal at a
wind farm would affect that species.
There is also an assumption of constant occurrence of otherwise irreg-
ular installation operations or operating modes. If regulators are not given
all the facts, they may make more cautious than necessary judgments since
they will be basing their judgment on inaccurate assumptions about the
level of danger. The wind business is subjected to unnecessary scrutiny

and must frequently spend disproportionate amounts to defend itself.
Allocating resources to track and reduce detrimental behaviors, rather
than the interactions that place animals at increased risk, may result in
population declines in populations already experiencing pressure-induced
declines. Land-based wind farms pose potential threats to animals because
of construction-related disturbance, habitat loss, and operational distur-
bances such as blade strikes. The development of offshore wind farms may
have several negative effects, including noise pollution, sedimentation
shifts, altered flow patterns, and even blade strikes when they are in use.
Monitoring efforts should shift their focus from assessing the effects
on individual animals to gauging the cumulative effects on populations,
particularly those that are threatened or endangered and in need of spe-
cial protection under national or global management policies or are under
increasing stress due to other natural or anthropogenic activities.
Wildlife population risk assessment is an imprecise science due to a lack
of information on life histories and the spatial and temporal distributions
of different parts of the population. The regulatory assumptions that all
crashes result in mortality are wrong, but there have been few studies on
the possible repercussions of a collision or other stresses on animals. More
research is required to determine the degree of harm and possible risk
from crashes and other stresses to quantify the danger to individuals and
groups appropriately.
2.8 Concerns About Using Wind Energy

It is expected that the capacity of wind energy plants will increase dras-
tically. Figure 2.3 shows the expected rise of wind energy plants by 2030.
Persistent concerns about the impact of this energy source on the environ-
ment hamper the widespread installation of marine and terrestrial wind
farms. WREN’s mission is to become the preeminent worldwide platform
for sharing and disseminating accurate, up-to-date information on the
latest, most reliable scientific research and methodologies for evaluating
and keeping tabs on the environmental impacts of wind energy expan-
sion. White papers developed by WREN will zero down on and further
our knowledge of some important challenges facing the international wind
sector [23].
Despite the global benefits of wind energy in reducing carbon dioxide
emissions to mitigate climate change, opponents often object to the costs
associated with ecosystem services and biodiversity through land/seascape
2110
840
774
712
Wind Power [GW]
645
598
547
487
436
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2030

Year
Figure 2.3 Expected cumulative capacity of wind energy plants by 2030. Reproduced
from [16] under Creative Commons CC-BY license.
changes at smaller spatiotemporal scales. There is a gap between public

(climate) benefits on the global scale and private (environmental) expenses
on the local scale, and progress is hindered. Resolving “green versus green”
conflicts for and against wind energy expansion requires planning and
decision-making processes at intermediate geographical and temporal
levels.
The approval procedure typically addresses environmental concerns
from renewable energy production using the hierarchy of mitigation mea-
sures [23]. Active management (AM) has been advocated to actively apply
the mitigation hierarchy throughout the life cycle of a wind energy project.
Using iterative decision-making, AM may help plan and manage environ-
mental hazards related to specific wind energy projects. The feasibility of
using AM in wind energy projects to lessen negative environmental effects
has been evaluated [18], along with the necessary monitoring at appropri-
ate geographical scales. Wildlife within the footprint of individual wind
energy facilities is a specific point of contention in environmental contro-
versies. It is unknown, however, how these impacts may affect the species
at greater regional ranges.
The standard practice has not yet provided conclusive criteria for shift-
ing from emphasizing personal effects to focusing on community impacts,
where the former indicates empirically derived quantities and the latter
refers to societally acceptable thresholds. It is also difficult to generalize
from local direct and indirect effects to population-wide demographic
consequences.
Looking at the worldwide literature to find ways to get objective impact

thresholds at the right geographical scales and to explain the connections
between local and population-level impacts is desirable. Since a commu-
nity may be impacted by several wind energy plants, graduating from local
consequences to population-level impacts requires agreement across loca-
tions. How to define cumulative and transboundary effects and at what geo-
graphical scale they should be researched have been the subject of heated
dispute. All over the world, there has been an increasing need for standard-
ized approaches to integrating concerns about the cumulative impacts of
wind energy into future studies and tracking practices. Biological diversity
spans nations. Therefore, these norms must be implemented globally.
2.9 Conclusion
There is a need for a risk-based strategy to advise authorities and opera-
tors when approving a wind energy project due to the complexity of the
problems associated with licensing and operational decisions. Associated
risk estimation approaches may be used to examine and assess the environ-
mental effects of wind energy’s rapid expansion.
This information may then inform (adaptive) management decisions
that aim to lower threats to endangered species populations, ecosystem
health, and the likelihood of cumulative consequences. Wind energy and
environmental groups might benefit from guidance on using risk-based
methods for climate change mitigation, environmental conservation, and
specific monitoring and mitigation initiatives.
The need for AM and the degree to which consequences must be han-
dled at particular wind energy projects are grounded in “green vs. green”
considerations and regional decision-making. Understanding the global
effects on animals and the accompanying mitigation strategies requires the
ability to extrapolate from the level of the individual to that of the popula-
tion and then that of the biome. As a result, this knowledge might improve
cumulative impact evaluations from the regional to the global level and
encourage cross-border collaboration between wind power initiatives and
their stakeholders. If regional decision-makers can access data on accumu-
lating and transboundary repercussions, they may review the trade-offs
and compromises between reducing global climate emissions and protect-
ing local environments.
Trade-offs between climate change mitigation and neighborhood envi-
ronmental effects, accumulated impacts of wind energy projects, and the
difficulties in distinguishing population-level influences from effects on
individuals can all be investigated using multidisciplinary specifications

established and validated within a risk-based management framework.
The investigations should combine a wide variety of research findings and
perspectives on important holistic topics into a coherent whole. Finding a
way to strike a balance between these concerns would enable technologists
and policy makers to support the expansion of wind energy while limiting
its negative effects on the environment.
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3
Important Issues and Future
Opportunities for Huge Wind Turbines
Anjali Tripathi1, Vinay Kumar Pandey2, Shivangi Srivastava3,
Rashi Mishra4 and Ashish5*
Department of Biotechnology, Sharda School of Engineering and Technology,

1
Sharda University, Greater Noida, India

2
Division of Research & Innovation, School of Applied and Life Sciences,
Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
3
Department of Food Technology, Harcourt Butler Technical University,
Nawabganj, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
4
Department of Biotechnology, Axis Institute of Higher Education, Kanpur,
Uttar Pradesh, India
5
Department of Bioengineering, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Abstract
Huge wind turbines are built on a big scale and are intended to produce a lot of electric-
ity. They are frequently grouped together in wind farms and are normally significantly
larger than the small-scale wind turbines utilized for residential and commercial uses.
They often have capacities from hundreds of kilowatts to several megawatts, which
is far higher than those of residential and commercial turbines. Huge wind turbines
are crucial because they employ the wind’s energy to produce clean, sustainable, and
renewable energy. As an alternative energy alteration for both commercial and domes-
tic use, the use of wind turbines are increasing in popularity. Large wind turbines can
generate enough electricity to power entire cities or small countries by utilizing this
unrestricted and free natural resource. Large and small wind turbines are becoming
more and more popular as alternative energy sources. As part of their initiatives for
renewable energy, a lot of nations and regions are investing in wind energy. It is pos-
sible for large wind turbines to produce enormous amounts of electricity enough to
power entire cities or even small nations. Significant problems with huge wind tur-
bines and current challenges are explored in this chapter.
Keywords: Wind turbines, sustainability, environment, renewable energy
*Corresponding author: ashish.itbhu13@gmail.com
33
3.1 Introduction
Fossil fuel use is widely acknowledged as a major contributor to global
warming. As a result, energy experts, business executives, and lawmak-
ers have switched their attention more and more towards renewable
energy sources. Geothermal, wind, and biomass technologies have all
made great strides and are now more competitive than ever. According
to the European Renewable Energy Council, by 2040, renewable energy
sources might supply nearly half of the world’s energy requirements. The
efficiency and advancement of renewable energy sources are anticipated
to significantly rise before 2050, resulting in considerable reductions in
carbon dioxide emissions. National governments, urban planners, and
others who want to switch to cleaner energy sources, reduce CO2 emis-
sions, promote economic growth, and generate jobs have taken notice of
wind power’s spectacular recent growth. The most recent Global Wind
Report indicates that by the end of 2013, there were 318,105 global wind
units installed worldwide. It is crucial to recognize that the development
of wind energy also poses some environmental difficulties. Significant
concerns have been voiced within the wind energy industry over the
environmental effects of wind energy, particularly in developing nations
and ecologically vulnerable locations. To strike a balance between energy
production and environmental sustainability, it is imperative to solve
these issues.
3.1.1 Visual Impact

Wind turbines’ aesthetic impact relates to how they seem and the way they
may change a landscape’s scenic appeal. The presence of wind turbines
can be aesthetically striking, especially when they are grouped together in
wind farms. Wind turbines are frequently towering buildings with huge
revolving blades. In Germany and many other nations, a notable quantity
of wind turbines has been constructed to make a shift to renewable energy.
Several research have been conducted to determine the underlying causes
of wind turbines subjectively perceived as visual influence on the aesthetic
value of landscapes. However, no research has ever been done on how
much moral opinions about wind turbines affect how attractive they are.
Researchers investigated the way suggested judgements and moral asso-
ciations of various huge pole-like constructions, such as incinerator plant
chimneys, wind turbines, and high-frequency communication towers,
affected claims made concerning the way these structures affected the
Huge Wind Turbines: Issues and Opportunities 35
aesthetic value of landscapes to tackle this problem. The study reveals such
different pole-like constructions are considered to have varying degrees of
visual quality and scenic beauty impairment, even though they appear to
differ a little up close. This may be explained by the structure’s markedly
varied moral connections, which lead to the judgment that a communi-
cation tower is a medium impairment while an incineration chimney is
assessed to be by far the largest. Both advocates and detractors of wind
energy can agree on this association. However, these groups’ opinions of
wind turbines diverge significantly: supporters place much less weight on
the negative effects than detractors. These results together strongly imply
that the moral connotations of mast-like structures in landscapes have a
major impact on scenic beauty judgments [1]. The landscape can change
significantly in locations with dense populations of wind turbines, such
as wind farms. The presence of these structures might change the typical
views of broad fields, undulating hills, or seaside panoramas. The visual
impact may be particularly obvious if the wind turbines are placed in aes-
thetically delicate places, such as scenic landscapes, important historical
sites, or popular tourist destinations. Individuals have different subjec-
tive aesthetic opinions about wind turbines. Some individuals find the
sleek, futuristic design of wind turbines to be appealing and see them as
emblems of technical advancement and renewable energy. Others can find
them distracting or aesthetically invasive to the area’s natural or cultural
character. When people or other stakeholders find the aesthetic impact
of wind turbines to be objectionable, local communities may become
opposed. Changing beloved landscapes, implications on property prices,
or alleged detrimental effects on tourism and recreation are just a few pos-
sible causes for concern. Legal difficulties or delays in project permits may
occasionally result from objections to wind turbines based on their visual
impact. These issues need to be addressed by developers and planners
through thorough visual impact analyses and community participation
procedures. There are mitigation strategies that can be used, such as pick-
ing suitable turbine designs, placing them in strategic locations, or using
landscaping strategies to blend turbines into the surrounding environ-
ment [2]. A constant issue is striking a balance between the requirement
to produce renewable energy and maintaining the aesthetic value of land-
scapes. Site selection must be carefully thought out, local communities
must be consulted, and aesthetic standards and planning requirements
must be followed. These factors can be considered to lessen the aesthetic
impact of wind turbines and increase public support for renewable energy
initiatives [3].
3.1.2 Noise
Globally, there is utilization of wind energy in the form of clean source
of energy. However, the low-frequency noise (LFN) produced by wind
turbines ranges from 20 to 200 Hz, and it can either be heard or not [4].
Aerodynamic noise and mechanical noise are the two primary categories
of LFN produced by wind turbines. The blades of turbines revolve slug-
gishly or are “placed” or immobile when the speed of the wind is lower
than the cut-in speed, making very little noise [4]. When a wind turbine
operates between speeds of roughly 4 and 30 m/s, as measured at the hub
position, its sound power level continually rises. The main source of noise
produced by wind turbines is aerodynamic noise, which is brought on by
air moving over the blades. Blade tips, turbulence in the entering wind,
impulsive noise, contact between the blades and the tower, and noise at the
trailing edge of the blades are some of the sources of aerodynamic noise
[5]. Higher amounts of aerodynamic noise arise from the wind turbine’s
rotating speed increasing along with the wind speed. Low-frequency noise
(LFN) from wind turbines has been linked to symptoms like annoyance,
stress, insomnia, migraines, tinnitus, exhaustion, anxiety, and possibly
hearing loss, according to a number of studies. Additionally, vibroacoustic
sickness, chronic weariness, and attention deficit disorder have all been
linked to LFN, which raises the risk of seizures, heart issues, and coronary
artery disease [6].
The harmful effects of low-frequency noise (LFN) are felt by more peo-
ple as noise levels rise. People who live close to wind farms frequently are
exposed to LFN. Using LFN propagation models, it is possible to gauge or
estimate how much exposure residents have to turbine LFN. The paperwork
provided by turbine manufacturers and other sources usually lacks import-
ant details regarding the sound power level of wind turbines (LW,A). Only
the complete audio spectrum (20–20 kHz) or certain frequency ranges,
such as 63–8 and 50–10 kHz, are covered by some sources’ LW,A values.
Unfortunately, turbine manufacturers hardly ever publish LW,A values at
20–200 Hz. This work attempted to fill up this gap by approximating the
LW,A parameter, which was then applied to the estimation of LFN exposure
from wind turbines. This information is important to determine the level
of LFN exposure experienced by surrounding residents and determine any
potential health impacts of turbine LFN. Determining the citizens’ expo-
sure to LFN from turbines is crucial before studying the effects of LFN on
health. Although it is possible to directly quantify their LFN exposure, the
labor and resource requirements are challenging. Rain, wind speed, and
wind direction are among the environmental and meteorological variables
that might affect noise transmission [7]. It was found in a study by Ma

and Nystuen [8] that even mild rainfall results in higher sound levels than
wind. They did add that rain had no effect on the dispersion of sound at
natural frequencies. Results from earlier research on the impact of precip-
itation on noise propagation have been ambiguous. This study’s [9] goal
is to ascertain how, under typical climatic conditions, rainfall especially
influences the propagation of low-frequency noise (LFN) from wind tur-
bines. It is important to keep in mind that the multiplicity of LFN sources
in cities may reduce the noise’s ability to travel through the air. In urban
areas, LFN is frequently present as background noise and is produced by
a variety of man-made sources, including air-conditioning equipment,
industrial machinery, pumps, and vehicles on land, in the air, on trains,
and in the water [10]. The sources may be located far away because LFN
can travel long distances. Taiwan is a little island with a large population.
In Taiwan, wind farms have been built close to residential areas, directly
affecting the daily life of the locals. An estimate of the residents’ LFN expo-
sure (LAeq) could be made using an ISO 9613-2-compliant low-frequency
propagation model. However, the manufacturers failed to supply the nec-
essary parameter for this model, which was the sound power level of wind
turbines (LW,A (dB)) at 20–200 Hz [11].
3.1.3 Wildlife
Similar to other sources of energy, wind energy, too, has the possibility
of damaging the environment through lowering, degrading, or destroying
habitats for fish, animals, and plants. Besides these, flying animals like birds
and bats may be put at risk by turbine blade rotation. Impact decrease, sit-
ing, and regulatory issues have been the top priorities of the wind business
due to the possibility of wind power having a drastic effect on the fauna
and the fact that those challenges can either detain or avert wind utilization
in elevated standard of wind assessed locations. To solve those matters and
promote an eco-friendly sustainable growth of wind energy in the USA,
the World Trade Organization sponsors initiatives that try to shed light
upon the adverse impacts of wind on land on air and offshore [12]. Wind
Energy Technologies Office (WETO) conducts projects for compiling and
dispersing equally reviewed studies based on the environmental effects by
incorporated detailed hubs such as Tethys. An agency additionally raises
funds for scientific research which sanctions the formation of affordable
technology to lessen the effects on animals at onshore and offshore wind
farms. To guarantee that taxpayer funds are spent properly to address envi-
ronmental concerns interconnected to the utilization of wind in the United
States of America, WETO functions in promoting the interorganizational

partnership on the impacts of wind energy and sedentary studies [13].
Over the last decade, the NWCC has conveyed its emphasis on inscribing
or spreading top-notch knowledge about environmental impacts and solu-
tions. The wind office of the Department of Energy announced $2 million in
ecological experiment allowed in May 2009 with the aim to lessen the risks
concerning wind power development to critical species and habitats [14].
In an investigation made in 2013, scientists from the NWCC’s Grassland
Community Collaborative and the Kansas State University demonstrated
that the wind expansion in Kansas showed no effect on residents and the
replication of larger steppe fowl. Earlier founded in 2003, the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory of DOE had funded several research proj-
ects involving bats and wind energy cooperative, including investigations
into the effects on modifying the cut-in speed of wind turbines (the least
speed of wind at which the power production of wind turbine begins) and
usage of supersonic auditory deterrent to lessen the impacts on bats of wind
turbines. WETO finances development and research initiatives, too, which
improves the scientific willingness for minimization of bat impacts and
reductive solutions between fierce financial chances [15].
The Department of Energy is providing funding to Frontier Wind, Bat
Conservation International, Texas Christian University, the University of
Massachusetts, and General Electric to experiment, analyze, and check pre-
vention technologies for the impact of bats non-commercially. These tech-
nologies would give wind facility owners–operators and regulators both
affordable and practical instruments to lessen the impacts on bats [16].
The National Wind Coordinating Collaborative’s seminars on the Findings
and Standards of evolving technical innovations for Deterrence at Wind
Facilities and Bat detection present testing results and project updates until
March 2018. In 2016, WETO selected approximately six groups to task on
enhancing strategies which would protect eagles which might allocate the
airway with wind turbines. Nearly $3 million was distributed to the six
teams for ground-breaking, essential research, and development initiatives
involving eagle impact mitigation technology. The investigation that was
supported by this award would provide the owners and managers of wind
farms with affordable and useful methods to minimize possible impacts
on eagles. By acknowledging environmental and sedentary issues, this sig-
nificant study advances the Energy Department’s initiatives to assist the
growth of renewable sources of energy while simultaneously guarantee-
ing animal cohabitation. If the project is successful, it will protect biodi-
versity and provide the renewable energy sector with fresh capabilities to
ease administrative and financial worries [17]. WETO is an advocate for
the study of how biological processes interact with offshore wind farms.
With the help of this financing, scientists are collecting vital information
on offshore bird, bat behavior, marine life, and various aspects which affect
the offshore wind turbine placements in the United States–for instance, to
create an in-depth understanding of ecosystem in a Mid-Atlantic Wind
Energy field which would help with enabling ecological conformance for
the Biodiversity Research Institute, a diverse group of collaborators and
offshore wind projects completed the major environmental study that is
ever carried out in the Mid-Atlantic.
WETO, along with other federal agencies, focuses and runs to make
suggestions which will aid landowners in adhering to legal, managerial,
and regulatory requirements for public safety, national security, and the
preservation of wildlife [19].
3.1.4 Intermittent Energy Generation

The maturation of renewable sources of energy (such as geothermal
energy, wind energy, biomass energy, and solar energy) has emerged as
main agreement and decisive plans for nations globally as challenges of
environmental pollution and energy crisis become more urgent [20]. Wind
power has now vigorously set up its own self as a conventional alternative
of humanity among all renewable energies. There are three key factors that
contribute to wind energy usage globally. First, there has been an endless
supply for wind energy. According to statistical data, there are more than
1 trillion kilowatts of onshore wind resources available. About 840 PW·h
of potential power from wind is thought to exist [21]. Second, wind energy
has significant environmental advantages, including reduction in air pollu-
tion and almost minimal water use. The decrease in carbon dioxide emis-
sions is wind energy’s biggest environmental advantage [22]. The entire
number of wind farms in operation reduced carbon dioxide emissions
by around 372 million tonnes in 2013. Finally, the cost of wind energy is
decreasing as technology gets more advanced.
Several policies and support systems have been put in place to advance
the growth of wind power. These programs include fixed premium systems,
renewable portfolio standards, investment subsidies, and tax incentives.
Due to the benefits and favorable legislative environments, wind power
has grown rather quickly over the past few decades on a global scale. By the
end of 2015, the globally progressive setup potential acquired 432,419 MW,
which is around 25 times more than the setup potential in year 2000 [23].
The installed wind potential is predicted for acquiring 2000 Global Wind
by the end of year 2030, providing roughly 16.7–18.8% of the total power
produced globally. In 2015, wind energy produced 42.1% of the electric-

ity in Denmark. By 2050, the government of Denmark wants to have 50%
of its electricity coming from wind [24]. In recent decades, wind energy
development in China has experienced an exponential growth. Despite a
decline in 2013, the cumulative installed wind energy capacity in the coun-
try reached 91.42 global wind units, positioning China as the global leader
in wind energy installations [25]. Then, wind energy will meet 17% of the
country’s electricity needs and establish itself as a significant energy source.
Wind power has advanced quickly, but integration and consumption are
not encouraging [26]. Wind energy is regularly curtailed. The average
number of hours that wind power was used in 2015 was 1,728, which is the
lowest number over the previous 6 years. The rate of wind power curtail-
ment over the same time is 17% (the turbines are fictitiously turned away
notwithstanding the normal flow of wind) [27, 28].
The wind’s varied speed, which varies both spatially and temporally, is
what drives wind turbines. Consequently, the electricity produced by tur-
bines is typically very sporadic. Particularly, wind energy might not be read-
ily accessible [29–31]. As with thermal, nuclear, and hydroelectric plants,
wind generation cannot be scheduled or managed [32]. Large-scale pene-
tration of wind power would consequently have an effect on the operational
safety and steadiness of the power system, which will raise costs. The largest
obstacle with usage of wind energy in the form of primary energy source
is now its erratic nature. In Figure 3.1, a computational simulation of wind
power generation is explained. System design, analysis, and optimization
for wind power generation all heavily rely on computational simulation. It
BB Battery
Controller Banks (BB)
Power and
speed
control BB
Charger
3 phase line
Generator Rectifier AC- DC link Inverter DC- filter and Power Utility
DC AC transformer Grid
Fiber optic Fiber optic
Control board and communication
Turbine control unit (TCU)
Network Switch
Figure 3.1 Computational simulation of wind power generation.

enables engineers and scientists to evaluate the efficacy and efficiency of

wind turbines, calculate power production, analyze the effects of environ-
mental conditions, and optimize the design of the entire system [68].
3.2 Worldwide Wind Energy Forecast

The devastating effect of increased global warming has led the world
towards the advancement of energy sources. With technological advance-
ments, the world is opting for low-carbon or carbon-free emission prod-
ucts, sustainable as well as eco-friendly renewable energy. Today as the
world is moving towards the utilization of renewable energy sources, wind
energy has reached an epitome as the best renewable energy source. The
adoption of wind power as a widely used renewable energy can be efficient,
effective, appropriate, and practically able to lessen the fossil fuels’ utiliza-
tion. The sector concerned with wind power usage is having remarkable
growth and has golden future opportunities. According to the data, in the
21st century, the use and implementation of wind production has grown
approximately two times every 3 years. The scenarios faced by each coun-
try are discussed below.
3.2.1 Canada
In the upcoming supply of energy globally, the importance of renewable
wind source of energy has been analyzed statistically in Canada. A survey
was conducted to study the capacity factor, installation, generation, and
awareness regarding this implementation, supplied upon the levelized cost
of energy (LCOE). This survey was made to present an inclusive fundamen-
tal for a further approach of the country towards opting wind energy and
its potential development in the electric supply of Canada to the upcom-
ing 2040 by applying different prognostic methods, involving historical
compound annual growth rate (CAGR). CAGR of 5%, 10%, or 15% and
linear forecasting was appointed based on the assumed terms and policy
intervention at the territorial or provincial level. Additionally, the impact
of rising installation of wind energy potential in Canada on the LCOE is
inspected through making use of a linear forecasting model alongwith sev-
eral reduced prices for costs. The outcomes depict the deduction in the
LCOE based upon a higher installation of wind power capacity. In conclu-
sion, Canada experiences a high use of wind energy power and has a pro-
pitious installation of wind energy potentials, specifically in St. Lawrence,
whether integrated with the other energy source or as standalone source of
energy, with the storage potential of energy to converge the upcoming gen-
eration’s perspective of balancing low-carbon footsteps with the electricity
requirements [33].
3.2.2 Russia
The Russian energy industries are genuinely acting in accordance with
the standard conventional growing system. The accessibility of water
resources and large hydrocarbon stock, e.g., natural gases, coal, and oil,
has transformed into a notable barrier obstructing the development of
efficient and safe substitute sources of energy, yet wind energy is compar-
atively a small contributor in the electricity generation mix in Russia, but
the country has significant untapped potential for wind power develop-
ment. The government of Russia has set an objective of generating 4.5%
of the country’s electricity from renewable sources by 2024, and wind
power is thought of being involved in the significant role in acquiring
the same goal. According to the Global Wind Energy Council, Russia had
a setting-up wind energy potential of 0.6 GW at the end of 2020, which
accounted for only 0.1% of the country’s entire electricity generation. The
Russian government has a proposal for the increment in the country’s
wind energy potential to 3.2 GW by year 2024 and up to 11 GW by 2035
[34]. These plans are supported by favorable wind conditions in certain
regions of the country, particularly in the eastern and southern parts of
Russia. To support the growth of wind power in Russia, the government
has introduced various incentives and support mechanisms, including
feed-in taxes and tax exemptions. The maturation of wind power energy
in Russia is still facing some challenges, including the relatively high cost
of wind power and insufficiency of infrastructure compared to other
energy sources. An outlook for wind power in Russia is promising, and
the country has the possibility to become a main player in the global wind
power market in the coming years. The most challenging issue faced by
Russia with respect to energy security involves raised energy share in the
energy balance, as well as global fuel, and raised international attempts for
the execution of climatic terms and policy and encourage the transforma-
tion into a green economy [33].
3.2.3 India
India has been quickly expanding its capacity for renewable energy, with a
particular emphasis on wind energy. India is projected to be the fourth-larg-
est wind energy market in the world by 2021, with the capacity to build 38
Global Wind power facilities. By 2030, the government wants to reach 450
GW of renewable energy capacity, 140 GW of which will come from wind
power. India has put into effect regulations that encourage the growth of
wind energy projects, such as the KUSUM Outline and the National Wind–
Solar Hybrid Policy. India has made great strides in the forecasting of wind
energy. All grid-connected wind energy generators must use the Wind
Energy Forecasting and Scheduling (WEFS) system, which was established
by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE). This system fore-
casts wind energy production using weather forecasting models and offers
scheduling data to guarantee seamless grid integration. India is expected to
develop 20 GW of wind energy capacity between 2021 and 2025, according
to the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), demanding precise wind
energy forecasting for grid stability. With a goal of 5 GW capacity by 2022,
the paper also underlines India’s potential for offshore wind energy. The
fluctuation in wind speed and direction, which is impacted by factors like
seasons, geography, and land use, is one of the major issues in wind energy
forecasting. The MNRE has developed wind monitoring stations across the
nation to solve this issue and provide real-time data for forecast models. In
order to improve the precision of wind energy forecasting, the MNRE is
also investigating the use of machine learning methods. The government’s
goals and advances in wind energy forecasting technology are anticipated
to significantly boost growth in the renewable energy sector in the upcom-
ing years. India’s position as the world’s leading producer of wind energy is
expected to promote the country’s transition to a low-carbon energy sys-
tem [33].
3.2.4 United States of America

The United States is one of the world’s biggest wind energy markets, with
about 119 GW of installed capacity as of 2021. Wind energy is essential
to the country’s ongoing energy portfolio because the government has set
goals for the use of renewable energy sources and the lowering of emis-
sions. In recent years, the United States has made significant progress in
wind energy forecasting. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL) has developed advanced forecasting models that utilize historical
data on wind energy generation as well as weather data in order to pre-
cisely estimate wind energy output. These models take into account a vari-
ety of factors, such as wind direction, speed, humidity, temperature, and
atmospheric pressure. The United States has also implemented policies like
the Production Tax Credit (PTC) and the Investment Tax Credit (ITC),
which provide financial incentives to stimulate the expansion of wind
energy facilities. These rules are intended to promote the growth of wind
energy projects all around the country [34]. Several US states have imple-
mented Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS), which mandate that busi-
nesses obtain a specific proportion of their energy from renewable sources
like wind energy. These governments have set RPS rules and objectives for
renewable energy. According to the American Wind Energy Association
(AWEA), the nation’s installed wind energy capacity will rise by 14.2 GW
in 2020, reaching a total of 119 GW. This analysis also highlights the poten-
tial for offshore wind energy exploration in the country, where a number
of sizable offshore wind projects are now in the development stages. Wind
energy is anticipated to have a significant impact on the low-carbon energy
system in the United States. The government encourages the growth of
wind turbines, which is anticipated to occur in the next years, by using
forecasting tools [33].
3.2.5 China
With a total installed capacity expected to reach 281 GW in 2021, China is
now the largest wind energy market in the world. China’s renewable energy
portfolio includes a sizable amount of wind energy, and the country’s gov-
ernment has high goals for both renewable energy production and car-
bon reduction. In recent years, China has achieved notable advancements
in wind energy forecasting. The National Meteorological Information
Centre (NMIC), which is in charge of forecasting wind energy, has cre-
ated sophisticated models that use previous data on wind energy gener-
ation and weather data to precisely estimate wind energy output. These
forecasting models take into account variables including wind speed,
direction, humidity, temperature, and atmospheric pressure. The NMIC
uses a nationwide network of meteorological stations to collect real-time
weather data, improving the precision of the forecast models. The research
also emphasises China’s potential for developing offshore wind energy,
where a number of sizable offshore projects are now in the planning stages.
The fluctuation in wind speed and direction, which is impacted by ele-
ments like terrain, climate, and atmospheric conditions, is one of the major
issues in China’s wind energy forecasting. The National Renewable Energy
Centre (NREC) has created regional wind forecasting models that take into
account local weather patterns and terrain to address this issue. Through
the application of machine learning algorithms and other cutting-edge
approaches, the NREC is also actively seeking to increase the accuracy of
wind energy forecasts [33].
3.2.6 Germany
German wind energy production is among the best in the world, with about
62 GW of installed capacity as of 2021. With the government setting goals
for renewable energy generation and emissions reduction, wind energy is
a key component of Germany’s renewable energy portfolio. The German
Meteorological Service (DWD) has created sophisticated forecasting mod-
els, which have allowed for considerable breakthroughs in wind energy
forecasting in recent years. In order to effectively anticipate wind energy
output, these models use weather data as well as historical wind energy gen-
eration data, taking into account elements like temperature, wind direction,
wind speed, humidity, and atmospheric pressure. To encourage the devel-
opment projects of wind energy, the nation has established a number of
measures, including the Renewable Energy Act (EEG). The overall installed
capacity of wind energy in Germany increased by 1.6 GW in 2020, reaching
over 62 GW, according to a report by the German Wind Energy Association
(BWE). However, due to legislative barriers and opposition from the general
public, the development pace of the wind energy sector has recently slowed.
The government has recently introduced measures to address these chal-
lenges, including new regulations for the distance between wind turbines
and residential areas. To address this challenge, the DWD has developed
regional wind forecasting models that consider local weather patterns and
topography. The DWD is also working on improving the accuracy of wind
energy forecasting using machine learning algorithms and other advanced
techniques [38]. However, there are still challenges facing the wind energy
sector, including regulatory barriers, public opposition, and variability in
wind speed and direction. Governments, industry, and other stakeholders
will need to work together to overcome these challenges and support the
growth of the wind energy sector.
3.3 Increased Wind Penetrating Techniques

The installation of wind energy capacity has increased the future opportu-
nities for setting up of wind turbines across the world. The techniques used
are discussed below.
3.3.1 Energy Storage Systems

Energy storage systems could be utilized for the levelized fluctuations in
the output of wind power and provide grid stability during periods of
low wind. Pumped hydro storage, compressed air energy storage, and bat-
tery storage are some instances of storage systems for energy.
3.3.2 Advanced Forecasting Tools

Advanced forecasting tools, such as weather modeling and machine learn-
ing algorithms, can improve the precision for wind power prediction,
which could help grid engineers to foresee amendments in output of wind
power and make real-time adjustments to maintain grid stability [33].
3.3.3 Bucket Foundation

Bucket foundation was established for offshore gas and oil industries and is
now used for the construction of wind turbines. Bucket foundation is basi-
cally used for supporting the construction of structures like wind turbines and
gas or oil platforms. Bucket foundation comprises a cylindrically large steel
bucket that is driven into the seabed with the use of a specialized pile driving
technique. After the installation of bucket, it is filled with gravel or any other
materials to provide additional stability and weight. The structure which is to
be constructed or supported is then robust on the top of the bucket [36].
3.3.4 Advantages of Bucket Foundation

A bucket foundation provides a variety of advantages in contrast to other
offshore technologies; firstly, it provides ease of installation. They are an
efficient, simple technique that reduces the cost as well as time which is
needed for offshore construction projects. Secondly, being highly sta-
ble, they also promote highly notable stability and load-bearing capacity,
which makes them ideal for supporting heavy structures in challenging
environments. Thirdly is versatility; they are highly resistant to lateral
loads, such as those caused by strong ocean waves or currents. This is sup-
ported because the bucket behaves as a giant anchor, which provides a wide
base for the structure to surpass these high forces. Additionally, the use
of a steel bucket supplies excellent corrosion resistance, which is essen-
tial for offshore applications. This quality of being adaptive to every soil
type increases flexibility, which makes them a popular choice for offshore
projects which require complex or unique foundations. Fourthly is cost-
effectiveness; they reduce the rate of cost and require less time to construct.
In contrast to traditional pile foundations, they require less labor and less
time and are relatively inexpensive to install and manufacture, making
them an attractive option for offshore projects with tight budgets [35].
3.3.5 Limitations of Bucket Foundation

In spite of having various advantages, bucket foundations have few lim-
itations. One of their main limitations is their ability to withstand lateral
loads, such as those caused by wind and waves. To address this issue, engi-
neer, designers often incorporate extra measures, such as pile anchors or
additional weight, into the foundation design. In short, bucket foundations
are a cost-effective, versatile solution for offshore projects which need
stable and reliable foundations. Their ease of installation, flexibility, and
customization options make them a popular choice for a wide range of
offshore applications [33].
3.3.6 Monopile Foundation

A monopile foundation consists of a large steel tube driven into the seabed
to provide structural support and anchorage for the turbine. The monopile
foundation is designed to withstand the forces of the wind, waves, and cur-
rents that are present in offshore environments. The foundation is typically
driven into the seabed using a pile driving system, which involves using
a large hammer to pound the steel pole into the seabed. Once the mono-
pile is in place, the turbine is lodged upon it. For offshore wind farms,
monopile foundations are a popular choice as they are relatively easy and
cost-effective to set up. They are also able to support the weight of large
wind turbines and withstand the harsh offshore environment. However,
they may not be suitable for all seabed types, and alternative foundation
types may be necessary in certain locations [35].
3.3.7 Jacket Foundation

A jacket foundation is a type of offshore foundation used to support wind
turbines in offshore wind farms. It consists of a steel lattice structure that
is designed to withstand the forces of the wind, waves, and currents that
are present in offshore environments. The jacket foundation is typically
installed by firstly driving a set of piles into the seabed to provide sup-
port for the structure. The jacket is then assembled onshore and trans-
ported to the installation site, where it is lifted onto the piles and bolted
in place. Once the jacket is secured to the seabed, the turbine is lodged
upon the cap of it. Jacket foundations are a popular choice for offshore
wind farms because they can support larger wind turbines than mono-
pile foundations and are generally more stable in deeper waters. They are
also able to withstand the harsh offshore environment, including extreme
weather conditions and corrosive saltwater. However, jacket foundations

are more complex and expensive to install than monopile foundations due
to the additional fabrication and transportation required. They also require
a larger installation vessel, which can limit their use in certain offshore
locations. Despite these limitations, jacket foundations are still a popular
choice for offshore wind farms, particularly in areas with deeper waters
and larger turbines. Ongoing advancements in technology and fabrication
techniques are also helping to reduce the costs associated with jacket foun-
dation installations [33].
3.3.8 Floating Foundation

A floating foundation is a type of offshore foundation used to support wind
turbines in deep water or areas where fixed foundations are not suitable.
It consists of a buoyant platform that is moored to the seabed with the use
of anchors or mooring lines, which maintain the position of the platform
and its steadiness. The two major kinds of floating foundations are tension
leg platforms (TLPs) and semi-submersible platforms. TLPs use tensioned
cables to anchor the platform to the seabed, while semi-submersible plat-
forms use ballast to submerge the lower portion of the platform and main-
tain its stability. Floating foundations are able to support wind turbines
in deeper waters than fixed foundations and can be moved to different
locations as needed [36]. They also have the potential to generate more
electricity than fixed foundations, as they are not limited by water depth.
However, floating foundations are generally more expensive to install and
maintain than fixed foundations due to their more complex design and the
need for regular maintenance of the mooring lines. They also require more
space than fixed foundations, as the platform needs to be able to move with
the wind and waves. Despite these challenges, floating foundations are a
mandatory technology for the advancement of offshore wind power in
deeper waters. Ongoing advancements in technology and manufacturing
are helping to reduce the costs associated with floating foundation instal-
lations, making them a more viable option for offshore wind farms in the
future [33].
3.3.9 Tripod Foundation

A tripod foundation is a type of offshore foundation used to support wind
turbines in shallow water environments. It consists of three steel legs that
are connected at the top by a circular steel structure, which serves as the
main support for the wind turbine. The tripod foundation is installed by
firstly driving the legs into the seabed using a pile driving system. The
circular structure is then placed on top of the legs and secured in place.
Tripod foundations are a popular choice for offshore wind farms with shal-
low water, as they are relatively easy and cost-effective to employ. They are
also able to support the weight of large wind turbines and withstand the
forces of the wind, waves, and currents that are present in offshore envi-
ronments. However, tripod foundations may not be suitable for all seabed
types, and alternative foundation types may be necessary in certain loca-
tions. They are also not suitable for deeper waters, where other types of
floating or fixed foundations are used. These foundation system technolo-
gies are continually being developed and improved to expand productivity
and decrease costs. A choice for the foundation systems of wind farms is
based upon various factors like water depth, seabed conditions, and tur-
bine size [33–37].
3.4 India’s Perspective for Wind Energy

India is among the rapidly expanding and world’s largest economies, with
high demand for energy to power its industries and population. However,
its heavy reliance on fossil fuels has led to significant environmental and
economic challenges, including air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions,
and energy security concerns [47]. India has been exploring alternative
forms of energy, including wind power, converging with its growing energy
requirements while mitigating the adverse effects of fossil fuels. Wind
energy proved to emerge as the most favorable alternative energy form for
India, given the large coastline and vast land resources. In Figure 3.2, a
wind turbine system is given, which helps to clearly understand the con-
cept as to how it works. India has a cumulative wind power potential of
about 40.57 Global Wind as of March 2021—all over the world after China,
USA, and Germany—making it the fourth-largest wind energy producer.
The nation has set up an objective of acquiring 60 Global Wind of wind
power potential by year 2022, which will require an addition of around 20
GW in the next 2 years. In India, the capability of wind energy is extensive,
given its favorable geographical and meteorological conditions. The coun-
try has a coastline of around 7,500 km, which provides significant oppor-
tunities for offshore wind power generation. According to the National
Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE), India has offshore wind capacity of
about 70 GW, which is more than twice its current wind energy capac-
ity. In addition, India has vast land resources, particularly in the western
and southern regions, where wind speeds are high and consistent [48].
Rotor blade
Gear box
Wind
Nacelle
Switch yard
Generator
Power cables
Tower
Transformer
Figure 3.2 Diagrammatic representation of a wind turbine system.
According to NIWE, the nation has onshore capability of wind power of

about 302 Global Wind, which is nearly eight times its current wind energy
capacity. However, realizing this potential would require a significant
investment in wind infrastructure and transmission facilities. The Indian
government has been actively promoting wind energy through various
policy initiatives and incentives [39].
In 2016, it launched the National Wind–Solar Hybrid Policy, which
aims to promote the installation of wind–solar hybrid systems to optimize
the utilization of land and grid infrastructure. In addition, the govern-
ment has introduced various financial incentives such as generation-based
incentives, accelerated depreciation, and concessional customs and excise
duties to attract investments in wind power. The private sector has also
been actively investing in wind power in India, given the favorable pol-
icy and regulatory environment [49]. Several domestic and international
companies have set up wind power projects in the country, including
Suzlon Energy, Tata Power, and Siemens Gamesa. In addition, several state
governments have introduced their wind energy policies to attract invest-
ments and promote renewable energy. In spite of the significant possibility
for wind power in India, several challenges need to be addressed to real-
ize this potential. One of the biggest challenges is the intermittent nature
of wind power, which forces it to be strenuous to combine into the grid
[40]. The variability of wind energy could lead in accordance with grid
instability and require backup power sources to be available. This, in turn,
increases the affordability of wind energy and reduces the competitiveness
compared with conventional sources of energy. Another challenge is the
limited transmission infrastructure to transport wind power from remote

locations to demand centers. This can result in congestion and curtailment
of wind power, which reduces its utilization and profitability. Moreover,
the lack of reliable wind data in certain regions of the country makes it dif-
ficult for the appraisal of the feasibility and potential of wind power proj-
ects correctly. Wind energy has enormous potential in India, but there are
several limitations and challenges that need to be addressed to realize this
potential [50]. Here are some of the significant limitations of wind energy
in India.
3.4.1 Intermittency and Variability

Wind energy is inherently intermittent and variable, which makes it
challenging to integrate into the grid. The output of wind power tur-
bines varies with the speed of the wind, which can lead to fluctuations
in the grid’s frequency and voltage. This variability can lead to grid
instability, require backup power sources, and increase the cost of wind
power [51].
3.4.2 Land Acquisition

Wind power projects require significant land resources, particularly in the
western and southern regions, where wind speeds are high and consistent.
Land acquisition can be a challenging and time-consuming process, par-
ticularly in densely populated areas, where land is scarce and expensive
[52].
3.4.3 Transmission Constraints

Wind power projects are often located in remote areas, far from the demand
centers, which can create transmission constraints. The limited transmis-
sion infrastructure can result in congestion and curtailment of wind power,
which reduces its utilization and profitability [53].
3.4.4 Limited Wind Resource Data

The availability of reliable wind resource data is mandatory for the assess-
ment of feasibility and potential of wind energy projects accurately.
However, there are several regions of the country where wind data is lim-
ited or not available, which makes it challenging to develop wind power
projects in those areas [54].
3.4.5 Financing Constraints

Wind power projects require significant upfront investments, which can
be a barrier for many developers, particularly smaller ones. Financing con-
straints, including high-interest rates and a lack of access to capital, can
make it challenging to finance wind power projects [55].
3.4.6 Environmental and Social Impacts

Wind power projects can have significant environmental and social
impacts, particularly on wildlife and local communities. The setting up of
wind turbines can disrupt habitats of bats and birds and cause noise pol-
lution. In addition, land acquisition can lead to the displacement of local
communities and the loss of their livelihoods [56].
3.4.7 Policy and Regulatory Uncertainty

The government of India has introduced various policies as well as incen-
tives for the promotion of wind power development. However, there is still
policy and regulatory uncertainty, particularly around tariffs and grid con-
nection charges, which can deter developers from investing in wind power
[57]. Wind energy has enormous potential in India, but there are several
limitations and challenges that need to be addressed to realize this poten-
tial fully. Addressing these limitations will require significant investments
in wind infrastructure and transmission facilities as well as addressing the
challenges of intermittency, land acquisition, transmission constraints,
wind resource data, financing, environmental, and social impacts, and pol-
icy and regulatory uncertainty. Wind power can play a significant role in
India’s energy mix, with the regulatory framework, right policy, and invest-
ment, and assist the country in achieving its renewable energy targets [58].
3.5 Progress of Technology

Wind turbines are an essential component for the renewable sources of
energy sector, providing a sustainable source of power without the envi-
ronmental impact of fossil fuels. In the past few decades, the technology
behind turbines has advanced significantly, with larger, more efficient tur-
bines being developed that can generate greater amounts of power from
the same amount of wind [41, 59].
3.5.1 Larger and More Efficient Turbines

One of the most significant advancements in wind turbine technology has
been the development of more efficient and larger turbines. During the
past days of wind energy, turbines were relatively small and produced only
a few kilowatts of power. Today, however, turbines are much larger and
more powerful, with some models capable of generating over 10 MW of
electricity. The development of larger turbines has been driven by a number
of factors. First, larger turbines are more efficient than smaller ones, as they
can capture more wind energy and convert it into electricity. Additionally,
larger turbines are better suited for use in offshore wind farms, where wind
speeds are typically higher and there is more space available for installation
[42, 60].
3.5.2 Advancements in Turbine Design

Along with the development of larger turbines, there have been significant
advancements in turbine design over the past few decades. One of the most
notable improvements has been the development of variable-pitch blades,
which allow the turbine to adjust the angle of its blades based on the speed
and direction of the wind. Variable pitch blades are particularly useful in areas
where wind speeds can vary widely, as they allow the turbine to maintain a
consistent level of power output regardless of the wind conditions (Figure
3.3). Additionally, variable pitch blades can help to extend the lifespan of the
Hybrid Power signal

feedback control
Hydraulic
Pitch angle Soft computing
Soft computing control
based
Conventional
Control Tip speed ratio
Robust strategy
control
for WECS
MPPT
Control
Field control
Hill climb search
Voltage control Grid/machine
side control
Direct power control
Optimal torque
Direct torque control control
Figure 3.3 Schematic representation of different control strategies in wind energy control.
turbine, as they reduce the stress placed on the blades during high winds.
Another important advancement in turbine design has been the development
of direct-drive generators. Direct-drive generators eliminate the need for a
gearbox, which can be a major source of maintenance and reliability issues in
wind turbines. Direct-drive generators are also more efficient than traditional
gearbox-based systems, as they eliminate the energy losses that occur during
the transfer of power between the rotor and the generator [43, 61]. Table 3.1
represents the various frequencies of components used in wind technology.
Table 3.1 Keywords used in wind technology and their frequency range.
Domain Keywords Frequency References
Generator or Stator 2,960 [62, 65]
configuration Tower 1,368
Grid 1,179
Battery 1,164
Gear 1,029
Fan 914
Hub 828
Pole 745
Cable 480
Sea 398
Components or Gear 1,923 [66]
gearbox Oil 580
Gear box 574
Roller 565
Lubrication 483
Bolt 460
Flange 460
Cabin 459
Safety 333
Stator 261
Nacelles Hub 683 [63]
Crane 206
Gear 197
Stator 163
Torque 139
Lightning 137
Foundation 133
Platform 129
Flange 128
Beam 66
Table 3.2 Comparison of different kinds of pitch controls.

