UNIT II

“TRANSFORMERS”

Electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic induction is the production of a potential difference (voltage) across a conductor when
it is exposed to a varying magnetic field.

Faraday's law of induction

It is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an
electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF). It is the fundamental operating
principle of transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical motors, generators and
solenoids.

MMF (Magnetomotive force)

Magnetomotive force (MMF) or magnetomotance (SI Unit: Ampere) is any physical driving
(motive) force that produces magnetic flux. In this context, the expression "driving force" is
used in a general sense of "work potential", and is analogous, but distinct from force measured in
newtons. Magnetomotive force is so named because it plays a role in magnetic circuits
analogous to that of electromotive force (voltage) in electric circuits.

The magnetomotive force in an inductor or electromagnet consisting of a coil of wire is given

by:

Magnetic Flux

specifically electromagnetism, the magnetic flux (often denoted Φ or ΦB) through a surface is
the component of the magnetic B field passing through that surface. The SI unit of magnetic
flux is the weber (Wb) (in derived units: volt-seconds), and the CGS unit is the maxwell.
Magnetic flux is usually measured with a fluxmeter, which contains measuring coils and
electronics, that evaluates the change of voltage in the measuring coils to calculate the magnetic
flux.
Magnetic Reluctance

In a DC field, the reluctance is the ratio of the "magnetomotive force” (MMF) in a magnetic
circuit to the magnetic flux in this circuit. In a pulsating DC or AC field, the reluctance is the
ratio of the amplitude of the "magnetomotive force” (MMF) in a magnetic circuit to the
amplitude of the magnetic flux in this circuit.

The definition can be expressed as follows:

where

("R") is the reluctance in ampere-turns per weber (a unit that is equivalent to turns per
henry). "Turns" refers to the winding number of an electrical conductor comprising an
inductor.
("F") is the magnetomotive force (MMF) in ampere-turns
Φ ("Phi") is the magnetic flux in webers.

The reluctance of a uniform magnetic circuit can be calculated as:

or

where

l is the length of the circuit in metres

is the permeability of vacuum, equal to henry per metre
is the relative magnetic permeability of the material (dimensionless)
is the permeability of the material ( )
A is the cross-sectional area of the circuit in square metres

The inverse of reluctance is called permeance.

Permeability (electromagnetism)
In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of a
magnetic field within itself. In other words, it is the degree of magnetization that a material obtains in
response to an applied magnetic field. Magnetic permeability is typically represented by the Greek letter
μ. The term was coined in September, 1885 by Oliver Heaviside. The reciprocal of magnetic permeability
is magnetic reluctivity. In electromagnetism, the auxiliary magnetic field H represents how a
magnetic field B influences the organization of magnetic dipoles in a given medium, including
dipole migration and magnetic dipole reorientation. Its relation to permeability is

Magnetic Circuit
A magnetic circuit is made up of one or more closed loop paths containing a magnetic flux. The
flux is usually generated by permanent magnets or electromagnets and confined to the path by
magnetic cores consisting of ferromagnetic materials like iron, although there may be air gaps or
other materials in the path. Magnetic circuits are employed to efficiently channel magnetic fields
in many devices such as electric motors, generators, transformers, relays, lifting electromagnets,
SQUIDs, galvanometers, and magnetic recording heads.

The concept of a "magnetic circuit" exploits a one-to-one correspondence between the equations
of the magnetic field in an unsaturated ferromagnetic material to that of an electrical circuit.
Using this concept the magnetic fields of complex devices such as transformers can be quickly
solved using the methods and techniques developed for electrical circuits.

