0% found this document useful (0 votes)
36 views26 pages

Proposal

Download as docx, pdf, or txt
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
You are on page 1/ 26

Introduction

This chapter discusses the background of the study, statement of the problem,

assumption, significance, scope and delimination.

Background of the Study

In the delicate balance between environmental sustainability and human development,

oil spills stand as significant threats with far-reaching consequences. Beyond the immediate

health risks faced by residents in oil spill-affected communities, the Department of

Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) in the Philippines has raised alarms about the

broader ecological impacts on protected areas. This study delves into the historical context of

major oil spills in the Philippines and the responses to these incidents, shedding light on the

recurrent challenges faced by both the affected communities and the environment.

The archipelagic nation of the Philippines has witnessed a series of oil spills, each

leaving an indelible mark on its ecosystems and communities. From the 1999 Manila Bay oil

spill to the recent incident off Oriental Mindoro, the consequences of these disasters are both

immediate and enduring. The Verde Island Passage, a center of marine biodiversity and one of

21 protected areas highlighted by the DENR, is now at the forefront of environmental concerns

(Ongcal, 2023).

The historical analysis begins with the 1999 Manila Bay oil spill, where the Sea

Brothers I capsized, releasing approximately 85 tons of bunker fuel into the bay. The

Philippine Coast Guard spearheaded cleanup efforts using chemical dispersants, marking the

initiation of response protocols to such incidents. Subsequent spills, including those in Cavite
(2001), Semirara (2005), Guimaras (2006), and Cebu and Manila Bay (2013), have shaped the

evolution of oil spill response strategies. These incidents, while diverse in their causes, share

common threads of environmental degradation, economic impact, and challenges in

containment and rehabilitation (Yuching, 2023).

The Guimaras oil spill in 2006, considered the worst in Philippine history, posed a

unique challenge as it affected both marine and terrestrial ecosystems. The spill's impact on 16

square kilometers of coral, 551 hectares of mangrove, 58 hectares of seaweed, and 824

hectares of fishponds was unprecedented. The response efforts grappled not only with cleaning

the waters but also with addressing the spill's far-reaching effects on land (Murga, 2019).

Fast forward to the present, and the recent oil spill off Oriental Mindoro poses a grave

threat to marine protected areas and the livelihoods of fisherfolks. The sinking of the MT

Princess Empress, carrying 800,000 liters of industrial oil, prompts not only urgent response

efforts but also a critical examination of the regulatory framework, vessel seaworthiness, and

the coordination mechanisms in place (Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada, 2023).

In the context of oil spill prevention, technological advancements have improved

responses to spills, yet there is no foolproof method for cleaning up major incidents. The

environmental and economic repercussions of oil spills underscore the critical need for

continued vigilance, preventative measures, and effective response strategies to mitigate the

impact on ecosystems and communities worldwide (NASA, 2022).

As the researchers embark on this exploration, the multifaceted nature of the issue

becomes evident. Beyond the immediate environmental consequences, the research aims to

uncover the intricate web of social and economic impacts on the fisherfolks in selected
barangays. How does the spill affect the socio-economic lives of the people? What are the

coping mechanisms employed by the fisherfolks to survive from the disaster? How did the

government respond to the problem? In addressing these questions, the study aspires to

contribute not only to the academic discourse but also to the formulation of policies that can

mitigate the adverse effects on the lives of those directly affected.

By scrutinizing the specific dynamics at play in the aftermath of the oil spill, the

researchers seek to pave the way for informed decision-making, community resilience, and the

safeguarding of the unique ecosystems that define Oriental Mindoro.


Statement of the Problem

The study aims to investigate the social and economic impact of oil spills on fisherfolks

in selected barangays in Oriental Mindoro, Philippines. Specifically, the study seeks to answer

the following questions:

1. How do oil spills affect the economic activities and livelihoods of fisherfolks in the

study area in terms of:

a. social

b. economical

2. What are the coping mechanisms fisherfolks employed to survive the aftermath of oil

spill?

3. What is the level of effectiveness of Local Government interventions on socio-

economic livelihoods of the fisherfolks?

Assumptions

1. Oil spills have detrimental effects on the economic activities and livelihoods of

fisherfolks in the study area.

2. Fisherfolks adopt various coping mechanisms to mitigate the impact of oil spills on

their livelihoods.

3. Government intervention program help respondents alleviate their socio-economic

lives.
Significance of the Study

This research is significant for several reasons:

Student: Students can gain awareness of the environmental and social issues related to oil

spills, empowering them to become advocates for sustainable practices and policies.

Teacher: Teachers can use the findings to enrich their curriculum, incorporating real-world

scenarios to make lessons more relevant and impactful

Local Government: The findings can inform local and national policies on disaster response

and management, specifically in addressing the needs and concerns of fisherfolks affected by

oil spills.

Community: Understanding the coping mechanisms employed by fisherfolks can contribute to

the development of strategies to enhance community resilience in the face of environmental

disasters.

Future Researcher: Future researchers can build upon the study's findings, expanding the

knowledge base on the social and economic impacts of oil spills in different geographical and

cultural contexts.

In summary, the study holds significance for students and teachers as an educational

resource, for the community as a tool for empowerment and advocacy, and for future

researchers as a foundation for further exploration and comparative analysis in the field of

environmental and community studies.


Scope and Delimitation

The study will focus on selected barangays in Oriental Mindoro, Philippines, affected

by recent oil spills during the fiscal year 2022-2023. The research will primarily investigate the

social and economic impacts on fisherfolks in Barangay Dangay and Barangay San Jose.

