Proposal
Proposal
Proposal
This chapter discusses the background of the study, statement of the problem,
oil spills stand as significant threats with far-reaching consequences. Beyond the immediate
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) in the Philippines has raised alarms about the
broader ecological impacts on protected areas. This study delves into the historical context of
major oil spills in the Philippines and the responses to these incidents, shedding light on the
recurrent challenges faced by both the affected communities and the environment.
The archipelagic nation of the Philippines has witnessed a series of oil spills, each
leaving an indelible mark on its ecosystems and communities. From the 1999 Manila Bay oil
spill to the recent incident off Oriental Mindoro, the consequences of these disasters are both
immediate and enduring. The Verde Island Passage, a center of marine biodiversity and one of
21 protected areas highlighted by the DENR, is now at the forefront of environmental concerns
(Ongcal, 2023).
The historical analysis begins with the 1999 Manila Bay oil spill, where the Sea
Brothers I capsized, releasing approximately 85 tons of bunker fuel into the bay. The
Philippine Coast Guard spearheaded cleanup efforts using chemical dispersants, marking the
initiation of response protocols to such incidents. Subsequent spills, including those in Cavite
(2001), Semirara (2005), Guimaras (2006), and Cebu and Manila Bay (2013), have shaped the
evolution of oil spill response strategies. These incidents, while diverse in their causes, share
The Guimaras oil spill in 2006, considered the worst in Philippine history, posed a
unique challenge as it affected both marine and terrestrial ecosystems. The spill's impact on 16
square kilometers of coral, 551 hectares of mangrove, 58 hectares of seaweed, and 824
hectares of fishponds was unprecedented. The response efforts grappled not only with cleaning
the waters but also with addressing the spill's far-reaching effects on land (Murga, 2019).
Fast forward to the present, and the recent oil spill off Oriental Mindoro poses a grave
threat to marine protected areas and the livelihoods of fisherfolks. The sinking of the MT
Princess Empress, carrying 800,000 liters of industrial oil, prompts not only urgent response
efforts but also a critical examination of the regulatory framework, vessel seaworthiness, and
responses to spills, yet there is no foolproof method for cleaning up major incidents. The
environmental and economic repercussions of oil spills underscore the critical need for
continued vigilance, preventative measures, and effective response strategies to mitigate the
As the researchers embark on this exploration, the multifaceted nature of the issue
becomes evident. Beyond the immediate environmental consequences, the research aims to
uncover the intricate web of social and economic impacts on the fisherfolks in selected
barangays. How does the spill affect the socio-economic lives of the people? What are the
coping mechanisms employed by the fisherfolks to survive from the disaster? How did the
government respond to the problem? In addressing these questions, the study aspires to
contribute not only to the academic discourse but also to the formulation of policies that can
By scrutinizing the specific dynamics at play in the aftermath of the oil spill, the
researchers seek to pave the way for informed decision-making, community resilience, and the
The study aims to investigate the social and economic impact of oil spills on fisherfolks
in selected barangays in Oriental Mindoro, Philippines. Specifically, the study seeks to answer
1. How do oil spills affect the economic activities and livelihoods of fisherfolks in the
a. social
b. economical
2. What are the coping mechanisms fisherfolks employed to survive the aftermath of oil
spill?
Assumptions
1. Oil spills have detrimental effects on the economic activities and livelihoods of
2. Fisherfolks adopt various coping mechanisms to mitigate the impact of oil spills on
their livelihoods.
lives.
Significance of the Study
Student: Students can gain awareness of the environmental and social issues related to oil
spills, empowering them to become advocates for sustainable practices and policies.
Teacher: Teachers can use the findings to enrich their curriculum, incorporating real-world
Local Government: The findings can inform local and national policies on disaster response
and management, specifically in addressing the needs and concerns of fisherfolks affected by
oil spills.
disasters.
Future Researcher: Future researchers can build upon the study's findings, expanding the
knowledge base on the social and economic impacts of oil spills in different geographical and
cultural contexts.
In summary, the study holds significance for students and teachers as an educational
resource, for the community as a tool for empowerment and advocacy, and for future
researchers as a foundation for further exploration and comparative analysis in the field of
The study will focus on selected barangays in Oriental Mindoro, Philippines, affected
by recent oil spills during the fiscal year 2022-2023. The research will primarily investigate the
social and economic impacts on fisherfolks in Barangay Dangay and Barangay San Jose.