Performance under
Convergence rapid wind
Controller Reliability speed Complexity Performance speed variation Cost References
Conventional High Slow Low Low Low Low [64, 65]
controller
Robust Moderate High High Moderate high High High [66]
controller high
Soft computing High Faster Low Moderate high High Moderate [67]
controller
Hybrid High Faster Moderate High Very high Moderate [62, 63]
controller
3.5.3 Improvements in Manufacturing and Installation

In addition to advancements in turbine design, there have been significant
improvements in the manufacturing and installation of wind turbines over
the past few decades. One of the most notable developments has been the use
of modular construction techniques, which allow turbines to be assembled on
site from pre-manufactured components. Modular construction techniques
have several advantages over traditional manufacturing methods. First,
they allow for greater quality control, as each component can be carefully
inspected and tested before it is shipped to the installation site. Additionally,
modular construction techniques can help to reduce the cost of manufactur-
ing and installation, as they eliminate the need for expensive transportation
and logistics. In addition, the main improvement in the manufacturing of
turbines has been the use of advanced materials, such as carbon fiber and
composites. These materials are stronger and lighter than traditional mate-
rials like steel, which allow for the development of larger and more efficient
turbines. Table 3.2 shows different controller systems and their comparison
with other components in terms of performance, speed, complexity etc.
3.6 Conclusion
Huge wind turbines are an essential part of the renewable energy land-
scape, addressing significant concerns and providing exciting potential in
the future. With the ability to produce large amounts of electricity, these
high towers can supply wind-derived renewable energy to cities and even
small nations. Wind turbines help to lessen fossil fuel dependency as well
as mitigate negative consequences for climate change by utilizing this
limitless, free natural resource. There are significant concerns that need
to be solved as wind turbine technology advances. One such problem is
the requirement for effective and affordable storage technologies to con-
trol sporadic wind energy generation. The creation of cutting-edge energy
storage technologies will provide a consistent and dependable supply of
electricity even when the wind is not blowing at its best. The impacts which
the large-scale wind farms would have on the environment also need to be
carefully considered. To minimize any potential adverse effects on wildlife,
migratory patterns, and aesthetics, proper siting and environmental studies
are essential. Finding stability in the environmental preservation and pro-
duction of renewable energy depends on ongoing study and innovation in
these areas. A bright future is expected for the potential of large-scale wind
turbines. Improvements in turbine production techniques, materials, and
design offer the potential to lower prices and boost efficiency. Their per-
formance can be improved through integration with smart grid technol-
ogy and artificial intelligence, enabling optimized power generation and
improved grid management. Offshore wind generation also offers a large
unrealized promise. Even more energy can be produced while fewer prob-
lems over land use result from taking advantage of the steady and powerful
winds at sea. Around the world, several locations are exploring and devel-
oping offshore wind farms.
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4
Wind Hybrid Power Technologies
Momina, Haq Nawaz Bhatti* and Amina Khan
Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Abstract
The global usage of renewables is expanding rapidly these days. Wind power
accounts for the majority of the production of clean energy worldwide. Due to
the turbulence in wind speed, there may be fluctuations in wind power genera-
tion. To compensate this loss, windmill is integrated with different energy sources
like solar, diesel generator, hydrogen system, hydroelectric, and PV power plants.
These hybrid energy systems can work as an isolated system or with a grid system.
The advantages of the abovementioned electrical networks include reliable supply,
reduced carbon emissions, enhanced power quality, reliability, and work opportu-
nities for local people.
Keywords: Renewable energy, hybrid system, power generation
4.1 Introduction
The need for higher living standards in emerging nations has grown over
time as society and the economy have evolved. This has increased the
awareness of environmental contamination. Renewable energy, which is
regarded as a clean energy, can be a substitute of fossil fuels that pollute the
environment and are not recyclable in order to provide enough power to
support people’s daily needs and societal progress [1]. The global usage of
renewable energy is expanding rapidly these days. According to the 2018
Renewable Capacity Statistics, the global renewable energy-generating
capacity reached 2,179 GW at the end of 2017. With 1,152 GW, hydro had
the highest proportion. Wind, solar, biomass, geothermal, and tidal power
are among the energy sources. Renewable sources of electricity (wind,
*Corresponding author: hnbhatti2005@yahoo.com
63
sun, and water) are reasonably abundant in certain distant places, but the
national grid has not been linked to these areas [2]. Wind power has grown
quickly in the past decade to become the most important renewable energy
source [3].
Wind power accounts for the majority of the production of clean energy
worldwide. The wind revealed the vast potential of diverse places in terms
of wind energy because mountain chains along coastlines provide a natural
gateway that improves wind stability. Most coastal locations benefit from
being close to areas where power is in high demand [4].
Hybrid power plants integrate two or more types of energy production,
storage, or end-use technologies, so they provide significant advantages
over single-source systems. Versatility in our daily lives may be called the
spice of life; hence, why restrict ourselves to just a single power source or
storage option? In these circumstances, hybrid power plants are an appro-
priate answer since they may provide significance increase in efficiency
and cost savings while also being adaptable to varied end-user needs [5].
Hybrid energy systems have been built to generate power from many
sources. In this chapter, we will discuss about the wind hybrid power sys-
tems in which wind turbines are associated with solar, hydro, diesel, PV, or
hydrogen systems [6].
As clean energy, modern technology progresses and petroleum costs
rise, hybrid renewable energy systems are growing increasingly viable as
standalone power systems for delivering electricity in remote places. A
hybrid power system, commonly referred to as hybrid power, integrates
two or more forms of renewable energy in order to improve the system’s
effectiveness and supply balance [7]. The advantages of the abovemen-
tioned electrical networks, including reliable supply, reduced carbon
emissions, enhanced power quality, reliability, and work opportunities
for local people, are the primary motivations for their implementation.
Due to the intrinsically intermittent nature of green energy sources,
hybrid combinations involving two or more renewable energy sources
are utilized [8].
4.2 Types of Hybrid Power Systems

Following are the types of hybrid power systems:
a) Isolated hybrid grid system

If a hybrid system possesses three sub-units—power produc-
tion unit, power distribution unit and power demand—then,
Wind Hybrid Power Technologies 65
it is called an isolated hybrid micro-grid system. The most

crucial aspect of a micro-grid is maintaining a constant sup-
ply of electricity based on consumer demand, which is diffi-
cult to anticipate, and energy output may vary depending on
the availability of renewable energy sources, i.e., wind. The
key issues with micro-grids include fluctuations in voltage,
harmonic current, and voltage instability [9].
b) Grid-tied hybrid micro-grid system
When a hybrid micro-grid is linked to the main grid, the
system is referred as a grid-tied hybrid micro-grid system
[3]. Grid-tied mode refers to the connection of the micro-
grid to the grid utility. This system copes up when power
fluctuation arises due to the varying availability of wind and
fulfill the demand of users by providing electricity. When
a micro-grid is separated from the grid utility, it enters the
standalone mode. The micro-grid immediately shifts to
autonomous mode during fault diagnosis [10].
4.3 Wind Hybrid Power Technologies

Wind farms are integrated with different power-generating systems. The
most commonly used wind hybrid power technologies, their working
components, and their advantages and disadvantages are given below.
4.3.1 Wind Diesel Hybrid Power Technology

Diesel generators are primarily used as backup power supplies in telecommu-
nications, public buildings, hospitals, and other civic structures, as impartial
armed and marine voltage plants, and as a trustworthy isolated source of elec-
tricity for landmasses or distant towns located far away from the main electric
grid [13]. Because synchronous generators are used in traditional generators
powered by internal combustion engines, static speed action is essential.
This system has a poor efficacy while under short voltage. It is not vital in
emergency-run setups, but it is critical in constantly operated units where
the consumption of fuel is a key economic and logistical factor. Furthermore,
running a diesel generator at synchronized speed limits the engine’s lifes-
pan due to partial combustion of hydrocarbons, and thus a supplementary
dumping power is necessary to optimize the ignition procedure. By using the
load-adaptive, changeable-speed setup of the generator, we can increase effi-
cacy and combustibility during low load situations [14]. Hybrid wind–diesel
island power stations have been deployed. The use of wind energy reduces
fuel consumption, while the diesel generator ensures the stability of voltage
supply to the consumer. The diesel generator cannot be totally excluded since
wind turbines are unreliable power sources that require massive energy stor-
age to ensure electricity in low wind circumstances [7]. The classification of
wind diesel hybrid system has been discussed in Table 4.1.
Figure 4.1 depicts the components of a wind diesel hybrid system.
Table 4.1 Wind diesel classification.

Instantaneous
Penetration class Operating characteristics penetration
Low Diesel runs full time. Wind power <50%
reduces net load on diesel. All wind
energy goes to primary load. No
supervisory control system
Medium Diesel runs full time. At high wind 50%–100%
power, second wind load is
dispatched to ensure sufficient
diesel loading or wind generation
is curtailed. Requires a relatively
simple control system
High Diesel may be shut down during 100%–400%
high wind availability. Auxiliary
components required to regulate
voltage and frequency. Require
sophisticated control system
blade
pitch Pitch
control Control
Energy
Torsional
conversion
system generator +
system
wind side
+ Diesel
∑ governor
unit
generator +
-
ωref
load
Diesel side
Figure 4.1 Schematic view of the wind–diesel power technology.

• Wind turbines
• Diesel generators
• Additional dump load
• Storage batteries
• Power control system [11]
Wind turbines: The majority of tiny windmills manufactured nowadays

are parallel-axis, windy turbines with three or more blades. They are often
made of a composite substance (fiberglass). The frame of the turbine refers
to the structure upon which the tail and rotor engine are fastened. The
amount of energy generated is determined by the diameter of the blade.
The circumference of the rotor determines the swept area. The tail helps
the windmill point in the right direction [12]. Tiny wind mills are installed
on the upper edge of the tower since the air speed rises as the tower gets
higher, as does the power generated by the turbines. As an example, when
we increase the total length of the wind mill tower from 60 to 100 ft, it
raises the amount of power produced by 25% and increases the price by
10% of the overall price of the entire system [13].
Diesel generator: The main function of a diesel generator is to provide
backup power. If the batteries reach their lowest permissible level or the
home wants extra power, the diesel engine drives in. It can also be run
manually. The engine adjusts to the changes in the home load over the
day. The power plant also charges the storage devices by producing more
electricity than what the home consumes on a consistent basis. Whenever
the diesel engine is turned on because of shortage of battery voltage, it
indicates an extensive energy shortage in the entire system, which may not
be properly rectified by a small period of output. The power control system
makes no deduction of how long the generator has been running while
making its judgment. As a result, there is a need for an automated control-
ler to utilize the generator more efficiently to handle fluctuations in energy
supply from its turbine and battery backup [14].
Additional dump load: This unit is mainly used to guarantee that any
surplus energy delivered to the system could be safely dispersed. The dump
load is utilized to raise the temperature of the home hot-water cylinder,
which saves power but restricts the use of alternate heat sources such as a
solar heater. Nevertheless, it can be far preferable when the heat energy can
be stored and kept as a contributor for the house’s current needs, reducing
the total power that has to be provided by the diesel generators. Another
essential role of the dump load is to guarantee that the wind turbine is
always loaded. When there is no method to distribute extra power, the
turbine’s filling may fall, lowering resistive torque and leading the blades
to over-speed [14].
Storage batteries: The batteries considerably contribute to the entire ini-
tial expenditure of the system, which is about similar to the diesel engine,
and maintenance is typically considerable. As a result, the actual capacity
of the storage devices is a critical economic and operational concern [15].
A distinctive regular schedule finds the system dragging power out of the
storage batteries in the morning hours of the day, shortly before a midday
meal and late at night because of the regular sequences of wind speed and
home voltage consumption. Battery packs are then recharged in the eve-
ning, when the wind is at its strongest.
Power control system: The main function of a power control system is
to distribute power between different components carefully. It also ensures
that there is a stable power supply towards the load and grid.
When considering the quantity of wind which is incorporated in the
grid system, a method of categorization is employed. A system is termed a
highly penetration structure if the quantity of wind supplied at one given
moment exceeds 100% of the overall quantity of energy generated. Low
penetration systems have lower than 50% peak instant saturation, whereas
medium diffusion schemes have 50% to 100% of the power generated from
the windmill at one particular moment. Low and medium penetration sys-
tems are well-established systems. Nevertheless, high penetration systems
continue to have several issues, particularly when fixed, with its ability to
run when the diesel mode is off.
Before delving into the different wind–diesel operating modes, it is a good
idea to define the sorts of situations to which they must adapt. The response
of wind turbines to realistic, unpredictable wind is the key factor of a wind–
diesel design. Rapid changes in wind speed, lasting from a few seconds to
almost 10 min, cause significant fluctuations in engine power, which can
substantially disrupt system performance. In addition, during strong wind
times, extra electricity may need to be discharged, and temporary storing
may be required. Fuel efficiency dictates that the diesel generator must be
switched off if the mean energy produced by the windmill, compared to the
demand, is more. Diesel fuel consumption reduces dramatically under par-
tial load, and engine damage can be severe [16]. The basic premise of the
wind diesel dilemma is the tension among the need to turn off the engine,
avoiding repeated starts and low partial load functioning [16].
Following are the types of operating conditions of WDHPT:
• Diesel-only mode (DO): When operating in DO mode,

the windmill’s maximum power is scarcely more than the
entire load required by the consumer. At this instance, the

diesel power plants (DPP) never shut down and continue
to provide the active and reactive electricity required by the
customer’s demand. However, DG fuel consumption can be
lowered depending on the quantity of voltage generated by
the windmill (usually disconnected) and specific aspects of
the diesel generator.
• Wind–diesel mode (WD): In WD mode of operation, the
windmill output is typically equivalent to the customer’s
demand, and wind generators deliver active power in con-
junction with DG(s). Wind gusts fluctuate from a moment
to the next due to turbulence in the wind; thus, instanta-
neous wind turbine generator (WTG) power fluctuations
usually go beyond the customers’ demand. In these circum-
stances, the following operating ways are feasible:
(a) A diesel engine can operate constantly.
(b) The diesel engine can be shut down and resumed based
on immediate wind energy and according to load needs.
Constantly using the diesel engine reduces the load
needed, increasing the previously discussed diesel oper-
ating expenses.
• Wind-only mode (WO): WO mode uses no fuel because
the WTG power is frequently much higher than what is
required for load, and the diesel-powered generators are
not operating. In this situation, utilizing batteries for energy
storage might enhance the entire system’s economics [16].
The advantages and disadvantages of wind diesel hybrid
power system are given in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Advantages and disadvantages of wind–diesel hybrid power technology.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Reliable power-generating system • High capital cost than a single
since a generator provides the diesel generator
backup power • Wind turbines require frequent
• Reduce fuel usage because wind maintenance
provides electricity most of the time • The speed of wind may vary which
• Less emission of greenhouse gases can disrupt the power supply
• Low operating cost because • Cannot be suitable for large-scale
wind power is free and fuel power generation systems
consumption is reduced • High fuel costs
4.3.2 Wind Solar Hybrid Power Technology (WSHPT)

A hybrid system that combines a solar array and a windmill is a form of hybrid
power system. This setup will provide the most power if the speed of the wind
is high, and solar panels will generate the most power in the peak summer
season. In a WSHPT, the wind turbine produces energy whenever the appro-
priate wind speed is accessible, and the solar array produces electricity when
the required quality of solar power is present. This sort of hybrid power plant
requires less upkeep but is more dependable and has a longer lifespan [17].
Figure 4.2 shows the components of a wind solar hybrid system.
Thermal–solar array: A solar array captures sunlight. This sunlight is
used to boil water and convert it into steam. The steam is then used to
produce electricity [18].
Wind turbine: It is a device that efficiently creates electrical power by
using wind power. The pressure, amount, and the speed of the wind can all
be utilized to create electrical energy (AC) [10].
Batteries: The electrical power created by the hybrid power technology
must be stored so that batteries are necessary. These batteries store energy
wind solar
Load
Solar wind hybrid controller
invertor
battery
Figure 4.2 Schematic view of the wind–solar power technology.

and offer backup power during periods of insufficient sunlight or wind

energy [16]. As a result, batteries must meet the following requirements:
• must withstand multiple charging and discharging cycles

• must have less self-destruction
• can function effectively within the parameters stated
The level of use and ambient temperature of the battery have an impact
on its ability to store power. Its size is based on how much energy it uses and
is rated in Ampere-hours (Ah). The following equation may be used to com-
pute the battery’s storage capacity if the mean amount of electricity used per
hour is known and the average value for the life of the battery is also known:
W
BC 2 f (4.1)
Vbatt
In the above equation,

BC = battery capacity
f = factor for reverse
W = daily energy
Vbatt = DC voltage of the system
Furthermore, the rating of the battery in Ah is determined as follows:
daily energy consumption in KW

rating of battery
battery rating in Ah
h at a specified voltage
(4.2)
Inverter: Though the majority of the power used is alternating current

(AC), batteries store and supply direct current (DC). A device called an
inverter transforms direct current into alternating current. Therefore, it
is placed between the storage systems and the AC load. It might be elec-
tronic or analogue. Utilizing MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor
field-effect transistor Technology), the electronic inverter, which makes
use of a microprocessor, offers improved efficiency. As a result, the system’s
construction expenditure rises. In order to construct the framework, an
analogue inverter is investigated. The major source of energy for a home,
AC (120 V, 1,500 W, 50 Hz), is converted from DC energy with the aid of
an inverter. The electrical output portion can be utilized for coupling AC
Table 4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of wind–solar hybrid power technology.

• Wind energy help to reduce the • Both solar and wind are variable
cost of generating electricity sources of energy.
• Clean source of energy since no • Highly complex infrastructure than a
emission of greenhouse gas standalone renewable energy system.
• Both sources complement each • A large area is required for their
other plantation.
• Can be planted for power • Batteries are required for the storage
generation for large areas of surplus power.
loads [19]. Furthermore, the inverters include a few built-in safety features,
namely:
• Restarting automatically: Automatic switch-off is possible if

the power supply or array output is sufficiently high or suf-
ficiently low.
• To handle an overloaded or short circuit condition, a pro-
tecting strategy is offered.
• For high-quality output, inverters with the specified proper-
ties are employed [16].
• There is protection against low battery, the drip and contin-
ual charging method.
• The load status indicator is present.
• Overload precautions are available [20].
Maximum charged battery selection: This is the circuit that has been
created. The goal of maximum charged battery selection is to identify the
maximum amount of electrical power that can be stored in each battery.
Maximum charged batter selection is frequently connected within the
inverter’s circuit. As a result, the maximum charged battery selection is
surrounded by the inverter block. This circuit may be built using the tran-
sistor series in conjunction with resistors, capacitors, and diodes [21]. The
advantages and disadvantages of this system are given in the Table 4.3.
4.3.3 Wind Hydrogen Hybrid Power Technology (WHHPT)

Wind and hydrogen fuel are regarded as clean energy resources that are
gaining popularity around the world. In accordance with an EU estimate,
hydrogen is expected to be responsible for 24% of the total energy supply
in 2050. The Chinese administration has also prioritized the development

of the hydrogen-based economy. Among the most appealing possibilities
for sustainable applications is the generation of hydrogen in conjunction
with fuel cells for use [22].
Figure 4.3 describes the components of a wind hydrogen hybrid power
system.
Wind turbines: Wind turbines generate electric power from the kinetic
energy of wind. The amount of electricity produced depends upon the size
of the turbine and availability of wind sources.
Electrolyzer: The electric energy is then transferred to an electrolyzer
which electrolyzes the water into hydrogen and oxygen. Oxygen is released
into the environment, and the excess of electricity is stored in hydrogen as
electrochemical energy [23]. The minimal capacity of the electrolyzer in a
WHHS should be cautiously determined because it has varying operational
power constraints. If a lower nominal capacity electrolyzer is used, it will
operate at relatively slow winds and create hydrogen progressively owing
to its lower minimal power usage limit. Nevertheless, the maximum oper-
ational power restriction is likewise modest in this situation. Because the
electrolyzer cannot operate over its greatest operational power constraint at
high winds, the majority of the wind power will be squandered. If, on the
contrary hand, a greater nominal power electrolyzer is used, the electrolyzer
will only function at extreme winds, which are typically uncommon [24].
Storage tanks: Storage tanks are used to store hydrogen. Hydrogen is
present in a highly compressed state so tanks must be able to accommodate
Local
hydrogen
Power usage
control
system
Fuel cell
H2 Gas Hydrogen
storage
electrolyser
Water
supply
O2 Gas
Figure 4.3 Schematic view of the wind–hydrogen hybrid technology.

that pressure to avoid any disaster and store hydrogen for future use [23].
The hydrogen created by the electrolyzer is stored in the storage tank
and utilized in the fuel cell stack as demanded. We suppose that the level
of compression in the reserve container can reach 30 bar (3,000 kPa).
Hydrogen may be considered to be an ideal gas at a critical pressure
(1.3 MPa), and general gas rules can be applied. Beyond this threshold
pressure (>1.3 MPa), hydrogen behaves like a true gas. There is a difference
between the true volume of gas and the estimated volume utilizing ideal
gas laws at elevated pressures for hydrogen. The coefficient of compress-
ibility (Z) is commonly used to explain this variation. The Boyle–Charles
equation for an ideal gas is stated as follows:
PV nRT (4.3)
where P is the pressure, V is the volume, n is the number of moles, R is the

general gas constant, and T is temperature. Equation 4.3 at high pressure
is stated as follows:
PV ZnRT (4.4)
To compute the quantity of hydrogen gas in the storage container, we

utilize Equation 4.4. When the container’s pressure is less than the criti-
cal pressure of hydrogen gas, i.e., 1.3 MPa, we use the compressibility fac-
tor Z = 1 and Equation 4.4 becomes equal with Equation 4.3. However,
when the pressure within the container surpasses 1.3 MPa, the ambient
temperature of the hydrogen falls and the pressure of the hydrogen rises;
the impact of the factor of compressibility grows. The greatest amount of
hydrogen that may be stored in the system is determined by the capacity of
the tank used for storage [25].
Fuel cell: When there is a requirement of electricity in an area, hydrogen
is sent into the fuel cell. It combines with oxygen gas to produced water and
electricity. Water is used for drinking purposes, and electricity is provided
to the consumers to fulfill their needs. Although the hydrogen usage grows
approximately steadily at low electrical outputs, it climbs quickly as output
goes up. This implies that pushing the fuel cell to its maximum will require
more hydrogen, instantly reducing the volume of hydrogen in the reservoir.
This fact will have an impact on the general efficiency of the off the grid sys-
tem as well, based on the stack number employed in the system [26].
Grid: Wind–hydro hybrid system (WHHS) is also connected to the grid.
The electric grid serves as a connection between WHHS and the consumer.
It provides electricity to the consumer or store if available in excess [27].
Table 4.4 Advantages and disadvantages of wind–hydrogen hybrid power

technology.
• Highly effective because of their • High investment of system
high density and safety configuration
• Pollution-free process • Expensive storage tanks
• Less generation costs • Loss of energy during conversion
and storage process
Power control systems: The power control system analyzes how all the
components of WHHPS are working. It assures that there is a stable power
flow between these components [28]. The advantages and disadvantages of
this system are given in the Table 4.4.
4.3.4 Wind–Hydro Hybrid Power Technology (WHHPT)

A WHHPT uses a mix of wind farms and hydroelectric turbines to gener-
ate electricity; this sort of pairing is a long-lasting experiment and explo-
ration facility. The world’s first wind–hydro hybrid power station was built
on the island of El Hierro [29]. Wind energy varies in nature, and when the
wind rate is particularly strong, there is a danger of damage to wind blades.
However, the production of wind turbines is undesirable when there is little
wind. To address this issue, an integrated power source is employed to gen-
erate electricity. If wind power is unavailable in an integrated wind hydro-
power plant, hydropower is employed to solve the scheduling challenge.
However, the effectiveness of a small hydroelectric dam is determined by
the quantity of water available. Wind–hydro hybrid power technology is an
array that is commonly utilized on islands with interconnecting systems,
and wind energy is the primary energy source. It is designed to increase the
use of renewable electricity as well as lower the (levelized cost of energy)
LCOE, overall power shortfall, and energy generated by traditional hydro-
electric dams [30].
Figure 4.4 shows the components of a wind hydro hybrid power
system.
Wind turbine: Wind turbines generate electric power from the kinetic
energy of wind. The amount of electricity produced depends upon the size
of the turbine and availability of wind sources. The wind turbine might
be manually linked to the pump through a gearbox or electrically by con-
verting wind power to electric energy. Both forms have unique proper-
ties; nevertheless, the electrical variant is better recognized and employed.
Upper reservoir
End user
energy demand
Wind energy
Pumping
generating
Control
station
Lower reservoir Pumping turbine
Grid
Figure 4.4 Schematic diagram of wind-hydro hybrid technology.
This is owing to the substantial loss of energy and mechanical variations

that might happen [31].
Hydro turbines: These turbines generate electricity by using the poten-
tial energy of water stored in the upper reservoir. When water moves down
from reservoir, its potential energy changes into kinetic energy and this
kinetic energy is used to turn turbines. By the rotation of turbines, electric-
ity is produced [32].
Water reservoirs: Two water reservoirs are used in WHHPS. One is
called upper reservoir, while the other is lower reservoir. It is preferable
for the hydrothermal (HT) to function 24 h a day, and the upper reservoir
volume needs to be constructed in such a manner that the HT can work
throughout the day as well as the night. It is preferable for the initial quan-
tity of water reserve in the upper reservoir to be as high as feasible. The
optimum performance of the system is not only taken into account at the
phase of design and component dimensions, but it also involves optimum
operations and time planning [33].
Pumping system: This system is used to pump water from the lower
reservoir to the upper reservoir. Once the water falls down from the upper
reservoir to generate electricity, it needs to be driven back toward the upper
reservoir for storage [2].
Energy storage system: When the wind speed is high and the gener-
ated electric power is greater than what the consumers need, then an extra
amount of electricity is used to push the water uphill from the lower reser-
voir to the upper reservoir. This helps to compensate the decrease in elec-
tric power due to fluctuation and instability in wind speed [34].
Regulators: Three types of regulators may be utilized in the WHHPS:
storm controllers, (high voltage DC) HVDC controllers, and load following
Table 4.5 Advantages and disadvantages of wind–hydro hybrid power technology.

• Can be used to smooth • High capital cost
offshore wind energy changes • Output is weather dependent
• Regulate electricity demand • High maintenance costs (water and
• Reduce the cost of electricity wind turbines require continual
• Reduce wind power risks maintenance)
• This hybrid system is location specific
(area where the wind speed is high and
water is available is usually selected).
controllers. These regulators help to maintain the energy supply to the con-
sumers. It also monitors how all parts of WHHPS are working [35].
To profit from a wind–hydro hybrid system and assist farms with irri-
gation, efficient management of electricity may be conducted in agricul-
ture micro-grids. Increased wind penetration is an additional approach for
making the system economically feasible. This will increase PHES’s earn-
ings and, consequently, its payback period [36]. Keeping this in mind, it
is vital to constantly review if the system is operating at its best since each
function must be tailored to a given amount of power. When comparing
the WHHPS system to traditional reservoirs, it is concluded that, while
WHHPS has a greater initial cost, it has a lower operational cost, envi-
ronmental effect, and flooded area. The system’s initial expense is heavily
influenced by wind energy availability and plant building area [37]. The
advantages and disadvantages of this system are given in the Table 4.5.
4.3.5 Wind–Photovoltaic (PV) Hybrid Power Technology

Because of the weather conditions, photovoltaic (PV) systems are unable to
produce electricity throughout the day [38]. A hybrid renewable generation
system (HRGS) idea has been proposed in order to preserve energy produc-
tion consistency. Although wind farms and PV plants are significant sources
of electricity, their energy output is variable and highly reliant on weather
conditions, causing a mismatch in renewable electrical supply and customer
demand for electricity [39].
Figure 4.5 shows the components of PV wind technology.
Wind farm: A wind turbine is a mechanical device that efficiently cre-
ates electricity by using wind power. The amount, pressure, and speed of
the wind can all be utilized to create electrical energy [6].
Wind Turbine
Solar Charge
Solar Panel Controller
(PV Array)
DC Loads
Battery AC Loads
Bank Inverter
Wind
Controller
Figure 4.5 Schematic diagram of wind–PV hybrid technology.
PV plant: A PV plant consists of photovoltaic cells attached with a solar

panel. These photovoltaic cells are composed of semi-conductor materials
such as silicon. Unlike thermal solar panels, PV cell converts sunlight into
electricity [40].
Energy storage unit: If the electrical outputs of the windmill and PV
setup surpass the capacity of the power transmission channels, the residual
electricity is transformed into thermal power by energy harvesting (EH)
and retained in the thermal energy storage (TES) devices. In PV, EH and
TES can be used for this purpose. The melting salt in the cold container
gets pumped towards the EH and heated by surplus energy before being
stored in the hot tank. The TES system will discharge heat energy into
the power block (PB) to create electricity to meet the power shortfall. The
melting salt in the heated tank is poured into the heat exchangers to trans-
form into thermal energy and turn water into steam, and then the steam is
pushed into the PB to push steam turbines and create electricity. In addi-
tion to reducing wind curtailment and solar curtailment and allowing for
smoother wind and PV production fluctuations, the combined function-
ing of the EH and TES systems also allows for the adjustment of supply
periods to maximize the capacity of the transmission channels [20].
Power control system: The power control system analyzes how all the
components of WHHPS are working. It assures that there is stable power
flow between these components [41].
Converter: The power produced by the windmill must be rectified and
exchanged a DC (direct current) bus with the photovoltaic plant. The DC
power is transformed to AC (alternating current) by the power inverter
and amplified by the transformer before being incorporated into the power
grid [42].
Table 4.6 Advantages and disadvantages of wind–PV hybrid power technology.

• Highly efficient power- • Since PV cells consists of semiconductor
generating system materials, their capital costs is high.
• Convert sunlight directly • Less power storage ability.
into electric energy • Large area is required for their plantation.
• Lower the electricity bill • High maintenance costs.
The uncertain and unpredictable nature of PV and wind turbines can lead
to a variety of turbulence issues, including variability in voltage and devia-
tions of frequency. To solve this problem, the dimensions of PV and wind
power are incorporated into hydropower plants such that all three forms of
energy can act as a combination in order to deliver electricity to the grid. The
power produced by the wind and PV plants is transferred to a control unit
in a large-scale hydro–PV–wind hybrid system [43]. This, in turn, adjusts
the hydropower generation to make up for the varying and irregular PV and
wind electricity in short periods of time. It ensures that the total amount of
energy provided to the power system satisfies the demands [44]. The advan-
tages and disadvantages of this system are given in the Table 4.6.
4.4 Summary
In this chapter, different types of wind hybrid power technologies have
been discussed. Every system has its advantages and disadvantages. Careful
integration of these power generation systems can lessen their shortcom-
ings and generate maximum electric power.
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5
Theories Based on Technological
Advances for Wind Energy
Muhammad Azam, Laiba Zafar, Haq Nawaz Bhatti and Amina Khan*
Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Abstract
This chapter provides a comprehensive examination of wind energy theories based
on technological advancements. Beginning with a comprehensive overview of
the theoretical backdrop, including the fundamental principles of wind energy
conversion and the aerodynamics of wind turbines, the text then delves into the
practical applications of wind energy. The chapter then delves into wind turbine
control systems, emphasizing their significance in optimizing performance and
ensuring safe, efficient power generation. The chapter focuses primarily on theo-
ries based on technological advancements. These theories include aeroelasticity,
wind turbine design, power control, wind farm layout, turbine placement, wake
effect, grid integration, power quality, and stability, to name a few. Each theory is
examined in depth, with a focus on its significance and the associated advances in
the discipline. In addition, the chapter examines innovations in wind energy tech-
nologies, including advanced materials and manufacturing techniques, innovative
turbine designs, enhanced control systems and sensors, and smart grid integration
with energy storage. These developments are essential for enhancing the efficacy,
dependability, and competitiveness of wind energy as a sustainable energy source.
Keywords: Wind energy, technological advances, theories, control systems,

wind turbine design, grid integration, power quality, stability,
future research directions
*Corresponding author: aminakhan1649@gmail.com
83
5.1 Introduction
Wind energy is currently one of the most rapidly expanding renewable
energy sources around the globe. As we endeavor to reduce our depen-
dence on fossil fuels and mitigate the effects of climate change, its signif-
icance has grown. Charles F. Brush constructed the first wind turbine to
generate electricity in the United States in 1887 (Chiulan & Anton, 2021).
Brush’s machine featured a rotor with 144 blades measuring 17 m in diam-
eter and a 12-kW generator. In Denmark, Poul La Cour conducted a funda-
mental wind turbine research between 1891 and 1908, oblivious to Brush’s
work. Based on his concepts, the design of aerodynamically efficient rotor
blades advanced rapidly, and wind turbines provided approximately 3%
of Denmark’s electricity demand in 1918. Numerous benefits, such as its
abundance, dependability, and affordability, make wind energy an attrac-
tive option for meeting our energy needs. Wind energy’s significance in
meeting our energy needs cannot be exaggerated. It is a pure, renewable,
and abundant energy source that can help mitigate the effects of climate
change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. As the global population
continues to increase, energy demand will continue to rise. Wind energy
is a significant and swiftly expanding renewable energy source that has the
potential to play a substantial role in meeting our energy needs (Shah &
Solangi, 2019). The advancement of wind turbine and control technology
over the preceding 20 years has been directly related to the widespread
usage of wind energy. In the meantime, in 2021and 2022, an additional 102
and 77.6 GW of wind generating capacity was built, respectively (Figure 5.1).
10x5 Installed Capacity of Wind Energy

9
8
Installed Capacity (MW)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Year
Figure 5.1 Installed capacity of wind power during recent years.