Single Phase Transformer

Nowadays, electrical power is generated for industrial and utility purposes by thermal power stations and
large hydroelectric plants in the three-phase form at a frequency of 50 Hz (in India). The generated
frequency in some other countries is 60 Hz. The generated voltage at the generating station is 6.6 kV, 11
kV or higher. For transmission purposes, it is required to step it up to a voltage of 132 kV or higher.
Again, in urban and rural areas it is required to step it down to 3.3 kV and 6.6 kV, respectively, and 11 kV
at the substation. For domestic purposes, it is required to step it down to 400 V or 230 V Three-phase
transformers are used to step up the generated voltage before transmission of electrical power and also to
step down the high voltage before distribution, that is, at the substation. Before the study of three-phase
transformers, knowledge of single-phase transformers is essential. The aim of this chapter is to discuss
single-phase transformers only.
BASIC PRINCIPLE

Figure 1.1 shows a basic single-phase transformer having two windings wound on a common
magnetic core. From the principle of mutual induction, when two coils are inductively coupled
and the current in one coil is changed uniformly, an emf (electromagnetic force) is induced in the
other coil. If a closed path is provided at the secondary circuit, this induced emf at the secondary
drives a current. As shown in Figure 1.1, the transformer has two coils, which are electrically
separated and magnetically linked through a common magnetic path. The basic principle of the
transformer is the same as the principle of mutual induction. The coils of the transformer have
high mutual inductance.

Figure 1.1 Transformer

In brief, we can say the following:

 The transformer is a static device.

 It transfers electrical power from one circuit to another.

 During transfer of power, there is no change of frequency.

 It uses electromagnetic induction to transfer electrical power.

 The two electrical circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS

A transformer may be step up or step down. If the output voltage is greater than the input
voltage, the transformer is said to be a step-up transformer. A transformer is said to be a step-
down transformer if the output voltage is less than the input voltage. This classification is carried
out on the basis of the ratio of input and output voltages. From application point of view, the
following transformers are most important:
  Power and distribution transformer: These transformers are used for transmission and distribution
of power.
 Autotransformer: These transformers are used to change the voltage within relatively small limits
and are used for starting AC motors, and so on.

 Transformers for feed installations with static converters: These are used for converting AC to
DC and also DC to AC. The first one is used for rectification purposes and the second one for
inversion purposes.

 Testing transformers: These are used to conduct tests at high and ultra-high voltages.

 Power transformers for special applications: These are used in furnaces, welding and so on.

 Radio transformers: These are used in radio engineering and similar purposes.

From frequency range point of view, transformers can be divided as (50–400 Hz) audio
transformer, wide band and narrow band transformers and pulse transformers. Transformers can
also be divided depending on the number of windings such as two winding (conventional) and
single winding known as autotransformer.

EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Figure 1.22 shows the representation of alternating flux, varying sinusoidally, which increases
from its zero value to maximum value (Fm) in one-quarter of the cycle, that is in one-fourth of a
second where f is the frequency of AC input in hertz.

The average rate of change of flux is given by , that is 4fFm Wb/s or V.

This rate of change of flux per turn is the induced emf in V.

Therefore, average emf/turn = 4fFmm V.

Let N1 and N2 be the number of turns in primary and secondary.

The rms value of induced emf in primary winding is given by

E1 = (4.44fFm m) × N1 = 4.44fFm mN = 4.44f BmArN1 (1.1)

where is the maximum value of flux density having unit Tesla (T) and Ar is the area
of cross-section.

Similarly, RMS value of induced emf in secondary winding is

E 2 = (4.44fFm )x N2 = 4.44fFmN2 = 4.44f BmArN2 (1.2)

From Equations (1.1) and (1.2), we have

i.e.,

where ‘a’ is the turns ratio of the transformer,

i.e.,

Equation (1.3) shows that emf induced per turn in primary and secondary windings are equal.

In an ideal transformer at no load, V1 = E1 and V2 = E2, where V2 is the terminal voltage of the
transformer. Equation (1.3) becomes
Example The voltage ratio of a single-phase, 50 Hz transformer is 5,000/500 V at no load.
Calculate the number of turns in each winding if the maximum value of the flux in the core is
7.82 mWb.

Solution

Here

E1 = V1 = 5,000 V

E2 = V2 = 500 V

fmax = 7.82 m Wb = 7.82 × 10-3 Wb, f = 50Hz

Let N1 and N2 be the number of turns of the primary and secondary windings, respectively.

Since

E1 = 4.44 f fm N1

i.e.,

Again,

STEP-UP AND STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER

From Equation (1.6), we have

If N1 > N2, V1 > V2, that is the output voltage is less than the primary voltage. The transformer is
said to be a step-down transformer.