However, the study will not delve into the technical aspects of oil spill response or ecological
impacts on marine life. This is limited to said population and area due to researcher’s limited
The literature on oil spills encompasses a diverse range of topics, reflecting the
multidisciplinary nature of research in this field. The researcher provides an overview of key
Oil spill hazards, evoke substantial public outrage, while climate change, a severe
threat, has historically generated insufficient concern (NOAA, 2023). Responses to spills vary
globally, reflecting inequalities and often arising from corruption, security issues, or conflict.
Spill contingency planning is crucial, but social justice access can alleviate vulnerability.
Decarbonization is pivotal for sustainability, emphasizing the need to transition from oil as fuel
to essential chemical feedstock (Little, Sheppard, & Hulme, 2021). Addressing the escalating
risk of oil spills due to increased oil production and consumption. Prevention is paramount, but
and response strategies involve coordination at various levels. Response stages focus on
minimizing damage through physical, mechanical, and chemical methods, with a call for
The extensive use of dispersants in oil cleanup is linked to human health concerns,
including obesogenicity, toxicity, and illnesses from agent aerosolization. Oil contamination is
associated with heightened risks of harmful algal blooms and increased pathogenic Vibrio
bacteria in affected waters. Gulf community members heavily dependent on natural resources
are vulnerable to substantial life disruptions and institutional distrust. Conversely, a positive
correlation indicates that a strong community attachment fosters beneficial recovery outcomes
(Eklund, Knapp, Sandifer, & Colwell, 2019). Common oil weathering processes include
spreading, advection, diffusion, evaporation, emulsification, and dispersion. Many current oil
spill models overlook crucial physical processes like oil dissolution, photo-oxidation,
biodegradation, and vertical mixing. Additionally, the latest generation of oil spill models
lacks prompt response capabilities. Enhancing oil spill modeling should prioritize a more
oil particle size distribution, particularly in the context of wave action and well blowouts
solutions like newly developed magnetic adsorbents for remediation. The heightened risk of
spills, driven by increased demand for petrochemical products, underscores the urgency for
effective cleanup methods. Magnetic adsorbents should meet essential criteria, including super
Nanotechnology-based commercial magnetic solutions offer promising prospects for oil spill
cleanup (Singh, Bhardwaj, Arya, & Madhu Khatri, 2020). The decline in sales by over 50%
across all fishing sectors has significantly affected the local economy, exerting a profound
impact on income generation within these communities. These areas, already facing social and
The effectiveness of oil spill response efforts hinges on understanding the dynamics of
stranded oil transformation and translocation processes along shorelines. Stranded oil may
infiltrate lower layers of diverse substrate formations, with its relocation or retention
influenced by various environmental factors such as wave energy, tidal conditions, sediment
pore size, and other variables. Biodegradation emerges as a predominant process in these
scenarios. It is crucial to consider seasonal variations in oil behavior when devising combat
dynamics, and local environments is imperative for effective cleanup, necessitating the
deployment of in-situ sensors and remote sensing techniques for spatiotemporal data
measures and recovery strategies, including physical, mechanical, chemical, and biological
nanoparticles have emerged as versatile tools, serving as both magnetic sorbents and
emulsifiers. This dual functionality increases the bioavailability of oil, providing surfaces
situ burning, which are often toxic and inefficient (Pete et al., 2021).
Additionally, a broad spectrum of mental and physical health effects has been linked to
oil spills in general, including the Deepwater Horizon disaster, although establishing definitive
cause-and-effect relationships remains challenging (Sandifer et al., 2021). This underscores the
multifaceted nature of the challenges posed by oil spills and the importance of adopting
spaceborne SAR images using deep-learning structures poses a challenge. Previous semantic
segmentation approaches like fully convolutional networks and U-Net failed to accurately
detect described spills, achieving a highest Jaccard score of 0.54. Successful solutions in
related work relied on extracting handcrafted features, achieving over 92% accuracy in oil spill
detection by considering specific features from SAR images (Shaban et al., 2021). Detection
and characterization of oil-containing pixels in oil spill remote sensing (ORS) imagery are
facilitated by oil's distinct optical properties. Higher refraction index and absorption/scattering
coefficients than water enable the identification and characterization of oil types and
ORS, with its multiband sensors, excels in classifying oil types and quantifying concentration
or thickness, surpassing field-based interpretations (Hu, Lu, Sun, & Liu, 2021).