Wind Energy Theories 85
The overall capacity increased by 13.5% annually to exceed 922 GW (Jamal

et al., 2015).
Wind energy is based on converting the kinetic energy of wind into
electricity using wind turbines. Wind turbines are designed to capture and
convert the wind’s energy into electricity. The components include a rotor,
blades, shaft, generator, and tower (Figure 5.2). The airflow rotates the
rotor, which, in turn, spins the blades (Wilberforce et al., 2023). The gen-
erator, which produces electricity, is driven by the rotating blades. Wind
energy has advanced significantly since its inception. Initially, wind tur-
bines were basic, low-capacity machines that were primarily used to power
remote homes and small businesses. However, significant technological
advancements in wind energy systems have led to the development of wind
turbines that are larger, more efficient, and more dependable over time.
Today, wind energy is utilized on a larger scale, and wind farms are now a
prevalent sight in many regions of the globe (McKenna et al., 2022).
The advancements in wind energy technology have been driven by
the need to increase the efficiency and dependability of wind turbines.
This was made possible by the development of sophisticated materials,
improved manufacturing techniques, innovative designs, and more effi-
cient control systems (Nazir et al., 2020). These developments have also
reduced the cost of wind energy, making it competitive with other forms
of energy. Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs) have undergone
3 Phase Line
Rectier DC Inverter
Generator Filter and
AC-DC Link DC-AC
Transformer
Fiber Optic Fiber Optic

Wind Turbine Blade
Utility
Grade AC
Control Board and
Power
Communication
Fiber Optic
Turbine Control
Unit (TCU
Figure 5.2 Block diagram of the components of a wind energy conversion system.
significant advancements, including new aerodynamic designs, sophis-

ticated materials, and improved control mechanisms (Chaudhuri et al.,
2022). These developments have spawned theories such as the Betz limit,
which explores the theoretical utmost limit of energy extraction from wind
and offers insights for optimizing wind turbine performance. In addition,
the concept of wake steering, which investigates the manipulation of wind
turbine wakes to increase wind farm energy production, has gained trac-
tion (Houck, 2020).
In addition, the incorporation of cutting-edge technologies has
expanded the scope of wind energy. The development of theories focus-
ing on the intelligent administration and control of wind energy systems
has been facilitated by the emergence of smart grids and digitalization.
The application of machine learning algorithms and artificial intelligence
techniques has facilitated the prediction and optimization of wind power
generation, thereby contributing to the development of more effective
operation and maintenance strategies. These theories aim to establish a
symbiotic relationship between technological advances and wind energy
production, thereby improving the economic viability and dependability
of wind power. New hypotheses and studies have been sparked by the
ongoing exploration of offshore wind energy. Offshore wind farms have
the potential to capture stronger and more consistent winds, thereby
increasing their energy production capacity. To overcome the distinct
challenges posed by offshore environments, theories concerning float-
ing wind turbines, dynamic cabling systems, and innovative foundation
designs are being developed. These theories aim to unlock the immense
offshore wind energy resources by pushing the limits of engineering and
design, bringing us closer to a sustainable energy future (Subbulakshmi
et al., 2022).
This chapter will examine wind energy theories based on technologi-
cal advancements. We will discuss the fundamentals of wind energy con-
version, the aerodynamics of wind turbines, and wind turbine control
systems. In addition, we will investigate the numerous theories that have
been developed to enhance wind turbine design, power control, wind farm
architecture, and grid integration. In addition, we will examine the most
recent developments in wind energy technologies, such as sophisticated
materials and manufacturing methods, innovative wind turbine designs,
and smart grid integration. Finally, we will examine the prospective
research directions for wind energy systems as well as the emerging trends
and technologies that will shape the future of wind energy.
5.2 Theoretical Background

5.2.1 Basic Principles of Wind Energy Conversion
The conversion of wind energy to electricity is a complex process founded
on several theoretical concepts. The fundamental principles of wind energy
conversion stem from the physical and mechanical laws that govern the
behavior of fluids and the motion of objects in a fluid medium. These prin-
ciples constitute the basis of wind turbine aerodynamics and wind energy
system design. Wind energy conversion is based on the transfer of kinetic
energy from the wind to the rotor blades of a wind turbine. The rotation
of the blades converts this kinetic energy into mechanical energy, which
operates a generator to produce electrical energy. Wind speed and the area
covered by the rotor blades determine the quantity of kinetic energy that
can be extracted from the wind (Eltayesh et al., 2021).
Wind turbines and converters are part of the wind energy conversion
system (WECS). The mechanical energy of the wind is extracted by wind
turbines, transformed into electrical energy by generators, and then trans-
ferred to the power grid or a battery bank via the converter system. The
most popular generators used for converting wind energy to electricity
at a variable speed are synchronous and doubly fed induction generators
(DFIG). When utilizing induction generators, the electronic converter
serves as a bridge between the rotor and stator, which are both connected
to the network directly. The DFIG has long been the favored option for
large, variable-speed WECS that are linked directly to the electrical net-
work because the rotor circuit may independently adjust the amplitude
and frequency of the generated voltage. Synchronous power generators are
cut off from the grid that distributes electricity. They are thus included into
systems that make use of full-scale converters (Carrasco et al., 2006).
The fundamental principles of fluid mechanics, which characterize the
behavior of fluids in motion, must be considered to comprehend wind
energy conversion. Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics that exam-
ines the behavior of fluids, such as liquids and gases, under different con-
ditions. The wind is a fluid medium that interacts with a turbine’s rotor
blades, so the principles of fluid mechanics are fundamental to the design
and operation of wind turbines. Bernoulli’s principle is one of the key fluid
mechanics principles pertinent to wind energy conversion. This principle
asserts that a fluid’s pressure will decrease as its velocity increases. The
rotor blades of wind turbines are designed to generate a pressure differ-
ence between the top and bottom surfaces of the blade, causing the blade
to rotate. Ultimately, this rotation is what causes the generator to produce

electricity (Mu et al., 2022).
The concept of lift is an additional essential fluid mechanics principle in
the context of wind energy conversion. When a fluid travels over a curved
surface, such as the rotor blades of a wind turbine, lift is generated. The
configuration of the rotor blades is meticulously designed to generate lift,
which aids in wind energy extraction. In the discipline of fluid mechanics,
the theoretical principles governing the behavior of fluids and the motion
of objects in a fluid medium are well established. The fundamental equa-
tions of fluid mechanics, such as the Navier–Stokes and Bernoulli equa-
tions, describe the flow of fluids and the forces operating on objects in a
fluid medium. These equations are the premise for wind turbine aerody-
namics and the design of wind energy systems. In general, the fundamental
principles of wind energy conversion derive from the laws of physics and
mechanics, specifically the principles of fluid mechanics. These principles
serve as the basis for the design and operation of wind turbines as well as
the efficient conversion of wind energy to electricity (Nishino & Dunstan,
2020).
5.2.2 Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines

The aerodynamics of wind turbines is a complex discipline that examines
the flow of air over a wind turbine’s rotor blades. The design of the rotor
blades is essential to the efficacy and performance of the wind turbine
because it determines how much energy can be extracted from the wind.
The aerodynamics of wind turbines are founded on the fluid mechanics
principles that describe the behavior of moving fluids (Azam et al., 2021).
The airflow over a wind turbine’s rotor blades is governed by the Navier–
Stokes equations, which are the fundamental equations of fluid mechanics.
These equations characterize fluid motion and the forces acting on objects
in a fluid medium. The concept of lift, which is the force generated when
a fluid travels over a curved surface, is one of the fundamental concepts
in the aerodynamics of wind turbines. A wind turbine’s rotor blades are
meticulously designed to generate lift, which serves to extract energy from
the wind. The shape of the rotor blades is also crucial because it affects the
quantity of lift produced by the blades.
The concept of drag is another essential concept in the aerodynamics of
wind turbines. The force that opposes the motion and is generated when a
fluid flows over a surface is known as drag (Figure 5.3). In the case of wind
turbines, drag is produced by the air’s interaction with the rotor blades’ sur-
faces. To optimize the efficiency of wind turbines, it is crucial to minimize
Drag
Lift Total Aerodynamic Force
Flow Direction
Figure 5.3 The concept of drag.
drag. The aerodynamics of wind turbines is an active area of study, with

ongoing endeavors to improve the performance and efficiency of wind
turbines. Researchers are investigating novel rotor blade designs, such as
advanced airfoil shapes and active control systems. They are also investi-
gating the use of multiple wind turbines in wind farms and the behavior
of wind turbines in various wind conditions. There have been numerous
investigations on the aerodynamics of wind turbines. Using computational
fluid dynamics simulations, Lu and colleagues analyzed the flow of air over
the rotor blades of a wind turbine. The efficacy of the wind turbine was
found to be affected by variables such as wind speed, blade angle, and blade
shape (Sun et al., 2020).
Rohlfs and colleagues (2019) investigated the effect of wind shear on the
efficacy of wind turbines in a separate study. Wind shear is the variation in
wind speed and direction with altitude, which can influence wind turbine
behavior. The researchers discovered that wind shear can have a signifi-
cant effect on the efficiency of wind turbines and recommended the use of
active control systems to mitigate this effect. Overall, wind turbine aerody-
namics is a complex discipline based on the principles of fluid mechanics.
The design of the rotor blades is essential to the efficacy and performance
of wind turbines, and ongoing research focuses on enhancing their aerody-
namic performance (Xie & Aly, 2020).
5.2.3 Control Systems for Wind Turbines

Wind turbine operation is fundamentally dependent on control systems.
These systems are responsible for regulating the turbine’s speed and power
output, as well as ensuring its safety and the safety of its surroundings.
Wind turbines utilize two primary categories of control systems: pitch con-
trol systems and yaw control systems (Sitharthan et al., 2019).
The responsibility of pitch control systems is to regulate the angle of

attack of the rotor blades. This is accomplished by adjusting the pitch angle
of the blades to maximize wind energy extraction. In high gusts, pitch con-
trol systems can be used to reduce the turbine’s power output and prevent
blade damage. Passive or active pitch control systems exist, with active
systems being more sophisticated and able to respond to changes in wind
conditions in real time. In contrast, yaw control systems are responsible
for aligning the turbine with the airflow. This is accomplished by rotating
the nacelle (the turbine’s generator enclosure) around a vertical axis. Wind
turbines are most effective when they are facing directly into the wind, so
yaw control systems are crucial for maximizing wind energy extraction. By
orienting the turbine to minimize wind loading on the blades, yaw control
systems can also be used to prevent damage to the turbine in high winds
(Menezes & Araújo, 2023).
With the development of enhanced sensing and control technologies,
wind turbine control systems have become progressively more sophisti-
cated in recent years. Modern wind turbines, for instance, are outfitted
with sensors that can measure wind speed, direction, and turbulence as
well as the position and movement of the rotor blades. The control system
then uses this data to optimize the turbine’s performance and ensure its
safe operation. Numerous studies have been conducted on the design and
efficacy of wind turbine control systems. Kühn and associates (2019), for
instance, investigated the application of model predictive control (MPC)
for pitch control in wind turbines. MPC is an advanced control strategy
that employs mathematical models of the system to anticipate future behav-
ior and optimize control inputs. The researchers discovered that MPC can
enhance the performance of pitch control systems, notably in conditions of
turbulent wind (Vali et al., 2019).
Hannan and colleagues (2023) investigated the use of fuzzy logic control-
lers (FLCs) for yaw control in wind turbines in a separate study (Hannan
et al., 2023). FLC is a type of control strategy that makes decisions based
on imprecise or ambiguous information using fuzzy logic. The researchers
discovered that the FLC-based control system improved the wind turbine’s
yaw control performance, particularly in situations where the wind direc-
tion changed swiftly. Control systems are an essential component of wind
turbines, and ongoing research focuses on enhancing their design and per-
formance. Future wind turbine control systems are anticipated to be more
sophisticated and efficient due to developments in sensing and control tech-
nologies. In the sphere of wind energy, wind turbine control systems have
been extensively studied and are well established (R. Kumar et al., 2021).
5.3 Theories Based on Technological Advances

Numerous hypotheses aiming to improve the performance and efficiency
of wind turbines have been developed as a result of technological advances
in wind energy. Based on a combination of engineering principles, mathe-
matical modeling, and experimental data, these theories are continuously
evolving as new technologies and data emerge. To improve the operation
of wind turbines and energy production in the modern era, three funda-
mental areas of research are proposed (Torregrosa et al., 2021), namely:
• Aeroelasticity
• Computational fluid dynamics
• Artificial intelligence
A. Aeroelasticity
The study of the interaction between the aerodynamic forces operating on
a structure and its structural dynamics is aeroelasticity. Aeroelasticity in
the context of wind energy is concerned with the behavior of wind turbines
under varying wind conditions and how this behavior impacts the perfor-
mance and safety of the turbine. Several aeroelasticity-based theories have
been created to enhance the efficacy and efficiency of wind turbines—for
instance, the “smart rotor” theory proposes the use of active control systems
to modify the shape of the rotor blades based on wind conditions and other
variables in real time. This theory seeks to maximize wind energy extraction
while reducing the turbine’s and its components’ loads (Maza et al., 2023).
B. Computational fluid dynamics

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is an engineering discipline that sim-
ulates the behavior of fluids, such as air and water, using numerical methods.
CFD is used to model the aerodynamics of wind turbines and predict their
efficacy under varying wind conditions in the context of wind energy. Several
CFD-based theories have been devised to enhance the design and function-
ality of wind turbines—for instance, the “blade element momentum” theory
simulates the performance of wind turbine blades using a combination of
CFD and mathematical modeling. Using variables such as wind speed, tur-
bulence, and blade geometry, this theory seeks to optimize the design of the
blades (Bhatti et al., 2020).
C. Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing discipline concerned
with the creation of computer systems that can perform tasks that typically
require human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, and decision-

making. AI is used to develop sophisticated control systems for wind tur-
bines and optimize their performance and maintenance in the context of
wind energy. Several wind energy theories founded on AI have been devel-
oped. The “machine learning” theory, for instance, proposes the use of
machine learning algorithms to analyze large amounts of data from wind
turbines and identify patterns that can be used to enhance their perfor-
mance and maintenance. This theory seeks to improve the overall perfor-
mance and efficiency of wind turbines while decreasing their downtime
and maintenance costs (X. Zhao et al., 2019).
Wind turbine performance and efficiency have been significantly
enhanced by the development of theories founded on technological
advancements. As new technologies and data become available, these the-
ories are continuously evolving and are expected to continue driving inno-
vation in the wind energy sector.
5.3.1 Wind Turbine Design Theory

The theory of wind turbine design refers to the principles and methodol-
ogies used to design and optimize wind turbines for efficient and depend-
able operation. This comprises, among other components, the design of
the rotor blades, tower, nacelle, and control systems. The most important
aspect of the wind turbine design theory is the optimization of rotor blade
size and shape. This involves striking a balance between the requirements
for high energy capture, structural integrity, and low noise emissions.
Optimizing the blade twist angle, chord length, and airfoil shape is one of
the commonly used design strategies. Choosing the optimal control sys-
tems to optimize the operation of the turbine is a further consideration.
This includes the use of pitch control to adjust the angle of the blades, yaw
control to adjust the direction of the turbine, and power control to modify
the output of the generator. In addition, advanced control systems can be
used to optimize the rotor speed and blade pitch angle in real time based
on wind conditions and other variables. By optimizing the design of wind
turbines, we can increase their energy output, decrease their environmental
impact, and increase their durability and dependability (Hart et al., 2020).
The development of new wind turbine models, such as the Vestas V164-
9.5 MW turbine, which features a 164-m rotor diameter and sophisticated
control systems to optimize performance and reliability, is an example of
the application of the wind turbine design theory (Astolfi et al., 2021). The
GE Haliade-X turbine has a 12-MW capacity and a rotor diameter of 220
m as well as advanced control systems and a modular design for simple
transportation and installation (O’Neill, 2021).
5.3.1.1 Rotor Blade Design Theory

Rotor blade design theory refers to the principles and methodologies used
to design and optimize wind turbine rotor blades for efficient and reliable
operation. The rotor blades are a crucial component of the turbine, as they
are responsible for converting wind energy into rotational energy (Alom &
Saha, 2019). These are the main characteristics of this theory:
• The selection of the appropriate airfoil shape.

• The optimization of the blade twist angle and chord length.
The lift and drag forces generated by the blade are affected by the shape
of the airfoil, which, in turn, impacts its overall energy capture and effi-
ciency. Numerous airfoil shapes, including symmetric and asymmetric
shapes as well as specialized shapes optimized for specific wind conditions,
have been devised and studied for wind turbine blades. The twist angle is
the angle between the blade’s base and tip, while the chord length is the
blade’s width at each position along its length. The twist angle and chord
length influence the blade’s angle of attack and, consequently, its overall
lift and drag forces. Various optimization techniques, including numeri-
cal simulations, experimental testing, and artificial intelligence algorithms,
have been devised for rotor blade design (J. Zhao et al., 2022).
The materials employed in the design of rotor blades are also crucial to
their performance and dependability. Due to their high strength-to-weight
ratio and resistance to fatigue and corrosion, composite materials, such
as fiber glass and carbon fiber, are widely used in modern wind turbine
blades. Other materials, such as wood and metal, have been utilized his-
torically but are less common in modern wind turbines due to their infe-
rior performance. Examples of the application of rotor blade design theory
include the development of new wind turbine models, such as the Siemens
Gamesa SG 14-222 DD turbine with 108-m-long blades and a 14-MW
capacity and advanced blade design features to improve performance and
reliability (Hassan et al., 2020). By optimizing the design of rotor blades,
we can increase the energy output of wind energy systems, reduce their
environmental impact, and improve their durability and dependability.
The rotor blades can be controlled using a system called the smart rotor
control system. It refers to the use of advanced sensors, control systems,
and algorithms to actively modify the aerodynamic performance of wind
turbine rotor blades in response to changing wind conditions in real time.
By optimizing the aerodynamic performance of the rotor blades, intelli-
gent rotor control can enhance energy capture efficiency, reduce stresses on
the blades, and boost the wind turbine’s overall power output. Smart rotor
control systems consist of sensors that measure wind speed, direction, and
other variables as well as controllers that alter the pitch angle and twist of
the rotor blades based on the data collected by the sensors. Using sophis-
ticated algorithms, the controllers determine the optimal settings for the
rotor blades based on the current wind conditions and make the necessary
adjustments. By modifying the rotor blade settings to minimize blade–
vortex interactions and other noise sources, smart rotor control can also
be used to reduce noise emissions from wind turbines. Wind turbine oper-
ators can strengthen their relationships with neighboring communities
and reduce the environmental impact of wind energy systems by reducing
noise emissions (Hu et al., 2023).
Individual pitch control (IPC) systems, which adjust the pitch angle of
each blade based on local wind conditions rather than adjusting all blades
as a single entity, are an example of smart rotor control in action. By reduc-
ing the negative effects of wind shear and turbulence, which can cause
uneven loading on the rotor blades and reduce their overall efficiency, IPC
systems can increase the energy capture efficiency of the turbine.
5.3.1.2 Aerodynamic Design Theory

The design of wind turbine blades must balance competing design objec-
tives, such as maximizing energy capture efficiency while minimizing
loads and pollution. The study and application of fluid dynamics princi-
ples in the design of wind turbine blades are referred to as aerodynamic
design theory. The objective of aerodynamic design theory is to optimize
the blades’ shape and performance to maximize energy capture efficiency,
minimize loads and pollution, and ensure the turbine’s safe operation. It
also incorporates the study of the boundary layer, which is the thin layer
of air that flows over the wind turbine blade’s surface. The behavior of the
boundary layer can have a significant effect on the blade’s aerodynamic
performance and efficiency. Researchers and engineers have developed
new techniques and instruments for modeling, simulating, and testing
wind turbine blades, resulting in significant advances in aerodynamic
design theory over the past few years. These developments have resulted in
the creation of new blade designs that are more efficient, dependable, and
cost-effective than their predecessors.
Blade element momentum (BEM) theory and computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) simulations can assist in optimizing the blade geome-
try and performance (Khan et al., 2021). The aerodynamic efficacy of the
blades, including airfoil shapes, blade angles, and turbulence effects, can
be determined through CFD simulations. By utilizing CFD simulations to

optimize the design of wind turbine blades, researchers and engineers can
increase the turbine’s energy capture efficiency and decrease stresses and
noise (Kwok & Hu, 2023).
Utilizing advanced materials and manufacturing processes to create
wind turbine blades that are lighter, stronger, and more aerodynamic is an
additional significant area of research in aerodynamic design theory—for
instance, researchers are investigating the use of carbon fiber composites
and other advanced materials to reduce the weight of the blades with-
out compromising their structural integrity. In addition, researchers are
exploring the use of 3D printing and other additive manufacturing tech-
niques to produce blades with more complex geometries and enhanced
aerodynamic performance (Xu et al., 2021). In addition to advanced
materials and fabrication methods, researchers are also investigating new
blade designs that integrate active flow control systems. These systems use
sensors and actuators to manipulate the airflow over the blade’s surface,
thereby enhancing its aerodynamic performance and minimizing distur-
bance (Guoqiang et al., 2019).
The study of blade–tower interaction, which refers to the complex aero-
dynamic interactions between wind turbine blades and the structure, is
also a component of aerodynamic design theory. Researchers are devel-
oping new techniques to model and simulate blade–tower interaction to
facilitate the design of wind turbines that are stable and secure to operate.
Utilizing serrated trailing edges on wind turbine blades is an illustration
of a recent aerodynamic design advancement. Doolan et al. (2002) report
that serrated trailing edges can minimize blade noise while also improving
their aerodynamic performance (Jiang et al., 2021). Another example is
the use of curved, twisted, or tapered blade designs, which can increase
the turbine’s energy capture efficiency and reduce pollution and loads. The
aerodynamic design is a crucial area of wind energy research, with the
potential to considerably enhance the efficiency, dependability, and envi-
ronmental impact of wind turbines. Researchers and engineers can create
new blade designs that are more efficient, dependable, and cost-effective
than their predecessors due to advancements in computational modeling,
advanced materials, and manufacturing techniques.
5.3.2 Power Control Theory

An essential area of wind energy research, power control theory focuses on
techniques for regulating the power output of wind turbines. This is essen-
tial for maximizing energy production and assuring stable integration with
the electrical grid. There are numerous power control strategies, such as
pitch control, torque control, and generator control. The most prevalent
method for controlling the amount of wind energy captured is pitch con-
trol, which entails adjusting the pitch angle of the blades. It can adapt to
variations in wind speed and direction to maximize energy production
while minimizing turbine loads (Chavero-Navarrete et al., 2019).
Another technique for managing power is torque control, which adjusts
the generator’s torque to manage the power output of the turbine. This
strategy is especially beneficial in high-wind conditions, where pitch con-
trol may be ineffective. The third method is generator control, which mod-
ulates the electrical output of the generator to meet the needs of the grid.
This method is beneficial for wind farms connected to the grid because it
helps maintain grid stability and prevents power quality problems.
Recent research in power control theory has centered on the develop-
ment of innovative techniques to increase the efficacy and dependability of
wind turbines. Using machine learning algorithms to optimize real-time
power control based on inputs such as wind speed, direction, and turbu-
lence is one approach. The development of advanced control systems that
take into consideration the dynamic behavior of wind turbines and their
interaction with the grid is another strategy. These methods can enhance
the stability and efficacy of turbines under various operating conditions.
In addition, significant research has been conducted on the integration
of energy storage systems with wind turbines to enhance power control.
Energy storage systems can help smooth out fluctuations in power out-
put caused by varying wind conditions and provide reserve power during
grid failures. The incorporation of energy storage with wind turbines has
the potential to increase the reliability and dispatchability of wind energy,
thereby increasing its value to the grid (Lai & Teh, 2022).
As wind energy continues to expand as a significant source of renew-
able energy, it is crucial to enhance the efficacy and dependability of wind
turbines. The theory of power control is essential to this endeavor and will
continue to be an active area of study in the coming years. By develop-
ing sophisticated power control techniques, we can increase the amount
of wind energy that can be captured and guarantee the grid’s stable and
dependable power supply.
5.3.2.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking Theory

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is a technique used to optimize
the wind turbine’s output power in wind energy systems. MPPT oper-
ates the wind turbine at its maximum power point (MPP) by adjusting
the turbine rotor speed and blade pitch angle to extract the maximum
quantity of energy from the wind (Lai & Teh, 2022)(G. B. A. Kumar,
2022). The maximum power point (MPP) is the moment at which the
turbine’s power output is at its maximum for a given wind speed and is
dependent on several variables, including wind speed, blade pitch angle,
and rotor speed. MPPT controllers utilize various algorithms to contin-
uously modify the turbine rotor speed and blade pitch angle to track the
MPP. These algorithms include perturb and observe (P&O), incremental
conductance (INC), and hill climbing (Kishor et al., 2021). Due to its
simplicity and dependability, the P&O algorithm is the algorithm most
commonly used in wind energy systems. It is founded on the following
equations:
V(t) = Vpv(t) + I(t)R (5.1)
P(t) = V(t)I(t) (5.2)
dP(t)/dI(t) = V(t) – I(t)R (5.3)
where:
V(t) = the voltage of the wind turbine,
Vpv(t) = the voltage of the photovoltaic panel,
I(t) = the current of the wind turbine,
R = the resistance of the load, and
P(t) = the power output of the turbine.
Figure 5.4 depicts the MPPT controller as consisting of a wind turbine,

a DC–DC converter, and an MPPT algorithm. The wind turbine generates
AC power, which is converted by the converter into DC electricity. The
MPPT algorithm modifies the rotor speed and pitch angle of the blades to
keep the turbine operating at the MPP. Using MPPT techniques has been
shown to increase wind turbine efficiency by up to 30% and reduce energy
production costs. It also facilitates the incorporation of wind energy into the
power grid by providing a consistent and constant power output. Variability
in wind speed and direction is one of the greatest obstacles to implement-
ing MPPT techniques. The control algorithms must be sufficiently robust to
accommodate these variations and maintain turbine operation at the MPP.
Numerous studies have been conducted to develop advanced MPPT algo-
rithms capable of handling these variations and enhancing the performance
of wind turbines.
IDC
Electrical
generator C0
Wind speed
DC/DC C1 DC/AC
(PMSG)
Converter Multilevel
Inverter
Gate Signal
PWM
DC Bus
Generator voltage
DC/DC Converter (VDC)
Current IDC Controller and
Inverter
Maximum Power
Rectified Tracker Controller
Voltage Vg
Three
phase
current
Figure 5.4 Block diagram of an MPPT controller for a wind turbine.
Xuewei Sun et al., for example, proposed an advanced MPPT algorithm

based on the fractional-order sliding mode control theory that can manage
nonlinearity and uncertainty in wind energy systems (Vakacharla et al.,
2020). It was demonstrated that the algorithm is more robust and effective
than the traditional P&O algorithm. Wei Qiao et al. proposed in a separate
study an MPPT algorithm based on model predictive control theory that
can estimate the MPP based on the predicted wind speed and direction.
The algorithm has been shown to increase wind turbine efficacy by up
to 5%. MPPT techniques are crucial for optimizing wind turbine output
power and integrating wind energy into the power grid. To enhance the
efficiency and robustness of MPPT controllers, advanced control algo-
rithms based on modern control theory have been proposed.
5.3.2.2 Load Control Theory

In wind energy systems, load control theory concentrates on regulating and
managing the power output to meet the needs of the connected electrical
load or the grid (Liu et al., 2023). It involves adjusting the power output of
wind turbines to sustain grid stability while ensuring a stable and reliable
power supply. Load control theory is essential for optimizing energy produc-
tion, preventing power quality problems, and facilitating the incorporation
of wind energy into the existing power infrastructure. Implementing sophis-
ticated control strategies to modulate the power output of wind turbines is
one of the most significant aspects of load control theory. These strategies
ensure that the power generated by the turbines corresponds to the grid’s
or load’s needs. Load control techniques can be categorized as curtailment
control, reactive power control, and frequency control, among others.
A. Curtailment control
Curtailment control is a method for regulating the power output of wind
turbines by curtailing or limiting the generation of electricity when essen-
tial. It is typically employed when the electrical discharge demand is less
than the available wind power or when grid constraints exist. Controlling
curtailment prevents grid instability, congestion, and excessive power
injection. Advanced control algorithms and real-time monitoring systems
are used to determine the level of curtailment based on grid conditions and
to guarantee optimal power flow.
B. Reactive power control

Another aspect of load control theory, reactive power control, concen-
trates on regulating the reactive power output of wind turbines. Reactive
power is necessary to maintain voltage stability and grid balance. Wind
turbines can support reactive power by altering the injection or absorp-
tion of reactive power. Monitoring the grid voltage and power factor and
dynamically adjusting the reactive power output of the turbines to main-
tain the intended grid voltage and power factor levels constitute reactive
power control techniques.
C. Frequency control
Frequency control is essential for sustaining grid stability, particularly in
power systems with a high wind energy penetration. Wind turbines with
sophisticated load control systems can actively contribute to frequency
regulation. These systems monitor the grid frequency and adjust the power
output of the turbines to help maintain an acceptable grid frequency. Wind
turbines improve grid reliability and reduce reliance on conventional
power facilities for frequency control by providing frequency support.
5.3.3 Wind Farm Layout Theory

Wind farm layout theory is a crucial component of wind energy project
development. It involves optimizing the placement of wind turbines and
the interconnection of turbines within a wind farm to accomplish max-
imum energy production at the lowest possible cost and environmental
impact (Lerch et al., 2019). The distance between wind turbines is a crucial
factor in wind farm layout theory, as it can considerably affect the power
output of the wind farm. Studies have demonstrated that the optimal dis-
tance between turbines can vary based on wind speed and topography. In
regions with high wind speeds and flat terrain, for instance, turbines can be
placed closer together, whereas in regions with low wind speeds and com-
plex terrain, turbines should be placed further apart to prevent turbulence
effects. The choice of wind turbine model and hub height is an additional
essential aspect of wind farm layout theory. Wind speed and site-specific
conditions can influence the optimal turbine model and hub height. In
areas with moderate wind speeds, for instance, it may be more efficient to
use larger turbines with higher hub heights to capture more wind energy.
Recent advancements in wind farm layout theory have led to the devel-
opment of novel optimization strategies for wind farm layouts. Utilizing
advanced simulation models to predict the power output of wind farms
under various conditions is one such method. Using variables such as wind
speed, turbulence, and terrain, these models can determine the optimal
turbine placement and interconnection for a given site. Utilizing opti-
mization algorithms and machine learning techniques is an additional
approach to wind farm layout theory. These methods can be used to ana-
lyze large quantities of data and determine the optimal wind farm layout
based on a variety of variables, such as wind speed, terrain, and environ-
mental impact. By optimizing the placement and interconnection of wind
turbines, the energy output of the wind farm can be maximized while its
environmental impact is minimized (Hou et al., 2019).
5.3.3.1 Turbine Placement Theory

The placement of turbines is an essential aspect of wind farm design and
optimization. It entails determining the optimal placement of wind tur-
bines within a wind farm to maximize energy production, minimize wake
effects, and guarantee efficient operation. Numerous factors, including
wind resource characteristics, site topography, environmental consider-
ations, and turbine interactions, influence the arrangement of turbines
within a wind farm. The objective is to position the turbines to capture
the maximum amount of available wind energy while minimizing wake
effects, which can reduce power output and increase structural stresses on
turbines downstream. The site’s wind flow characteristics are a crucial con-
sideration in turbine placement theory. For optimal turbine placement, it
is essential to identify areas with high wind speeds and minimal turbulence
intensity. Wind resource assessments, which involve the measurement and
analysis of wind data at various heights and locations, play a crucial role
in determining the optimal installation locations for wind turbines. The

topography of the site also affects turbine placement. Hills, ridges, valleys,
and bodies of water can have a substantial effect on wind flow patterns
and turbulence. The placement of wind turbines should take the terrain
into account and ensure that turbines are positioned to capture the utmost
available wind resource while avoiding areas of high turbulence or flow
separation (Caglayan et al., 2019).
Consideration of wake effects is an additional factor in turbine place-
ment theory. When a wind turbine extracts energy from the wind, it gen-
erates a wake of slower-moving air downstream, which can hinder the
performance of turbines located downstream. Proper turbine spacing and
layout are essential to minimize disturbance effects and optimize wind farm
energy production. Using advanced wake modeling and simulation tech-
niques, wake interactions are analyzed and turbine placement is optimized
accordingly. In turbine placement theory, environmental factors such as
wildlife habitats, avian migration patterns, and visual impact also play a
role. It is essential to achieve a balance between maximizing energy pro-
duction and minimizing potential negative environmental effects. Various
techniques, such as computational models, optimization algorithms, and
machine learning strategies, are utilized to determine the optimal turbine
placement. These methods consider multiple variables, such as wind data,
site characteristics, discharge effects, and constraints, to determine the
most efficient and effective turbine layout for a particular wind farm proj-
ect. Wind farm developers can design layouts that optimize energy pro-
duction, minimize wake effects, and address environmental concerns by
employing turbine placement theory (Hou et al., 2019).
5.3.3.2 Wake Effect Theory

Wake effect theory is a foundational concept in wind energy that describes
the phenomenon in which downstream wind turbines in a wind farm
experience reduced wind speeds and altered wind flow patterns as a result
of the wake created by upstream turbines. Understanding and managing
wake effects is essential to optimize wind farm performance and efficiency.
When a wind turbine extracts energy from the wind, a turbulent trail is
produced downstream. This wake consists of air that is traveling more
slowly and is more turbulent than the unaffected wind flow. Consequently,
the downstream turbines experience decreased wind velocities, increased
turbulence, and altered wind directions. The wake effect can have several
deleterious effects on the performance of turbines downstream. Initially,
the decreased wind speed reduces the available kinetic energy that can
be converted into electrical power, resulting in a decrease in power out-

put. Secondly, the increased turbulence can impose additional stresses on
the turbine blades, diminishing their structural integrity and service life.
Moreover, the altered wind direction within the aftermath can result in
suboptimal inflow angles for the turbines downstream, further diminish-
ing their performance (Famoso et al., 2020). Diverse strategies and tech-
nologies are utilized to mitigate the negative effects of wake effects, namely:
• Turbine location: Appropriate turbine spacing and layout

are essential to minimize disturbance effects. Increasing
the distance between turbines allows for greater wind speed
recovery and reduced wake turbulence.
• Wake modeling and simulation: Using advanced computa-
tional models and simulations, wake effects in wind farms
are predicted and analyzed. To accurately simulate wake
behavior, these models evaluate wind conditions, turbine
characteristics, terrain, and atmospheric stability. This data is
then used to optimize the placement and layout of turbines.
• Wake steering: Wake steering is the process of modifying the
yaw angle of upstream turbines to divert the wake away from
downstream turbines, thereby reducing the impact on their
performance. Advanced control strategies and real-time
monitoring of wind conditions can achieve this technique.
• Innovative turbine design: Innovative turbine designs with
enhanced aerodynamics and reduced wake generation can
aid in minimizing wake effects. Turbines with larger rotor
diameters and optimized blade configurations, for instance,
can reduce wake turbulence and increase power output.
• Curtailment strategies: In some instances, the power output
of specific turbines or individual blades can be reduced to
reduce disturbance effects and improve the overall perfor-
mance of a wind farm. This strategy adjusts turbine opera-
tion based on real-time wind conditions and power demand.
Continual efforts are made to refine the wake effect theory and develop
cutting-edge optimization techniques for wind farms. The negative effects
of wake effects can be mitigated through improved turbine placement,
advanced modeling, wake steering, and inventive turbine designs, result-
ing in increased energy production and enhanced wind farm efficiency.
5.3.4 Grid Integration Theory

Grid integration theory refers to the process of connecting wind farms
to the electrical grid to supply energy to consumers. Integration of wind
energy into the power grid necessitates specific measures to ensure the sys-
tem’s dependability, stability, and efficiency. The intermittent and variable
nature of wind power makes it difficult to predict and manage the power
supply, which is the primary obstacle to integrating wind energy into the
grid. To overcome this difficulty, sophisticated control and management
systems are necessary to assure a reliable and stable power supply. This the-
ory describes the use of advanced power electronics to assure the compat-
ibility of wind-generated electricity with the electrical grid. This requires
the use of power conditioning systems, such as inverters, which convert
the DC power generated by wind turbines into grid-compatible AC power
(Sayahi et al., 2020).
Grid integration theory comprises several essential components, namely:
• Grid stability and power quality: Wind energy is inter-

mittent and variable due to variations in wind speed and
direction. Despite these fluctuations, grid integration the-
ory emphasizes maintaining grid stability and power qual-
ity. Advanced control and monitoring systems are utilized
to manage power flow, regulate voltage and frequency, and
mitigate potential grid disturbances induced by the injection
of wind power.
• Grid connection and infrastructure: This theory examines
the operational and technical factors involved in connect-
ing wind farms to the grid. It entails selecting suitable grid
connection points, designing efficient transmission and dis-
tribution infrastructure, and ensuring compliance with grid
codes and regulations. A proper grid connection facilitates
efficient power transfer and reduces transmission losses.
• Energy forecasting and scheduling: For optimal grid integra-
tion, accurate forecasting of wind power generation is essen-
tial. Grid operators can make informed decisions regarding
power scheduling, reserve capacity, and grid balancing
by using advanced forecasting models and algorithms to
anticipate wind power output in advance. Effective energy
scheduling ensures that consumers have a reliable and stable
power supply.
• Ancillary services and grid support: Wind farms can pro-

vide valuable ancillary services to support the operation of
the grid. The theory of grid integration includes the provi-
sion of services like frequency regulation, voltage control,
and reactive power support. Wind farms can be outfitted
with sophisticated control capabilities to react to grid signals
and contribute to grid stability during system disturbances.
• Grid codes and standards: Grid integration theory requires
comprehension and adherence to grid codes and standards
established by grid operators and regulatory agencies. These
codes define technical requirements, performance criteria, and
operational guidelines for wind farms to ensure that their grid
integration is safe and reliable. Compliance with grid codes
facilitates grid connection and reduces grid instability risk.
• Market and economic considerations: The theory of grid
integration also addresses market mechanisms, economic
incentives, and policies that promote the efficient integration
of wind power. It examines strategies such as feed-in tariffs,
power purchase agreements, and market-based mechanisms
for promoting renewable energy generation and encourag-
ing grid-friendly operation.
• Smart grid technologies: Wind power integration is aided
by the development of smart grid technologies. Smart grids
permit wind farms, grid operators, and consumers to com-
municate, exchange data, and exercise control in real time.
These technologies improve grid flexibility, enable demand
response programs, and facilitate the integration of renew-
able energy sources in an efficient manner.
5.3.4.1 Power Quality Theory

Power quality theory is the study of the characteristics of electrical power
and the methods used to ensure that the power supplied satisfies the
required quality standards. Power quality is an essential aspect of wind
energy systems because it ensures the reliable and efficient operation of
grid-connected electrical equipment. Due to the intermittent and vari-
able nature of wind power generation, wind energy systems may encoun-
ter power quality issues. Among these problems are voltage fluctuations,
harmonics, flicker, and voltage imbalance. These disturbances can have an
effect on the performance and longevity of electrical equipment, lead to
malfunctions, and increase maintenance costs (Kharrazi et al., 2020).
Several theories and methods are utilized to address power quality con-
cerns, namely:
• Voltage regulation: Voltage regulation is necessary to main-

tain a stable and dependable power supply. Wind turbines
are equipped with power electronics systems that regulate
and monitor the output voltage to meet grid requirements.
Adjusting the power output of wind turbines and maintain-
ing a stable grid voltage are made possible using sophisti-
cated control algorithms.
• Harmonic mitigation: Due to their powerful electronic com-
ponents, wind turbines can introduce harmonics into the
electrical system. Harmonics can cause voltage distortion,
which can result in equipment failure and increased losses.
To reduce harmonics and preserve the quality of the sup-
plied power, active and passive filtering techniques, such as
harmonic filters and power factor correction, are employed.
• Flicker control: Flicker is the rapid and perceptible variation in
light intensity caused by voltage fluctuations. Variable-speed
wind turbines can contribute to flickering due to fluctuations
in power output. Advanced control strategies, including pitch
control and reactive power compensation, are implemented
to reduce flickering and ensure a stable power supply.
• Voltage and frequency ride-through capability: Wind tur-
bines must be able to withstand voltage and frequency
fluctuations in the grid. This feature ensures that wind tur-
bines remain connected to the grid during transient events,
such as grid faults and voltage drops. During these events,
sophisticated control systems and grid support capabilities
are utilized to facilitate grid integration and maintain power
quality.
• Power quality monitoring and analysis: Continuous moni-
toring and analysis of power quality parameters are required
to identify and mitigate power quality issues. Power quality
parameters such as voltage, current, harmonics, and oth-
ers are measured by sophisticated monitoring systems. The
collected data is analyzed to identify anomalies, diagnose
power quality issues, and optimize system performance.
Utilizing active power filters, voltage regulators, and reactive power com-
pensation systems is an example of techniques to improve power quality.
In addition, standards and guidelines such as IEEE 519 and IEC 61400-
21 specify and recommend power quality requirements for wind energy
systems.
5.3.4.2 Stability Theory

Stability theory is an essential component of wind energy systems because
it assures the reliability and safety of the power grid. Stability refers to a
power system’s capacity to maintain a balanced and stable state despite dis-
turbances and alterations in operating conditions. Stability theory focuses
on analyzing and improving the dynamic behavior of the system to guar-
antee grid stability in the context of wind energy (Chandra et al., 2021).
Wind energy systems have three primary aspects of stability theory, namely:
A. Voltage stability
Voltage stability refers to the maintenance of acceptable voltage
levels within the power system. Variations in wind speed can
result in fluctuating power output from wind turbines that are
connected to the grid. These fluctuations have the potential to
impact the voltage profile of the grid and cause voltage insta-
bility. Voltage stability analysis entails evaluating the effect of
wind power fluctuations on the grid voltage and implementing
control strategies to maintain acceptable voltage levels.
B. Frequency stability
Maintaining a balance between power generation and demand
requires frequency stability. Wind energy is variable, and
abrupt changes in wind conditions can lead to power sys-
tem imbalances and frequency deviations. Frequency stabil-
ity analysis involves evaluating the wind turbines’ response
to varying wind speeds and implementing control mecha-
nisms to regulate power output and support grid frequency
control.
C. Dynamic stability
Dynamic stability refers to the power system’s ability to main-
tain stable and synchronized operation under transient condi-
tions, such as defects or sudden load changes. Wind turbines
must be able to withstand and recuperate from grid distur-
bances to preserve system stability. Analyzing the response
of wind turbines to disturbances, assessing their impact on
system stability, and employing control strategies to improve
dynamic performance comprise dynamic stability analysis.
Several methods are employed to assure the stability of wind energy sys-
tems, namely:
• Control systems: Innovative control systems are essential for

sustaining stability. These systems monitor grid conditions,
wind turbine efficacy, and grid dynamics continuously. To
maintain stability, they provide real-time feedback and
adjust control parameters such as power output, reactive
power compensation, and pitch control.
• Power system stabilizers: Stabilizers of the power system are
devices that enhance the dynamic stability of the power sys-
tem by injecting additional control signals. These stabilizers
improve the reduction of power oscillations and contribute
to the maintenance of stability during disturbances.
• Energy storage systems: Energy storage systems, such as bat-
teries or flywheels, can be used to support stability by inject-
ing or absorbing power rapidly during transient events.
These systems aid in maintaining the frequency and voltage
of the grid within permissible parameters.
• Grid codes and standards: Grid codes and standards spec-
ify the technical requirements and performance criteria
for grid-connected wind energy systems. Compliance with
these protocols guarantees that wind turbines contribute to
system stability and grid dependability.
5.4 Advancements in Wind Energy Technologies

Wind energy technology advancements have substantially contributed to
the expansion and effectiveness of wind power generation. These develop-
ments have focused on a variety of facets, including materials and manu-
facturing techniques, turbine designs, control systems and sensors, smart
grid integration, and energy storage. Let us examine each of these facets in
greater depth.
A. Innovative Materials and Production Methods