If N1 < N2, V1 < V2, that is the output voltage is greater than the primary voltage. The transformer
is said to be a step-up transformer.

For an ideal transformer, input VA = output VA

V1V1=V2I2

i.e.,

i.e.,

Comparing Equations (1.6) and (1.7), we can conclude that currents are in inverse ratio of turns
ratio.

Example A 50 kVA, single-phase transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 100 turns on the
secondary. The primary is connected to 2,500 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the following:

(i) The secondary voltage on open circuit.

(ii) The current flowing through the windings on full load.

(iii) The maximum value of flux.

Solution

i.

The secondary voltage on open circuit is V2 = E2 = 500 V.

 ii. kVA rating the transformer = 50 kVA

Primary full-load current (I1)=

Secondary full-load current (I2)=

iii. Again, E1 = 4.44fFmaxN1

i.e., Fmax=

LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

Two types of losses occur in a transformer:

 Core loss or iron loss occurs in a transformer because it is subjected to an alternating flux.
 The windings carry current due to loading and hence copper losses occur.

Core or Iron Loss

The separation of core losses has already been introduced. The alternating flux gets set up in the
core and it undergoes a cycle of magnetization and demagnetization. Therefore, loss of energy
occurs in this process due to hysteresis. This loss is called hysteresis loss (Ph), which is expressed
by

Ph=KhBm1.6fV W

where Kh is the hysteresis constant depending on the material, Bm is the maximum flux density, f
is the frequency and V is the volume of the core.

The induced emf in the core sets up eddy current in the core, and hence eddy current loss (Pe)
occurs, which is given by

Pe=KeBm2f2t2 W per model W

where Ke is the eddy current constant and t is the thickness of the core.

Copper Loss

The loss of power in the form I2R due to the resistances of the primary and secondary windings
is known as copper losses. The copper loss also depends on the magnitude of currents flowing
through the windings. The total Cu loss is given by

PCu = (I2)2RO2
Therefore, the total loss of the transformer = Iron loss + Cu loss = Pi + PCu

EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER

Due to the losses in a transformer, its output power is less than the input power.

∴ Power output = Power input – Total losses

∴ Power input = Power output + Total losses = Power output + Pi + PCu

The ratio of power output to power input of any device is called its efficiency (η).

Efficiency = Power Output/ (Power Output+ Iron Loss+ Copper Loss)

Output power of a transformer at full-load = V2I2ftcosθ, where cosθ is the power factor of the
load, I2ft is the secondary current at full load and V2 is the rated secondary voltage of the
transformer.

Full-load copper loss of the transformer = I2ftR02.

∴ Efficiency of the transformer at full load is given by

Now V2I2ft = VA rating of the transformer.

i.e.,

Efficiency of the transformer at any load m is given by

where m= and PCuft is the Cu loss of the transformer at full load.

TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD

For an ideal transformer, we have assumed that there are no core losses and copper losses. For
practical transformers, these two losses cannot be neglected. At no-load condition, the primary
current is not fully reactive and it supplies (i) iron loss in the core, that is, hysteresis loss and
eddy current loss and (ii) very small amount of copper loss in the primary.

Example The no-load current of a 4,400/440 V, sinlge-phase, 50 Hz transformer is0.04. It

consumes power 80 W at no load when supply is given to LV side and HV side is kept open.
Calculate the following:

(i) Power factor of no-load current.

(ii) Iron loss component of current.

(iii) Magnetizing component of current.

Solution

W0 W, I0 =0.04 A, V1 = 4,400 V
 i. Since W0 = V1I0cosө0

The no-load power factor is 0.454 (lagging).

ii. IW = I0 cosө0 =0.04 × 0.454 = 0.0187 A

iii.

Iµ = I0 sinө0 = 0.04 × 0.891 = 0.0356

TRANSFORMER ON LOAD

Figure 1.25(a) shows the transformer during no-load condition. The flux F is set up in the core.
When the secondary is loaded shown in Figure 1.25(b), the secondary current will set up its own
flux (F2), which opposes F. The resultant flux becomes F – F2.