govern the legal framework. However, certain provisions related to accountability for marine
resolution to foster cooperative relations, prevent future conflicts, and promote sustainable
Oil spills from tank vessels pose a significant threat to the marine environment,
ecosystems, and human livelihoods. The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation
(2023) has been diligently collecting and maintaining a comprehensive database of oil spills
from tank vessels, covering incidents since 1970. This database includes spills from various
types of vessels, such as combined carriers, FPSOs, and barges, with a focus on accidental
and cause of each incident, the involved vessel, the type of oil spilled, and the quantity of the
spill. The data, gathered from diverse sources like the shipping press, specialized publications,
vessel owners, insurers, and ITOPF's own incident experiences, now encapsulates data on over
10,000 incidents. Remarkably, the majority of these incidents fall within the smallest spill
Historically, the reporting of oil spills was skewed towards larger spills resulting from
collisions, groundings, structural damage, fires, or explosions. However, recent decades have
witnessed an improvement in reporting, capturing smaller spills that may have previously gone
unnoticed. The focus on spills of all sizes is crucial for a holistic understanding of the trends,
In 2022, the recorded data points to three large spills (>700 tons) and four medium
spills (7-700 tons). Geographically, two of the large spills occurred in Asia, while one
transpired in Africa. The medium spills were distributed across North America, Asia, and
Africa. This brings the average number of spills (>7 tons) per year in the current decade to
almost 6, a figure consistent with the average for the 2010s (ITOPF, 2023). The total volume
of oil lost to the environment from tanker spills in 2022 was approximately 15,000 tons, with
more than 14,000 tons attributed to the three large incidents. While these figures are
concerning, they underscore the importance of understanding the trends in oil spills over time.
Over the past half-century, statistics reveal a marked downward trend in the frequency
of spills greater than 7 tons from tankers. In the 1970s, the average number of spills per year
was around 79, but this has decreased by over 90% to 6 in the 2010s, maintaining a similar
quantity of oil spilt. In the 2010s, approximately 164,000 tons of oil were lost from tanker
spills of 7 tons and above, reflecting a remarkable 95% reduction since the 1970s. For the
present decade, the figure stands at 26,000 tons, based on three years of data.
(1979), CASTILLO DE BELLVER (1983), ABT SUMMER (1991), and SANCHI (2018),
significantly distort annual figures due to their massive spill volumes. These incidents
underscore the importance of not only considering the frequency of spills but also the volume
spilled in assessing the environmental impact (ICSMD, 2023).The costs of oil spills are
substantial, encompassing both economic and ecological dimensions. Oil on ocean surfaces
hampers sunlight penetration, reduces dissolved oxygen levels, and poses a direct threat to
aquatic life. The damage to marine habitats, reproductive rates of animal populations, and
long-term ecological recovery all contribute to the multifaceted impact of oil spills (NOAA,
2023).
Furthermore, the fishing industry is severely affected by major oil spills, with
The adverse effects extend to coastal areas, where tourism, commerce, and utilities can be
Synthesis
challenges, and legal implications. Despite the hazards posed by oil spills, they often elicit
such as Little, Sheppard, and Hulme (2021) stress the necessity of transitioning from oil as a
fuel to a crucial chemical feedstock for decarbonization, emphasizing the importance of well-
effectively.
Studies by Chen et al. (2019) and Asif et al. (2022) underscore the importance of
diverse response strategies, including physical, mechanical, chemical, and biological methods,
in mitigating the impacts of oil spills. However, challenges persist, as highlighted by Eklund,
Knapp, Sandifer, and Colwell (2019), who draw attention to the extensive use of dispersants in
oil cleanup, linking it to human health concerns and emphasizing the vulnerability of
communities reliant on natural resources. Moreover, Keramea et al. (2021) point out
limitations in current oil spill models, calling for enhancements to predict oil dissolution,
Madhu Khatri (2020) and Pete et al. (2021). However, challenges in detecting and segmenting
oil spill instances in satellite images persist, as discussed by Shaban et al. (2021), and legal
Mangku (2019).