Wind turbines’ efficacy and durability have been significantly improved
by the development of advanced materials and manufacturing techniques.
Utilizing lightweight and high-strength materials, such as carbon fiber com-
posites, has resulted in longer and more efficient turbine blades. Turbine
component production has become more precise and cost-effective due to
the implementation of advanced manufacturing techniques, such as 3D

printing and automated manufacturing processes.
B. Innovative Designs for Wind Turbines

Researchers and engineers have consistently developed innovative wind
turbine designs with the goals of maximizing energy capture, enhancing
efficiency, and decreasing costs. This includes the development of larger
turbines with higher hub heights to access winds that are stronger and
more consistent at higher altitudes. In addition, concepts such as offshore
floating wind turbines and vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs) have
received increased attention as potential deployment solutions.
C. Enhancements to Control Systems and Sensors

To optimize the operation and performance of wind turbines, control
systems and sensors have witnessed considerable development. Based on
wind conditions, sophisticated control algorithms and real-time moni-
toring systems enable the precise adjustment of turbine settings such as
blade pitch and rotor speed. Sensors provide valuable information on wind
speed, direction, turbulence, and other environmental factors, allowing for
more precise control and decision-making.
D. Smart Grid Integration and Energy Storage

Integration of wind power into smart grids is becoming increasingly import-
ant for grid stability and effective power management. Smart grid technol-
ogies allow for improved communication and coordination between wind
farms, power utilities, and consumers, thereby facilitating the integration of
wind energy into the existing power infrastructure. In addition, energy stor-
age systems, such as batteries and pumped hydro storage, help mitigate the
intermittent nature of wind power by storing excess energy during times of
high generation and discharging it when the demand is high or the wind
conditions are suboptimal.
These developments have significantly enhanced the efficacy, depend-
ability, and cost-effectiveness of wind energy systems. They have also
increased the competitiveness of wind energy in the global energy market.
5.5 Future Research Directions

Future research directions in wind energy seek to improve the efficiency,
dependability, and sustainability of wind power production. These direc-
tions comprise several essential exploration and development areas.
Let us examine a few of the most important prospective research directions

in wind energy, namely:
• Offshore wind energy: Due to the availability of stronger and

more consistent winds in offshore locations, offshore wind
energy has great potential for large-scale power generation.
Future research will concentrate on addressing the techni-
cal obstacles associated with offshore wind farms, such as
floating wind turbine technology, littoral conditions, marine
operations, and transmission infrastructure. In addition,
the research seeks to optimize the design and operation of
offshore wind farms to maximize energy production while
minimizing environmental impacts.
• Wind–wave interaction: The interaction between wind and
ocean waves offers synergistic energy extraction oppor-
tunities. Future research will investigate the creation of
hybrid energy systems that utilize both wind and wave
energy. This includes the investigation of wave energy con-
version technologies, the optimization of turbine designs
to withstand severe marine conditions, and the exploration
of the integration of wave energy converters with offshore
wind farms.
• Advanced materials for wind turbines: Continuing research
into advanced materials has the potential to enhance the
efficacy and durability of wind turbines. This includes the
investigation of novel materials with enhanced mechani-
cal properties, including carbon nanotubes, graphene, and
intelligent materials. To reduce the environmental impact
of turbine manufacturing and decommissioning, research
also concentrates on developing sustainable and recyclable
materials.
• Integration of wind energy and energy storage: The integra-
tion of wind energy with energy storage systems is an active
area of research. The intermittent character of wind energy
can be mitigated by combining it with advanced energy
storage technologies, such as large-scale batteries, hydrogen
storage, or compressed air energy storage. The objective of
the research is to optimize the integration of wind power
with energy storage to enhance grid stability, enable flexible
power dispatch, and support the penetration of renewable
energy.
• Data analytics and machine learning: The use of data ana-

lytics and machine learning techniques could revolutionize
wind energy systems. Future research will concentrate on
developing advanced algorithms and models to optimize
the performance of wind farms, more precisely predict wind
conditions, and enhance fault detection and maintenance
strategies. This includes the application of data-driven tech-
niques for condition monitoring, turbine performance opti-
mization, and advanced control systems.
5.6 Conclusion
Wind energy is essential to fulfilling the world’s ever-increasing energy
demands. It provides a pure and renewable energy source, thereby reduc-
ing greenhouse gas emissions and reliance on fossil fuels. Wind energy is
significant due to its ability to contribute to a more sustainable and envi-
ronmentally benign energy mix, thereby mitigating climate change and
promoting the transition to a low-carbon future. This chapter has provided
an extensive overview of wind energy theories based on technological
advancements. It began by summarizing the various theories discussed
throughout the chapter and emphasizing their importance to the advance-
ment of wind energy. Aeroelasticity, wind turbine design, control sys-
tems, wind farm layout, turbine placement, wake effect, grid integration,
power quality, stability, and technological advancements in wind energy
have been thoroughly investigated. These theories have contributed to the
development of wind energy systems that are efficient, dependable, and
sustainable.
Wind energy contains immense promise and potential for the future.
Ongoing technological and scientific advancements are anticipated to
enhance the efficacy and efficiency of wind turbines, making them more
affordable and accessible. Continued innovation in materials, turbine
design, control systems, and grid integration will contribute to the max-
imization of energy capture, the reduction of operational costs, and the
improvement of the overall reliability and productivity of wind energy sys-
tems. In addition, the integration of wind power with emergent technolo-
gies such as energy storage, smart grids, and advanced data analytics will
improve the flexibility, stability, and grid integration capabilities of wind
energy. This integration will improve the administration of variable wind
resources, optimize power dispatch, and allow for the reliable and seamless
integration of wind energy into the existing energy infrastructure.
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6
Wind Energy Hybrid Power Generation
System with Hydrogen Storage
Mehmet Bugdayci1,2* and Mesut Yilmazoglu1
Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Yalova University,

1
Yalova, Turkey
2
Construction Technology Department, Vocational School, Istanbul Medipol University,
Istanbul, Turkey
Abstract
The focus of this study is to determine the optimum use of wind energy and to
find a complex system conditions in which hydrogen storage is possible from
this power source. In this chapter, the superior properties of hydrogen in energy
transport and various hydrogen production technologies are emphasized. It then
explores the potential of combining wind power with hydrogen storage to create a
more efficient and weather-independent complex power production process. The
proposed system is designed to maximize energy production and minimize fluc-
tuations in energy output by storing excess energy generated at higher wind speeds
for later use. The chapter also discusses the key components of the recommended
process, including the generator, electrolysis device, H storage tank, reproductive
cell, power control system, and wind turbine. Finally, the chapter presents a the-
oretical study on the proposed system and discusses its potential applications in
providing a more sustainable and eco-friendly source of electricity for areas with
limited access to electricity or clean energy. Overall, the chapter provides valuable
insights into the development and institutionalization of a hydrogen storage air
energy complex power production process as a promising solution to the chal-
lenges of relying solely on wind power as a power source.
Keywords: Green resources, hydrogen storage, wind energy, hybrid power
generation, hydrogen storage–wind energy
*Corresponding author: mehmet.bugdayci@yalova.edu.tr
115
6.1 Introduction
Interest in eternal energy providers is increasing day by day as society con-
tinues to shift toward more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy
options. While these sources offer many benefits, such as reduced emissions
and decreased dependence on non-renewable resources, they do come
with certain challenges. The primary challenges associated with renewable
sources is their intermittency. Unlike fossil fuels, the energy provided from
natural sources (sun, water, and wind) is affected by factors such as time and
weather conditions. To overcome this issue, energy storage is necessary to
ensure that the energy produced during low demand periods can be stored
and utilized during high demand periods. It is possible to achieve this with
hydroelectric pump, battery, and some energy storage devices.
By integrating natural energy sources with energy storage technology,
a dependable and steady energy system can be established, rendering it
ideal for implementation in remote and isolated settings. In instances such
as remote regions where conventional electricity generation is impracti-
cal, establishing an independent power plant reliant on fossil fuels would
prove costly and environmentally detrimental. In contrast, the amalgama-
tion of renewable energy and energy storage offers a more economical and
eco-friendly alternative. In periods when the energy demand is low, it is
essential to store energy and to use it without any problems in increasing
demand. While green sources are intermittent, the utilization of energy
storage technologies can help overcome this challenge and make them a
more reliable and stable energy source. This not only benefits the environ-
ment but also provides a cost-effective and sustainable solution for remote
and stand-alone applications [1–3].
Considering the environmental and sustainable energy trend, the eco-
nomic benefits of green resources are of great importance. While diesel
generators have traditionally been used in stand-alone systems, their costs
can be high, both in terms of installation and ongoing maintenance. In
contrast, renewable energy systems are capable of producing low-cost
energy, especially when combined with advanced energy storage devices.
Compared to diesel engines, the costs of renewable energy generators
are very low. This is because green sources have no fuel costs, and their
maintenance costs are relatively low [4]. Additionally, the costs of energy
storage technologies have been decreasing in recent years, making them
increasingly affordable. In rural areas where there is no electricity infra-
structure, storing energy from green sources will result in a much more
advantageous cost. In addition, green resources will lead to lowering the
Wind Energy Hybrid With Hydrogen Storage 117
carbon footprint and promoting sustainable energy sources. The advan-

tages arising from costs and environmental factors make green energy
storage and use systems more usable both in the countryside and in cities.
Although wind energy is a strong renewable energy source, its variability
can pose challenges [5]. Wind speeds can fluctuate greatly from moment
to moment and season to season, making energy storage essential if wind
power is to meet significant energy demands. Historically, energy stor-
age systems have been inefficient and costly, preventing wind power from
becoming a practical energy source. However, advances in technology
have made wind-to-electricity conversion more attainable. Experiments
with wind farms have shown that the most feasible approach to using
electrical energy generated by wind power is to supplement it with other
forms of energy in a hybrid system. By mixing wind power with other
green sources, such as sun or hydro, the fluctuations in wind energy can
be offset, resulting in a more reliable and efficient energy supply [6].
Overall, while wind energy’s variability has historically posed challenges,
advancements in technology and the use of hybrid energy systems offer
energy amount of air systems to become a practical and efficient energy
source [4–7].
The declining reserves of conventional fuels, lack of water reserves,
unpredictable prices, high costs of diesel generators, and the threat of global
warming have raised concerns about the utilization of conventional power
sources. In developing countries, nearly 1.5 billion people in the world have
difficulty in accessing electricity, leading to increased deforestation as they
rely on wood for energy. Alternative energy (AE) sources such as air, sun,
water, biomass, fuel cells, and tidal power can address these concerns as
they are renewable, non-polluting, and readily available. Figure 6.1 shows a
list of the features of AE and conventional energy sources. AE sources offer
benefits such as reduced carbon emissions, improved power reliability, and
lower operational and maintenance costs. Since the mid-1970s, there have
been studies on the components of the AE process in the literature. To
improve living standards in electricity-deprived remote areas, many differ-
ent energy process designs consisting of green energy systems have been
revealed [8–11].
Realization of processes containing AE in isolation to meet a load
demand can be costly and result in oversized systems. To address this,
system designers are exploring the option of integrated operation, which
involves combining two or more AE sources with energy storage to create
hybrid systems that can generate power consistently. Figure 6.2 provides
various methods for storing energy. This section discusses the construc-
tion and operation of these hybrid systems and the software tools used for
100 90 93 90 90 Capacity Factor % Efficiency %

90 82
80
Capacity Factor/Efficiency %
70 57 60 60
60 53 50 50
45 47 43
50 37 40 36 40
35
40 30
30 22
17 17
20 8.5
10
0
s)
V)
icr nd
C
cle
ls
al
ro
Oi
a
as
Ga
bi IGC
el
ve
Co
rm
yd
(P
Cy
om
lC
a
he
oH
ic
w
tid Fue
d
lta
Bi
ot
ne
d
an
vo
Ge
M
to
m
es
ho
Co
r/P
n(
s
Ga
ea
la
So
Oc
Type of Energy
Figure 6.1 Capacity and efficiency of various energy types.
Pumped Magnetic
Batteries
Hydro Storages
Chemical Fly
Compressed air
Fuels Wheels
Molten Super Hydrogen

Salts Capacitor Storage
Figure 6.2 Methods for energy storage.
their analysis and provides examples of different hybrid systems from liter-
ature. The section also covers the potential and implementation of renew-
able energy sources worldwide, including solar, micro hydro, fuel cells, and
biomass [10, 12–14].
Fossil fuels come to the forefront with their easy storage and transpor-
tation and high energy holding properties. However, the conversion and
transportation of green resources from water and biowaste into electricity

is problematic. Electricity is an energy form that is easy to use and trans-
mit, so its use is high. Energy storage can help with this problem in sev-
eral ways, such as regulating system frequency, providing spinning reserve,
peak shaving, load leveling, and storing surplus electricity generated by
renewables. In the process of storing energy, advantages are obtained with
quality, minimization of losses in transport, and economic savings. Even
in regions with developed and complex lines, storage in rural areas is only
provided by hydroelectric power plants. Increasing the storage capacity of
batteries is a feature expected and desired by every stakeholder. The inclu-
sion of green energy in the system will further increase the demand for
storage. It will be sufficient to use smaller batteries compared to the afore-
mentioned processes to store the energy obtained from the air [15–17].
The storage of green energy is perhaps the most important factor for
this process. Since the energy provided by air and sun varies according to
climate and time conditions, it is important to provide optimum condi-
tions in terms of efficiency. The diagnosis of optimum storage conditions
will ensure a smooth process by securing excess energy and releasing it
during periods of high demand. There are many benefits of storing energy.
Enhanced potential and reliability can result from more stable and predict-
able power output. Reduced transmission and power losses can result from
the ability to store energy closer to the point of use. Finally, tactical benefits
can be gained through greater siting and fuel flexibility [18–20].
The energy transmission lines of the countries bordering the English
Channel have been designed in coordination with each other. More costly
and complex facilities are needed to meet the high demands occurring
here. In these regions, the system is supported by hydroelectric power
plants and simple battery facilities. In this context, the improvement in
storage capacity will be welcomed in many developed countries.
With the demand from green energy, there is an increasing demand for
energy storage. The capacity of these energy sources will vary according
to the amount of wind blend and the condition of the solar panels. The
energy to be stored from these sources will, of course, be lower than with
conventional sources. Accordingly, by making correct deployments, build-
ings, shopping malls or workplaces will be fed easily from green sources
[21, 22].
When viewed from a broader spectrum, energy storage has a critical
role in the use of environmentalists and green energies. While economic
viability remains a challenge, the potential benefits of energy storage are
significant, and continued research and development will be critical to
unlocking its full potential.
6.2 Hydrogen Storage Systems

After the industrial revolution, the need for energy has increased a lot, and
as a result, reducing carbon emissions has emerged as a necessity. At this
stage, hydrogen stands out as a clean energy carrier. Various processes have
been developed for hydrogen production; electrolysis, photocatalysts, ther-
molysis, and bio-fermentation. In the study of Dawood et al., hydrogen has
an incredible preference over fossil sources due to its gravimetric energy
density and high caloric value [23–27]. This is illustrated in Figure 6.3.
Hydrogen stands out as the best alternative to traditional energy sources,
with its high heating value of 120 MJ/kg and its nature-friendly struc-
ture. In fact, hydrogen is a superior alternative to other energy sources, as
demonstrated in Figure 6.4.
Although hydrogen is one of the three most abundant elements on earth,
it occurs not in elemental form but in compound form. Therefore, various
processes are needed to bring hydrogen from the compound form to the
elemental form. The H production process is performed through different
methods, and then it needs to be stored and transported to its destination.
However, storing hydrogen is challenging due to its low density and high
flammability, which make conventional compressed storage risky [28, 29].
When focusing on sustainable energy sources, hydrogen is one of
the prominent materials. The storage processes of this material should
have standardization. In this review, solid-state energy storage systems
by absorption are examined and the process details are discussed. The
study explores the gradual progression of material properties that can
be achieved through customization of alloy, providing adjustments in
material PCT (pressure–composition–temperature) properties to meet
Methanol, 24 Ethanol, 28
Coal, 30
Hydrogen, 140
Diesel, 49
Gasoline, 50 Natural Gas, 50
LPG, 52
LNG, 54
Crude Oil, 48
Figure 6.3 Available sources’ energy values (MJ/kg).

H2 NATURAL GAS
NETWORK
SO HYDROGEN
GR
STORAGE
IN
LA
ID
R
OVERSEAS EXPORT
NH3 CONVERTED TO H2
POWER FUEL CELL
ELECTROLYSIS NH3 AT DESTINATION
VEHICLES
CONVERT TO
AMMONIA
INDUSTRY
APPLICATIONS
Figure 6.4 Hydrogen production and transportation.
specific applications. Alloys with cubic volume-centered crystal lattice

and complex hydrides are among the stakeholders that make up this
material. The main purpose is to bring the storage systems created by the
adsorption process to the literature with the details [30–34].
6.2.1 Solid-State Hydrogen Storage in Materials

These cubic volume-centered materials appear as H storage materials.
Alloys can store hydrogen as compressed by adding it into the structure
with the absorption technique. These technologies are important processes
for both the storage of hydrogen and its high-efficiency transmission. In the
research and development activities carried out on the subject, it is aimed
to develop the optimum cycle values of hydrogen, fast absorption ability,
low pressure, and system temperature. The storage and delivery of hydrogen
with a safe process has become a topic of great interest in the last decade.
The issues that energy transport focuses on are vehicles using H based on
green energy sources, industries, batteries, and homes [35–37]. There are
two main categories of hydrogen storage systems based on absorption.
In H storage systems where solid-state absorption is made, +1 valence
atoms form metal hydrides to neutralize the bond energy and are absorbed
by a cubic volume-centered lattice. In the absorption process, which pro-
ceeds depending on the surface diffusion, H atoms settle on the gaps and
cracks and accumulate on the surface. The absorption-based H storage sys-
tems shown in Figure 6.5 are divided into two as surface and solid-state
absorption. Accordingly, this research focuses on the absorption charac-
teristics of materials with H [30, 38–41].
chm llic
Hyd lex
ls
rks nic
Cov wor ic
Mis rmeta
s
eta
an
ride
p
a
ks
Com
me t Org
Fra l Org
Inte
ne
ta
n
wo
me
phe
a le
Me
ace
Gra
Fra
f
lk
Sur
Bu
n
n A lid
ic
Abs arbo
tion
lloy
o
tall
Sol BCC S
s
lite
orp
rme
Zeo
utio
Inte
Figure 6.5 Hydrogen absorption storage techniques.
In the production of metal hydrides, it is essential to obtain intermetal-

lics in accordance with the laws of thermodynamics. The first of the ele-
ments combined here consists of weak hydriding, and the second consists
of the element with strong properties. These alloys have attracted great
attention in recent years with their superior properties in hydrogen stor-
age. The formation reactions of these metal hydrides show an ando- or
exothermic character according to their Gibbs free energies. Accordingly,
as a result of the reaction, a decrease or increase in the temperature of the
environment may occur. It provides an environment suitable for use in
environments such as pumps, transformers, and compressors, where this
diathermal environment is important [42].
Bulk
Absorption
Surface
Absorption
Solid State Hydrogen Storage

Technologies
Figure 6.6 Solid state hydrogen storage technology (Author’s own).

6.3 Wind Energy Systems

Green energy sources contribute to both economic and social develop-
ments by reducing the need for fossil fuels. High pressure and low pressure
centers caused by global warming have caused a significant increase in the
amount of wind. This encourages the use of wind energy. This energy has
become a good energy source alternative as an endless source against zero
carbon footprint limited fossil fuels. The demand for electricity continues
with a rising trend since the industrial revolution. It is getting more and
more difficult to meet this demand with known methods. While fossil fuels
meet the basic energy needs in the past century, the harmful effects of these
fuels on the environment cannot be denied. Therefore, it is important to
turn to environmentally friendly green energy sources. These resources
include solar, tidal, wave, geothermal, and wind energy. Among these, the
wind obtained from the air stands out with its natural structure and afford-
able cost. Figure 6.7 shows the wind harvests of the leading centers in the
world.
Wind turbines are designed to withstand extreme wind conditions,
but they are not able to endure high rotational speeds or torques. These
turbines are built with a cut-out speed, beyond which the brakes will
bring the turbine to a halt. Without a cut-out speed, the turbine blades
and other components are subjected to immense forces due to increased
aerodynamic torques and rotational speeds, leading to damage. Wind tur-
bines come in different types and can be classified into two groups based
221
Harvested Wind Energy, GW
96.4
59.3
35
23 20.7 15.3 14.5 12.8 10
il
a
UK
ly
ce
da
an
as
di
in
ai
US
Ita
an
na
Ch
Sp
In
Br
rm
Fr
Ca
Ge
Countries
Figure 6.7 Wind energy harvest by countries.

on their axis of rotation: horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs) and

vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs). HAWTs are more widely used and
have a higher expected mass compared to the lesser-known VAWT tech-
nologies [43–45].
Lately, there has been a rising curiosity in performing a comparative
analysis between horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs) and verti-
cal-axis wind turbines (VAWTs). Although HAWTs have been the main
subject of investigation when evaluating the existing state of wind power,
there is a growing trend now to examine both VAWTs and HAWTs side
by side. The speed of the wind is an important parameter in the applica-
tion processes of wind turbines, both in obtaining the harvest and with
the possibility of causing damage to the system. Appropriate control pro-
cedures need to be developed according to environmental conditions.
These procedures are basically divided into two as pitch-regulated and
fixed-speed turbines. Pitch systems are activated when there is a strong
wind, while fixed-speed turbines change the angle to bring the rotation
speed to the appropriate point to provide efficient torque production
[46, 47].
Pitch-controlled wind turbines are processed to reduce power pro-
duction above a certain wind speed by decreasing their rotational
speed and aerodynamic torques when the blades start to stall. The stall
regulation requires less capital cost and has fewer maintenance and
moving parts compared to yaw regulation. Both pitch-controlled and
stall-controlled wind turbines have on-site systems to stop the turbine
at high wind speeds. However, pitch-controlled systems use active pitch
control for the blades, enabling them to maintain a consistent power
output beyond the rated wind speed, while stall-controlled systems
cannot achieve the nominal power output. Vertical-axis wind turbines
(VAWTs) also aim to provide a consistent power output during strong
winds [48–50].
The focus in wind turbine area is to create efficient turbines that can
effectively harness work up into energy from the air to electricity. This has
been a scientific challenge that has been addressed through strong engi-
neering and scientific innovation, driven by an entrepreneurial spirit. Over
the past two decades, there has been a significant increase in turbine size,
from 25 to 2,500 kW and above, while the cost of energy production has
decreased by approximately five times. Advances in engineering infra-
structure and computational devices have allowed for the correlation of
machine size and volume to be improved [51–53].
6.4 Wind Energy Hybrid Power Generation System

with Hydrogen Storage
Among the green energy sources, wind stands out among the sustainable
energies that have become a trend with its convenience in application and
its affordable cost compared to other complex systems [54, 55]. However,
it should be noted that wind power generation cannot be completely con-
tinuous and can be affected by a variety of wind speed and direction. This
complicates the singular usefulness of wind power systems as a power
source [56–58].
To address the problems of these individual wind systems, hybrid power
generation systems have been developed, i.e., the integration of wind
power with diverse renewable energy sources, including sun power, results
in a more dependable and continuous power supply. Power generation
processes consisting of a minimum of two components are designed for
energy production with maximum efficiency and to minimize fluctuations
in energy output that can occur when relying on a single energy source
[59–61].
One of the most effective hybrid power generation systems among these
hybrid systems is the hydrogen storage hybrid power generation system.
This system uses wind energy to generate electricity, which is then stored
as hydrogen gas [62]. The use of H2(g) can have a positive effect in electricity
generation to make the system efficient and to save it from adverse weather
conditions as much as possible [62, 63].
The efficient hydrogen storage wind energy minimum two-component
power harvesting method consists of several primary components. The
most important component is the wind turbine, which converts wind
energy directly into mechanical energy [64]. The converted mechanical
energy is then converted into electrical energy by a generator. With the
electrolysis method, electricity is produced by separating water into two
components, H2 and O. Hydrogen (g) is then stored in tanks until it is
needed to generate electricity. When electricity is required, hydrogen (g)
is run through a fuel cell that combines hydrogen with oxygen to produce
electricity and water [65].
H store hybrid power generation systems provide advantages in many
aspects. The system provides a reliable and efficient power supply even when
wind speeds are low or the weather and additional parameter conditions
are unfavorable. In addition, the system can also store excess energy gener-
ated at higher wind speeds, which can then be used at lower wind speeds.
This helps stabilize the energy output of the system and provides much
more energy source [66].
In addition, the hydrogen storage–wind power hybrid power generation
system is environmentally friendly, producing no emissions or pollutants
[67]. It also helps reduce dependency on fossil fuels and contributes to a
more sustainable energy future. As a result, when wind energy is consid-
ered as a source in hybrid green energy systems, the solution of the prob-
lems of this issue is promising for the future. While providing a reliable and
consistent power supply, it is also environmentally friendly and contributes
to a more sustainable energy future.
6.4.1 Design and Optimization of a Wind Energy Hybrid

Power Generation System with Hydrogen Storage
The proposed hydrogen storage–wind energy two-component power system
consists of several key components, including a generator, electrolyzes, hydro-
gen storage tank, fuel cell, power control system, and wind turbine [68].
Yang and Aydin presented a two-component power system that uses
air-based energy and H storage in their theoretical study, which was one
of the first of its kind in the literature. Initially, they calculated the avail-
able wind energy and evaluated the yield of the air-based energy conver-
sion system. After revising their windmill model, they assessed the wind
power density and electric power output. In cases where the supply is more
than the demand, the excess electrical power is fed into the electrolysis
cell and continues to be used in the system again. The H(g) released during
this process can be stored as liquid or condensed gas. The gas produced
here can be stored in pressure vessels, used as fuel, in steam production,
or in power generation turbines [69]. A large proportion of the world’s
population does not have access to electricity or clean drinking water. Off-
grid hybrid renewable energy systems, particularly those using wind and
solar power, are being considered as a solution to address both of these
needs. However, designing and implementing these systems is complex,
and achieving an optimal balance between wind and solar resources and
proper storage requires careful engineering solutions. Maliki et al. con-
ducted a study where six hybrid systems were designed and modeled to
increase the availability of freshwater and meet the energy demands of the
population. An improved bees algorithm was used to optimize the design
of these systems and compared with the fit search algorithm. The results
showed that GHRES-based battery energy storage was more cost-effective
than GHRES-based hydrogen energy storage. The hybridization of solar,
battery, and ROD was the most cost-effective energy system with minimal
power supply loss. Overall, the proposed method showed promising results
in achieving efficient off-grid hybrid renewable energy systems [70].
Renewable energy sources like wind and solar are intermittent, which
means that they are not consistently available. This unpredictability can
lead to mismatches in the power grid. However, the diversity in the H
production process can overcome these problems. H(g) can be used as a
raw material with the ability to feed back into electricity by electrolysis. It
can also be used for heating buildings and as fuel for vehicles. Therefore,
hydrogen production and storage can help address the challenges of inter-
mittency in renewable energy sources [71–73].
In the green energy synthesis process, many studies are carried out to
determine the optimum conditions for its use in the H(g) phase. The study
used Markov decision process theory to determine the best policies for
day-to-day decisions such as determining how much energy to store as
hydrogen, how much to buy and sell on the electricity market, and how
much hydrogen to sell for use as gas. In the feasibility study, electricity
transmission conditions, cost, and H market and H purchase conditions
were examined. In the environment identified in northern Europe, the H
valley was established, and the necessary R&D studies were carried out.
The results showed that earnings could be increased by 51%. For a 4.5-MW
wind turbine, this translates to an increase in revenues of €126,000 per
year. The study also emphasized that H purchase deals will be critical in
ensuring a successful energy transportation [74].
In Fan’s study, they developed a hijritic system consisting of fossil fuel, air,
and PV in order to obtain energy from the wind. The goal of the system was to
support the sustainable development of the region while also addressing the
issue of air and sun power outages in Hami [75]. In the study of Fan et al., air
and PV were added to the fossil fuel industry. Energy production is provided
by taking power from fossil fuel (coal), wind, and PV. Additionally, wind and
PV power are used to generate hydrogen, which helps to mitigate the negative
impact of the energy sources’ stochastic, intermittent, and volatile properties
on the grid. The presence of wind energy in the system eliminates the need
for complex air cleaning units. While the amount of CO2 produced by the
coal-derived Boduard reaction decreases significantly with green sources, the
reaction products are evaluated in methanol synthesis [75].
6.5 Conclusion
In conclusion, the wind energy hybrid power generation system with
hydrogen storage is a promising solution to the challenges of relying solely
on wind power as a power source. This system provides a reliable and

efficient power supply even when wind speeds are low or weather condi-
tions are unfavorable. The system can also store excess energy generated at
higher wind speeds, which can then be used at lower wind speeds, stabi-
lizing the energy output of the system. In addition, the hydrogen storage–
wind power hybrid power generation system is environmentally friendly,
producing no emissions or pollutants and contributing to a more sustain-
able energy future. With further development and optimization, this tech-
nology has the potential to play an important role in meeting the growing
global demand for clean and renewable energy.
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7
Technologies Based on Reusable
Wind Turbine Blades
Abhinay Thakur1 and Ashish Kumar2*
Department of Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering and Physical Sciences,

1
Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India

2
Nalanda College of Engineering, Bihar Engineering University, Science,
Technology and Technical Education Department, Government of Bihar,
Bihar, India
Abstract
The growing global demand for clean and sustainable energy sources has pro-
pelled the rapid development of wind power generation. Wind turbines, as the
key components of this industry, require efficient and cost-effective solutions to
maximize their potential. One critical aspect is the design and manufacturing of
wind turbine blades, which significantly impact the overall performance and eco-
nomic viability of wind farms. This chapter explores the emerging technologies
centered around reusable wind turbine blades, highlighting their advancements,
challenges, and implications. The chapter begins by providing an overview of con-
ventional wind turbine blade materials and their limitations in terms of recyclabil-
ity and environmental impact. It then delves into recent research and innovations
in materials engineering, such as composite materials, bio-based resins, and addi-
tive manufacturing techniques. Furthermore, the chapter examines the challenges
faced in implementing reusable blade technologies, including structural integrity,
fatigue resistance, and manufacturing scalability.
Keywords: Wind power generation, reusable wind turbine blades, sustainable
energy sources, materials engineering, recyclability, manufacturing scalability
*Corresponding author: drashishchemlpu@gmail.com
133
7.1 Introduction
The increasing global demand for clean and sustainable energy sources
is driven by the urgent need to address climate change and reduce our
reliance on fossil fuels, which are major contributors to greenhouse gas
emissions [1, 2]. As a result, renewable energy technologies, including
wind power generation, have gained significant attention and investment
worldwide. Wind turbines are at the forefront of the wind power indus-
try, responsible for converting the kinetic energy of wind into electricity.
They consist of several crucial components, but one of the most vital is
the design and manufacturing of wind turbine blades [3, 4]. These blades
are essential for capturing the energy from the wind and transferring it
to the turbine’s rotor, where it is converted into electrical energy. The effi-
ciency and performance of wind turbines greatly depend on the design and
quality of their blades. The design of wind turbine blades must take into
account various factors, including aerodynamics, structural integrity, and
material selection. Efficient blade design ensures optimal energy capture,
enabling wind turbines to generate electricity at maximum capacity [5–7].
Moreover, the manufacturing process plays a crucial role in ensuring the
reliability, durability, and cost-effectiveness of the blades. Figure 7.1 illus-
trates the installation process of a blade at Trianel Windpark Borkum II.
Figure 7.1 Blade installation taking place at Trianel Windpark Borkum II. Adapted with
permission from [91] MDPI. Distributed under Creative Commons attribution-based
license (CCBY 4.0).
Technologies Based on Reusable Wind Turbine Blades 135
With the growing demand for wind energy, there has been a continuous
trend toward larger and more powerful wind turbines. Longer blades are
necessary to capture more wind energy and increase the electricity gener-
ation capacity of wind farms. However, this trend presents unique chal-
lenges in blade design and manufacturing. One of the key challenges is
balancing the structural integrity and weight of the blades. Longer blades
experience greater stresses and loads, requiring careful design consider-
ations to ensure that they can withstand harsh wind conditions and oper-
ate reliably over their lifespan [6, 8, 9]. Additionally, the choice of materials
for blade construction is crucial. Traditional wind turbine blades have
been predominantly made of fiberglass-reinforced composites, which offer
desirable properties such as strength and flexibility. However, these mate-
rials have limitations in terms of recyclability and sustainability, leading to
environmental concerns. Following are several global examples highlight-
ing the challenges and initiatives associated with wind turbine blades and
their environmental impact:
United States: The United States has been a leader in wind power genera-
tion, with a significant number of wind farms across the country. However,
the disposal of decommissioned wind turbine blades has become a con-
cern. According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL),
around 8,000 blades are expected to be retired annually by 2024, lead-
ing to approximately 1.5 million tons of blade waste [10]. To address this
issue, researchers and industry stakeholders are actively exploring recy-
cling technologies and alternative blade materials to minimize waste and
improve sustainability.
Europe: Europe has been at the forefront of renewable energy adoption,
with countries like Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands investing
heavily in wind power. As wind turbines reach the end of their operational
life, European countries are facing challenges in managing the growing
volume of decommissioned blades. Several initiatives have been launched
to tackle this issue, such as the Re-Wind project in Denmark, which aims
to develop sustainable recycling methods for wind turbine blades, and the
Horizon 2020-funded project “BladeTrack,” which focuses on the tracking
and recycling of wind turbine blades [11–13].
China: China has experienced a significant growth in wind power
capacity, making it the world’s largest market for wind energy. However,
the disposal of wind turbine blades has become a concern due to their
non-biodegradable nature. To address this issue, Chinese researchers
and industry players have been exploring various solutions—for exam-
ple, a research team at the Beijing University of Technology has devel-
oped a method for converting decommissioned wind turbine blades into
construction materials like cement and concrete, reducing waste and envi-
ronmental impact.
Australia: Australia has vast wind resources and has been increasing its
wind power capacity in recent years. With the expansion of wind farms,
there is a growing focus on sustainable practices and minimizing the
environmental impact of wind turbine blades. The Australian Renewable
Energy Agency (ARENA) has supported research projects to investigate
innovative blade materials and recycling techniques [14–16]. Additionally,
partnerships between industry and research institutions aim to develop
sustainable blade designs and explore options for repurposing retired
blades.
Brazil: Brazil has made significant strides in wind power development,
particularly in its northeastern region. As wind farms mature and older tur-
bines are replaced, the disposal and recycling of wind turbine blades have
become important considerations. The Brazilian Wind Energy Association
(ABEEólica) is actively promoting research and collaboration to address
the environmental challenges associated with blade waste and foster sus-
tainable practices in the wind energy sector.
These global examples highlight the urgency and ongoing efforts to find
effective solutions for the design, manufacturing, and end-of-life man-
agement of wind turbine blades. Governments, research institutions, and
industry stakeholders are collaborating to develop technologies and strat-
egies that promote the reuse, recycling, and sustainable disposal of wind
turbine blades, aiming to maximize the benefits of wind power genera-
tion while minimizing its environmental impact. The continuous growth
of wind energy has led to the development of larger and more powerful
wind turbines, with longer blades that can capture greater amounts of wind
energy. However, the design and manufacturing of these blades present
unique challenges, particularly in terms of their environmental impact
and end-of-life management [17, 18]. Traditional wind turbine blades are
predominantly made from fiberglass-reinforced composites, which offer
favorable mechanical properties but pose limitations in terms of recyclabil-
ity and sustainability. As the number of decommissioned wind turbine
blades increases, finding effective solutions for their disposal or recycling
becomes a pressing concern.
In response to these challenges, there is a growing interest in technol-
ogies centered around reusable wind turbine blades. Reusable blades aim
to address the environmental and economic implications of conventional
blade materials by incorporating innovative designs, materials, and man-
ufacturing techniques that enhance recyclability, reusability, and overall
sustainability. These technologies have the potential to revolutionize the
wind energy industry, offering efficient and cost-effective solutions that

maximize energy production and minimize the environmental footprint of
wind farms. The objectives of this chapter are to explore the advancements,
challenges, and implications of technologies based on reusable wind tur-
bine blades. By examining the latest research and innovations in materi-
als engineering, manufacturing processes, and design optimization, this
chapter aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art
approaches for developing reusable wind turbine blades. Furthermore, the
chapter will discuss the challenges faced in implementing these technolo-
gies, such as ensuring structural integrity, fatigue resistance, and manufac-
turing scalability.
One key aspect to be addressed in this chapter is the limitations of
conventional wind turbine blade materials in terms of recyclability and
environmental impact. The use of fiberglass-reinforced composites, while
providing desirable mechanical properties, poses challenges in terms of
end-of-life disposal and sustainability. Alternative materials and compos-
ites, including bio-based resins and recycled materials, will be explored as
potential solutions to enhance recyclability and reduce the environmental
impact of wind turbine blades. Additionally, the chapter will delve into the
emerging advancements in materials engineering for reusable blades. The
utilization of composite materials, such as carbon fiber-reinforced poly-
mers, as well as the integration of bio-based resins derived from renewable
sources, has shown promise in enhancing the sustainability and reusability
of wind turbine blades. Furthermore, additive manufacturing techniques,
including 3D printing, offer new possibilities for the production of com-
plex blade designs and customization, contributing to increased efficiency
and reduced waste.
7.2 Wind Power Generation and the Importance of

Wind Turbine Blades
7.2.1 Global Demand for Clean and Sustainable Energy
The increasing global demand for clean and sustainable energy sources
stems from the urgent need to address climate change and reduce our
reliance on fossil fuels. The burning of fossil fuels for energy production
releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to the green-
house effect and global warming. This has led to adverse effects such as
rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and the loss of biodiversity [19].
To mitigate these impacts and transition to a more sustainable future, the
global community has recognized the importance of adopting renewable

energy sources. Wind power generation has become a central focus in the
quest for sustainable energy solutions. Wind turbines harness the kinetic
energy of the wind and convert it into electricity through the rotation of a
rotor. They offer numerous advantages over conventional energy sources.
Firstly, wind power is a clean source of energy, as it does not produce harm-
ful emissions or pollutants during operation. This helps to improve air
quality and reduce the environmental impact associated with traditional
energy generation. Secondly, wind is a renewable resource that is abundant
and widely available. Unlike finite fossil fuel resources, wind energy can be
harnessed indefinitely, making it a sustainable and long-term solution for
meeting our energy needs.
The global demand for wind power has seen significant growth in recent
years. According to the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), the cumu-
lative installed capacity of wind power reached 743 gigawatts (GW) by
the end of 2020, representing a substantial increase from previous years
[16, 17, 20, 21]. Countries around the world, including China, the United
States, Germany, India, and Spain, have been leading the way in wind
power installations. This trend is expected to continue as more countries
prioritize renewable energy and set ambitious targets for increasing their
share of wind power in the energy mix. One of the key components of a
wind turbine that plays a critical role in wind power generation is the wind
turbine blade. The design and manufacturing of wind turbine blades have
a significant impact on the overall performance and economic viability of
wind farms. The blades are responsible for capturing the energy from the
wind and converting it into rotational motion. The efficiency and effective-
ness of this energy conversion process depend on the design, materials,
and construction of the blades. As the wind energy industry continues to
expand, there has been a trend towards larger and more powerful wind
turbines, necessitating longer blades capable of capturing greater amounts
of wind energy. Longer blades have a larger swept area, enabling them
to intercept more wind and generate higher electricity output [22, 23].
Moreover, the aerodynamic design of the blades plays a crucial role in opti-
mizing energy conversion and minimizing energy losses due to turbulence
or drag. A well-designed blade shape can enhance the efficiency and per-
formance of the turbine, maximizing its power output.
The structural integrity of wind turbine blades is another crucial
aspect to consider. The blades are subjected to various dynamic forces,
including wind gusts, turbulence, and vibrations. They must be able to
withstand these loads and maintain their integrity over the lifespan of
the turbine. Failure or damage to the blades can lead to reduced energy
output, increased maintenance costs, and potential safety hazards.