F2'=F2

i.e., N1I2'=N2I2

i.e.,
 On-load Transfer

TRANSFORMER WITH RESISTANCE AND LEAKAGE REACTANCE

Figure shows a transformer having resistances R1 and R2 of primary and secondary windings
respectively, and leakage reactances X1 and X2 of primary and secondary windings respectively.
The primary impedance is given by

and the secondary impedance is given by

The applied voltage V1 on primary side is given by

If V2 be the secondary terminal voltage during load, the secondary induced emf (E2) is given by
Figure shows the phasor diagram of the transformer for unity power factor, lagging power factor
and leading power factor respectively.

Transformer with Resistance and Leakage Reactance

Phasor Diagram of a Transformer at Load

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Figure shows the equivalent circuit of a single-phase transformer having load impedance ZL.
All Figure is the equivalent circuit of original Figure . The secondary winding resistance (R2),
leakage reactance (X2) and load impedance (ZL) connected to secondary terminal is transferred to
primary side.
 Equivalent Circuit

Exact Equivalent Circuit

Approximate Equivalent Circuit

Since I0 is small compared to full-load current, we can shift the excitation circuit towards the
terminal voltage side shown in Figure . One Figure is the approximate equivalent circuit,
whereas second Figure is the exact equivalent circuit of original Figure .

From Figure , the total input impedance between input terminals becomes
where

and is the impedance of the exciting circuit.

R0, X0, R01 and X01 are the four important parameters of the transformer. From open circuit and
short circuit test of a transformer, R0, X0 and R01, X01 can be determined respectively.

Open Circuit Test

OPEN CIRCUIT TEST OR NO-LOAD TEST

From this test, we can determine core loss and no-load current (I0) of the transformer. Figure
shows the schematic diagram of the transformer. The high-voltage side is generally kept open
because the current in high-voltage winding is less compared to that on low-voltage winding.

Let I0 be the reading of the ammeter, V1 be the reading of the voltmeter and W be the reading of
the wattmeter.

We have W=V1I0cosө0

i.e.,

Therefore, IW=I0cosө0 (1.27)

and Iµ=I0sinө0 (1.28)

During no-load condition, the voltage drop across the primary impedance is small. Therefore, we
have

and

The total iron loss depends on the frequency as well as the maximum flux density. Hysteresis
loss and eddy current loss are the two parts of the total iron loss, which are described below.

i. Hysteresis loss: Ph = k1Bmax1,6f (1.31)

ii. Eddy current loss: Pe = k2Bmax2f2 (1.32)

Variation of Iron Loss with Applied Voltage

SHORT CIRCUIT OR IMPEDANCE TEST

The main purpose of this test is to compute the following:

 Equivalent impedance of the transformer referred to primary and secondary.

 Cu loss of the transformer at any desired load.

 Total voltage drop of the transformer referred to primary and secondary.

Let PSC be the reading of the wattmeter, ISC be the reading of the ammeter and VSC be the reading
of the voltmeter.

Short Circuit Test

We have

and

VOLTAGE REGULATION OF TRANSFORMER

With constant voltage applied in primary, the secondary terminal voltage will decrease due to
voltage drop across its internal resistance and leakage reactance.

Let 0V2 and V2 be the secondary terminal voltages at no load and on load respectively. There are
three kinds of voltage regulation, which are discussed below.

Inherent Voltage Regulation

The difference 0V2 – V2 is known as inherent voltage regulation of the transformer.

Voltage Regulation Down

If inherent voltage drop is divided by 0V2, it is known as voltage regulation down.

Mathematically, we can write
and also

Voltage Regulation Up

If inherent voltage drop is divided by V2, it is known as voltage regulation up. Mathematically,
we can write it as

and also

The secondary terminal voltage not only depends on load current but also on the power factor of
the load. The regulation is said to be at full load provided V2 is determined for full load and at
specified power factor condition. V2 drops more and more with increasing load current. For
lagging power factor load, V2 < E2, the voltage regulation is positive. For leading power factor
load, V2 > E2, the voltage regulation is negative.

To maintain constant secondary terminal voltage on load, the primary terminal voltage is
adjusted. It is expected that voltage drop would be as small as possible. Therefore, the lesser the
value of regula-tion, the better is the performance of a transformer.