Relating this synthesis to the study on the social and economic impact of oil spills on
aspects of oil spill incidents highlighted in the literature is crucial for developing targeted
interventions and policies to mitigate the social and economic repercussions faced by
response strategies, health concerns, innovative solutions, and legal implications, the study can
provide a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities for addressing oil
spills in the context of Oriental Mindoro, ultimately contributing to more effective socio-
Theoretical Framework
scaffold, orchestrating a synthesis of established theories and concepts that illuminate the
intricate dynamics surrounding the social and economic repercussions of oil spills on
fisherfolks. In navigating the complex terrain of this investigation, the study strategically
At its core, the SES framework operates as a theoretical compass, spotlighting the
intricate interplay between social and ecological elements within a specific environment. This
theoretical lens discerns and acknowledges the dynamic interconnections governing the
relationships between human communities and the ecosystems upon which their livelihoods
hinge (Pallero, et. al., 2018). The three pivotal components of the SES framework — the
resource system, governance system, and actors — jointly form the linchpin for a
comprehensive analysis. The resource system delves into the ecological facets, notably
fisheries and marine ecosystems, elucidating the delicate balance disrupted by oil spills.
Concurrently, the governance system unravels the intricate web of institutions, policies, and
regulations that dictate resource utilization. Finally, the actors component encapsulates the
diverse array of individuals, prominently the fisherfolks, along with other stakeholders
entangled in or impacted by the pervasive reach of oil spills (McGinnis and Ostrom, 2014).
This SES framework, meticulously applied in this study, affords an encompassing lens through
which the multifaceted impacts of oil spills on the social and economic dimensions of
INPUT
PROCESS OUTPUT
Questionnaire Data
responses Data Gathering Proposed
Interview of Validating Contingency Plan
Fisherfolks Analyzing
Interpreting
Feedback Loop
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework on Social and Economic Impact of Oil Spill in Mindoro
The conceptual framework for this study is designed to elucidate the complex interplay
of social and economic dynamics arising from oil spills, specifically within the context of
fisherfolks in Oriental Mindoro, Philippines. The framework integrates key elements derived
from the Social-Ecological Systems (SES) framework proposed by McGinnis and Ostrom
(2014). This conceptual framework serves as a guide for understanding and analyzing the
intricate relationships between ecological, social, and economic elements in the aftermath of
oil spills, shedding light on the nuanced dynamics that shape the experiences of fisherfolks in
Coping Mechanism: strategies made or used by the people to manage the stressful effects
Economic Impact: The effects on the economic well-being, activities, resources, and
to respond and mitigate the effects of the oil spill to marine areas as well as the community.
Oil Spill: an accident release of harmful liquid occurring in marine or coastal areas directly
Social Impact: The effects on the social well-being, behaviors, relationships, and dynamics of
Research Design
methods, utilizing varied analysis techniques, and applying inference methods. The
the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative research, thereby enhancing the depth of
Sampling
A purposive sampling technique will be used. The researchers will target respondents
directly impacted by oil spills in selected barangays in Roxas, Oriental Mindoro. This
approach allows for a focused and intentional recruitment of individuals who can provide
valuable insights. The research aims to include 924 respondents, 251 from Barangay Dangay
and 673 from Barangay San Jose, ensuring a diverse and representative sample that captures
the various perspectives and experiences related to economic losses from oil spills in the
region.
Data Instruments
of the research methodology. This qualitative approach allows for a comprehensive exploration
of respondents' perspectives on economic loss due to oil spills. The semi-structured format
ensures flexibility, enabling probing into nuanced aspects. Through these interviews, a rich and
complement the quantitative data obtained through the Likert scale survey, fostering a holistic
crafted to assess respondents' perceptions of the economic loss resulting from oil spills. This
self-constructed questionnaire will undergo face validation by an expert in the field to ensure
its relevance, clarity, and effectiveness. Administering this survey will involve presenting
respondents with a range of statements related to economic loss, allowing them to express their
economic loss, contributing valuable data to the comprehensive study on the impact of oil
spills.