Therefore, the materials and construction techniques used for blade
manufacturing must provide sufficient strength, stiffness, and fatigue
resistance. Traditionally, wind turbine blades have been constructed
using fiberglass-reinforced composites. These materials offer favorable
mechanical properties, such as high strength-to-weight ratio and corro-
sion resistance. However, they present limitations in terms of recyclabil-
ity and environmental sustainability. As the number of decommissioned
wind turbine blades increases, finding effective solutions for their disposal
or recycling becomes a pressing concern. Improper disposal can lead to
environmental pollution and waste management challenges. To address
these challenges, there is ongoing research and innovation focused on
developing technologies and materials for reusable wind turbine blades
[24, 25]. Advanced composite materials, such as carbon fiber-reinforced
polymers, are being explored for their superior mechanical properties,
including higher strength and stiffness. These materials can enable the
production of longer and lighter blades, improving energy capture and
reducing material usage. Additionally, bio-based resins derived from
renewable sources are being investigated as greener alternatives to con-
ventional blade materials, offering improved recyclability and reduced
environmental impact.
7.2.2 Role of Wind Turbines in Wind Power Generation

Wind turbines play a pivotal role in wind power generation by harness-
ing the renewable energy of the wind and converting it into electricity
[26, 27]. They are the primary means by which wind energy is captured
and transformed into a usable form for powering homes, businesses, and
industries. The basic structure of a wind turbine consists of several essen-
tial components. At the base of the turbine is the tower, which provides
support and elevation for the other components. The tower is designed to
withstand the various forces exerted by the wind and to ensure the stability
of the entire structure. Towers can vary in height depending on the size
and type of wind turbine, with taller towers enabling access to stronger
and more consistent wind resources at higher altitudes. Above the tower,
the nacelle is positioned. The nacelle houses the crucial machinery and
equipment required for the generation of electricity. This includes the gen-
erator, which converts the mechanical energy from the rotor into electrical
energy. Additionally, the nacelle contains other components such as the
gearbox, brake system, control systems, and sensors, all of which are nec-
essary for the efficient operation and control of the turbine [28, 29].
The rotor, located at the front of the turbine, consists of the hub and
the blades. The hub is connected to the main shaft within the nacelle, and
it serves as the central connection point for the blades. The blades, typ-
ically three in number, are designed to capture the kinetic energy of the
wind as it flows past them. They are aerodynamically shaped to maximize
the amount of energy extracted from the wind, allowing for the most
efficient conversion into rotational motion. The length and design of the
wind turbine blades play a crucial role in determining the turbine’s per-
formance. Longer blades have a larger swept area, which means they can
capture more wind and generate greater rotational energy. This translates
into higher power output and increased electricity generation. Therefore,
advancements in blade design, including increased length and improved
aerodynamics, have significantly contributed to the overall efficiency and
viability of wind turbines. The captured rotational energy from the blades
is transferred to the generator within the nacelle through the main shaft
and gearbox. The generator converts the mechanical energy into electrical
energy by employing the principle of electromagnetic induction. As the
rotor spins, the magnetic field within the generator is manipulated, induc-
ing a flow of electric current in the windings. This current is then collected
and transmitted through electrical systems to be utilized or fed into the
power grid for distribution.
The electricity generated by wind turbines is typically in the form of
alternating current (AC). To make it compatible with the electrical grid,
it is often converted to a higher voltage and transmitted over long dis-
tances through power lines [30, 31]. Once it reaches its destination, the
electricity can be used directly by consumers or businesses, or it can be
stored for later use in batteries or other energy storage systems. Wind tur-
bines have a significant advantage in that wind is a renewable and widely
available resource. Unlike fossil fuels, wind energy does not deplete or
contribute to harmful greenhouse gas emissions when used for electricity
generation. Wind power is a clean and sustainable alternative, reducing
reliance on fossil fuels and helping to combat climate change. The role of
wind turbines in wind power generation extends beyond their immediate
function of converting wind energy into electricity. They also contribute
to the diversification of energy sources, reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
create jobs in the renewable energy sector, and promote energy indepen-
dence. As countries around the world strive to increase their share of
renewable energy, wind turbines and the continued advancement of their
technology play a crucial role in achieving a sustainable and low-carbon
future.
7.2.3 Impact of Wind Turbine Blades on Performance

and Viability
The design and manufacturing of wind turbine blades have a significant
impact on the performance and viability of wind power generation. As
the primary components responsible for capturing the kinetic energy of
the wind, the efficiency, structural integrity, and material properties of the
blades directly influence the power output, reliability, and cost-effective-
ness of wind turbines. The efficient blade design is crucial for maximizing
the energy conversion from the wind [30–32]. The length, shape, and cur-
vature of the blades are carefully optimized to achieve the highest possible
energy capture. Longer blades have a larger swept area, allowing them to
intercept a greater volume of wind and extract more energy. Additionally,
the aerodynamic profile of the blades is designed to minimize drag and tur-
bulence, enabling smoother airflow and improved efficiency. By enhancing
the aerodynamic performance of the blades, the overall efficiency of wind
turbines can be significantly increased, leading to higher electricity gener-
ation. The structural integrity of wind turbine blades is essential to ensure
their performance and longevity. The blades must withstand the dynamic
forces exerted by the wind, including high wind speeds, gusts, and tur-
bulent conditions. Failure or damage to the blades can result in reduced
energy output, increased maintenance costs, and potentially catastrophic
failures. Therefore, the materials and construction techniques used for
blade manufacturing must provide sufficient strength, stiffness, and fatigue
resistance.
Traditionally, wind turbine blades have been predominantly made of
fiberglass-reinforced composites. These materials offer a favorable com-
bination of strength, weight, and cost-effectiveness. However, they pose
challenges in terms of recyclability and sustainability. With the growing
number of decommissioned wind turbine blades, finding effective solutions
for their disposal or recycling has become a pressing concern. The devel-
opment of advanced composite materials, such as carbon fiber-reinforced
polymers, is being explored to improve the mechanical properties of the
blades while also enhancing their recyclability. Moreover, the choice of
materials for wind turbine blades has implications for their environmental
impact throughout their life cycle. From raw material extraction to man-
ufacturing, transportation, operation, and eventual decommissioning, the
environmental footprint of the blades needs to be considered. Efforts are
being made to develop more sustainable materials, such as bio-based res-
ins derived from renewable sources. These materials offer the potential
to reduce the environmental impact of wind turbine blades by utilizing

renewable resources and reducing reliance on fossil fuel-derived materials.
The manufacturing processes for wind turbine blades are also evolv-
ing to improve performance and reduce costs. Advanced manufacturing
techniques, such as automated manufacturing and robotic systems, are
being employed to enhance precision and efficiency in blade production.
Furthermore, additive manufacturing, commonly known as 3D printing,
is being explored as a means to optimize blade designs and reduce material
waste [33–35]. This technology allows for complex geometries and cus-
tomization, enabling the production of blades that are specifically tailored
to different wind conditions and turbine specifications. The impact of wind
turbine blades extends beyond their immediate function of converting
wind energy into electricity. The reliability and maintenance requirements
of the blades significantly affect the economic viability of wind projects.
Blades that are prone to damage or require frequent maintenance can lead
to increased downtime and higher operational costs. Therefore, advance-
ments in blade design and materials that enhance durability and reduce
maintenance needs are crucial for maximizing the economic benefits of
wind power generation.
Furthermore, the deployment of wind farms is often subject to regu-
latory and environmental considerations. The visual impact of wind tur-
bines, including their blades, on the landscape and local communities is an
important aspect to address. Efforts are being made to design blades that
are not only efficient but also visually appealing, minimizing visual foot-
print and enhancing the public acceptance of wind energy projects.
7.3 Conventional Wind Turbine Blade Materials

and Limitations
7.3.1 Overview of Conventional Blade Materials
Conventional wind turbine blades rely on the use of fiberglass-reinforced
composites due to their excellent combination of mechanical properties
[36–38]. Fiberglass, also known as glass fiber, is a lightweight and high-
strength material that is commonly used in various industries, including
aerospace, automotive, and construction. In wind turbine blade applica-
tions, fiberglass provides the necessary strength and stiffness to withstand
the dynamic forces exerted by the wind. The manufacturing process for
conventional wind turbine blades begins with the creation of a mold. The
mold is typically made of two halves, representing the positive and negative
shapes of the blade. These molds are usually constructed using materials
such as fiberglass or steel. Layers of fiberglass fabric are then laid inside the
mold. The fiberglass fabric consists of continuous strands of glass fibers,
which are arranged in a specific orientation to optimize the strength and
performance of the blade. The fabric is cut and placed in a way that follows
the desired blade curvature and shape [39].
Next, the resin matrix is applied to impregnate the fiberglass fabric.
The resin matrix serves as the binding material that holds the glass fibers
together, providing structural integrity to the composite. Epoxy and poly-
ester resins are commonly used in wind turbine blade manufacturing due
to their excellent adhesion to the glass fibers and their ability to cure into a
rigid solid. The impregnated fiberglass fabric is carefully layered inside the
mold, ensuring that the fibers are evenly distributed and there are no voids
or air bubbles [40, 41]. This process is often done manually or using auto-
mated equipment to ensure precision and consistency. Once the fiberglass
fabric is in place, the mold is closed, and the blade is subjected to a curing
process. Curing involves applying heat and pressure to the blade, allowing
the resin to chemically react and harden. The curing process typically takes
several hours or even days, depending on the specific resin system and cur-
ing conditions. After curing, the mold is opened, and the blade is carefully
removed. Any excess material or imperfections are trimmed or sanded to
achieve the final desired shape and finish. The blade is then inspected for
quality assurance, ensuring that it meets the required specifications and
standards.
The use of fiberglass-reinforced composites in wind turbine blades offers
several advantages. Firstly, fiberglass has a high strength-to-weight ratio,
making the blades lightweight yet capable of withstanding the mechanical
loads imposed by the wind. This lightweight characteristic allows for easier
installation and reduces the structural demands on the entire turbine sys-
tem. Additionally, fiberglass composites offer excellent fatigue resistance,
which is essential for wind turbine blades that continuously experience
cyclic loading due to wind gusts and turbulence. The ability of the material
to withstand repeated stress cycles without significant degradation is cru-
cial for the long-term performance and reliability of the blades. Moreover,
fiberglass-reinforced composites provide good corrosion resistance, mak-
ing the blades suitable for use in harsh environments, including offshore
wind farms. The non-metallic nature of fiberglass eliminates the risk of
corrosion, reducing maintenance requirements and prolonging the opera-
tional life of the blades. Pathak et al. [42] presented a novel approach using
cellulose microparticles (CMP) and cellulose microfibers (CMF) as fillers to
reinforce water-based polyurethane (PU) coatings on glass fiber-reinforced
polymer (GFRP) substrates. These coatings were developed using a simple

spray method. Field emission scanning electron microscopy images reveal
the agglomerated nature of CMP particles and the fibrous morphology
of CMF. Fourier transform infrared spectra demonstrate the presence of
cellulose and polyurethane through the characteristic absorption bands
of C–H, C=O, and N–H. Thermal gravimetric analysis results reveal the
stability of CMP up to 285°C, while CMF degradation occurs at 243°C.
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy illustrates the presence of C–C/C–H,
C–O, C–OH, and O–C=O bonds associated with cellulose structure in
CMP, CMF, and the corresponding coatings. The coatings’ resistance to
solid particle erosion was evaluated at different concentrations of CMP and
CMF, using impact angles of 30° and 90°. The erosion scars of PUCMF 5
wt.% coatings at 30° and 90° impact angles are depicted in Figure 7.2a and
Figure 7.2b, respectively, displaying their characteristic 3D profiles. The
profiles reveal that the erosion scar shape for a 30° impact angle resembles
an elliptical cone, whereas for a 90° impact angle, it resembles a circular
cone. It is worth noting that in soft polymeric coatings, erodent particles
may become embedded within the coating during the solid particle ero-
sion (SPE) test, leading to weight gain after testing. Therefore, in this study,
(a) 70 um
60 µm
50 µm
Depth (µm)
60
40 µm 40
30 µm
20
20 um
0
10 µm 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 µm Width (mm)
Top View Side View
(b)
Depth (µm)
15 µm
15
10 µm 10
5
5 µm 0
0 1 2 3 4
0 µm Width (mm)
Top View Side View
Figure 7.2 3D top views and side views of the erosion scars of the PUCMF 5 wt.% coating.
(a) Erosion scar at 30° impact angle. (b) Erosion scar at 90° impact angle. Adapted with
permission from [42] MDPI. Distributed under Creative Commons attribution-based
license (CCBY 4.0).
material loss was evaluated based on volume loss rather than weight loss.
The volume losses were determined by analyzing the 2D profiles of the
erosion scars. Among the coatings, the CMP-reinforced PU coating with
a 5 wt.% filler concentration and the CMF-reinforced PU coating with a
2 wt.% concentration exhibited the best performance against solid particle
erosion. Additionally, nanoindentation studies were conducted to establish
a relationship between H3/E2 and the average erosion rate of the coatings.
However, there are also limitations associated with the use of conven-
tional blade materials. One significant limitation is the recyclability of
fiberglass-reinforced composites. Due to the complex nature of the mate-
rial, separating and recovering the different components during the recy-
cling process can be challenging. As a result, most decommissioned wind
turbine blades end up in landfills, contributing to waste accumulation and
environmental concerns. Another limitation is the environmental impact
associated with the manufacturing process of fiberglass composites. The
production of fiberglass and the resin matrix requires energy-intensive pro-
cesses and the use of chemicals, which can contribute to carbon emissions
and environmental pollution if not properly managed. Additionally, the
disposal of wind turbine blades at the end of their life cycle raises concerns
about potential environmental contamination due to the presence of res-
ins and other components. To address these limitations, ongoing research
and development efforts are focused on the exploration of alternative blade
materials and manufacturing techniques. Advanced composite materials,
such as carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP), are being investigated
for their superior mechanical properties and recyclability potential. Bio-
based resins derived from renewable resources are also being explored as
greener alternatives to traditional petroleum-based resins.
7.3.2 Limitations in Terms of Recyclability and

Environmental Impact
While conventional wind turbine blades made from fiberglass-reinforced
composites offer numerous advantages in terms of mechanical properties
and performance, they also pose significant limitations in terms of recy-
clability and environmental impact. These limitations have led to increas-
ing concerns regarding the end-of-life management of wind turbine blades
and the sustainability of the wind energy industry as a whole [43–45]. One
of the major challenges associated with fiberglass-reinforced composites
is their limited recyclability. The complex composition of these materi-
als, consisting of a combination of glass fibers and resin matrix, makes it
difficult to separate and recover the different components during the recy-
cling process. The fiberglass fibers are durable and have a long lifespan,
while the resin matrix is thermosetting and cannot be easily re-melted and
reshaped. As a result, the recycling of wind turbine blades becomes a com-
plicated and costly process.
Currently, the most common approach for recycling wind turbine blades
is through mechanical grinding or shredding, which reduces the blades to
small fragments. However, this process only allows for the recovery of the
fiberglass fibers, while the resin matrix is typically discarded as waste. The
recovered fibers can be used in low-value applications, such as reinforcing
concrete or producing insulation materials. However, the recycling rate
is still relatively low, and the overall environmental impact of the recy-
cling process remains a concern. In addition to the limited recyclability,
the manufacturing process of fiberglass composites also has environmen-
tal implications [46–48]. The production of fiberglass requires energy-
intensive processes, such as the melting and spinning of glass fibers, which
contribute to carbon emissions and energy consumption. Similarly, the
production of the resin matrix involves the use of chemicals and petro-
leum-based raw materials, further contributing to environmental pollution
and resource depletion. Furthermore, the disposal of wind turbine blades at
the end of their operational life presents a significant environmental chal-
lenge. As the number of decommissioned wind turbine blades continues
to increase, finding sustainable and responsible solutions for their disposal
becomes imperative. Currently, a significant portion of decommissioned
blades ends up in landfills, which not only consumes valuable landfill space
but also poses a risk of potential environmental contamination due to the
presence of resins and other components.
To address these limitations and enhance the sustainability of wind tur-
bine blades, ongoing research and innovation are focused on developing
alternative materials and manufacturing processes. One promising avenue
is the exploration of advanced composite materials, such as carbon fiber-
reinforced polymers (CFRP), which offer superior mechanical properties
and improved recyclability compared to fiberglass composites [19, 49, 50].
CFRP blades have the potential for higher recycling rates, as carbon fibers
can be recovered and reused in various applications. Another approach
is the investigation of bio-based resins derived from renewable resources
as a greener alternative to petroleum-based resins. Bio-based resins have
the advantage of being more environmentally friendly in terms of their
production and disposal. They can reduce the carbon footprint associated
with the manufacturing process and offer improved end-of-life options,
such as biodegradation or composting. Furthermore, research efforts are
also directed toward the development of innovative recycling technolo-

gies specifically tailored for wind turbine blades. These technologies aim
to overcome the challenges associated with the separation and recovery of
different materials, enabling a higher recycling rate and reducing the envi-
ronmental impact of blade disposal.
7.4 Advancements in Materials Engineering for

Reusable Wind Turbine Blades
7.4.1 Composite Materials in Blade Design
Composite materials have revolutionized the design and manufacturing
of wind turbine blades, with carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP)
emerging as a promising alternative to conventional fiberglass-reinforced
composites. CFRP blades utilize carbon fibers as the reinforcing element,
which are embedded in a polymer matrix [14, 51]. The exceptional prop-
erties of carbon fibers make them highly suitable for wind turbine blade
applications. Carbon fibers have an incredibly high strength-to-weight
ratio, providing excellent structural integrity while minimizing weight.
This enables the production of longer blades that can capture more wind
energy and generate higher power output. The stiffness of carbon fibers
also contributes to the overall stability and performance of the blades.
By utilizing CFRP materials, wind turbine manufacturers can achieve
significant improvements in blade efficiency and energy capture. The
lightweight nature of carbon fiber allows for reduced loads on the turbine,
enabling it to operate more effectively even in low wind conditions. This
results in higher annual energy production and improved overall perfor-
mance of wind farms. Furthermore, the recyclability of CFRP materials
presents a significant advantage over traditional fiberglass composites. As
wind turbine blades reach the end of their operational life, the recycling of
composite materials becomes crucial to minimize waste and environmen-
tal impact. Carbon fibers can be recovered from decommissioned blades
through various recycling processes, such as mechanical or chemical
methods. These fibers can then be reused in other applications, reducing
the demand for virgin carbon fibers and conserving valuable resources. Li
et al. [8] synthesized a biochar/polypyrrole coating on the surface of bio-
char. Characterization of the coating revealed its porous structure, irreg-
ular dents, and bumps, which contributed to the formation of a nanoscale
roughness structure with excellent super-hydrophobic properties.
Figure 7.3a illustrates a low-speed, return-flow wind tunnel equipped with
Centrifugal blower Cooling section Blade

Beam
Support
Compressor
Stable section Contraction Test section Control panel

section
(a) (b)
Figure 7.3 Schematic diagram depicting (a) the icing wind tunnel test system and (b) the
test blade model. Adapted with permission from [8] MDPI. Distributed under Creative
Common attribution-based license (CCBY 4.0).
refrigeration and spray devices. These devices were incorporated into con-
ventional wind tunnels to generate a low-temperature icing environment.
The coating also exhibited a sufficient surface area. The wetting charac-
teristics of the coating were evaluated using contact angle measurements,
which showed a contact angle of 151°, indicating the coating’s exceptional
hydrophobicity. Icing wind tunnel tests were conducted to assess the
anti-icing performance of the biochar coating and the biochar/polypyrrole
coating at different ambient temperatures and wind speeds. To analyze the
morphology and structure of the coatings prepared in this study, scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) was employed. The experimental voltage was
set at 5 kV. Figures 7.4a and 7.4b display the microstructure of biochar and
biochar/polypyrrole, respectively. The image in Figure 7.4a reveals that the
biochar material exhibits a highly porous structure. On the other hand, the
scan of the biochar/polypyrrole in Figure 7.4b shows a honeycomb-like
structure. Upon closer examination, it is evident that the biochar surface is
adorned with polypyrrole nanowires, which display a uniform morphology
and have micrometer-level lengths. These porous structures, as depicted in
Figures 7.4a and 7.4b, contribute to a large specific surface area and rough
surface characteristics, thereby enhancing the hydrophobicity of the coat-
ings. The elemental composition of the biochar, as indicated by the EDS
analysis diagram in Figure 7.4c, is primarily composed of carbon (C) and
oxygen (O) elements. Similarly, the EDS analysis diagram of biochar/poly-
pyrrole in Figure 7.4d reveals that the elemental composition consists of
carbon (C), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). Furthermore, the biochar/poly-
pyrrole coating exhibited the most significant anti-icing effect. This study
400nm
SU8010 5.0kV 12.0mm x60.0k SE(UL) 2022/7/7 08:04 500nm SU8010 5.0kV 12.1mm x9.00k SE(UL) 2022/7/7 08:19 5.00um
(a) (b)
35,000
C Biochar Biochar/polypyrrole
40,000 C
30,000
25,000
30,000
20,000
cps/ev
cps/ev
15,000 0 20,000
10,000
10,000
5,000 N
0
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
KeV KeV
(c) (d)
Figure 7.4 SEM images of (a) biochar, (b) biochar/polypyrrole, EDS analysis, (c) biochar,
and (d) biochar/polypyrrole. Adapted with permission from [8] MDPI. Distributed under
Creative Commons attribution-based license (CCBY 4.0).
provides practical insights for the development of anti-icing coatings for

wind turbine blades.
Advancements in recycling technologies for CFRP are continuously
being explored to enhance the efficiency and viability of the recycling pro-
cess. Methods such as pyrolysis, solvent-based extraction, and mechanical
grinding have shown promise in separating and recovering carbon fibers
from the polymer matrix. These recycled fibers can be incorporated into
new composite materials or utilized in other industries, such as automo-
tive, aerospace, or construction. Some global examples of advancements in
composite materials for wind turbine blades are as follows:
• LM Wind Power (Denmark): LM Wind Power, a leading

manufacturer of wind turbine blades, has made significant
progress in the development of composite materials for
blades. They have successfully integrated carbon fiber into
their blade designs, resulting in longer and more efficient

blades with increased energy capture capabilities.
• GE Renewable Energy (United States): GE Renewable Energy
has been at the forefront of composite materials research for
wind turbine blades. Their “carbon-neutral” wind turbine
blades utilize a combination of carbon fiber and bio-based
resins, reducing the environmental impact and improving
the sustainability of blade production.
• Vestas (Denmark): Vestas, one of the largest wind turbine
manufacturers globally, has been exploring composite mate-
rials for their blade designs. They have incorporated carbon
fiber materials into their blade structures, enabling longer
blade lengths and higher energy production. Vestas is also
actively involved in research and development to improve
the recyclability and sustainability of their blades.
• Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy (Spain): Siemens
Gamesa Renewable Energy has been investing in the devel-
opment of advanced composite materials for wind turbine
blades. They have introduced carbon fiber materials in their
blade designs, resulting in lighter and more durable blades
that enhance the overall performance and efficiency of their
turbines.
• Goldwind (China): Goldwind, a major wind turbine manu-
facturer in China, has been focusing on the use of advanced
composite materials for their blades. They have integrated
carbon fiber into their blade designs, leading to improved
strength, stability, and energy capture capabilities.
However, there are challenges associated with the widespread adoption

of CFRP in wind turbine blades. The cost of carbon fibers is higher com-
pared to fiberglass, making CFRP blades more expensive to manufacture.
This cost factor poses a barrier to the widespread implementation of CFRP
blades, particularly in large-scale wind farms. Additionally, the production
process for CFRP blades requires specialized manufacturing techniques
and expertise, adding to the complexity and cost of blade production.
7.4.2 Bio-Based Resins for Sustainable Blades

In the quest for more sustainable wind turbine blades, there has been a
growing interest in the development and utilization of bio-based resins.
Bio-based resins are derived from renewable sources such as plant-based
materials, offering a greener alternative to conventional petroleum-based

resins. These resins have the potential to significantly reduce the environ-
mental impact of blade manufacturing and improve the overall sustainabil-
ity of wind power generation. One of the primary advantages of bio-based
resins is their lower carbon footprint. Petroleum-based resins are derived
from non-renewable fossil fuels and contribute to greenhouse gas emis-
sions throughout their production process. In contrast, bio-based resins
are derived from renewable resources such as vegetable oils, starches, or
lignocellulosic biomass. The production of bio-based resins generally
requires less energy and generates fewer greenhouse gas emissions, mak-
ing them more environmentally friendly. Furthermore, bio-based resins
offer the potential for improved end-of-life management of wind turbine
blades. Traditional fiberglass blades pose challenges in terms of their recy-
clability and disposal [15, 17, 52]. Since fiberglass composites are not easily
recyclable, decommissioned blades often end up in landfills, contributing
to waste accumulation. In contrast, bio-based resins can be more easily
decomposed or recycled, offering a viable solution for reducing waste and
promoting a circular economy.
The use of bio-based resins in blade manufacturing also presents oppor-
tunities for local sourcing and regional economic development. Many bio-
based resins can be derived from locally available agricultural or forestry
by-products, creating opportunities for rural communities to participate
in the renewable energy supply chain. This localized sourcing of materials
can enhance regional economic growth and job creation and can reduce
dependence on imported resources. Some global examples of the use of
bio-based resins in wind turbine blade manufacturing are as follows:
• Vestas: Vestas, a leading wind turbine manufacturer, has

been actively researching and developing bio-based resins
for blade production. In collaboration with partners, they
have successfully incorporated bio-based resins derived
from vegetable oils into their blade manufacturing pro-
cess. These bio-based resins offer improved recyclability
and reduced environmental impact compared to traditional
resin systems.
• LM Wind Power: LM Wind Power, a subsidiary of GE
Renewable Energy, has been working on sustainable blade
solutions, including the use of bio-based resins. They have
developed a prototype blade using a bio-based epoxy resin
derived from vegetable oils. The prototype blade demon-
strated comparable performance to conventional blades
while reducing the carbon footprint associated with resin

production.
• Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy: Siemens Gamesa Renew
able Energy has also explored the use of bio-based resins in
wind turbine blades. They have successfully produced blades
using bio-based epoxy resins derived from vegetable oils. These
bio-based resins offer advantages in terms of recyclability and
reduced energy consumption during the manufacturing pro-
cess [53, 54].
• Enercon: Enercon, a German wind turbine manufacturer,
has been actively researching sustainable materials for wind
turbine blade production. They have explored the use of bio-
based resins derived from renewable sources such as vege-
table oils and plant-based polymers. These bio-based resins
offer improved environmental performance and contribute
to the overall sustainability of wind energy.
• Research institutions: Several research institutions and
universities worldwide are also investigating the potential
of bio-based resins for wind turbine blades—for example,
the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) has conducted
research on bio-based resins derived from plant-based mate-
rials for blade manufacturing. These studies aim to develop
sustainable and recyclable solutions for the wind energy
industry [16, 21, 23, 55].
However, the widespread adoption of bio-based resins for wind tur-

bine blades still faces certain challenges. One key challenge is the need for
cost-effective and scalable production processes. Bio-based resins are often
more expensive to produce than petroleum-based resins, mainly due to the
higher cost of feedstock and processing technologies. Scaling up produc-
tion and optimizing manufacturing processes are essential to reduce costs
and make bio-based resins economically competitive. Another challenge
is ensuring the performance and durability of wind turbine blades made
with bio-based resins. The mechanical properties of bio-based resins may
differ from those of petroleum-based resins, requiring careful formulation
and optimization to meet the stringent performance requirements of wind
turbine blades [56–65]. Research and development efforts are focused on
enhancing mechanical properties, such as strength, stiffness, and fatigue
resistance, to ensure the long-term reliability and performance of blades
made with bio-based resins. Several companies and research institu-
tions are actively exploring the use of bio-based resins in wind turbine
blades—for example, GE Renewable Energy has developed a prototype

blade using bio-based resins derived from vegetable oils. The prototype
demonstrated comparable performance to traditional blades while reduc-
ing the environmental impact.
7.4.3 Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Blade Production

Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, has emerged as a
disruptive technology in various industries, including the manufacturing
of wind turbine blades. This innovative approach offers new possibilities
for designing and producing blades with increased efficiency, reduced
costs, and improved sustainability. Additive manufacturing techniques
have the potential to revolutionize the wind energy industry by enabling
the production of complex blade geometries, customization, and reduced
material waste. One of the key advantages of additive manufacturing in
blade production is its ability to create intricate and optimized designs
[16, 22, 31]. Traditional blade manufacturing processes often involve
the use of molds, which restrict design flexibility and limit the achiev-
able geometries. In contrast, additive manufacturing allows for the pro-
duction of complex, free-form shapes that can be tailored to enhance
aerodynamic performance and energy capture. This capability enables
the design of blades with improved efficiency and reduced aerodynamic
drag, resulting in increased power output. Some global examples of addi-
tive manufacturing techniques being used in wind turbine blade produc-
tion are the following:
• Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy (SGRE): Siemens Gamesa,

a leading wind turbine manufacturer, has been exploring
additive manufacturing for blade production. They have part-
nered with companies like Oak Ridge National Laboratory in
the United States to develop 3D printing techniques for man-
ufacturing wind turbine blades. The goal is to optimize blade
designs, reduce production costs, and enhance overall turbine
performance.
• Vestas: Vestas, another prominent wind turbine manufac-
turer, has also ventured into additive manufacturing for
blade production. They have collaborated with the Technical
University of Denmark to develop 3D printing techniques
that enable the production of complex blade geometries.
This approach allows Vestas to optimize blade designs for
specific wind conditions and improve energy capture.
• GE Renewable Energy: GE Renewable Energy has been

exploring the use of additive manufacturing for wind tur-
bine blades. They have partnered with Oak Ridge National
Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories in the United
States to develop new manufacturing techniques. GE aims
to leverage additive manufacturing to create larger and more
efficient blades, leading to increased energy generation from
wind turbines.
• ORE Catapult: The Offshore Renewable Energy (ORE)
Catapult, based in the United Kingdom, has been actively
involved in researching and testing additive manufacturing
techniques for wind turbine blades [17]. They have con-
ducted projects focused on the development of large-scale
3D printing methods for blade production. Their efforts aim
to enhance blade performance, reduce costs, and accelerate
the deployment of wind energy technologies.
Furthermore, additive manufacturing offers the potential for light-

weight blade structures. By utilizing advanced lattice structures and opti-
mizing material distribution, it is possible to reduce the weight of the
blades without compromising their structural integrity. Lighter blades
require less energy to rotate, allowing for improved turbine performance
and efficiency. Additionally, the reduced weight of the blades can lead to
lower material costs and transportation expenses. Another significant
advantage of additive manufacturing is the potential for customization.
With traditional manufacturing processes, blades are often produced in
large quantities with standardized designs. However, additive manufac-
turing enables the production of unique blades tailored to specific site
conditions and wind profiles. This customization can optimize energy
capture and maximize the performance of wind turbines in varying envi-
ronments. Additionally, customization can lead to a reduction in main-
tenance costs and downtime, as the blades can be designed to better
withstand specific wind conditions and loads. Additive manufacturing
also offers the opportunity to reduce material waste during the manufac-
turing process. Traditional blade production methods often result in sig-
nificant material waste, as excess material is trimmed or discarded during
the shaping and molding process. In contrast, additive manufacturing is
an additive process, where materials are added layer by layer, resulting in
minimal waste generation. This reduction in material waste contributes to
the sustainability of blade production by minimizing resource consump-
tion and environmental impact.
Furthermore, additive manufacturing can streamline the supply chain

and reduce lead times in blade production. With traditional manufactur-
ing processes, the production of molds and tooling can be time-consuming
and expensive. Additive manufacturing eliminates the need for molds,
allowing for more rapid prototyping and production. This increased effi-
ciency can accelerate the development and deployment of wind turbine
blades, contributing to the growth of the wind energy industry. While
additive manufacturing holds great promise for blade production, there
are still challenges to overcome [66, 67, 68–75, 76–78]. The scale-up of
additive manufacturing for large wind turbine blades remains a technical
and logistical challenge. Currently, the size limitations of additive manu-
facturing equipment restrict the production of full-scale blades. However,
advancements in technology and the development of large-scale additive
manufacturing systems are underway to address this limitation.
7.5 Challenges in Implementing Reusable Blade

Technologies
7.5.1 Structural Integrity of Reusable Blades
Structural integrity is a critical aspect of reusable wind turbine blades as
it directly impacts their performance, reliability, and safety. Wind turbine
blades experience complex and dynamic loading conditions during oper-
ation, including aerodynamic forces, gravitational loads, and mechanical
stresses. Therefore, it is essential to design and manufacture blades that can
withstand these forces and maintain their structural integrity throughout
their operational lifespan [18, 27, 79]. When implementing reusable blade
technologies, one of the key challenges is to ensure that the new materials
and construction techniques used meet the required strength and stiffness
criteria. These materials may have different mechanical properties and
behaviors compared to traditional blade materials. Therefore, a thorough
evaluation of their structural performance is necessary to ensure that they
can withstand the operational forces and maintain their shape and func-
tionality. Advanced computer simulations, such as finite element analysis
(FEA), play a crucial role in assessing the structural behavior of reusable
blade designs [80, 81]. FEA models simulate the interaction between the
blade structure and the applied loads, enabling engineers to evaluate stress
distribution, deflections, and failure mechanisms. These simulations help
optimize the blade design, identify potential weak points, and refine the
structural elements to enhance performance and durability.
In addition to computer simulations, physical testing is performed to

validate the structural integrity of reusable blade designs. Static load tests
apply controlled forces to the blades to evaluate their stiffness, strength,
and deformation under different loading scenarios. Dynamic load tests, on
the other hand, subject the blades to cyclic loading conditions that simu-
late real-world wind conditions. These tests assess the fatigue behavior of
the blades and their ability to withstand repeated loading without failure.
Continuous monitoring and inspection techniques are employed through-
out the operational life of the blades to detect any signs of structural deg-
radation or damage. Structural health monitoring systems, such as strain
gauges, accelerometers, and acoustic emission sensors, are used to monitor
the behavior of the blades in real time. These systems can detect changes
in structural characteristics, such as stress levels, deflections, and vibra-
tion patterns, which may indicate potential issues. Early detection allows
for proactive maintenance actions, such as repairs or reinforcements, to be
undertaken to prevent further damage and ensure the structural integrity
of the blades.
Furthermore, the structural integrity of reusable blades is closely linked
to their manufacturing processes. Consistency and quality control during
manufacturing are crucial to achieving the desired structural performance.
Manufacturing defects, such as voids, delamination, or inconsistencies in
fiber orientation, can compromise the structural integrity of the blades.
Therefore, strict quality control measures are implemented to ensure that the
manufacturing processes meet the required standards and specifications. As
the wind energy industry strives for larger and more efficient turbines, the
structural integrity of the blades becomes even more critical. Longer blades
are subjected to higher loads and increased bending moments, which can
pose additional challenges in maintaining structural integrity. Advanced
design techniques, such as load control strategies and aerodynamic profil-
ing, are employed to optimize the blade shape and reduce stress concen-
trations in critical areas. Additionally, materials with enhanced mechanical
properties are being developed to improve the structural integrity of reus-
able blades—for example, carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) offer
higher strength-to-weight ratios compared to traditional materials. The use
of CFRP can enable the design of longer and more efficient blades that can
capture more wind energy while maintaining structural integrity.
7.5.2 Fatigue Resistance and Durability

Fatigue resistance and durability are crucial factors in the successful imple-
mentation of reusable wind turbine blades. Wind turbines operate in harsh
environmental conditions and are subjected to cyclic loading, which can

lead to fatigue damage over time [20, 28, 82]. Ensuring that blades can
withstand these conditions and maintain their structural integrity is essen-
tial for the long-term performance and reliability of wind farms. Fatigue
damage occurs when a material undergoes repeated cyclic loading, caus-
ing progressive microscopic cracks to initiate and propagate. The cyclic
loading experienced by wind turbine blades includes the fluctuating forces
induced by wind gusts, turbulence, and gravitational loads. Over time,
these cyclic loads can lead to the growth of cracks, which, if left unde-
tected or unaddressed, can ultimately result in blade failure. To address the
challenges associated with fatigue resistance and durability, several strate-
gies and technologies are employed during the design, manufacturing, and
operational phases of wind turbine blades.
In the design phase, engineers employ various techniques to enhance
the fatigue resistance of blades. Load control strategies aim to reduce the
variations in loads experienced by the blades. By optimizing the design,
including the blade shape, twist, and aerodynamic profile, engineers can
reduce the occurrence of high-stress regions and minimize the risk of
fatigue failure. Additionally, the use of advanced materials, such as carbon
fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP), can improve the fatigue performance
of blades due to their higher strength and stiffness compared to traditional
materials. During the manufacturing process, quality control measures are
implemented to ensure the integrity of the blades. This includes stringent
inspection procedures to detect any defects or inconsistencies that could
compromise the fatigue resistance of the blades. Ultrasonic testing, X-ray
inspection, and other non-destructive testing methods are used to iden-
tify any internal defects, such as voids or delamination, that could serve
as stress concentration points and initiate fatigue cracks. Furthermore,
advancements in manufacturing techniques, such as automated processes
and robotic manufacturing, contribute to improved blade durability. These
techniques ensure consistent and high-quality blade production, reducing
the likelihood of manufacturing defects that could affect the fatigue per-
formance of the blades.
Once in operation, continuous monitoring and inspection methods are
employed to assess the fatigue behavior and structural health of the blades.
Structural health monitoring systems, including strain gauges, accelerom-
eters, and vibration sensors, are installed on the blades to measure and
analyze their response to operational loads. These systems provide real-
time data on the structural performance of the blades, allowing opera-
tors to detect any signs of fatigue damage or performance degradation.
Additionally, advanced monitoring techniques, such as acoustic emission
testing and thermographic inspections, can be used to identify and locate

potential fatigue cracks or defects within the blades. These techniques
enable the early detection of damage, allowing for timely maintenance and
repair actions to be taken before the integrity of the blades is compromised.
To further enhance fatigue resistance and durability, ongoing research is
focused on developing innovative materials and technologies—for exam-
ple, self-healing materials are being explored to improve the fatigue perfor-
mance of blades. These materials have the ability to autonomously repair
minor damage, such as microcracks, by triggering a healing response when
subjected to external stimuli.
Furthermore, advancements in predictive modeling and simulation
techniques are being used to assess the long-term fatigue behavior of
blades. By combining real-world operational data with numerical simu-
lations, engineers can better understand the fatigue life of the blades and
develop more accurate predictive models. This information allows for
optimized maintenance and inspection schedules, reducing downtime and
optimizing the overall performance of wind farms. The implementation of
advanced materials, such as carbon nanotubes and graphene, is also being
explored for their potential in enhancing fatigue resistance and durability.
These nanomaterials possess exceptional mechanical properties and could
provide increased strength, stiffness, and fatigue resistance compared to
traditional blade materials. However, further research and development
are needed to fully understand their behavior and ensure their reliable and
cost-effective integration into blade designs.
7.5.3 Manufacturing Scalability and Cost-Effectiveness

Manufacturing scalability and cost-effectiveness are key considerations
in the implementation of reusable wind turbine blades. To achieve the
widespread adoption of these blades and maximize the benefits of renew-
able energy, it is essential to develop manufacturing processes that can
efficiently produce high-quality blades at a reasonable cost. The man-
ufacturing of wind turbine blades involves several complex and labor-
intensive processes. These include mold preparation, material layup, resin
infusion, curing, finishing, and quality control [30, 34, 36]. Traditional
manufacturing methods, such as hand layup and vacuum infusion, have
been commonly used in blade production. However, these methods can
be time-consuming, require skilled labor, and may result in variations in
blade quality. To overcome these challenges and improve manufacturing
scalability, advanced technologies and innovative approaches are being
explored in the production of reusable wind turbine blades. One such
technology is automated manufacturing, which involves the use of robotic

systems and advanced machinery to streamline the production process.
Robotic systems can precisely and consistently perform tasks such as mate-
rial layup, resin infusion, and trimming, resulting in higher manufacturing
accuracy and reduced labor costs. Automation also enables increased pro-
duction rates, allowing for the scalability of blade manufacturing to meet
the growing demand for wind energy.
Furthermore, additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, holds
significant potential in revolutionizing blade production. This technology
enables the fabrication of complex geometries and customized designs with
reduced material waste. Additive manufacturing allows for the direct pro-
duction of blade components, eliminating the need for molds and reduc-
ing tooling costs. It also offers flexibility to iterate and optimize designs
quickly, leading to improved blade performance and cost-effectiveness.
Several research and development efforts are underway to explore the fea-
sibility of additive manufacturing for wind turbine blades. Advanced mate-
rials, such as carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastics, are being investigated
for their suitability in additive manufacturing processes. These materials
offer enhanced mechanical properties, including improved fatigue resis-
tance, and can be processed using additive manufacturing techniques.
Cost-effectiveness is a significant consideration in the manufacturing
of reusable blades, as it directly impacts the economic viability of wind
energy projects. The goal is to produce blades that are not only environ-
mentally friendly but also financially competitive with conventional blade
technologies. One aspect of cost-effectiveness is the selection of materials.
Advanced composite materials, such as carbon fiber-reinforced polymers
(CFRP), have desirable properties for blade applications, including high
strength-to-weight ratios and fatigue resistance. While these materials
may have higher upfront costs compared to traditional materials, their
longer lifespan and improved performance can contribute to the overall
cost-effectiveness of wind turbine blades. Furthermore, advancements in
material manufacturing and supply chain management can help reduce
material costs over time.
Another aspect is the optimization of manufacturing processes to min-
imize production time and costs. Through the integration of automation,
advanced machinery, and streamlined workflows, manufacturers can
improve production efficiency and reduce labor costs. The use of digital
tools, such as computer-aided design and simulation software, can also aid
in optimizing blade designs and manufacturing processes, leading to cost
savings. Furthermore, the development of standardized manufacturing
processes and modular blade designs can contribute to cost-effectiveness.
Standardization allows for efficient production and reduces the need for
customization, resulting in economies of scale. Modular designs enable
the assembly of blades from standardized components, simplifying man-
ufacturing and maintenance processes. These approaches can help lower
production costs and enhance the scalability of blade manufacturing. In
addition to manufacturing scalability and cost-effectiveness, consider-
ations for the overall life cycle costs of wind turbine blades are also import-
ant. This includes the costs associated with transportation, installation,
operation, maintenance, and end-of-life management. By optimizing the
design and manufacturing processes, manufacturers can reduce these life
cycle costs and improve the economic viability of wind energy projects.
7.6 Implications of Reusable Wind Turbine Blades

7.6.1 Cost Reduction and Enhanced Energy Production
The implementation of reusable wind turbine blades brings several impli-
cations that can lead to cost reduction and enhanced energy production
in the wind energy sector [83–85]. These implications include improved
efficiency, increased reliability, reduced maintenance costs, and extended
operational life. Reusable blade technologies aim to optimize the design
and manufacturing processes, resulting in more efficient blades. Enhanced
aerodynamic profiles, longer and lighter blades, and improved material
properties contribute to increased energy capture from the wind. With
higher energy production, wind farms can generate more electricity,
which translates into greater revenue potential. Moreover, reusable blades
often incorporate advanced materials, such as carbon fiber-reinforced
polymers (CFRP), that offer superior mechanical properties compared to
traditional materials. These materials exhibit higher strength-to-weight
ratios, enabling the construction of longer and more efficient blades. The
increased length of the blades allows for a larger swept area, meaning they
can capture more wind energy, leading to enhanced energy production.
Furthermore, the improved reliability of reusable blades can result in
reduced maintenance costs. By utilizing advanced materials and manufac-
turing processes, the blades can withstand the dynamic forces exerted by
the wind and maintain their structural integrity for longer periods. This
minimizes the need for frequent inspections, repairs, and replacements,
resulting in decreased downtime and associated maintenance expenses.
The extended operational life of reusable blades also contributes to cost
reduction by deferring the need for blade replacement.
Additionally, advancements in manufacturing scalability and cost-

effectiveness can drive down the overall cost of wind turbine blades.
Automation, additive manufacturing, and standardization of processes
allow for increased production rates, reduced labor costs, and optimized
material usage. As a result, the upfront costs associated with reusable
blade technologies can be lowered, making wind energy projects more
economically viable. The cost reduction implications of reusable wind
turbine blades contribute to the competitiveness of wind energy in the
global market. As the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) decreases, wind
power becomes more attractive compared to conventional energy sources
[33, 46]. This has a significant impact on energy transition efforts by pro-
viding affordable and sustainable electricity generation solutions. One of
the key factors contributing to cost reduction is the increased efficiency of
reusable blades. Improved aerodynamic designs and longer blade lengths
allow for higher energy capture from the wind. This means that wind farms
equipped with reusable blades can produce more electricity per turbine,
resulting in increased revenue potential. Additionally, advancements in
blade manufacturing processes, such as precision molding and additive
manufacturing techniques, enable the production of blades with optimized
shapes and profiles, further enhancing their energy capture capabilities.
The use of advanced materials, such as carbon fiber-reinforced polymers
(CFRP), in reusable blades also contributes to cost reduction. CFRP mate-
rials offer superior strength-to-weight ratios compared to traditional mate-
rials like fiberglass composites. This allows for the construction of longer
and lighter blades that can withstand the dynamic forces exerted by the
wind. The reduced weight of the blades not only improves their aerody-
namic performance but also reduces transportation costs during manufac-
turing and installation.
Furthermore, the improved reliability and extended operational life
of reusable blades contribute to cost reduction in the long run. By utiliz-
ing advanced materials and manufacturing techniques, reusable blades
can withstand the stresses and loads experienced during operation, min-
imizing the need for frequent repairs and replacements. This reduces
downtime and associated maintenance costs, improving the overall prof-
itability of wind farms. Advancements in manufacturing scalability and
cost-effectiveness play a significant role in reducing the upfront costs of
reusable blades [46, 54]. Automation and standardized manufacturing pro-
cesses enable higher production rates, reducing labor costs and increasing
efficiency. Additive manufacturing techniques, such as 3D printing, offer
opportunities for more precise and cost-effective blade production. These
technologies allow for the optimization of material usage, waste reduction,
and improved quality control. Additionally, standardized manufacturing

processes enable economies of scale, further driving down production
costs. The cost reduction implications of reusable blades have significant
implications for the wind energy industry [37]. Lowering the levelized cost
of electricity (LCOE) makes wind energy more competitive in the global
energy market. This can attract more investments in wind power projects
and accelerate the transition to renewable energy sources. The increased
cost-effectiveness of wind energy also contributes to energy security and
economic development by reducing reliance on fossil fuels and creating
job opportunities in the renewable energy sector.
7.6.2 Environmental Benefits and Reduction of

Carbon Emissions
The implementation of reusable wind turbine blades brings significant
environmental benefits and contributes to the reduction of carbon emis-
sions. By harnessing the power of wind, renewable energy technologies
like wind turbines offer a clean and sustainable alternative to conventional
fossil fuel-based power generation. Reusable blades further enhance these
environmental benefits through improved efficiency, reduced material
waste, and lower carbon footprint. One of the primary environmental ben-
efits of wind energy is the reduction of carbon emissions. Wind power is a
carbon-neutral energy source, which means that it does not release green-
house gases (GHGs) during electricity generation. Unlike fossil fuel-based
power plants, wind turbines do not burn fuel and therefore do not produce
carbon dioxide (CO2) or other pollutants that contribute to climate change
and air pollution. The use of reusable blades in wind turbines helps to max-
imize energy production and further reduce the need for fossil fuel-based
electricity generation, leading to a significant reduction in carbon emis-
sions. By increasing the energy production efficiency of wind turbines,
reusable blades contribute to a greater displacement of fossil fuel-based
power generation. As more wind energy is integrated into the grid, the
demand for electricity generated from fossil fuels decreases. This results in
a direct reduction in CO2 emissions, which is crucial for mitigating climate
change and achieving global emission reduction targets.
Reusable blades also have indirect environmental benefits through the
reduction of material waste. The manufacturing and disposal of wind tur-
bine blades can generate significant amounts of waste, which can have
environmental implications if not properly managed. Traditional fiber-
glass blades, in particular, present challenges in terms of recyclability and
end-of-life disposal. However, reusable blades often incorporate advanced
materials and manufacturing processes that aim to address these issues—

for example, the use of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) in
reusable blades offer superior mechanical properties and improved recy-
clability compared to fiberglass composites [26, 35, 45, 52]. The carbon
fibers used in CFRP blades can be recovered and reused in other appli-
cations, reducing waste and the environmental impact associated with
blade disposal. This helps to minimize the accumulation of blade waste
and promotes a more sustainable approach to wind turbine technology.
Furthermore, advancements in recycling technologies for composite mate-
rials are being explored to increase the recyclability of wind turbine blades.
Various methods, such as mechanical shredding, chemical processes, and
pyrolysis, are being developed to effectively separate and recover the valu-
able components of composite materials. These recycling efforts contribute
to the circular economy by reducing the reliance on virgin materials and
minimizing the environmental footprint of wind turbine blades. In addi-
tion to carbon emission reduction and waste management, wind energy
with reusable blades offers other environmental benefits. Wind turbines
have a smaller land footprint compared to traditional power plants, mak-
ing them a favorable option for energy production in terms of land use.
The land around wind turbines can still be used for agriculture, grazing, or
other purposes, allowing for dual land use and minimizing the impact on
ecosystems.
Moreover, wind energy does not consume water resources for power
generation, unlike fossil fuel-based plants that require large amounts of
water for cooling and other processes. This is particularly important in
regions facing water scarcity or where water resources need to be con-
served for other purposes such as agriculture or human consumption. By
utilizing wind energy with reusable blades, water resources can be pre-
served, contributing to sustainable water management. The environmental
benefits of reusable wind turbine blades extend beyond the direct impacts
of carbon emission reduction and waste management. They promote the
development and deployment of renewable energy technologies, helping
to diversify the energy mix and reduce dependence on fossil fuels. This
leads to a more sustainable and resilient energy system that is less vulnera-
ble to price fluctuations and supply disruptions associated with fossil fuels.
Furthermore, the environmental benefits of wind energy contribute to
global efforts to mitigate climate change and achieve sustainable develop-
ment goals. The reduction of carbon emissions helps to limit the increase
in global temperatures, minimize the frequency and intensity of extreme
weather events, and protect ecosystems and biodiversity. Wind energy with
reusable blades aligns with international agreements and commitments
to combat climate change, such as the Paris Agreement and the United
Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
7.6.3 Policy Frameworks and Industry Collaboration

Policy frameworks and industry collaboration play a vital role in promot-
ing the implementation of reusable wind turbine blades and driving the
transition to a more sustainable energy future. Governments, regulatory
bodies, and industry stakeholders need to work together to create sup-
portive policies, regulations, and incentives that encourage the adoption
of reusable blade technologies, facilitate research and development, and
promote collaboration across the wind energy sector. At the national level,
governments can establish renewable energy targets and incentivize the
deployment of wind energy through mechanisms such as feed-in tariffs,
renewable portfolio standards, and tax incentives. These policies provide
a favorable market environment for wind energy projects, including those
utilizing reusable blades. Governments can also support research and
development initiatives focused on advancing blade technologies, mate-
rials, and manufacturing processes. Funding programs, grants, and part-
nerships between public and private entities can facilitate innovation and
accelerate the commercialization of reusable blades.
International collaboration and knowledge sharing are crucial in driving
the development and adoption of reusable blade technologies. Governments
and industry associations can facilitate collaboration through platforms
such as international conferences, workshops, and research networks. These
platforms provide opportunities for stakeholders from different countries
to exchange ideas, share best practices, and collaborate on research and
development projects. By pooling resources and expertise, the global wind
energy community can collectively address common challenges and accel-
erate the implementation of reusable blade technologies. Furthermore, the
wind energy industry itself plays a significant role in driving the adoption
of reusable blades through collaboration and knowledge sharing. Wind
turbine manufacturers, developers, and operators can work together to
establish industry standards and best practices for the design, manufac-
turing, and deployment of reusable blades. Sharing data and experiences
related to the performance, durability, and cost-effectiveness of reusable
blade technologies can contribute to a collective understanding of their
benefits and challenges. Industry associations and research institutions can
also play a crucial role in facilitating collaboration and knowledge sharing.
They can establish platforms for information exchange, provide technical
support and guidance, and conduct research and testing to validate the
performance and reliability of reusable blades. Collaborative research proj-

ects, joint ventures, and public-private partnerships can drive innovation
and accelerate the adoption of reusable blade technologies.
In addition to policy frameworks and industry collaboration, public
awareness and education are essential to garner support for reusable blade
technologies. Governments, industry associations, and environmental
organizations can conduct public outreach campaigns to raise awareness
about the environmental benefits of wind energy and the role of reusable
blades in reducing carbon emissions. Public support and understanding
can influence policymakers, create market demand, and drive invest-
ments in wind energy projects. Moreover, integrating wind energy into
the broader energy system requires collaboration and coordination with
other stakeholders, including grid operators, utilities, and energy storage
providers. Reusable blade technologies can contribute to grid stability
and flexibility by enhancing the efficiency and reliability of wind turbines.
Collaborative efforts are needed to optimize the integration of wind energy
into the grid, develop storage solutions, and implement smart grid technol-
ogies that enable the effective management of renewable energy resources.
Policy frameworks and industry collaboration should also address the
challenges associated with the deployment of reusable blade technologies.
These challenges include the initial cost of implementing new technolo-
gies, the need for standardized recycling processes, and the development of
a skilled workforce and supply chains. Governments can provide financial
support and incentives to help overcome the initial cost barriers, promote
research and development of recycling technologies, and invest in training
programs to develop a skilled workforce.
7.7 Testing, Modeling, and Simulation for Reliable

Reusable Blade Designs
7.7.1 Importance of Rigorous Testing
Rigorous testing is crucial in the development of reliable reusable blade
designs for wind turbines due to the demanding operational conditions
and loads that the blades experience. Wind turbine blades must be able to
withstand a wide range of forces, including dynamic wind forces, turbulent
flows, and gravitational forces while maintaining their structural integrity,
performance, and durability. Thorough testing throughout the design and
development process is essential to identify and address any design flaws,
weaknesses, or areas in need of improvement. The testing process begins
during the design phase, where prototypes of the reusable blades are man-
ufactured and subjected to various laboratory and field tests. These tests
serve multiple purposes, including evaluating the mechanical properties,
assessing the structural behavior, and examining the performance charac-
teristics of the blades. Static load testing is a common method used to eval-
uate the structural strength of wind turbine blades. In this type of testing,
the blade is subjected to predetermined static loads that simulate the effects
of wind forces and gravitational loads. The response of the blade is care-
fully monitored, and structural deformations and stresses are measured.
Static load testing helps validate the blade’s ability to withstand extreme
loads and ensures its structural integrity. By applying carefully calibrated
loads, engineers can determine the blade’s load-bearing capacity and iden-
tify any potential failure points.
Dynamic load testing is another critical aspect of blade testing. Wind
turbine blades experience cyclic loading conditions due to the dynamic
nature of wind forces. During dynamic load testing, the blade is subjected
to a range of load cases that simulate various operating conditions, includ-
ing gusts, turbulent flows, and fatigue loading. This type of testing is crucial
for assessing the fatigue resistance and durability of the blades over their
intended operational lifespan. Monitoring systems are used to measure the
response of the blade to dynamic loading, including vibrations and deflec-
tions. By subjecting the blade to realistic loading scenarios, engineers can
evaluate its performance under different conditions and identify any weak-
nesses or potential points of failure. Field testing is an essential component
of blade development. Full-scale blades are installed on operational wind
turbines in real-world wind farm environments, and their performance,
power output, and structural behavior are closely monitored. Field testing
provides valuable data that cannot be fully replicated in laboratory condi-
tions, allowing engineers to evaluate the blade’s behavior in actual operat-
ing environments [40, 50]. This data can be used to validate and refine the
design of reusable blades, ensuring that their performance matches expec-
tations and requirements. It is important to note that testing protocols and
standards for reusable blades may differ from those used for conventional
blades. This is due to the use of new materials, construction techniques, and
design features in reusable blade technologies. Therefore, it is necessary to
adapt testing protocols and standards to account for these differences and
ensure that the blades meet the necessary safety, performance, and reliabil-
ity requirements. The testing process should be carefully designed and exe-
cuted to address the unique characteristics of reusable blades and provide
accurate and reliable results.
7.7.2 Modeling and Simulation Techniques for

Design Optimization
Modeling and simulation techniques play a crucial role in the design opti-
mization of wind turbine blades. They provide valuable insights into the
structural behavior, performance, and aerodynamic characteristics of the
blades, enabling engineers to refine and optimize their design. By using
advanced computational tools, engineers can simulate various operat-
ing conditions and evaluate the response of the blades to different loads,
improving their efficiency, reliability, and overall performance. One of
the primary goals of modeling and simulation is to assess the structural
integrity of the blades. Finite element analysis (FEA) is a widely used tech-
nique for modeling and simulating the structural behavior of wind turbine
blades [38, 51]. FEA divides the blade into smaller elements, allowing engi-
neers to analyze the stresses, strains, and deformations within the struc-
ture. By applying appropriate boundary conditions and load cases, FEA
can accurately predict the response of the blade under different operat-
ing conditions. This enables engineers to identify potential failure points
and make design modifications to improve the blade’s structural integrity.
Aerodynamic performance is another critical aspect of wind turbine blade
design optimization. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a powerful
tool that simulates the flow of air around the blade and predicts its aerody-
namic performance. By solving the governing equations for fluid flow, CFD
can calculate important parameters such as lift, drag, and flow separation.
This information helps engineers optimize the blade shape, airfoil profiles,
and other design features to improve energy capture and reduce aerody-
namic losses. CFD simulations can also provide insights into the impact of
turbulent flow, yaw angles, and other factors on the blade’s performance.
In addition to structural and aerodynamic simulations, modeling and
simulation techniques can also be used to assess the dynamic behavior of
wind turbine blades. Dynamic simulations allow engineers to study the
response of the blades to external forces, including wind gusts and turbu-
lent flows. These simulations help evaluate the fatigue resistance, natural
frequencies, and vibration characteristics of the blades. By understanding
how the blades behave dynamically, engineers can optimize their design
to reduce fatigue loads and enhance their durability. Furthermore, opti-
mization algorithms can be employed in conjunction with modeling and
simulation techniques to automatically search for the best design param-
eters and configurations. These algorithms explore a range of design vari-
ables, such as blade length, airfoil profiles, twist distribution, and structural
reinforcements, to find the optimal combination that maximizes energy
capture and minimizes structural loads. Optimization techniques, such as

genetic algorithms or gradient-based methods, can efficiently search the
design space and provide valuable insights for design improvements. The
use of modeling and simulation techniques for design optimization offers
several advantages. First, it enables engineers to evaluate a wide range of
design options without the need for physical prototypes, reducing the time
and cost associated with experimental testing. Virtual simulations provide
a faster and more efficient means of exploring different design configura-
tions and making informed design decisions.
Second, simulations allow engineers to study the performance of the
blades under various operating conditions, including extreme events that
are challenging to replicate in physical testing. This helps ensure that the
blades can withstand and perform reliably in real-world scenarios. Third,
modeling and simulation techniques provide a deeper understanding of
the underlying physics and behavior of wind turbine blades. They allow
engineers to visualize and analyze the flow patterns, stress distributions,
and structural responses, providing valuable insights into the performance
limitations and potential areas for improvement. It is important to note
that the accuracy of modeling and simulation results depends on the qual-
ity of the input data, including material properties, boundary conditions,
and environmental factors. Therefore, it is crucial to validate the simu-
lation models and compare their predictions with experimental data to
ensure their reliability and accuracy. Experimental data can be obtained
from laboratory tests, field measurements, or reference studies to validate
the simulation results and improve confidence in the design optimization
process.
7.8 Future Prospects and Research Directions

7.8.1 Interdisciplinary Approaches for Sustainable Innovation
Interdisciplinary approaches are crucial for achieving sustainable innova-
tion in wind turbine blade design. The challenges associated with develop-
ing reusable wind turbine blades require the collaboration and integration
of various disciplines, including materials science, mechanical engineer-
ing, aerodynamics, environmental science, and renewable energy systems.
By bringing together experts from these diverse fields, interdisciplinary
approaches can lead to the development of holistic solutions that enhance
the performance, recyclability, and sustainability of wind turbine blades.
One of the key areas where interdisciplinary approaches are essential is
materials science and engineering. Materials scientists play a crucial role in

developing advanced composite materials with superior mechanical prop-
erties, recyclability, and reduced environmental impact. They explore new
materials, such as bio-based composites, nanomaterials, and recyclable
polymers, to improve the overall performance and sustainability of wind
turbine blades. Collaborating with mechanical engineers, materials sci-
entists can optimize the material selection, manufacturing processes, and
structural designs to ensure that the blades are strong, lightweight, and
durable.
Aerodynamics is another important field that benefits from interdis-
ciplinary collaboration. Aerodynamicists study and optimize the airflow
around wind turbine blades to maximize energy capture and minimize
aerodynamic losses. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations are
used to model and analyze the complex airflow, allowing engineers to refine
the blade shape, airfoil profiles, and other design features. Collaboration
between aerodynamicists, materials scientists, and mechanical engineers
enables the creation of blade designs that balance aerodynamic efficiency,
structural integrity, and sustainability. Moreover, environmental experts
contribute to interdisciplinary approaches by assessing the environmen-
tal impact of wind turbine blades throughout their lifecycle. Life cycle
assessments (LCAs) can be conducted to evaluate the overall environ-
mental footprint, considering factors such as energy consumption, carbon
emissions, waste generation, and resource depletion. By integrating LCA
findings into the design process, engineers can identify opportunities for
minimizing the environmental impact and improving the sustainability
of wind turbine blades. Collaboration between environmental experts,
materials scientists, and mechanical engineers ensures that the blades are
designed with a comprehensive understanding of their environmental
implications.
Renewable energy systems and grid integration expertise are also
critical in interdisciplinary approaches to wind turbine blade design.
Collaboration between wind turbine manufacturers, power grid operators,
and energy system experts can facilitate the development of blade designs
that are compatible with grid requirements and contribute to the stability
and reliability of the overall power system. By optimizing the interaction
between wind turbines and the grid, the performance and efficiency of
wind turbine blades can be enhanced. The integration of renewable energy
systems and grid integration expertise into interdisciplinary teams ensures
that blade designs align with the broader goals of the renewable energy
industry. Interdisciplinary approaches foster innovation by encouraging
the exchange of knowledge, expertise, and resources. Research institutions,
universities, and industry partners can collaborate on joint research proj-

ects, sharing data, findings, and resources to develop new materials, man-
ufacturing techniques, and design approaches [86, 87]. By combining
their expertise and resources, interdisciplinary teams can address complex
challenges, explore new ideas, and push the boundaries of wind turbine
blade technology. Engineers from wind turbine manufacturers, blade
design firms, and renewable energy companies play a crucial role in inter-
disciplinary collaborations. Their practical experience in manufacturing,
installation, and operation of wind turbines provides valuable insights and
industry perspectives. By working alongside researchers, engineers con-
tribute their real-world expertise to the development of blade designs that
are not only technologically advanced but also practical and cost-effective.
Their involvement ensures that the proposed solutions align with indus-
try requirements and can be implemented on a larger scale. In addition
to researchers and engineers, engaging stakeholders is vital in shaping the
future of reusable wind turbine blades. Stakeholders include policymakers,
regulatory bodies, environmental organizations, local communities, and
end-users. By involving stakeholders in the decision-making process, their
perspectives and concerns can be addressed, ensuring that blade designs
meet societal needs and are socially and environmentally responsible.
Collaboration with stakeholders promotes transparency, fosters public
acceptance, and facilitates the adoption of sustainable wind turbine blade
designs.
7.8.2 Collaboration Among Researchers, Engineers,

and Stakeholders
Collaboration among researchers, engineers, and stakeholders is essential
for the successful development and implementation of sustainable wind
turbine blade technologies. The complexity of the challenges involved
requires the collective efforts, expertise, and perspectives of various stake-
holders to drive innovation, address technical barriers, and ensure the
long-term viability of reusable blade designs. Researchers play a crucial
role in advancing the scientific understanding and technological capabil-
ities of wind turbine blades [41, 88]. They conduct fundamental research,
explore new materials and manufacturing techniques, and develop mod-
eling and simulation tools to optimize blade performance. Collaboration
among researchers from different institutions and disciplines allows for the
exchange of knowledge, sharing of resources, and validation of research
findings. By working together, researchers can push the boundaries of
knowledge and drive advancements in wind turbine blade technology.

Engineers, on the other hand, bring practical expertise and industry expe-
rience to the collaboration. They understand the operational challenges,
manufacturing processes, and cost considerations associated with wind
turbine blades. Engineers from wind turbine manufacturers, blade design
firms, and renewable energy companies contribute valuable insights into the
feasibility and scalability of new technologies. Their involvement ensures
that research outcomes align with industry requirements, standards, and
practical constraints. Collaborating with engineers provides researchers
with real-world perspectives, enabling them to develop blade designs that
are not only technologically advanced but also practical, cost-effective, and
manufacturable.
Stakeholders, including policymakers, regulatory bodies, environmen-
tal organizations, local communities, and end-users, also play a crucial role
in the collaboration. Their engagement is essential for shaping the direc-
tion and impact of wind turbine blade technologies. Policymakers and
regulatory bodies create the policy frameworks and standards that gov-
ern the deployment and operation of wind turbines. Engaging with them
allows researchers and engineers to understand the regulatory landscape
and ensure compliance with relevant regulations. Environmental organi-
zations provide valuable insights into the ecological and social implica-
tions of wind turbine blades, helping to address concerns and develop
sustainable solutions. Local communities and end-users offer perspectives
on the social acceptance, environmental impact, and economic benefits
of wind turbine installations. Collaborating with stakeholders ensures
that the blade designs reflect societal needs, address concerns, and max-
imize the benefits for all involved parties. Collaboration among research-
ers, engineers, and stakeholders can take various forms, including joint
research projects, industry–academia partnerships, public–private collabo-
rations, and advisory committees. These collaborative efforts facilitate the
exchange of knowledge, data, and resources. Researchers can gain access
to industry expertise, real-world data, and test facilities, enabling them to
validate their research findings and enhance the practical applicability of
their work. Engineers can benefit from the latest research advancements
and innovative ideas, allowing them to improve the design, performance,
and reliability of wind turbine blades. Stakeholders can contribute their
perspectives, provide valuable feedback, and influence the direction of
research and development activities. Here are a few global examples of col-
laboration among researchers, engineers, and stakeholders in the field of
wind turbine blade technologies:
• European Wind Energy Association (EWEA): The EWEA

brings together researchers, industry representatives, policy-
makers, and other stakeholders to promote the development
and deployment of wind energy in Europe. They facilitate
collaboration through working groups, conferences, and
research projects focused on various aspects of wind turbine
technology, including blade design and optimization.
• Sandia National Laboratories and National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL)—United States: These institu-
tions collaborate on numerous research projects related to
wind energy, including wind turbine blade design, materials
testing, and structural analysis. Their collaboration involves
the sharing of research findings, joint testing facilities, and
cooperative research programs.
• Offshore Renewable Energy (ORE) Catapult—United Kingdom:
ORE Catapult is a leading research and innovation center
focused on advancing offshore renewable energy technologies.
They collaborate with academic institutions, industry partners,
and government agencies to develop and test innovative wind
turbine blade designs for offshore applications. Their collabo-
rative approach helps accelerate technology development and
de-risk new blade designs.
• China Wind Power Engineering Institute (CWPEI): CWPEI
works closely with wind turbine manufacturers, research
institutes, and industry associations in China to advance
wind turbine technologies. They conduct joint research
projects, share technical expertise, and collaborate on test-
ing and certification programs. This collaboration helps
drive technological advancements in blade design, struc-
tural analysis, and performance optimization.
• International Energy Agency (IEA)—Wind Task 37: Task
37 of the IEA’s Wind Technology Collaboration Program
focuses on wind energy systems engineering, including
wind turbine design, operation, and maintenance. It brings
together experts from different countries to collaborate on
research, share best practices, and develop guidelines for
wind turbine blade design and performance assessment.
• Wind Energy Institute of Canada (WEICan): WEICan col-
laborates with industry partners, research organizations,
and government agencies to conduct research and testing
on wind turbine technologies. Their collaboration includes
projects related to blade design optimization, materials test-

ing, and performance evaluation. They provide a platform
for industry–academia collaboration and contribute to the
development of innovative and sustainable wind turbine
blade technologies.
Furthermore, collaboration enables the alignment of objectives and

the pooling of resources. Research institutions, universities, and indus-
try partners can jointly fund research projects, leverage their respective
capabilities, and share the costs associated with technology development.
This collaborative approach helps to overcome financial barriers, acceler-
ate research and development activities, and achieve breakthroughs that
would be challenging to attain individually. By combining resources, stake-
holders can collectively drive innovation, promote knowledge transfer, and
ensure the successful implementation of sustainable wind turbine blade
technologies. Collaboration also fosters innovation and promotes creativ-
ity [48, 89, 90]. By bringing together diverse perspectives and expertise,
interdisciplinary teams can tackle complex problems from multiple angles.
This collaborative environment encourages the exchange of ideas, sparks
new insights, and pushes the boundaries of knowledge and technology.
Researchers, engineers, and stakeholders can engage in brainstorming ses-
sions, workshops, and conferences to explore innovative approaches, iden-
tify emerging trends, and address technical and societal challenges. The
collaborative process encourages continuous learning, stimulates creativ-
ity, and leads to novel solutions that have a transformative impact on wind
turbine blade design.
7.8.3 Potential Directions for Future Research

Future research in the field of wind turbine blade technologies holds
great promise for further improving the performance, sustainability, and
cost-effectiveness of renewable energy generation. Here are some potential
directions for future research:
• Advanced materials development: Continued research into

advanced materials is crucial for enhancing the performance
and sustainability of wind turbine blades. The development
of novel composite materials with improved mechanical
properties, such as higher strength-to-weight ratios and
enhanced fatigue resistance, can lead to longer and more effi-
cient blade designs. Research efforts can focus on exploring
alternative reinforcement fibers, such as carbon nanotubes,

graphene, or natural fibers, to enhance the mechanical prop-
erties of the blades.
• Structural optimization and design: Further research is
needed to optimize the structural design of wind turbine
blades. This includes investigating new blade geometries,
such as swept-tip or variable twist designs, to enhance
aerodynamic efficiency and reduce loads. Advanced com-
putational modeling techniques, such as machine learning
and artificial intelligence, can be employed to optimize the
shape, size, and distribution of materials within the blade
structure. This can result in lighter, stronger, and more effi-
cient blade designs.
• Aeroelasticity and dynamic response: Understanding the
aeroelastic behavior and dynamic response of wind turbine
blades is crucial for improving their performance and reli-
ability. Future research can focus on developing more accu-
rate and robust models to predict the blade’s behavior under
varying wind conditions, including turbulence and extreme
events. This can help optimize blade designs to mitigate
fatigue damage, reduce loads, and improve overall structural
performance.
• Blade manufacturing and process innovation: Research
efforts can be directed towards developing innovative manu-
facturing processes for wind turbine blades. Additive manu-
facturing techniques, such as 3D printing, hold the potential
for more flexible and cost-effective production methods.
Further research is needed to optimize additive manufac-
turing processes, improve material compatibility, and ensure
the structural integrity of printed blades. Additionally,
exploring automation and robotic technologies can help
streamline blade manufacturing processes, reduce costs, and
enhance quality control.
• Condition monitoring and maintenance strategies: Research
can focus on developing advanced condition monitoring
systems and maintenance strategies for wind turbine blades.
This includes the integration of sensors, data analytics, and
machine learning algorithms to detect and assess the struc-
tural health of the blades in real-time. By continuously mon-
itoring the condition of the blades, maintenance activities
can be optimized, and potential failures can be predicted
and prevented. This can result in improved operational reli-

ability, reduced downtime, and lower maintenance costs.
• Offshore wind blade technologies: As the offshore wind
industry continues to grow, research in offshore wind
blade technologies becomes increasingly important. Future
research can focus on developing blade designs that can
withstand harsh marine environments, including saltwater
corrosion, high wind speeds, and large waves. Additionally,
exploring floating wind turbine technologies and adaptive
blade designs for offshore applications can open new oppor-
tunities for harnessing wind energy in deeper waters.
• Sustainability and end-of-life solutions: As wind turbine
installations increase worldwide, the issue of blade waste
management becomes more critical. Research efforts can be
directed toward developing sustainable end-of-life solutions
for wind turbine blades, including recycling and repurpos-
ing strategies. Investigating the use of alternative materi-
als with better recyclability and biodegradability can help
reduce environmental impact. Additionally, research can
focus on improving blade decommissioning techniques to
minimize waste generation and facilitate efficient blade dis-
posal or reuse.
• Integration with energy storage and grid systems: The
integration of wind turbines with energy storage and grid
systems is a key area for future research. Investigating the
optimal integration of wind turbine blades with energy stor-
age technologies, such as batteries or hydrogen storage, can
enhance grid stability and enable more reliable and efficient
energy generation. Research efforts can also explore the
development of smart grid technologies and advanced con-
trol systems to enable better coordination and management
of wind energy resources.
7.9 Conclusion
In conclusion, the development and implementation of reusable wind
turbine blades hold immense potential for advancing the efficiency, sus-
tainability, and cost-effectiveness of wind energy generation. The research
and technological advancements in materials engineering, manufacturing
techniques, and design optimization have paved the way for innovative and
durable blade solutions. The implications of reusable wind turbine blades

are far-reaching. They offer significant benefits in terms of cost reduction,
enhanced energy production, environmental sustainability, and reduced
carbon emissions. By improving the structural integrity, fatigue resistance,
and recyclability of blades, the renewable energy industry can achieve
higher energy yields, lower maintenance costs, and decreased reliance on
fossil fuels.
However, several challenges need to be addressed to fully realize the
potential of reusable blade technologies. The structural integrity of blades
must be rigorously tested and validated through laboratory, field, and
full-scale testing. This ensures that the blades can withstand the dynamic
forces and loads they encounter during operation. The development and
implementation of modeling and simulation techniques play a crucial
role in optimizing blade design and performance. Collaboration among
researchers, engineers, and stakeholders is essential for driving innova-
tion and solving complex problems in the wind energy sector. By working
together, sharing knowledge and resources, and fostering interdisciplin-
ary approaches, the industry can accelerate progress and overcome tech-
nical and operational challenges. Examples of successful collaborations
and partnerships at the national and international levels demonstrate the
value of collective efforts in advancing wind turbine blade technologies.
Future research directions should focus on interdisciplinary approaches,
collaboration, and exploring new frontiers. Advanced materials develop-
ment, structural optimization, aeroelasticity, manufacturing scalability,
condition monitoring, and sustainability solutions are key areas that war-
rant further investigation. The integration of wind turbines with energy
storage and grid systems also presents exciting opportunities for enhanc-
ing the reliability and efficiency of renewable energy generation. Moreover,
policy frameworks and regulatory support play a vital role in fostering
innovation and facilitating the adoption of reusable blade technologies.
Governments, industry associations, and international organizations need
to establish clear guidelines, incentives, and standards to promote sustain-
able practices, encourage investment, and drive the transition to renewable
energy sources. Policy frameworks that prioritize research and develop-
ment, incentivize collaboration and ensure environmental sustainability
are crucial for the long-term success of wind energy projects. The contin-
uous research, development, and collaboration efforts will drive the evo-
lution of blade technologies and propel the wind energy industry toward a
more sustainable and resilient future. By addressing the challenges, lever-
aging interdisciplinary approaches, and promoting collaboration among
researchers, engineers, and stakeholders, we can unlock the full potential
of reusable blade technologies and contribute to a cleaner, greener, and

more sustainable energy landscape.
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8
Wind Turbine Assessment:
A Step-by-Step Approach
Figen Balo1,2* and Lutfu S. Sua2
1
Department of METE, Engineering Faculty, Firat University, Elazig, Turkey
2
Department of Management and Marketing, Southern University and
A&M College, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
Abstract
The weighted sum approach is suggested in this work as a multi-attribute deci-
sion-support strategy for the wind turbine selection problem. The inherent
constraints of earlier investigations served as the inspiration for the suggested
approach. These restrictions resulted from the use of computationally challenging
methodologies, a lack of diversity of wind turbines, and simple decision models
with a single criterion. Analytic hierarchy strategy is a methodology that is utilized
to overcome various decision-making difficulties. Because it takes into account
both intangible and tangible attributes, the analytic hierarchy strategy is popular
for providing answers to multi-criteria problems. This strategy is used in the study
to predict the factor weights and determine the elements’ relative weights involved
in the wind turbine evaluation. Application of the suggested strategy to several
types of wind turbines from various manufacturers is used for an analysis of the
effectiveness of the approach. This research considers the participation of major
elements in selecting a wind turbine for a wind facility in Turkey in order to build
sustainable development management solutions. In this regard, an analytic hier-
archy strategy was used to balance and choose the best alternative for the criteria
and sub-criteria after calculating the significant aspects in the evaluation of a wind
turbine technology in accordance with the principles of sustainable development
management. Based on the findings, the most optimum alternative is determined
as the top choice.
Keywords: MCDM, renewable energy, wind turbine selection, wind energy,

electric sector’s sustainable development
*Corresponding author: figenbalo@gmail.com
185
8.1 Introduction
In order to attain sustainability in any field, sustainable development refers
to a method that calls for an integrated and prompt replacement with the
use of renewable resources [1]. Many researchers have been interested in
sustainable development in recent years [2], and it has been suggested as
a new strategy so that communities might profit from increased living
standards, social justice, and resource conservation [3]. Today the theory
of sustainable development, which dates back to the last decades of the
twentieth century, has already gained strength. According to studies, com-
munities’ energy supply will be dominated by new and renewable energy
sources in the near future. For developing nations with arid climates,
renewable energy is particularly alluring due to its high sustainability,
non-pollution, ease of use, and similar factors [4]. During the last several
decades, the relevance of sustainable power sources has increased owing
to the world’s growing energy demand and the depletion of fossil-based
energy resources. Sustainable power sources like solar power and wind
power should be employed more frequently to reduce the ultimate overall
energy consumption from fossil fuels. Wind power is particularly attrac-
tive because of the fact that wind can perpetually produce energy 24 h a
day [5]. Because wind energy does not emit any greenhouse gases or pollu-
tion, it is referred to as clean electricity [6].
Solar power is used to create wind power that is used through wind
turbines. The earth’s surface’s uneven cooling and warming result in wind
generation. The sun’s radiation penetrates farther into the atmosphere in
the polar areas than it does in the equatorial zones due to the roundness
of the planet and the mutual location of the earth and the sun, resulting in
temperature differences. As a result of these areas of low and high pressure
trying to balance each other out, prevailing winds, which are large-scale
air currents, are created. Local winds are winds that cover confined and
more compact areas. Numerous variables, including variations in land–sea
temperatures, geography, landforms, and terrain coverage, have an impact
on local winds [7].
The benefits of wind energy over conventional power production tech-
nologies (nuclear, gas, coal facilities, etc.) lay in the commissioning and
rapid deployment of wind facilities. This is attributable to wind turbines,
which need little effort and expense in upkeep and operation. Additionally,
wind turbines have an operational lifespan of 20 to 25 years, which is very
cost-effective. In addition, there are no geographical restrictions on har-
nessing wind energy, which is not the case with fossil fuel-sourced energy
Wind Turbine Assessment: A Step-by-Step Approach 187
generation mechanisms [8, 9]. When wind turbines convert the kinetic
power of the wind into electric power, electricity is created. The wind pro-
pels the turbine blades into rotation when it reaches a particular speed,
often 3 to 4 m/s. The generator is turned by the blades in the machinery
room or nacelle at the top of the tower. This generates electricity that is
subsequently put into the system and delivered to the final users after being
transformed into grid voltage by a transformer.
Wind energy has become one of the most rapidly expanding sustain-
able energy resources as countries seek more of renewable and sustainable
energy resources owing to the concerns about energy security. When the
stakes are high and a choice must be made quickly, it is crucial to use a
methodical framework that can quantitatively deal with operational rela-
tionships in a complicated system. By logically fusing judgment and per-
sonal values, the analytical hierarchy technique is both a strong organizing
tool and a model for setting priorities. For this reason, it is a method that
gives meaningful results in the assessment of sustainable energy systems
for different purposes. Some multi-criteria studies carried out for this pur-
pose are given below.
In order to evaluate wind power plants, Ciraolo and Cavallaro applied the
fuzzy-new F-NA-IADE strategy to decision contexts and fuzzy assessment.
Four different plans were used to come up with an alternative. Aesthetics,
noise, environmental impact, and social acceptability were utilized as attri-
butes along with investment costs, operating and maintenance expenses,
energy generation capacities, energy savings, technic advancement, CO2
adsorption, and materialization times. To evaluate the changes in the order,
a sensitivity analysis was also carried out to evaluate the results’ robustness
[10]. Romulo, Eudemario, and Alex implemented an analytic hierarchy
strategy for a wind farm project with multiple criteria. Based on the values
of the wind speed, the analytic hierarchy strategy technique ranked and cat-
egorized all 27 territories for the installation of the wind farms [11]. Birol
and Ozgur used an analytic hierarchy strategy for power source design to
create a district’s environment using multiple levels of criteria. Residents
and the local government supported sun power investments, but the sector
chose to finance cleaner technologies in decentralized lignite energy facil-
ities and geothermal energy facilities [12]. The decision-making processes
employed by Kolios et al. for the wind turbine support structure choice.
Their research compared the PROMETHEE and ELECTRE, AHP, WPM,
WSM, and TOPSIS approaches. Utilizing stochastic algorithms created with
a Monte Carlo methodology, the best outcomes were discovered [13]. The
subject of wind turbine selection has drawn a lot of attention over the last
20 years. In literature, a range of variants in wind turbine selection problems
has been recorded [14–18]. A system reliability-based approach was created

by Munteanu and Nemes to evaluate nine different turbine designs [19]. To
determine the most effective wind turbine, Perkin et al. used a genetic algo-
rithm and a variety of selection parameters, including the generator size,
rotor radius, pitch angle, and hub height [20]. The research of Sua and Balo
for the choice of a 1.5-MW wind turbine was another study that utilized
the AHP. The selected criteria included the system’s maximal capacity, rotor
diameter, energy output, hub height, overall expense, noise level, state sup-
port, electromagnetic effect, integration potential, and degree of satisfaction
[21]. In a probabilistic model that they created, Dobakhshari and Firuzabad
employed turbine reliability as the selection criterion. Five different types
of turbines were used to test the suggested strategy [22]. When conducting
interviews with subject matter experts, Halonen and Sarja used a qualita-
tive approach. Their study revealed a number of turbine selection variables,
including product availability and dependability, price, vendor production
frequency, and maintenance trends [23]. Chowdhury et al. suggested a par-
ticle swarm optimization-based technique for choosing a turbine [24]. They
took into consideration a sole wind turbine type and used power output
capacity as their deciding factor. More than 120 different wind turbine types
were taken into consideration, utilizing the expense of energy as the wind
turbine selection criterion in a method suggested by Chowdhury [25]. To
choose the optimal wind turbine, Montoya et al. devised a genetic meth-
odology based on Pareto ranking. The selection criteria in their decision
modeling included daily energy output variance and power output [26].
Bencherif et al. devised an analytical strategy depending on the Weibull dis-
tribution and took into account 24 diverse wind turbine models utilizing
the capacity factor as the attribute for decision-making [27]. Martin made
a fictitious wind turbine as the starting point and created a straightforward
support tool while considering a variety of wind situations [28]. Helgason
researched a number of probable Icelandic locations. The cost of electric-
ity was utilized as the criterion for choosing the turbines, and 47 various
turbine modeling options were taken into consideration [29]. Blade design
was used as the deciding factor in Ramayya and Bekele’s consideration of
a site-specific turbine selection. To improve their model, they suggested
using a genetic algorithm [30]. Onyewudiala and Eke suggested a genetic
methodology for site-specific wind turbine selection [31]. The optimiza-
tion model used blade thickness, cord, and twist with the goal of maxi-
mizing power generation. Six different turbine models were employed in
Aljowder’s process for selecting a turbine, and the capacity factor was used
as the deciding element [32]. Jureczko et al. used a genetic algorithm to
design turbines while taking into account certain design goals. These goals
included generated output, necessary blade strength, cost of the blade mate-
rial, vibrations of the blade, and stability of the blade construction [33].
With turbine efficiency index, capacity factor, and mean energy output
as the deciding factors, El Shimy suggested an area-specific wind turbine
choice technique [34]. Shirgholami et al. developed an analytical hierar-
chy strategy-based approach and found over 30 decision criteria. However,
relying on the site-specific circumstances, only a fraction of these attributes
might be utilized in the selection procedure [35, 36]. Turbine choice was
taken into account by Dong et al. while taking wind turbine expense and
hybrid matching displays into consideration as the optimization attribute.
Differential evaluation, particle swarm optimization, and the proposed
modeling were all used [37]. A technique based on weighted sums was sug-
gested by Bagočius et al. for choosing the turbines for offshore wind farms.
They took into account five aspects when making their decision: maximal
power produced in the region, annual energy production, CO2 emissions,
investments, and nominal wind turbine power [38]. Du et al. developed a
wind turbine selection strategy depending on SCADA information analy-
sis [39]. Rehman and Khan employed a multi-attribute decision-support
strategy depending on fuzzy logic and three attributes to suggest a turbine
selection approach [40, 41]. Environmental considerations, financial con-
siderations, machine features, and technical difficulties were included as the
main decision factors in the proposal of Lee et al. of a multi-attribute deci-
sion strategy. They looked at four turbines, each with roughly the same rated
power [42]. They then added a fuzzy logic-sourced wind turbine selection
technique with six factors to their proposal [43]. A summary of the utilized
multi-criteria methodologies in wind turbine selection is given in Table 8.1.
Managers must act wisely when deciding which wind turbines to place
in each project because just a few wind turbine firms have gained an exis-
tence in international markets. It is challenging to solve the wind turbine
selection problem with significant uncertainty using conventional meth-
ods since it combines both quantitative and qualitative variables. In order
to create a practical and useful tool for decision-makers, the assessment
criteria system for wind turbines is built by carefully taking into account a
variety of indexes. This study suggests a decision framework based on the
analytic hierarchy strategy to address the complexity of the choice environ-
ment and the correlation among criteria. This methodology is a series of
properties that were chosen to obtain the notional significance. To produce
a more practical set of attributes, this research examines the literature in
choosing wind turbines, seeks input from professionals in the field, and the
most efficient wind turbine determined according to wind turbine criteria
and alternatives by an analytical hierarchy technique.
AHP
4
F-LOGIC
2
WSM
2
F-ANP
1
WASPAS
1
F-NAIADE
1
1
Table 8.1 Multi-criteria methodologies in wind turbine selection.
TOPSIS
1
ELECTRE
1
PROMETHEE
1
WPM
Methods
1
GP
1
Ref.
[10]
[42]
[44]
[36]
[43]
[13]
[45]
[21]
[46]
[8]
8.2 Analytic Hierarchy Strategy

A collection of methods known as multi-attribute decision-making are
used to compare, rank, and choose between options based on both quan-
titative and non-quantitative factors. Multi-attribute decision-making was
developed to address a variety of issues. One of these issues is the selection
problem, which is the subject of our review. The most efficient alternative
from a list of options is selected using multi-attribute decision-making.
The analytic hierarchy strategy is a methodology for assessing and orga-
nizing complicated decisions that are based on psychology and math. Saaty
introduced this method in the 1970s, and it has subsequently been further
improved. It is separated into three parts: the eventual problem or goal
that it is aiming to discuss, overall feasible solutions (also called options),
and the attribute it will utilize to assess the options. A multi-attribute deci-
sion-support methodology’s mission is to examine several options in the
context of various criteria and competing objectives [47]. The international
scientific community has acknowledged the analytic hierarchy strategy as
an adaptable and reliable multi-attribute decision-support tool for analyz-
ing complex choice issues [48].
The analytic hierarchy strategy’s disadvantages are as follows [49–52]:
− With all the subsystems required for problem reversal, an

analytic hierarchy strategy can take a while, especially if
there are a lot of criteria and options—for example, to estab-
lish the weights for the 10- criteria hierarchy, the decision
maker must perform 45 pairwise comparison calculations.
− Analytic hierarchy strategy can be thought of as a series of
processes, and the aggregation of these steps might lead to
the loss of crucial information. It can be difficult to compen-
sate for good and negative criterion scores.
− Due to a phenomenon known as rank reversal, the analytic hier-
archy strategy is susceptible to ranking abnormalities like many
MCDM approaches. When a comparable option is included
in the list of alternatives being considered, this happens. This
makes it difficult to interpret the weights of the criteria.
On the positive side, the method:
− allows people to clarify and record their issues, and through

repetition, their judgment is improved.
− combines a representative verdict from a range of opinions.