The research on economic loss due to oil spills employs a meticulous and ethical data-
gathering method, commencing with the essential step of securing permissions and ethical
clearance. Written permissions are diligently obtained from pertinent authorities, establishing a
foundation for ethical and lawful research conduct. Employing a purposive sampling strategy,
respondents directly impacted by oil spills or possessing expertise in the economic aspects of
such incidents in Oriental Mindoro are thoughtfully identified and selected. Community
participant recruitment.
stage is crucial. Potential respondents are provided with comprehensive details about the study,
including its objectives, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. Written informed consent is
then obtained, ensuring respondents fully comprehend their voluntary participation rights and
developed, addressing key themes related to economic loss, such as income, livelihood,
property loss, and coping mechanisms. The clarity, relevance, and sensitivity of questions are
The subsequent step involves conducting interviews, scheduled at convenient times and
locations for respondents. Each interview begins by reiterating the study's purpose, reassuring
confidentiality, and obtaining verbal consent. Open-ended questions are skillfully employed to
encourage respondents to share detailed and nuanced experiences. Interviews are recorded
(with participant consent) or detailed notes are taken, ensuring a comprehensive record of the
qualitative data.
quantifiable aspects of economic loss. This instrument is pretested with a small sample to
guarantee clarity, relevance, and reliability. The surveys are then administered either
electronically or in-person, ensuring respondents understand the Likert scale's purpose and
response options. Demographic data, including age, gender, occupation, proximity to oil spill
incidents, and other pertinent factors, are systematically collected during both interviews and
surveys. Respondents are encouraged to share additional insights during interviews, enriching
both qualitative and quantitative datasets. Thematic analysis is applied to interview transcripts,
identifying recurring themes and patterns related to economic loss. A coding system is
The researchers will be utilizing the following statistical analysis to provide an in-depth
organizing and summarizing the diverse elements within respondents' demographic profiles.
This method allows for a detailed examination of the distribution patterns of various
respondents.
Mean and Standard Deviation. This will be utilized in the analysis of the severity of economic
loss due to oil spills among affected respondents. These statistical measures provide a
quantitative assessment, offering insights into the central tendency and variability of economic
impact levels.
Thematic Analysis. Thematic analysis will be employed to systematically process data obtained
economic activities, and the livelihoods of fisherfolks. This qualitative method aims to identify
recurrent themes, providing an in-depth exploration of the coping mechanisms employed by
References
BIBLIOGRAPHY Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. (2023, March 22). The Black Tide: Philippines’ Oil
Spill Causes Ecological Disaster, Loss of Livelihoods. Retrieved from Asia Pacific Foundation of
Canada: https://www.asiapacific.ca/publication/black-tide-philippines-oil-spill-causes-
ecological-disaster
Asif, Z., Chen, Z., An, C., & Dong, J. (2022). Environmental Impacts and Challenges
Associated with Oil Spills on Shorelines. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering,
10(6), 762. MDPI AG. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse10060762
Chen, B., Ye, X., Zhang, B., Jing, L., & Lee, K. (2019). Marine Oil Spills—Preparedness and
Countermeasures. World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation, 407–426.
doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-805052-1.00025-5
Chilvers, B.L., Morgan, K.J. & White, B.J. Sources and reporting of oil spills and impacts on
wildlife 1970–2018. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 754–762 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10538-0
de Oliveira Estevo M, Lopes PFM, de Oliveira Júnior JGC, Junqueira AB, de Oliveira Santos
AP, da Silva Lima JA, Malhado ACM, Ladle RJ, Campos-Silva JV. Immediate social
and economic impacts of a major oil spill on Brazilian coastal fishing communities.
Encyclopedia Britanica. (2023, NOVEMBER 1). Oil Spill. Retrieved from Britanica:
https://www.britannica.com/science/oil-spill
Etkin, D. S., & Nedwed, T. J. (2020). Effectiveness of mechanical recovery for large offshore
oil spills. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 111848. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.1118
Galieriková, A., & Materna, M. (2020). World Seaborne Trade with Oil: One of Main Cause
for Oil Spills? Transportation Research Procedia, 44, 297–304.