− helps people to choose the optimal option depending on their
goals while taking into account the relative priority of many
elements.
− leads to a determination of how desirable each choice is.
− keeps track of the reasoning of judgments.
− gives a scale for evaluating priorities and intangibles.
− complies with the natural tendency of humans to divide sys-
tems into levels and elements.
− integrates deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning, two
key human analytical methods, into a coherent framework.
− is adaptable and simple to understand for a variety of issues.
Four previously mentioned criteria are used to construct the measure-

ment of flexibility. Each criterion in the measurement of case flexibility has
its own importance. The option should be broken down into subsequent
phases in order to organize the criteria based on their impact on flexibility
[53], namely:
− Define the issue, identify the specifications that are known

to exist, and create a hierarchy that goes from the aim of the
primary four attributes to the lesser level of options.
− Create a series of binary crosscheck matrices for each crite-
rion in relation to the primary target.
− Utilize the preferences to give each alternative and each cri-
terion equal weights.
− Order the options in accordance with the objective of assess-
ing the alternatives’ weights.
Imagine that n changes, A1,.....,An, whose weights w1,.....,wn, are acknowl-

edged, respectively. The weight ratio in accordance with the fundamental
scale is contained in the binary matrix. According to the reciprocal of the
weights, a comparison is made between each pair of alternatives, as shown
in the matrix equation below:
1/ 1 1/ 2  1/ n 1 1
2/ 1 2/ 2  2/ n 2 2
n (8.1)
     
n/ 1 n/ 2  n/ n n n
It can be summed up as follows:
A n (8.2)
According to Figure 8.1, the binary crosscheck matrices in the analytic hier-
archy strategy are based on the relevance intensity’s basic measurement [54].
The analytic hierarchy strategy’s random consistency index and fundamen-
tal scale are shown in Figure 8.2. The answer to Equation 8.2 is known as the
fundamental right eigenvector of A. The elements must be standardized by
separating over their total. Priorities must be calculated, and then the alterna-
tive must be gauged to ensure consistency. The following consistency index in
Equation 8.3 can be used to gauge consistency for solution evaluation.
max n
CI (8.3)
n 1
Significance intensity
Extreme
Very Very Strong
Very Strong
Strong Plus
Strong Importance
Moderate Plus
Moderate
Slightly
Equal
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 8.1 Analytic hierarchy strategy random consistency index and fundamental scale.
0.0850
0.0800
0.0804
0.0796
0.0750
0.0791
0.0775
0.0763
0.0756
0.0747
0.0700
0.0734
0.0729
0.0728
0.0708
0.0650
0.0689
0.0600
Figure 8.2 Total scores of the alternatives.

where λmax is the eigenvector’s biggest primary eigenvalue. It is necessary to

contrast the consistency index (CI) with the pre-calculated random con-
sistency index (RI) [55]. The consistency ratio is then determined as in
Equation 8.4:
CI
CR (8.4)
RI
The inconsistency is acceptable if the consistency rate value is less than

or equal to 0.1, while the ratio in Equation 8.4 will be applied to each alter-
native’s comparison of the criteria to the goal and to the criteria.
The required data was gathered in accordance with the model’s design
and the various levels of the analytic hierarchy strategy tree in this study
in order to establish the analytic hierarchy strategy, and the weighting
process was then carried out based on this. In order to meet the criteria
and sub-conditions, several interviews were done. Additionally, a ques-
tionnaire created by a researcher in this area was used and given to those
working in the wind turbine business. Finally, the agreed-upon criteria and
sub-criteria were computed.
8.3 Results and Discussion

Effective wind facility design is a main topic in the wind power generation
studies. Multiple objectives must be met simultaneously by this design. The
selection of a wind turbine that would be the best option for a particular
wind facility area is one goal. Since several decision criteria must be taken
into account at once, choosing the best wind turbine among a few diverse
types is a difficult issue. For this decision, the optimum trade-off between
the criteria must be considered in order to maximize the satisfaction of
each criterion. Finding and selecting the best option from the available
possibilities is the process of making a decision. Due to the existence of
diverse and occasionally contradictory criteria, the decision-maker in
many real-world decision-making situations has some uncertainty regard-
ing the degree to which he or she has confidence in the outcomes of var-
ious decision-making processes. Because of this, the decision-maker in
most real-world cases seeks to accomplish many objectives. Thus, real-
world decision-making problems can be viewed from another angle in the
form of multi-attribute decision-making problems [56]. Several aspects
with both good and negative consequences should be considered when
selecting a wind turbine. Therefore, the adoption of multidisciplinary deci-

sion models is required for appropriate decision-making in this domain.
Three basic processes make up multi-attribute decision-making: identify-
ing and assessing the indications, weighing each indicator, and choosing
the best alternative. The analytic hierarchy approach was implemented in
this article to weigh each indicator and choose the best choice after identi-
fying and assessing the indicators. All of the criteria for choosing the most
effective wind turbine technology in this research were broken down into
four categories for this reason. These four significant attributes for bench-
marking technologies are generator (voltage), power (cut-in wind speed,
cut-out wind speed, and rated wind speed), rotor (swept area, diameter,
and power density 1 and power density 2), and tower (max hub height).
After performing in-depth research, the method of expert interviews was
utilized in the current study to enumerate the critical elements in assessing
wind turbine technology in accordance with the principles of sustainable
development management. To meet the criterion and sub-criteria, mul-
tiple interviews were done in this respect. The stakeholders in the wind
turbine sector were also given a questionnaire created by the researcher in
this area. Finally, the agreed-upon criteria (four attributes) and sub-criteria
(nine sub-attributes) were tallied. Based on the country’s current position,
12 foreign firms that provide wind turbines for wind farms were recog-
nized as potential international choice options.
Based on nine selection criteria, the attractiveness of 12 potential wind
turbines is evaluated using the analytic hierarchy strategy. After selecting
the decision criteria and options, creating the questionnaire, consulting
the research’s statistical community, and taking into account the distribu-
tion and interviewing methods, the responses of the chosen respondents
were gathered and paired. These responses represented their assessments
of the significance and priority of the indicators. There is no need to con-
duct a validity test because the study questionnaires are, in reality, spe-
cialized questionnaires designed to prioritize and count the judgments of
two-by-two pairs of experts [57]. The judicial process has been carried out
from the bottom up in the current study because evaluating the criteria
depends on the options being taken into account. Given that the data anal-
ysis method depends on the analytic hierarchy strategy, the incompatibility
values of the pairwise comparisons of the respondents were first moni-
tored; after this, the pairwise comparison matrix was calculated with the
assurance of an acceptable level of incompatibility (values less than 0.1).
The most efficient wind turbine, as determined by the results, was one of
the four factors considered in choosing the right wind turbine for wind
farms. Table 8.2 presents the selected characteristics of 12 wind turbines
Table 8.2 3MW wind turbine attributes.

WT1 WT2 WT3 WT4 WT5 WT6 WT7 WT8 WT9 WT 10 WT 11 WT 12
Power
Rated wind speed 10 10.5 11.5 11 9.5 10 10.5 16 12 12 15 13
Cut-out wind speed 20 25 25 25 22 25 20 34 20 25 25 25
Cut-in wind speed 3 3 3 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Rotor
Diameter 140 122 103 118.2 136 145 119 82 141 120 101 100
Swept area 15,393.8 11,689 8,328 10,973 14.526.7 16,512.9 11,122 5,281 15,164 11,390 8,012 7,850
Power density 1 194.9 256.7 360.2 273.4 206.5 181.7 269.7 568.1 197.8 263.4 374.4 382.2
Power density 2 5.1 3.9 2.8 3.7 4.8 5.5 3.7 1.8 5.1 3.8 2.7 2.6
Generator
Voltage 690 680 690 1,000 690 690 680 690 690 690 690 860
Tower
Maximum hub height 110 139 85 140 120 111 112 138 140 160 143 100
compared in this study. The characteristics provided in Table 8.2 are used
within the multi-attribute decision-making methodology.
The values in Table 8.2 need to be normalized for further analysis.
Table 8.3 presents the normalized values of the 12 wind turbine alternatives.
The normalized values in Table 8.3 need to be multiplied with the prior-
ity of each criterion to calculate the weighted score of each turbine alterna-
tive. Table 8.4 presents the decision matrix developed by a panel of expert
opinions to provide a pairwise comparison of the decision criteria used in
the study.
The correlation matrix in Table 8.4 indicates that power density is the
most significant factor contributing to the overall attractiveness of solar
panels. Table 8.5 presents the weighted scores of the wind turbine alterna-
tives after multiplying the normalized values in Table 8.3 with the weights
obtained from Table 8.4.
Figure 8.2 provides a comparison of the alternative wind turbines
depending on the nine attributes. The outputs display that wind turbine 8
has the highest score among the 12 brands compared in this study.
8.4 Conclusions
As the environmental effects of fossil fuels become increasingly obvious
in recent years, there will be a greater emphasis placed on the need for
sustainable energy worldwide. The demand for power generation and
delivery is further increased by the rapid population growth in emerging
nations. Without a doubt, fossil-based energy sources produce power of
high quality, but they are not cost-effective over the long term and then
eventually run out. Fossil fuels are also to blame for a number of ecological
problems and pose a severe threat to the balance of the environment [58].
Renewable energy is significant because of a lower need for fossil-based
power sources to supply cleaner energy and environmental balance top-
ics, etc. Due to the global energy crisis, the majority of nations today have
adopted policies and plans that use renewable resources to produce energy.
According to a recent International Energy Agency study, it is anticipated
that global renewable energy capacity will expand by 50% in the upcoming
year and by 2400 GW (or 75% in the following 5 years) [59]. The produc-
tion of industrial energy is evident to everyone in both the present and
future civilizations due to the sustainable and sustainable development of
clean energy (like wind energy). The analytic hierarchy strategy of feasible
wind turbine intangible qualitative attributes in addition to the quantita-
tive attributes involves a decision that was simpler. This is a well-defined
Table 8.3 Normalized attributes.

WT1 WT2 WT3 WT4 WT5 WT6 WT7 WT8 WT9 WT10 WT11 WT12
Rated wind speed 0.071 0.074 0.082 0.078 0.067 0.071 0.074 0.113 0.085 0.085 0.106 0.092
Cut-out wind speed 0.069 0.086 0.086 0.086 0.076 0.086 0.069 0.117 0.069 0.086 0.086 0.086
Cut-in wind speed 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.132 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079
Diameter 0.098 0.085 0.072 0.083 0.095 0.102 0.083 0.057 0.099 0.084 0.071 0.070
Swept area 0.113 0.086 0.061 0.081 0.107 0.121 0.082 0.039 0.111 0.084 0.059 0.058
Power density 1 0.055 0.073 0.102 0.077 0.059 0.051 0.076 0.161 0.056 0.075 0.106 0.108
Power density 2 0.112 0.086 0.062 0.081 0.105 0.121 0.081 0.040 0.112 0.084 0.059 0.057
Voltage 0.079 0.078 0.079 0.114 0.079 0.079 0.078 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.098
Maximum hub height 0.073 0.093 0.057 0.093 0.080 0.074 0.075 0.092 0.093 0.107 0.095 0.067
Table 8.4 Correlation matrix.

Rated Power Maximum
wind Cut-out wind Cut-in wind Diameter Swept area density 1 Power hub
speed speed (m/s) speed (m/s) (m) (m²) (W/m²) density 2 Voltage height
Rated wind 1 0.5 0.33 0.5 2 0.20 0.2 0.33 0.5
speed
Cut-out wind 1 0.5 0.33 0.16 0.12 0.12 0.16 0.5

speed
Cut-in wind 1 0.20 0.33 0.25 0.25 0.2 0.33

speed
Diameter 1 0.25 0.16 0.16 0.5 2
Swept area 1 0.33 0.33 0.5 2
Power density 1 1 1 2 3
Power density 2 1 2 3
Voltage 1 2
Maximum hub 1
height
Weights 4.9% 3.2% 4.9% 8.0% 10.6% 23.6% 23.6% 14.20% 7.0%
Table 8.5 Weighted scores.

WT1 WT2 WT3 WT4 WT5 WT6 WT7 WT8 WT9 WT10 WT11 WT12
Rated wind speed 0.0035 0.0036 0.0040 0.0038 0.0033 0.0035 0.0036 0.0056 0.0042 0.0042 0.0052 0.0045
Cut-out wind speed 0.0022 0.0027 0.0027 0.0027 0.0024 0.0027 0.0022 0.0037 0.0022 0.0027 0.0027 0.0027
Cut-in wind speed 0.0039 0.0039 0.0039 0.0064 0.0039 0.0039 0.0039 0.0039 0.0039 0.0039 0.0039 0.0039
Diameter 0.0078 0.0068 0.0058 0.0066 0.0076 0.0081 0.0067 0.0046 0.0079 0.0067 0.0057 0.0056
Swept area 0.0120 0.0091 0.0065 0.0085 0.0113 0.0128 0.0087 0.0041 0.0118 0.0089 0.0062 0.0061
Power density 1 0.0130 0.0172 0.0241 0.0183 0.0138 0.0122 0.0180 0.0380 0.0132 0.0176 0.0250 0.0256
Power density 2 0.0265 0.0202 0.0145 0.0192 0.0249 0.0285 0.0192 0.0093 0.0265 0.0197 0.0140 0.0135
Voltage 0.0112 0.0110 0.0112 0.0162 0.0112 0.0112 0.0110 0.0112 0.0112 0.0112 0.0112 0.0140
Maximum hub height 0.0051 0.0065 0.0040 0.0065 0.0056 0.0052 0.0052 0.0064 0.0065 0.0075 0.0067 0.0047
Total 0.0775 0.0734 0.0689 0.0756 0.0763 0.0804 0.0708 0.0791 0.0796 0.0747 0.0729 0.0728
arithmetical formation of a coherent and approximate or accurate weight

matrix to compose, depending on the similar true eigenvector ability [60].
In this article, an effort was made to evaluate and choose wind turbines
for the conditions in Turkey using multi-attribute judgments based on
numerous positive and negative characteristics. In order to do this, elements
and indicators of the superiority of a wind turbine technology were tallied and
divided into four broad categories based on the findings of the literature
and multiple expert interviews. The analytic hierarchy strategy was used in
this paper to weigh and choose the best option among the products of 12
international companies selling wind turbines for wind farms after identi-
fying and evaluating the criteria (four criteria) and important sub-criteria
(nine sub-criteria) in evaluating and selecting a wind turbine technology.
Based on the findings and taking into account all facets of the occasionally
contradictory criteria, WT6 was ultimately determined to be the best choice.
The analytic hierarchy strategy, on which the proposed turbine selec-
tion methodology is based, has several innovative features [61]. The sug-
gested method creates a turbine selection model while taking into account
four straightforward but crucial decision criteria and taking conflict and
incommensurability into consideration. Any commercially available tur-
bine can easily and quickly meet these requirements, simplifying the sug-
gested method. The results are more thorough because 12 turbines from
different manufacturers have also been taken into account. It is also critical
to note that the proposed framework is flexible and reliable; attributes and
turbine types can be simply added or removed to fulfill the requirements of
the designer without compromising computational effectiveness.
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9
Effect of Aerodynamics on
Wind Turbine Design
Mahadi Hasan Masud1*, Md. Forhad Hossain Hemal1, Mim Mashrur Ahmed1,
Md. Fyruz Ibna Alam Taki1, Md. Hasibul Hasan Himel1,2,
Anan Ashrabi Ananno3 and Peter Dabnichki4
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering and
Technology, Rajshahi, Bangladesh
2
Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering,
Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
3
Division of Product Realization, Department of Management and Engineering,
Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
4
School of Engineering, RMIT University, Bundoora Campus, Melbourne,
VIC, Australia
Abstract
The huge potential of wind energy to generate power has made the study of wind
turbines very exciting. Wind turbines should be designed in such a way that they
can offer the best reliability along with maximum efficiency. As the performance
of wind turbines relies on different aerodynamic properties, this chapter aims to
illustrate the key aerodynamic properties that must be taken into consideration
during turbine design for improved performance. This study starts with explain-
ing the effect of different air properties like density, viscosity, temperature, pres-
sure, and humidity on the turbine performance. Finally, aerodynamic properties
that define the turbine performance, such as solidity, blade numbers, pitch, pitch
angle, strut effects, height-to-radius ratio, and Reynolds number, are discussed in
detail. It is concluded that all these properties are equally important and are to be
given proper consideration during the process of wind turbine design to achieve
maximum efficiency with satisfactory reliability.
Keywords: Wind turbine, aerodynamics, reliability, momentum theory,

Reynolds number
*Corresponding author: masud.08ruet@gmail.com; masud.08@me.ruet.ac.bd
207
9.1 Introduction
Global electricity demand is increasing, and current over-reliance on
fossil-based energy technology is negatively impacting the environment.
Therefore, extensive research is required to harness electricity from renew-
able sources. Though there are different options for renewable sources,
wind energy, due to its satisfactory efficiency along with availability, is
widely utilized globally [1, 2]. The Global Wind Energy Council statis-
tics [3] indicate that, in 2021, 837 GW of power was harnessed from wind
energy [3]. The planned installation of 6,044 GW of wind energy plants
by 2050 has the potential to meet over one-third of the global electricity
demand. Such action will reduce up to 6.3 GTons of CO2 emissions [4]. The
basic projections outlined above demonstrate the substantial impact wind
energy can have in mitigating climate change and transitioning towards a
more sustainable future. Moreover, the advancement of wind turbine tech-
nology and management has been closely linked to the extensive adoption
of wind power throughout the past two decades [5].
Wind turbine development has been geared up after the research done by
Joukowsky and Betz [6, 7]. Glauert’s [8] development of the blade-element
momentum (BEM) theory opened a new window for designing the tur-
bine rotors. These advancements have allowed modern h orizontal-axis
wind turbines (HAWTs) to achieve maximum power coefficients close
to the theoretical limit [9]. Tian et al. [10] developed and examined an
improved vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT) having overlapped savo-
nius rotors positioned next to each other. With a tip speed ratio (TSR) of
0.4, their research found a considerable gain in efficiency with a 46.95%
increase. Another research of savonius type wind turbine has been carried
out by Kaya and Acir [11] based on the Taguchi optimization method and
concluded that the output power coefficient increased by approximately
17.9% when the TSR was set to 0.8. However, it is very challenging to make
a precise prediction about wind turbine performance under natural con-
ditions due to presence of boundary layer across the turbine blade [12].
Research conducted by Costa Rocha et al. [13] concluded that a suitable
blade pitch angle controller can optimize wind turbine performance. To
reduce the effect of axial loads, Lacker [14] introduced the PID controller
to maintain the nominal conditions of the rotor. Aerodynamic imbalance is
another concerning parameter for the fatigue damage of the wind turbine
structure. Extensive analyses by Castellani et al. [15] concluded that wake
generation is one of the main reasons for this imbalance, which is respon-
sible for poor power output of wind turbine. Madsen et al. [16] utilized
Effect of Aerodynamics on Wind Turbine Design 209
computational fluid dynamics to ensure proper optimization of the blade

tip shape, while Du et al. [17] presented a deep learning method to predict
the output aerodynamic performance of a wind turbine blade. They also
utilized neural networks capable of generating smooth and comprehensive
blade profiles. Chetan et al. [18] investigated the aerodynamic challenges
posed by overlong blades. Duthe et al. [19] investigated a critical issue that
impacts the dependability of wind turbines, i.e., the erosion of rotor blades
occurring on the different edge point. Such erosion diminishes perfor-
mance and causes imbalances due to the load variation, amplified noise
pollution. Thus, maintenance requires more expenses. If neglected, this
problem can eventually lead to a failure in the functionality of the blades.
The mechanical energy generated by wind turbines is transformed into
electricity. The turbine performance depends on the wind velocity, rotor
area and density of the air [20]. However, the actual power output is less
than the theoretical one due to wind shear stress responsible for consider-
able fatigue load on the turbine blade [22]. Variations of external climate
conditions (temperature, humidity, and density of air), the effect of wakes
around the rotor blade [21], yak angle [22], angle of attack (AOA) and TSR
are the most critical aerodynamic variables that affect the power output.
Moreover, to ensure proper power optimization, it is necessary to reduce
axial loads acting on the turbine blades [23]. Proper optimization of those
aerodynamic variables can ensure maximum power output. Wind tur-
bine aerodynamics represents a prominent area of study within contem-
porary aerodynamics. The study of wind turbine aerodynamics involves
discussing various methods for modeling and estimating the aerodynamic
forces exerted on a wind turbine’s solid components, explicitly focusing
on the rotor blades. Aerodynamics plays a pivotal role in predicting the
wind turbine performance and is an essential requirement for their design,
advancement, and optimization [24].
Various researchers studied different parameters [25–28] and showed
their effects on wind turbines performance, but a critical study exploring
all the aerodynamic variables is still missing. This study provides a detailed
analysis of how various aerodynamic variables impact the turbine perfor-
mance, the interrelationships between the variables and effects on power
generation, and recommendation has been given for ensuring optimum
wind turbine performance. In this chapter, the authors will embark on a
journey to uncover the fundamental principles of aerodynamics that shape
the design and operation of wind turbines. An exploration of the different
key elements of a wind turbine including blades, tower and nacelle and a
discussion of their specific aerodynamic roles is presented. This chapter
focuses on assessing the impact of different parameters like, wind velocity
and blade design on the turbine performance. This chapter briefly discusses
the effects of air properties on wind turbines and classical momentum the-
ory, which is popular for being one of the most fundamental theories for
understanding wind turbine aerodynamics, followed by a detailed expla-
nation of the interrelationship between wind turbine and aerodynamics.
9.2 Air Properties Affecting Wind Turbines

Understanding interrelationship between turbines and aerodynamics
seeks an in-depth understanding of air properties that directly or indirectly
affect wind turbine performance. Wind kinetic energy is transformed into
mechanical energy by wind turbines, which are then utilized to generate
electricity [29]. Therefore, suitable air properties are required for optimum
performance of the wind turbine. For better performance, the shape of the
blade and the associated angles are carefully designed to reduce the drag
force while increasing the lift force [30]. Apart from shape and angle of
attack, several factors influence the drag and lift forces, such as blade design
and air properties. Air properties like wind speed, wind direction, air den-
sity, turbulence, viscosity, humidity, temperature, and pressure affect the
aerodynamic performance of turbines. Wind speeds should be optimum
for the optimum wind turbine performance as excessive high speed may
damage the turbine blades, and low speed cannot provide enough thrust
for the rotation of the blade. For higher power output, the wind should hit
the turbine blade orthogonally all the time. If the air density is low, it will
result in less mass flow through the turbine resulting in an overall reduc-
tion in the power output. Moreover, increased viscosity, turbulent air and
higher humidity can limit the turbine performance [31–34].
Air density has significant impact on the turbine aerodynamics. The tur-
bine performance improves when it is exposed to high-density airflow passing
through its rotor. Moreover, lift force increases as a result of the high-density
airflow. Therefore, a high-density air flow ensures high turbine efficiency,
allowing more energy extraction. However, the longer and broader blades can
compensate for lower lift forces in low-density locations. Blade design needs
to be modified for various air density circumstances. The analysis of the tur-
bine performance and energy production requires an accurate understanding
of air density. Therefore, the design of wind turbines for ensuring maximum
efficiency and power generation is directly connected to the air density [31].
Viscosity significantly impacts the aerodynamics of wind turbines.
Viscosity refers to the resistance of a fluid to flow that affects the behavior
of the air when it flows around the blades of the wind turbine. At minimum
wind speeds, air viscosity can provoke it to stick with the turbine blade sur-
face and creates a boundary layer. This boundary layer increases the drag
on the blades and reduces the turbine efficiency. At higher wind speeds, the
viscosity of air can cause turbulence and separation of the airflow over the
blades, leading to reduced lift and increased drag, thus resulting in poor
turbine performance [35].
Temperature is a crucial factor that significantly impacts the turbine per-
formance as the air density changes with temperature. When the tempera-
ture increases, the density decreases, resulting in less mass flow around the
turbine and causing less power output. Moreover, temperature differences
in the atmosphere can create areas of high and low pressure that alter the
wind direction [32].
Air pressure directly affects the lift and drag force on the blades. Flowing
the wind over the blade curved surface, it creates a zone of low pressure
along with high pressure respectively on the upper surface and lower sur-
face. The pressure variance between the two produces lift by generating a
force that elevates the blades. The amount of lift produced is proportional
to the pressure variance between the upward and downward surfaces of the
blade. The pressure gradient across the blade generates drag force that can
be minimized by appropriate design [33].
Air humidity directly affects the air density, which, in turn, impacts the
wind turbine performance. High humidity results in less air density, reducing
Increasing Performance
Increasing Pressure
Increasing Density
Increasing Temperature
Increasing Humidity
Increasing Viscosity
Decreasing Performance
Figure 9.1 Air properties affecting wind turbine performance.

the effectiveness of the turbine as lower density is responsible for the lower
air mass flow through the turbine. Consequently, a wind turbine generates
less power in the humid condition than the dry condition. Humidity also
affects the airflow over the surface of the blades as high humidity decreases
air velocity [34].
Figure 9.1 demonstrates that air properties significantly affect the wind
turbines’ performance. In short, high viscosity, temperature, and humidity
reduce the turbine performance. However, high pressure and density are
suitable for improved power output of the turbine.
9.3 Classical Blade Element Momentum Theory

The very first developed classical momentum theory by Rankine and
Froude for one-dimensional flow which was developed by Glauert to
understand two-dimensional flow integrating spinning motion in the
wake is essential to analyze the aerodynamic effects on turbines [38]. It
is a mathematical approach by which the aerodynamics of a wind turbine
rotor blade can be examined. The wind turbine blade performance can be
assessed by the analysis of the individual component of the overall system.
The significance of the BEM theory lies in its capacity to offer a straight-
forward yet precise technique for predicting wind turbine performance.
Hence, for the assessment of aerodynamic loads and power output, this
theory is repeatedly for a wind turbine [39] while also being computation-
ally efficient in predicting wind turbine performance [40]. The approach of
the BEM theory is founded upon the approach of incompressible, steady,
and inviscid flow that has no circumferential and radial dependency which
can be obtained from the conversion of mass and momentum law [41]. The
main assumption of BEM is that it disregards the wake rotation effect [42].
However, the wake rotation effect is significant when analyzing propellers
as it increases the power coefficient of the rotor having low tip speed ratios
(TSR). When TSR <2, at the disc, axial induction factor remains smaller
than half of that at the infinitely far downstream.
Negative flow in the wake happens at a higher induction factor (≥0.5),
which is an issue in the BEM theory [38]. This violates the Rankine–
Froude flow theory, which is a limitation of BEM theory. Another short-
coming arises in that the theory considers the flow within the rotor blade
as a two-dimensional component, and the airfoil section characteristics are
considered to be constant across the blade span. This ignores the effects of
three-dimensional flow phenomena, like wake turbulence and vortex shed-
ding, which can significantly affect the rotor performance [42]. Again, the
BEM theory assumes the flow through the rotor blades to be consistent and
stable, ignoring the impacts of unsteady flow phenomena like a dynamic
stall, which can result in significant differences between the expected and
the actual rotor performance [38].
The power production generally becomes higher when the induction fac-
tor increases, but it also increases the structural loads on the blades. Moreover,
extremely high induction factors result in power output reductions because
of the increase in turbulent wakes [43]. The induction factor must be opti-
mized to maximize power output while minimizing blade loads. Figure 9.2
illustrates the rotor’s wake and upstream induction zones of a wind turbine.
Ignoring the relatively small tangential induction factor (swirl), the rate
of mass flow (dm  ) over the disk annular portion is:

dm dA(V vi ) 2 (V v i )y dy (9.1)
Here V∞ and vi represent velocity at free stream and induced velocity

in axial direction in ms−1, respectively, and ρ represents the density of air.
The incremental thrust on the annulus in general form (dT) and in coeffi-
cient form (dCT) can be calculated using Equations 9.2 and 9.3, respectively.
dT 2 (V v i )v i dA 4 (V v i )v i y dy (9.2)
dT vi vi y y
dC T 8 1 d (9.3)
1 V V R R
AV
2
Wind Direction
Rotor Disk
Mixing
V
Wind Velocity
V(1-a)
Ft
Rotor Streamtube
V(1-2a)
Freestream
Wake
Figure 9.2 Wind turbine rotor’s wake and upstream induction zones.
Here R represents the rotor radius in meters. Taking dimensionless

blade radius, r = y/R, Equation 9.3 becomes:
vi vi
dC T 8 1 rdr 8(1 a)ardr (9.4)
V V
vi
where induction factor a . The thrust coefficient may be expressed
V
using the blade element method as follows:
dC T (X TSR )2 C l r 2dr (9.5)
where XTSR is the TSR and σ is the rotor solidity. Equating Equations 9.4
and 9.5, the following expression can be obtained:
8(1 a)ar dr (X TSR )2 C l r 2dr (9.6)
The coefficient (Cl) and the inflow angle (φ) can be determined by the
following equations:
Cl Cl ( ) (9.7)
1 a
(9.8)
rX TSR
Here θ is the blade pitch angle and Clα is the sectional lift slope with the
angle of attack. Thus, Equation 9.6 becomes:
8(1 a) X TSR C l (X TSR r (1 a)) (9.9)
This subsequent equation, with some adjustment, can be stated as follows:
X TSR C l X TSR C l (X TSR r 1)

a2 a 0 (9.10)
8 8
X TSR C l 1
a(r, X TSR )
16 2
X TSR C l 1 X TSR C l (X TSR r 1)
(9.11)
16 2 8
Equation 9.11 is considered the principal equation of BEM theory.

Momentum theory is only valid for the induction factor from 0 to 0.50
since beyond that the turbine gradually goes to the TWS and VRS.
Therefore, turbine performance can be assessed by induction factor “a”
if the sufficient data on blade element parameters, pitch angle, rotational
speed, and air density are available. Moreover, the load can be analyzed
by estimating the loads experienced by various wind turbine components.
9.4 Aerodynamic Performance Testing

The turbine performance can be enhanced by capturing the maximum
possible wind energy and converting it into usable power [36, 37]. In this
section, the methods of aerodynamic performance testing are discussed,
along with their importance.
There are two main methods of aerodynamic performance testing:
(1) wind tunnel testing and (2) field testing. The turbine blade or model
is placed in a controlled airflow during wind tunnel testing, and aerody-
namic forces and moments over the blades are measured [38]. The per-
formance evaluation of various types of blades is possible by this method
because it allows for the precise control of some testing parameters like the
wind speed and AOA [39]. Field testing is used for the assessment of the
aerodynamic performance in outside conditions [40]. However, field test-
ing is subjected to environmental conditions that can affect the accuracy
and reliability of the data. Both methods have both positive and negative
aspects, and the method selection depends on the types of requirements.
9.4.1 Wind Tunnel Testing and Field Testing

Wind tunnel testing is essential to evaluate the efficiency of the wind tur-
bines in a predictable and controlled environment. The wind tunnel is made
up of three parts such as a test section where the model is placed for obser-
vation, where the wind is controlled in the real world, a settling chamber
where the wind is conditioned, and a wind-generating and flow apparatus.
The wind speed and other important parameters are measured by a variety
of sensors, and the performance of wind turbines such as torque, output
power, and rotational speed are collected using data acquisition systems.
Wind tunnel testing is more reliable when there is regulated flow,
although the obstruction effects often affect the reliability. Because of the
unsteady, asymmetric, separated, and highly turbulent flow field that sur-
rounds them, VAWTs create a special aerodynamic interruption in wind
tunnels [41]. The literature suggests correcting the output of the VAWT if
the blockage ratio exceeds 5% [50].
A digital manometer coupled with pitot-static tube is used to measure
V∞. The free-stream flow’s turbulence intensity (Tu) can be calculated by
the following equation [41]:
v rms
Tu(%) 100 (9.12)
V
where vrms and V represent root-mean-squared velocity fluctuations at

the streamwise direction and time-average streamwise velocity of wind,
respectively. The root-mean-squared velocity is calculated as:
n 2
vi V
v rms (9.13)
i 1
n 1
where vi represents the induced axial velocity and n represents the number
of total observations. Turbulence intensity or Tu is repeatedly used in the
testing of wind tunnels to describe the degree of turbulence in the test sec-
tion and to observe the performance of the model being tested due to tur-
bulence. By measuring the turbulence strength in a wind tunnel, researchers
can determine the turbulence in the test section and compare the results of
numerous experiments carried out under similar conditions. External loads
are connected to each turbine outlet for the determination of power output.
The amount of power consumed (Pl) by the resistor is then determined using
the circuit’s effective value of alternating current, I as shown in Equation 9.14:
Pl R l I2 (9.14)
where Rl represents the electrical resistance of the load [49]. Wind tunnel
testing has several advantages over field testing. From wind tunnel testing,
the computational results are usually validated [42]. Researchers can

increase the precision of their models and accurately predict the turbine
performance in actual operating conditions by comparing the outcomes of
wind tunnel testing with those predicted by computational models. Wind
turbines are frequently installed in turbulence-prone areas, which can sig-
nificantly affect their performance [43]. The wind turbine design can be
improved with the help of this information to make them more resistant
to turbulence. Different wind turbine designs can be tested and analyzed
in a controlled environment using wind tunnel testing [44]. Field testing
is a vital tool for evaluating and improving wind turbine performance. The
outcomes of this testing can be used to increase the overall effectiveness
and dependability of wind energy systems, which will eventually assist in
the development of the renewable energy sector.
9.4.2 Performance Testing of a Counter-Rotating Wind

Turbine System
A counter-rotating turbine system (C/R system) [45] utilizes patented
bevel-planetary gear arrangements to combine the VAWT with the con-
ventional HAWT systems as shown in Figure 9.3. The inner 30% area of
the blade, also called dead zone, faces a low sweeping speed [45]. To cover
up the dead zone, an auxiliary rotor, whose diameter is half of that of the
main rotor, is used to generate additional torque in the main rotor area.
This system has significant benefits, especially in terms of aerodynamics.
Moreover, turbine performance can be enhanced using an auxiliary rotor
of a smaller dimension. The weight of the nacelle is greatly reduced by the
generating system’s placement in the non-rotating section, enabling a free-
yaw feature. To analyze this system, it is assumed that the primary and the
auxiliary rotors do not interfere with each other aerodynamically.
Auxiliary Bevel- Main Rotor

Wind Rotor Blade Planet Gear Blade
System
Planetary
Gear
Generator
Figure 9.3 Schematic diagram of a counter-rotating (C/R) wind turbine system.

Stream tube geometry is depicted in Figure 9.4 [45]. Let V, V1, and Vo
be flow components towards the axis of stream tube and ρ and A be the air
density and disk area, respectively. The air stream releases the power (P)
which can be expressed as follows:
1
P AV(Vo V1 )(Vo V1 ) (9.15)
2
The power coefficient (Cp), as mentioned earlier, can be represented as:
P
Cp 4a(1 a)2 (9.16)
0.5 Vo3 A
Based on Glauert’s actuator disk concept, the BEM theory is used to

obtain the torque and thrust of the rotor [45]. A typical blade section aero-
dynamics is illustrated in Figure 9.5. The blade’s geometric pitch is speci-
fied as follows:
(9.17)
where θ and φ represent the induced flow angle and angle of attack,
respectively.
Considering that a′ is the rotational induction, the following expression
can be used to express the induced angle:
1 1 a
tan (9.18)
r (1 a )
Streamline V1
V = V0(1-a)
V0
P0 P P
,
Rotor Disk P0
Figure 9.4 Geometry of the stream tube.

Vr φ V0(1-a)
α
Disc Line θ
α dH
dD
Chord Line φ dL
dT
Figure 9.5 Blade section aerodynamics.
r 1 3a
where r and a
Vo 4a 1
where λr and Ω represent induced flow ratio and rotor speed in RPM,
respectively. Inflow ratios and induction factors can be used to express the
relative air velocity (Vr) as follows:
Vr Vo {(1 a)2 2
r (1 a)2 } (9.19)
Aerodynamic forces operating over a short blade section, dr, can be esti-
mated as follows:
1 2 (9.20)
dL Vr c dr c1
2
1 2 (9.21)
dD Vr c dr cd
2
where infinitesimal drag and lift forces are represented by dD and dL,
respectively, and c represents chord length. Moreover, cd and cl represent
the drag and lift coefficients, respectively. Additionally, the infinitesimal
thrust (dT), power generated (dP), and developed torque (dQ) are calcu-
lated as follows:
dT dL cos dD sin (9.22)
dQ (dL sin dD cos )r (9.23)
dP dQ (9.24)
Combining contributions from small disk portions, the equations

become as follows:
F
Nb
T cVr2 (c l cos cd sin )dr (9.25)
2 0
F
Nb
Q cVr2 (c l sin cd cos )r dr (9.26)
2 0
P Q (9.27)
where T is the total thrust, and Q and P are the total torque and power,
respectively. These power, torque, and thrust estimation are crucial for per-
formance analysis. Some previous performance studies are presented in
Table 9.1.
Numerous works have been performed recently to enhance the turbine
performance. As observed from Table 9.1, focus has been given to max-
imizing the power coefficient of the turbine to ensure high efficiency. A
maximum power coefficient of 0.4288 was achieved during a wind tunnel
test done by Talavera and Shu [52].
9.5 Effect of Aerodynamics on Wind Turbine

Design Parameters
A number of aerodynamic factors directly affect the wind turbine design,
such as solidity, number of blades, different ratio, pitch angle, Reynolds
number, and strut effect. The effects of these factors are summarized in the
following discussions.
Table 9.1 Summary of the performance testing of wind turbines in recent years.
Specifications of the test Input parameters Output parameters
Incoming Maximum
Pitch wind Reynolds Turbulent power
Airfoil No. of angle, velocity number, intensity, co-efficient, Tip speed
Location Test type Dimensions profile blades TSR, λ β (°) (m/s) Re Tu (%) Cp ratio, λ Comment Ref.
Mie University, Wind Rotor NACA 2 0.454– 4°–8° Less than 0.5 0.184 2.193 at β Highest wind [46]
JAPAN tunnel diameter 0021 2.761 = 6° velocity
test =2m was taken
30 ms-1
Blade height = with a
1.2 m rotational
range of
Chord length 0–6,000
= 0.265 m rpm
Hub height = 0.592– 2.16 × 0.175 2.201 at Re
5m 2.914 105–2.89 = 2.53 ×
× 105 105
Wind tunnel
outlet
diameter
= 3.6 m
Wind tunnel
length =
4.5 m
Field test Hub height = 0.798– 6° 3 -11 0.209 2.211 at wind Direction of
5m 3.183 velocity the inflow
of 6 to velocity
7 m/s was
assumed to
0.925– 0.25–0.40 0.1772 2.237 at Tu be 90°
3.175 = 0.35
Hub height =
0.2 m
(Continued)
Table 9.1 Summary of the performance testing of wind turbines in recent years. (Continued)
Specifications of the test Input parameters Output parameters
Incoming Maximum
Pitch wind Reynolds Turbulent power
Airfoil No. of angle, velocity number, intensity, co-efficient, Tip speed
Location Test type Dimensions profile blades TSR, λ β (°) (m/s) Re Tu (%) Cp ratio, λ Comment Ref.
WiRE Wind Diameter of NACA 3 0.492– Less than Less than 4 × 0.395 3.135 at 8 Minimum [47]
laboratory tunnel the wind 0012 6.622 10 m/s 104 m/s free blockage
of EPFL test turbine = stream effect is
15 cm velocity observed
Wind tunnel
is 28 m
(L) × 2.6
m (W) × 2
m (H)
Free stream
velocity
ranged
between
4 and 8
m/s
N/A Wind Wind tunnel 2 4.304– 13 Laminar Less than 0.5 0.1516 5.390 at [48]
tunnel is 14.6 m 7.902 diameter
test (L) × 1.2 of 15
m (W) ×
1.2 m (H)
Blade
diameter
= 8 in 4.165– Turbulent 0.4288 7.695 at
9.225 diameter
Blade of 10
diameter
ranges
from 5
to 15
9.5.1 Solidity
VAWT solidity is the ratio of turbine swept area to the blade planform area
as depicted in Figure 9.6 [49]. Wind turbine performance is significantly
influenced by the blades’ solidity. Higher solidity results in broader and
thicker blades that can enhance the rotor’s torque and increase the turbine’s
drag. Lower solidity indicates thinner and narrower blades that can mini-
mize drag and enhance the effectiveness of the turbine [50]. Several studies
have defined this solidity value as either NcD or NcR. Figure 9.7 depicts
the dependence of power coefficient on TSR for different solidity values.
Therefore, it is crucial to choose a solidity that optimizes effectiveness
without requiring too much blade material. As observed from Figure 9.7,
the operating limit of the VAWT decreases when solidity increases [50].
From a power generation standpoint, a high-solidity turbine is not pre-
ferred due to its unfavorable operational characteristics. When a turbine
rotates slowly and possesses high torque, it will experience dynamic stalls
more frequently [51]. Conversely, very low solidities are undesirable since
they result in low peak efficiencies and large rotational velocities [52].
It is clear that increasing turbine solidity reduces turbine output by
increasing the interactions between the blades and wakes. Hence, it is
crucial to find a balance between solidity, TSR, and the impact of flow
blockage in order to optimize the turbine efficiency. By altering the length
of the blade chord and the number of blades, the solidity can be modi-
fied while keeping all the other factors constant. It is suggested to keep
the solidity between 0.2 to 0.3 to achieve better aerodynamic efficiency.
D
R
Figure 9.6 Isometric view of VAWT.

σ=0.75
σ=0.5
σ=0.75
0.5 σ=0.5
0.4
Power Coefficient
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5
Tip Speed Ratio
Figure 9.7 Impact of solidity on power coefficient (here σ = solidity of wind turbine) [50].
This comparatively low solidity may increase the efficiency and lower the
material costs for bulky turbines [51]. TSR between 3 to 4 are more pref-
erable in practical cases to eliminate the possibility of dynamic stall [53].
9.5.2 Number of Blades

A practical design decision is the number of blades, which is eventually
a balance between the blade stiffness, effective aerodynamics, and eco-
nomic factors [54]. As the blade numbers (for a given solidity of a turbine)
increases, the blade gets thinner and has lower bending resistance. From a
structural design point of view, these blades would require more support or
struts. As a result, the drag produced by increased struts can negate the per-
formance improvement brought on by the increased blade numbers. While
the quantity of blades is a significant factor, having more than two or three
blades can result in decreased efficiency. A study by Blackwell et al. [55]
highlighted that to attain equivalent performance between the two- and
three-bladed turbines, rotational velocity or wind speed has to be increased.
The analysis led to the conclusion that to maintain a high Reynolds number,
minimizing the number of blades as much as possible is recommendable
[55]. Augmenting the Reynolds number can also enhance the turbine’s aero-
dynamic performance and prevent dynamic stall at higher AOA [56]. The
influence of blade number on the power coefficient for a definite solidity
is depicted in Figure 9.8. From two to three blades, the performance of the
rotor changes noticeably. However, more than three blades do not consider-
ably enhance the rotor performance and are usually neglected [57].
Figure 9.9 illustrates the variation of power coefficients with TSR for
two- to four-bladed conditions with similar solidities. It is confirmed that
N=2
0.40 N=3
N=4
0.35 N=5
0.30
0.25
Power Coefficient
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
-0.05
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Tip Speed Ratio
Figure 9.8 Variation of power coefficient with TSR for various blade numbers [57].
2 bladed σ=0.12
2 bladed σ=0.18
2 bladed σ=0.30
0.5 2 bladed σ=0.36
3 bladed σ=0.12
3 bladed σ=0.18
3 bladed σ=0.30
3 bladed σ=0.36
4 bladed σ=0.12
0.4 4 bladed σ=0.18
4 bladed σ=0.30
4 bladed σ=0.36
Power Coefficient
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Tip Speed Ratio
Figure 9.9 Power coefficient curve of two to four bladed VAWTs [58].
the coefficient of power does not depend on the blade numbers. With min-
imum solidity and constant speed, urban VAWTs often run at medium to
high speeds with constant Reynolds number, where the Cp is mostly inde-
pendent on blade numbers. Urban VAWTs, as previously indicated, must
have a low solidity for improved performance [58].
9.5.3 Different Ratios

9.5.3.1 Chord/Radius Ratio (c/R)
The c/R ratio can be defined as the ratio of the chord length to the rotor
radius [59]. With a lower c/R ratio, energy extraction from the blades
is increased, as well as the aerodynamic drag. Although these turbine
blades need higher cut-in speeds, they can start operating at lower wind
speeds. Blades with a low c/R ratio provide higher torque and power out-
put but need more complex control systems. The blades are thicker, which
increases the structural strength but results in more weight. Although a
high c/R ratio increases noise and turbulence, it ensures performance and
stability enhancement due to less lift and drag. This c/R ratio is optimized
by designers considering the influence on the environment, power produc-
tion, structural integrity, and aerodynamic efficiency [60].
As per the data presented in Figure 9.10, it can be observed that there
is a positive correlation between the power coefficient and chord length.
c = 0.10
c = 0.25
1.2 c = 40
c = 0.80
1.0
Power Coefficient
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Tip Speed Ratio
Figure 9.10 Effect of chord length on wind turbine performance [61].

c = 0.4 m, R = 1.6 m
0.40 c = 0.4 m, R = 2.0 m
c = 0.4 m, R = 1.8 m
0.35 c = 0.2 m, R = 2.0 m
c = 0.6 m, R = 2.0 m
0.30
0.25
Power Coefficient
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Tip Speed Ratio
Figure 9.11 Relationship between turbine performance and c/R ratio [61].
Enhancing the chord from 0.10 to 0.80, the maximum power coefficient
increases. Additionally, there is a slight increase in the stall angle as the chord
length increases. Figure 9.11 visually demonstrates the relationship between
c/R and turbine performance. It is not advisable to solely rely on increasing
the radius to increase the turbine performance. Doing so would escalate cap-
ital costs and associated operational complexities. The decision on the c/R
ratio will subsequently affect the turbine performance, as stated in [61].
The power coefficient exhibits a nearly consistent value for identical
chord lengths at lower TSRs, as observed in Figure 9.11. By increasing the
radius, the c/R ratio decreases, resulting in a decrease in dynamic stall.
Moreover, turbine performance slightly increases with “c” as it will even-
tually increase the Reynolds number, thereby enhancing the aerodynamic
performance of an airfoil. However, an extended chord length would also
result in a significant dynamic stall. Describing the effect of c/R ratio on the
power coefficient is complex due to the intricate interaction between the
c/R ratio and the operating range of TSR. Specifically, as the chord–radius
ratio decreases, the operating range of TSRs expands [61].
9.5.3.2 Height-to-Radius Ratio (H/R)

This ratio is obtained by multiplying the blade aspect and chord-to-radius
ratio denoted as H/c and c/R:
High H/R LOW H/R

R1 R2
H2
H1
Figure 9.12 The swept area of two VAWTs with varying H/R ratios [50].
H H c
(9.28)
R c R
Elevating the turbine height has the potential to mitigate the effects of
turbulence at ground level, resulting in a more consistent and stable wind
stream [62]. Higher wind speed can be achieved for smoother surfaces and
places where the obstruction is comparatively lower. Figure 9.12 illustrates
the swept area of two VAWTs with different H/R ratios. It is preferable to
H/R = 0.8
H/R = 1.2
H/R = 1.8
H/R = 2.4
0.25
0.20
Power Coefficient
0.15
0.10
0.05
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Tip Speed Ratio
Figure 9.13 Variation of turbine performance for different H/R [63].

have minimum H/R ratio to improve the blade chordal Reynolds number.
By raising the radius, the blade chord of VAWT expands, eventually lead-
ing to a rise in the chordal Reynolds number.
A study was conducted on a three-dimensional panel model to com-
pare the turbine performance with different H/R, as demonstrated in
Figure 9.13 [63]. A comparison of power coefficients was presented for
H/R ranging from 0.8 to 2.4. The findings by Li et al. illustrated that rais-
ing the H/R enhanced the performance, and the best performance was
observed for H/R of 2.4 [63].
9.5.3.3 Blade Aspect Ratio (H/c)

H/c signifies the relationship between the chord length and blade span [64].
The aspect ratio has a noteworthy impact on the expenses, rigidity, and aero-
dynamic effectiveness of the system. A range of operational factors and dis-
tinct design specifications can influence the aspect ratio of a wind turbine.
High aspect ratios are sometimes seen on blades with small diameters oper-
ating in light winds. In contrast, larger-sized blades working in high-wind
situations show lower aspect ratios [60].
The blade will experience three-dimensional aerodynamics when wind
flows over it, allowing wind to distract around the blade tip from high to
low pressure area. The generation of vortices at the blade tips due to the cir-
culation phenomenon results in the dissipation of energy and subsequent
3D
0348 2D
0.346
0.344
0.342
Power Coefficient
0.340
0.338
0.336
0.334
0.332
0.330
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Blade Aspect Ratio
Figure 9.14 Turbine performance for 2-D and 3-D effects for different H/c ratios [57].
production of drag [65]. The aerodynamic properties of a blade with lim-

ited length are determined using the Prandtl lifting line theory based on
the data obtained from 2D aerodynamic airfoils. The highest power coef-
ficient of the rotor is influenced by the blade aspect ratio, as illustrated in
Figure 9.14. The rotor performs better as it asymptotically gets closer to the
2D effect (i.e., infinite blade length) with the increase in blade aspect ratio.
The ideal aspect ratio is within the value of 10 to 20, as beyond that the
power coefficient does not increase satisfactorily [57].
9.5.4 Pitch
There exist two types of propellers, i.e., fixed and variable pitch [66]. The
former has a blade angle that remains constant during operation, while
the latter can modify its blade angle to adjust its performance during
operation. Fixed-pitch propellers are commonly employed in small air-
crafts owing to their cost-effectiveness and simple design. A compara-
tively higher efficiency level can be achieved by utilizing the variable-pitch
mechanism during turbine operation. This mechanism allows the turbine
blades to optimize the ratio of blade lift to drag and experience better AOA
during their operation. Variable pitch can be present in both active and
passive systems. Active systems can induce a change in blade pitch through
methods that do not involve any aerodynamic load on the blade [67].
In the context of VAWT, it has been observed that the variable-pitch
systems demonstrate better performance in comparison to the fixed-pitch
systems. Figure 9.15 illustrates a comparison between fixed and vari-
able-pitch systems, showcasing that the variable-pitch system achieves a
higher power coefficient compared to the fixed-pitch system. Introducing
variable-pitch systems results in the loss of simplicity and dependability
characteristics of the fixed-pitch VAWT technology. This is due to the
increased complexity of managing variable-pitch systems, which require
more frequent maintenance. The complexity is associated with the main-
tenance of the sensors employed to detect the wind direction, which may
often seek thorough maintenance [64]. Table 9.2 demonstrates the rela-
tive benefits and drawbacks of variable-pitch systems over fixed-pitch sys-
tems [64]. Implementing blade pitch adjustments in horizontal axis wind
turbines (HAWTs) is comparatively less complex than in VAWTs, as the
former only requires adjustments when there are fluctuations in the rel-
ative flow velocity. It can be concluded that the implementation of the
variable-pitch system enhances the efficiency of the turbine [68].
Fixed Pitch (EXP)

Fixed Pitch (LES)
Variable Pitch (EXP)
0.25 Variable Pitch (LES)
0.20
Power Coefficient
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Tip Speed Ratio
Figure 9.15 Turbine performance for fixed and variable-pitch systems [68].
Table 9.2 Advantages and disadvantages of different pitch systems [69].

Pitch
Characteristic Fixed Variable
Peak efficiency Less High
Power coefficient Better Poorer
Starting torque Less High
Simplicity More Less
Reliability More Less
Robustness More Less
Maintainability More Less
Manufacturability and installation More Less
System cost Less High
9.5.5 Strut Connection Point

The strut connection point refers to a site where the blade of the turbine is
attached with the supporting strut. The durability and operational efficiency
of the turbine are dependent on its capacity to withstand the mechanical
strains induced by the wind and rotational forces. Therefore, the connec-
tion point is typically engineered to establish a robust and enduring con-
nection capable of withstanding the applied loads and pressures [69].
The blade pitch angle is created at the blade strut connection (BSC)
point by the chord of the blade and the pitch circle’s tangent line. When the
blade pitch is set to zero, the point of intersection between the tangent line
and turbine blade chords is considered neutral. The pitch angles of fixed
blades can be categorized as either negative (toe out) or positive (toe in) as
demonstrated in Figure 9.16 [69]. The effect of pitch angle on the power
coefficient is depicted in Figure 9.17. As observed, 2 pitch angle resulted
in the best turbine performance. Moreover, it is observed that an increase
in positive pitch angles resulted in reduced overall efficacy. The higher
pitch angles (6 or above) can have detrimental effects on turbine perfor-
mance and can significantly disrupt the balance of blade loading. A study
revealed that a high-solidity VAWT with a solidity value of 0.96 experi-
enced a decrease in performance with positive pitch angles [70]. Utilizing
a negative blade pitch offers advantages by mitigating the risk of excessively
high AOA during the upwind phase. It also increases the chance of too low
of an angle of attack during the downhill phase. Moreover, a blade toe-out
pitch angle ranging from roughly 1.5° to 3° can accelerate the attainment of
the optimal TSR during turbine operation, thereby reducing the turbine’s
start-up duration by 30% [71].
Chord
Tangential direction line
Tangential direction
cL cL
(a) (b)
Figure 9.16 Pitch angles for blades: (a) positive and (b) negative.
β = -7°
0.4 β = -4°
β = 2°
β = -1/2°
0.3
β = +1°
β = +3°
0.2
Power Coefficient
0.1
0.0
- 0.1
- 0.2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Tip Speed Ratio
Figure 9.17 Effect of variable-pitch angle on wind turbine performance [70].
9.5.6 Blade Reynolds Number (Re)

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter utilized in fluid dynam-
ics to characterize fluid flow, such as a gas or liquid, around a solid object.
Laminar flow is observed at low Reynolds numbers, leading to high lift coef-
ficients and superior aerodynamic efficiency [72]. As a result, there is a rise
in the power output and a decrease in drag. Moreover, elevated Reynolds
numbers have the potential to induce amplified fluctuating loads on blades,
thereby impacting their structural integrity and fatigue life. To achieve opti-
mal wind turbine performance and guarantee safe operation, designers must
consider various factors, including the reduction of Reynolds number [73].
It has been observed that the optimal TSR exhibited a negative correla-
tion with the Reynolds number. The phenomenon occurs due to the delay
in stall caused by the presence of a turbulent boundary layer that exists on
the minimum pressure side of the blade. Figure 9.18 represents the con-
sequence of Reynolds number on the performance of VAWT. Lohry et al.
observed that in turbulent flow conditions, the VAWT achieves satisfac-
tory performance at specific TSR irrespective of the specific value of Re.
According to the research of Lohry et al., upon increasing the Reynolds
number, the power coefficient tends to approach a peak value. This implies
that a wind energy facility utilizing large-scale VAWTs exhibits greater
efficiency than a facility comprising small-scale turbines occupying an
Re = 1.38×10^5
0.12 Re = 2.05×10^5
0.10
0.08
Power Coefficient
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6
Tip Speed Ratio
Figure 9.18 Effect of Reynolds number on wind turbine performance [74].
equivalent land area. The self-starting capabilities of VAWTs are positively

influenced by a high Reynolds number, thereby promoting the utilization
of larger chord lengths in the design [69].
From Figure 9.18, it is apparent that higher Reynolds numbers are gen-
erally associated with higher performance coefficients and increasing the
TSR improves the power coefficient. In short, an increase in the Reynolds
number leads to a larger power coefficient [74].
9.5.7 Strut Effects

The central tower and blades of the VAWT with straight blades are coupled
by struts. The struts are essential for delivering torque to the tower, support-
ing the turbine in strong winds and raising the resonance frequency of the
structure itself. Using struts in turbines leads to flow disturbance generating
a parasitic or resistive torque, despite its structural advantages [75]. Struts
cause the VAWT system to encounter intrinsic drags including profile drag
caused by themselves at the junction where the struts join with the blades
[76]. Figure 9.19 illustrates the influence of struts on the aerodynamic per-
formance, highlighting that the addition of a support structure has a consid-
erable influence on the turbine performance, particularly at high TSR [77].
In addition, strut thickness also affect the performance of VAWT.
Figure 9.20 illustrates the influence of strut thickness on turbine performance.
Struts (33.6 RPM)

0.5 No Struts (33.7 RPM)
0.4
Power Coefficient
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Tip Speed Ratio
Figure 9.19 The impact of struts on a turbine’s performance [78].
t/c = 0.30
0.35 t/c = 0.25
t/c = 0.21
0.30 t/c = 0.12
0.25
Power Coefficient
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
-0.05
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Tip Speed Ratio
Figure 9.20 Effect of strut thickness on the performance of the wind turbine (t is the strut
thickness) [57].
It is clear from Figure 9.20 that increasing the strut thickness negatively
impacts the wind turbine’s performance. Moreover, the maximum power
coefficient was for the minimum strut thickness (t/c = 0.12), and the min-
imum was for the maximum strut thickness (t/c = 0.30). Therefore, for
better performance, strut thickness should be kept as low as possible [57].
9.5.8 Strut Arrangement

The horizontal struts of wind turbines are connected perpendicularly to
the blades through T-joint connections [79]. The structural components
depicted in Figure 9.21 are commonly referred to as struts. Figure 9.21(a)
represents the angular displacement of the object regarding the horizon-
tal plane. This design results in a reduction of the height of the VAWT.
According to the aeronautical design rules, joining bodies at sharp angles
is not recommended as the interference drag is lowest when the bodies are
joined in a normal orientation, as shown in Figure 9.21(b). The tensile or
compressive forces will be transmitted to the struts without causing any
bending in the tower–strut connection. Hence, orthogonal attachment of
the struts is recommended as demonstrated in Figure 9.21(b) [69].
VAWT blades can be supported in various ways using horizontal struts.
As shown in Figure 9.22, the strut arrangements can be simply supported,
overhung, or cantilever-supported. A cantilever, also recognized as one
horizontal supporting strut per blade, is used to reduce the parasitic drag.
In cases where the capacity is lower, vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs)
are utilized, which generate significant bending moments due to centripe-
tal acceleration. To support the blades, either simple or overhung supports
z z
y y
(a) (b)
Figure 9.21 (a) Strut angle 𝜍 and (b) perpendicular strut connection with blade.
(a) Cantilever Supported (b) Simple Supported (c) Overhang Supported
Figure 9.22 Different strut arrangements.
are employed, with the latter utilizing two struts per blade. To lessen the
bending moment, it is relevant to position the two struts along the blade
in a precise way. The configuration depicted in Figure 9.22(c) is commonly
referred to as an overhang-supported configuration [80].
Figure 9.23 summarizes the recommended values of different aerody-
namic parameters for efficient wind turbine performance. It is suggested
to have less solidity, lower blade numbers, and a fixed-pitch system. All
the above-explained parameters must be considered to achieve maximum
efficiency of the turbine.
SOLIDITY STRUTS PER BLADE

(σ = 0.2 to 0.3) (2 struts)
BLADE NUMBER STRUT ARRANGEMENT TYPE

(2 or 3 Blades) (Overhang supported)
WIND
TURBINE
HEIGHT TO RADIUS BLADE PITCH ANGLE

(H/R=2.6 to 3) (-2°)
BLADE PITCH SYSTEM BLADE-STRUT

CONNECTION DESIGN
(Fixed System)
(Faired)
Figure 9.23 Recommended value for the maximum wind turbine performance.
9.6 Wind Turbine Loads

The turbine lifespan depends upon the aerodynamic, gravitational, inertia,
and operational loads which are essential to analyze as parts of modeling
the wind turbine [81]. The negative impacts of structural loads, especially
those brought on by aerodynamic and gravitational forces, become worse
as wind turbines get bigger and have higher output power ratings. The out-
put and lifespan of a VAWT can be changed due to the interaction of the
structural stresses which leads to an unsatisfactory system performance or
system failure. Asymmetric aerodynamic loads caused by variable wind
profiles are the main reasons for structural stresses in wind turbines. The
overall action of rotor rotation, nacelle yawing, and blade pitching lead
to the gyroscopic effect, which is another source of generated structural
stresses. This creates cyclic stress on the hub and potentially leads to blade
breakdown [82]. The most frequent cause of fatigue stress in large wind
turbines is cyclic loads, which, if not addressed, can result in premature
turbine failure. Another significant factor contributing to unequal loads
across the rotor is the vertical wind shear [82].
Based on the wind velocity, blade speed, AOA, yaw, the lifts, and drags
on the blade generate the load on the turbine. The direction of attack is
determined by the blade’s pitch along with the twist. In order for the gener-
ator to move along the axis of rotation, the lift and drag caused by aerody-
namics are turned into useful thrusts. The blade must be able to withstand
strong pushback forces with little deformation. The widely known BEM
theory is used to determine the blade aerodynamic forces [35].
The rotor is a heavy rotating component of the machine that uses an
aerodynamic lift to produce torque in the wind, resulting in a significant
aerodynamic loading zone [83]. In a rotating system, local aerodynamics
are challenging, and cyclic lift augmentation and stall lag can both play
key roles [84]. Blade loads can fluctuate significantly because of unsteady
inflow and the effects of dynamic stall [83]. Wind shear causes the loads
to change once in each rotation of each blade, causing more stresses than
those encountered by a downward-pointed blade.
The performance, cost, and physical load endurance of wind turbines
are greatly influenced by the material choice made for each component
that makes up the wind turbines. Wind turbines can operate in differ-
ent conditions based on the locations [82]. One of the wind turbine sys-
tem’s most costly components is the rotor, which is fabricated of blades
and hubs, and costs around 20% of the price of the wind turbine. Because
of the intermittent shifting of aerodynamic stresses and various weather
Aerodynamic Gravitational Inertia Operational

Load Load Load Load
LOAD
Locations of Failure
Rotor Gear Box Blades and Hub
Causes of Failure
Shifting Weather Conditions Aerodynamics Lift Dynamic Stall Wind Shear Geographical
Aerodynamic Stress and Drag Location
Figure 9.24 Wind turbine loads and causes of failures.
conditions, the blades are more prone to damage. From the rotor to the
generator, mechanical power is transferred through gearboxes. Different
types of mechanical forces can lead gearboxes to failure. Durability and
associated costs are the primary determinants of material choice for wind
turbines, especially in offshore applications [82].
In short, the loads on wind turbines and the causes of failures are sum-
marized in Figure 9.24.
9.7 Conclusions
Wind energy extraction is one of the most promising renewable-based
approaches to meet the increasing global energy demands. Extensive
research has been carried out in recent years to maximize the turbine per-
formance. This chapter illustrated the effects of aerodynamics on turbine
performance. It has been observed that different air properties like density,
pressure, viscosity, temperature, and humidity directly affect the wind tur-
bine performance. High density and pressure are suitable for better tur-
bine performance as concluded by a number of researchers. However, the
performance of wind turbines deteriorates with the increase in air tem-
perature, humidity, and viscosity. This chapter briefly discussed the clas-
sical BEM theory for a better understanding of the relationships between
aerodynamics variables and turbine performance. Different aerodynamic
properties such as solidity, blade numbers, c/R ratio, H/R ratio, Re, pitch
angle, and strut effect have significant effects on turbine performance.
This study suggests that solidity should be less along with a smaller number
of blades (two or three) for better aerodynamic performance. A fixed-pitch
system, along with a suitable height-to-radius ratio (2.6 to 3), is suggested
when designing a system. Different loads acting on the turbine and the
causes of turbine failure are also discussed in brief at the end of the chapter.
Therefore, these aerodynamic properties must be considered when design-
ing the wind turbine for improved reliability and efficiency.
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Index
3d, 137, 161, 174 Biological change, 24

Biological processes, 25
Adaptive management, 21 Biomass, 118
Advanced forecasting tools, 46 Biomass technologies, 34
Aerodynamic challenges, 209 Blade, 4, 6, 9, 10, 13
Aerodynamic imbalance, 208 Blade element momentum theory, 207,
Aerodynamic noise, 36 210, 211, 215
Aerodynamic stress, 238 Blade erosion, 209
Aerodynamically, 140 Blade stiffness, 224
Aerodynamics, 4, 6, 14, 207, 238, 239 Blade strikes, 27
Aeroelasticity, 91 Blockage ratio, 216
Aesthetic standards, 35 Boundary layer, 208, 211, 233
Afforestation, 26 Broader spectrum, 119
AHP, 188 Bucket foundation, 46
Air, 88 Burning, 137
Air density, 210, 211, 215, 218
Airborne wind energy, 12 Capacity, 73, 84
Airfoil, 92 Capital, 79
Algorithms, 93 Capture, 134, 135, 160, 161, 167, 168,
Aligning, 90 169
Alternative energy, 116, 117, 120, 123 Captured, 139, 140
American wind energy association, 44 Carbon, 2, 10, 14
Ampere, 70 Carbon fiber, 95
Analytic hierarchy, 185 Carbon footprint, 117, 123
Angle of Attack (AOA), 209, 215, 224, Carbon-free emission, 41
230, 232, 238 Cells, 79
Arena, 136 Chemical fuels, 118
Artificial intelligence, 91 Chord, 219, 223, 234
Aspect ratio, 229, 230 Chord length, 219, 221, 226, 227, 229
Chord/radius ratio, 226
Batteries, 70, 87, 116, 118, 119, 121 Chronological, 22
Binary matrix, 192 Clean energy, 197
Biodiversity, 137, 163 Climate, 2
247
248 Index
Climate change, 19, 25, 27, 29 Ecosystem health, 29

Coal, 118, 119 Efficiency, 1, 4, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 88
Communication tower, 35 Efficient wind turbine, 195
Components, 69 Eigenvector, 201
Composite, 133, 149, 150 Electre, 187
Compressed air, 118 Electrical grid, 4, 7, 10, 20
Compressibility, 74 Electricity, 1, 12, 63, 84
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), Electrolysis, 115, 121, 125
209 Electrolyzer, 72
Computational simulation, 40 Emission, 116, 120, 127
Computationally, 24 Energy, 78, 115, 120, 121, 122, 123,
Conductance, 97 127, 128
Consistency index, 194 Energy demand, 116, 117, 126
Consumption, 2 Energy density, 9
Conventional power, 116, 117, 119, 186 Energy Forecasting and Scheduling,
Conversion, 5, 6, 88 43
Converter, 78, 97 Energy production, 34
Correlation matrix, 197 Energy storage, 4, 10
Cost-effective, 107 Energy storage systems, 45
Cumulative effect analysis, 25 Environment, 1, 9, 12, 18, 116, 122,
Curtailment, 99 123, 125
Cut-in wind speed, 196 Environmental considerations, 189
Environmental protection, 25
Decision matrix, 197 European renewable energy council,
Decommissioned, 135, 136, 147, 151 34
Deep learning, 209
Delve, 137 Fabrication, 95
Demand, 1, 8, 14 Fatigue, 133, 167, 173, 174, 176
Demographic consequences, 28 Field testing, 215, 216, 217
Design, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13 Firms, 170, 171
Diesel, 120 Fixed pitch, 230, 237, 240
Direct-drive generators, 54 Floating foundation, 48
Disposal, 135-137, 163, 175 Fluid, 87
Drag, 88 Fly wheels, 107, 118
Drag force, 210, 211 Footprint, 137, 152, 162
Dynamic, 6, 7, 86 Forefront, 134, 135, 150
Dynamic stall, 213, 224, 227, 238, 239 Fossil fuel, 2, 18, 52, 97
Fossil-based power sources, 197
Eco-friendly, 115, 116 Frequency, 79, 99
Ecological conformance, 39 Fuel, 68, 118
Ecological problem, 197
Ecological processes, 21 Gas, 118, 121, 125
Economic factors, 224 Gas combined cycle, 118
Ecosystem, 27, 29 Gasoline, 120
Index 249
Generator, 5, 8, 10, 13, 65, 115, 117, Low-carbon, 18

127, 196 Low-frequency noise, 36
Genetic algorithm, 188 Lpg, 120
Geographical scales, 26, 28, 29
Geothermal, 118, 119 Machine, 3, 4, 12
German meteorological service, 45 Machine learning, 92
Global benefits, 27 Magnetic field, 7
Global wind power, 43 Magnetic storages, 118
Green economy, 42 Materials science, 14
Green resources, 115, 116, 119 Maximum hub height, 196
Greenhouse, 1, 134, 137, 138, 140, 151 Mechanical, 76
Greenhouse gas, 25, 26, 186 Melting, 78
Grid, 74 Micro hydro, 118
Micro-grid, 65
Harmonic, 105 Microprocessor, 71
Harness, 138 Mitigation strategies, 35
Harvest rate, 24 Modular, 92
Health, 156, 157, 174 Modular construction, 56
Height-to-Radius Ratio, 207, 227, 240 Modulates, 96
Horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT), Molten salts, 118
6, 9, 208, 217, 230 Monopile foundation, 47
Hybrid, 64 Monte Carlo methodology, 187
Hydro, 75
Hydrogen, 71 Nacelle, 54, 139, 140
Hydropower, 79 National Institute of Wind Energy, 49
Hydrothermal, 76 National renewable energy laboratory,
43
Incinerator plant chimneys, 34 Natural world, 26
Individual effects to population Necessitating, 138
impacts, 23 Net zero emissions, 18
Induced flow ratio, 239 Noise pollution, 14, 20, 27
Induction factor, 212, 213, 215 Normalized value, 197
Integration, 79 Number of blades, 220, 223, 224, 240
Intermittent energy generation, 39
Interorganizational partnership, 38 Ocean, 118
Isolation, 117 Offshore wind, 17, 19, 20, 25, 26, 27
Oil, 118, 119
Jacket foundation, 47 Onshore wind installed capacity, 18
Operation, 138, 172, 176
Land acquisition, 51 Operational lifespan, 186
Layout, 101 Optimized power generation, 57
Legal acceptance, 25
Levelized Cost of Energy, 41 Pairwise comparison, 197
Lift force, 210 Peak output, 14
250 Index
Petroleum, 145, 146, 151, 152 Solar power, 186

Photocatalysis, 120 Solidity, 214, 239, 240
Photovoltaic, 77, 118 Speed, 4, 8, 13, 75
Pitch, 92, 208, 239 Sporadic wind energy, 56
Pitch angle, 207, 239 Stability, 98
Placement, 100 Stokes, 88
Policy, 20, 24, 30 Storage batteries, 67
Pollution, 17, 20, 27, 75, 186 Store, 11, 116, 120, 125
Population, 23, 24, 27 Structural, 133, 147, 174
Population-level, 24, 29 Strut effects, 207, 234
Potential, 1, 2, 12 Suboptimal, 102
Power, 1, 11, 68, 103 Sun, 116, 117, 119, 125
Power coefficient, 208, 233, 234, 236 Sun’s radiation, 186
Power density, 196 Super capacitor, 118
Power optimization, 209 Sustainability, 33
Predominantly, 135, 136, 141 Sustainable, 17, 18, 24, 73, 83, 164,
Public goods, 25, 26 175-177
Sustainable development, 1, 2, 14,
Rated wind speed, 196 186
Reinforced, 135, 137, 159-161, 163 Sustainable power sources, 186
Reliability, 207, 215, 231, 240 Swept, 138, 160, 174
Renewable energy, 1, 14, 25, 28, 38, Swept area, 196, 223, 228
63, 197 Synchronous, 87
Renewable portfolio standards, 44 System, 115, 122, 123, 127, 128
Resin, 143-146, 151, 152, 158, 159
Resources, 2, 10 Technology, 75, 85
Reusable, 133, 175-177 Tension leg platforms, 48
Reynolds number, 207, 220, 224, 226, Tethys content, 21
227, 228, 233, 234 The national meteorological
Risk assessment, 27 information centre, 44
Risk management, 22 Thermal, 70
Robustness, 98 Threshold, 74
Rotational, 138, 140 Tip speed ratio (tsp), 208, 221, 224,
Rotor, 134, 138, 140, 196 225, 226, 227
Rotor speed, 219 Topsis, 187
Tower, 196
Safety, 13 Transmission, 14
Scalability, 133, 158-171, 176 Transmission infrastructure, 51
Sensors, 139 Tripod foundation, 48
Simulation, 158, 170, 176 Turbine, 1, 13, 14, 87
Social advantages, 23 Turbine blades, 187
Social impacts, 52 Turbine design, 53
Solar, 69 Turbine efficiency index, 189
Index 251
Turbine selection, 185 Wind energy, 1, 8, 17, 23, 24, 83, 186,
Turbine system, 50 208, 215, 217, 233, 239
Turbulence, 69, 138, 157, 174, 210, Wind energy control, 53
226, 228 Wind energy potential, 42
Turbulence intensity, 216 Wind facility design, 194
Wind farm, 17, 20, 24, 187
Variable pitch, 230, 233 Wind power, 18, 19, 20, 29, 64
Vertical axis wind turbine, 3, 6, 11 Wind power generation, 194
Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT), Wind shear stress, 209
208, 236 Wind speed, 210, 215, 224, 228
Visual impact, 14 Wind tunnel testing, 215, 217
Visual impacts, 20 Wind turbine, 207, 224, 228, 240
Voltage, 106, 196 Wind turbine design, 217, 220
Vortex, 94 Wind turbine loads, 238, 239
Wind turbines, 20
Wake generation, 208 Wind utilization, 37
Water, 117, 118, 119, 126 Windmill, 3, 4, 9, 67
Weighted score, 197 Worker, 13
White paper, 21, 22, 26 Working principle, 9, 10, 11
Wildlife, 20, 21, 23, 26, 27, 28 Worldwide, 118
Wind, 115, 126, 127, 128 Worldwide wind energy forecast, 41
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present scenarios of solar cell design, classification, properties, various
semiconductor materials, thin films, wafer-scale, transparent solar cells,
and other fundamentals of solar cell design.
Biofuel Cells, Edited by Inamuddin, Mohd Imran Ahamed, Rajender

Boddula, and Mashallah Rezakazemi, ISBN: 9781119724698. This book
covers the most recent developments and offers a detailed overview of
fundamentals, principles, mechanisms, properties, optimizing parameters,
analytical characterization tools, various types of biofuel cells, edited by
one of the most well-respected and prolific engineers in the world and his
team.
Biodiesel Technology and Applications, Edited by Inamuddin, Mohd

Imran Ahamed, Rajender Boddula, and Mashallah Rezakazemi, ISBN:
9781119724643. This outstanding new volume provides a comprehensive
overview on biodiesel technologies, covering a broad range of topics and
practical applications, edited by one of the most well-respected and prolific
engineers in the world and his team.
Applied Water Science Volume 1: Fundamentals and Applications, Edited by

Inamuddin, Mohd Imran Ahamed, Rajender Boddula and Tauseef Ahmad
Rangreez, ISBN: 9781119724766. Edited by one of the most well-respected
and prolific engineers in the world and his team, this is the first volume in a
two-volume set that is the most thorough, up-to-date, and comprehensive
volume on applied water science available today.
Applied Water Science Volume 2: Remediation Technologies, Edited by
Inamuddin, Mohd Imran Ahamed, Rajender Boddula and Tauseef Ahmad
Rangreez, ISBN: 9781119724735. The second volume in a new two-volume
set on applied water science, this book provides understanding, occur-
rence, identification, toxic effects and control of water pollutants in aquatic
environment using green chemistry protocols.
Potassium-Ion Batteries: Materials and Applications, Edited by Inamuddin,

Rajender Boddula, and Abdullah M. Asiri, ISBN: 9781119661399. Edited
by one of the most well-respected and prolific engineers in the world and
his team, this is the most thorough, up-to-date, and comprehensive vol-
ume on potassium-ion batteries available today.
Rechargeable Batteries: History, Progress, and Applications, Edited by

Rajender Boddula, Inamuddin, Ramyakrishna Pothu, and Abdullah M.
Asiri, ISBN: 9781119661191. Edited by one of the most well-respected and
prolific engineers in the world and his team, this is the most thorough,
up-to-date, and comprehensive volume on rechargeable batteries available
today.

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Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by Suranaree University Of Technology, Wiley Online Library on [30/07/2024].

From Basics to Utilities

Wiley Global Headquarters

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Front cover images supplied by Adobe Firefly

Printed in the USA

2.2 Impact of Wind Energy on the Environment 20

3.4.3 Transmission Constraints 51

5.3.3.1 Turbine Placement Theory 100

7.4.3 Additive Manufacturing Techniques for

9.4.1 Wind Tunnel Testing and Field Testing 215

With the depletion of fossil fuel-based energy resources, the development

Chapter 2 analyzes the direct and indirect environmental consequences

• Provides a broad overview of wind energy technology

Department of Chemistry, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Delhi-NCR

Campus, Modinagar, India

Keywords: Wind energy, turbine, environment, sustainable development

*Corresponding author: palli24@gmail.com

has undergone significant advancements, making it one of the rapidly

1.2 Historical Background

operation on the Atlantic coast. Wind power technology continued to

Table 1.1 Stages of wind technology development.

1.3 Use of Wind Energy in Specific Countries

1.4 Wind Technology

1.4.1 Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS)

Figure 1.1 Layout of a wind energy conversion system [15].

1.4.2 Electric Generator

VARIABLE SPEED DOUBLE

Figure 1.2 Variable-speed synchronous/induction generator with full-scale power

Figure 1.3 Variable-speed, gearless multi-pole PMSG-based WECS [24].

1.4.3 Evolution of Power Electronics

1.4.4 Energy Storage Technology

availability, excess wind-generated electricity may be stored and retrieved by

1.5 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs)

1.5.4 Working Principle

1.6 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

1.6.1 Working Principle

VERTICAL AXIS RECHARGEABLE

1.7 Current Technologies in Wind Power Generation

1.7.1 Buoyant Airborne Turbine (BAT)

1.7.2 Offshore Floating Wind Technology

efficiency, dependability, and cost-effectiveness and is predicted to per-

Table 1.2 List of countries utilizing wind power as a source of electricity.

1.9 Disadvantages of Wind Energy

5. Jacobsson, S., Johnson, A., The diffusion of renewable energy technology: An

Department of Chemical Engineering, Harcourt Butler Technical University, Kanpur,

Keywords: Renewable energy, wind power, pollution, fossil fuel,

*Corresponding author: ashishkapoorchem@gmail.com

economy depend on reliable and renewable energy sources. However,

Table 2.1 Onshore installed wind power of representative countries in Europe.

The projection assumes that yearly capacity additions would increase to

Figure 2.2 Impact of wind energy technologies on the environment.

2.2 Impact of Wind Energy on the Environment

Researchers, authorities, designers, and key stakeholders connect and

2.3 Key Environmental White Paper Issues Related

Many different kinds of development have employed AM, a learning-

2.4 Individual Effects on Population Impacts

model domain in discrete time steps. Despite their impressive strength,

2.5 Comprehending the Overall Effects of Wind