doi:10.1016/j.trpro.2020.02.039
Grosell, M., & Pasparakis, C. (2020). Physiological Responses of Fish to Oil Spills. Annual
Review of Marine Science, 13(1). doi:10.1146/annurev-marine-040120-094802
ICSMD. (2023, March). Oil spill in the Philippines. Retrieved from ICSMD:
https://disasterscharter.org/web/guest/activations/-/article/oil-spill-in-philippines-
activation-807-
ITOPF. (2023). Oil Tanker Spill Statistics 2022. Retrieved from ITOPF:
https://www.itopf.org/knowledge-resources/data-statistics/statistics/
Hu, C., Lu, Y., Sun, S., & Liu, Y. (2021, February). Optical Remote Sensing of Oil Spills in
the Ocean: What Is Really Possible? Jpurnal on Remote Sensing, 21. doi:DOI:
10.34133/2021/9141902
Keramea, P., Spanoudaki, K., Zodiatis, G., Gikas, G., & Sylaios, G. (2021). Oil Spill
Modeling: A Critical Review on Current Trends, Perspectives, and Challenges. Journal
of Marine Science and Engineering, 9(2), 181. MDPI AG. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse9020181
Little, D. I., Sheppard, S. R. J., & Hulme, D. (2021). A perspective on oil spills: What we
should have learned about global warming. Ocean & Coastal Management, 202,
105509. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2020.1055
McGinnis, M. D., & Ostrom, E. (2014). Social-ecological system framework: initial changes
http://www.jstor.org/stable/26269580
Murga, A. (2019, October 11). Saving an Island from the Worst Oil Spill in the Philippines:
https://news.mongabay.com/2019/10/saving-an-island-from-the-worst-oil-spill-in-the-
philippines-the-case-of-guimaras/
NASA. (2022). Support and Recovery Efforts After Oil Spills. Retrieved from NASA:
https://appliedsciences.nasa.gov/what-we-do/disasters/oil-spills
NOAA. (2023). How does oil impact marine life? Retrieved from National Oceanic and
Ongcal, A. (2023, March 27). From Living Water to Toxic Sludge: The Philippine Island
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2023/mar/27/philippines-princess-
empress-oil-spill-mindoro-island
Othumpangat, S., & Castranova, V. (2013). Oil Spills. Encyclopedia of Toxicology (Third
The case of the Guadiana river (Spain-Portugal). Environmental Science & Policy, 80,
82-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.11.005
Pete, A. J., Bharti, B., & Benton, M. G. (2021). Nano-enhanced Bioremediation for Oil Spills:
A Review. ACS ES&T Engineering, 1(6), 928-946.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestengg.0c00217
Purwendah, E. K., Mangku, D. G., & Periani, A. (2019). Dispute Settlements of Oil Spills in
the Sea Towards Sea Environment Pollution. Proceedings of the First International
Conference on Progressive Civil Society (ICONPROCS 2019). Atlantis Press.
doi:10.2991/iconprocs-19.2019.51
Sandifer, P.A., A. Ferguson, M.L. Finucane, M. Partyka, H.M. Solo-Gabriele, A.H. Walker, K.
Wowk, R. Caffey, and D. Yoskowitz. 2021. Human health and socioeconomic effects
of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Oceanography 34(1):174–
191, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2021.125.
Schoonenboom, J., & Johnson, R. B. (2017). How to Construct a Mixed Methods Research
Design. Kolner Zeitschrift Fur Soziologie Und Sozialpsychologie, 69(Suppl 2), 107-131.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11577-017-0454-1
Shaban, M., Salim, R., Abu Khalifeh, H., Khelifi, A., Shalaby, A., El-Mashad, S., Mahmoud,
A., et al. (2021). A Deep-Learning Framework for the Detection of Oil Spills from
SAR Data. Sensors, 21(7), 2351. MDPI AG. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21072351
Singh, H., Bhardwaj, N., Arya, S. K., & Madhu Khatri. (2020). Environmental impacts of oil
spills and their remediation by magnetic nanomaterials. nvironmental Nanotechnology,
Monitoring & Management, 14. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2020.100305.
Ugwu, C. F., Ogba, K. T., & Ugwu, C. S. (2020). Ecological and Economic Costs of Oil Spills
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817465-4.00026-1
Yuching, M. G. (2023, March 6). LIST: Major Oil Spills in the Philippines. Retrieved from
Rappler: https://www.rappler.com/nation/list-major-oil-spills-in-the-philippines
Zhang, W., Li, C., Jihong Chen, Z. W., Shu, Y., Lan Song, L. X., & Di, Z. (2021, November).
Governance of global vessel-source marine oil spills: Characteristics and refreshed
strategies. Ocean & Coastal Management, 213.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.105874.