However, the study will not delve into the technical aspects of oil spill response or ecological

impacts on marine life. This is limited to said population and area due to researcher’s limited

time and financial concerns.


Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

The literature on oil spills encompasses a diverse range of topics, reflecting the

multidisciplinary nature of research in this field. The researcher provides an overview of key

themes and contributions from relevant studies:

Oil spill hazards, evoke substantial public outrage, while climate change, a severe

threat, has historically generated insufficient concern (NOAA, 2023). Responses to spills vary

globally, reflecting inequalities and often arising from corruption, security issues, or conflict.

Spill contingency planning is crucial, but social justice access can alleviate vulnerability.

Decarbonization is pivotal for sustainability, emphasizing the need to transition from oil as fuel

to essential chemical feedstock (Little, Sheppard, & Hulme, 2021). Addressing the escalating

risk of oil spills due to increased oil production and consumption. Prevention is paramount, but

in the event of a spill, a well-organized contingency plan is crucial. Regulatory frameworks

and response strategies involve coordination at various levels. Response stages focus on

minimizing damage through physical, mechanical, and chemical methods, with a call for

enhanced research on biological approaches (Chen et al., 2019).

The extensive use of dispersants in oil cleanup is linked to human health concerns,

including obesogenicity, toxicity, and illnesses from agent aerosolization. Oil contamination is

associated with heightened risks of harmful algal blooms and increased pathogenic Vibrio

bacteria in affected waters. Gulf community members heavily dependent on natural resources

are vulnerable to substantial life disruptions and institutional distrust. Conversely, a positive

correlation indicates that a strong community attachment fosters beneficial recovery outcomes
(Eklund, Knapp, Sandifer, & Colwell, 2019). Common oil weathering processes include

spreading, advection, diffusion, evaporation, emulsification, and dispersion. Many current oil

spill models overlook crucial physical processes like oil dissolution, photo-oxidation,

biodegradation, and vertical mixing. Additionally, the latest generation of oil spill models

lacks prompt response capabilities. Enhancing oil spill modeling should prioritize a more

thorough parametrization of oil dissolution, biodegradation, entrainment, and the prediction of

oil particle size distribution, particularly in the context of wave action and well blowouts

(Keramea et al., 2021).

Marine oil spills pose catastrophic environmental impacts, necessitating innovative

solutions like newly developed magnetic adsorbents for remediation. The heightened risk of

spills, driven by increased demand for petrochemical products, underscores the urgency for

effective cleanup methods. Magnetic adsorbents should meet essential criteria, including super

hydrophobicity, oleophilicity, high sorption capacity, time-retention capability, ease of

application and recovery, biodegradability, cost-effectiveness, and convenient storage.

Nanotechnology-based commercial magnetic solutions offer promising prospects for oil spill

cleanup (Singh, Bhardwaj, Arya, & Madhu Khatri, 2020). The decline in sales by over 50%

across all fishing sectors has significantly affected the local economy, exerting a profound

impact on income generation within these communities. These areas, already facing social and

ecological vulnerabilities, now experience compromised subsistence, food security, and

cultural preservation (de Oliveira Estevo, 2021).

The effectiveness of oil spill response efforts hinges on understanding the dynamics of

stranded oil transformation and translocation processes along shorelines. Stranded oil may

infiltrate lower layers of diverse substrate formations, with its relocation or retention
influenced by various environmental factors such as wave energy, tidal conditions, sediment

pore size, and other variables. Biodegradation emerges as a predominant process in these

scenarios. It is crucial to consider seasonal variations in oil behavior when devising combat

strategies. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of shoreline morphology, wave-current

dynamics, and local environments is imperative for effective cleanup, necessitating the

deployment of in-situ sensors and remote sensing techniques for spatiotemporal data

monitoring (Sandifer et al., 2021).

Cleanup options, as discussed by Asif et al. (2022), encompass a range of preventive

measures and recovery strategies, including physical, mechanical, chemical, and biological

methods. To enhance the efficiency of oil degradation by marine microorganisms,

nanoparticles have emerged as versatile tools, serving as both magnetic sorbents and

emulsifiers. This dual functionality increases the bioavailability of oil, providing surfaces

(droplets) for microbial attachment and proliferation. Emulsification leads to an expansion of

the oil-water interfacial area, thereby facilitating heightened microbial degradation.

Nano-enhanced bioremediation has proven effective across various oil compositions

and is minimally impacted by weather conditions. This approach offers a sustainable

alternative to conventional remediation methods, such as chemical dispersants, sorbents, and in

situ burning, which are often toxic and inefficient (Pete et al., 2021).

Additionally, a broad spectrum of mental and physical health effects has been linked to

oil spills in general, including the Deepwater Horizon disaster, although establishing definitive

cause-and-effect relationships remains challenging (Sandifer et al., 2021). This underscores the

multifaceted nature of the challenges posed by oil spills and the importance of adopting

holistic approaches to address their environmental, social, and health impacts.


Detecting and segmenting irregular-sized oil spill instances in low-resolution

spaceborne SAR images using deep-learning structures poses a challenge. Previous semantic

segmentation approaches like fully convolutional networks and U-Net failed to accurately

detect described spills, achieving a highest Jaccard score of 0.54. Successful solutions in

related work relied on extracting handcrafted features, achieving over 92% accuracy in oil spill

detection by considering specific features from SAR images (Shaban et al., 2021). Detection

and characterization of oil-containing pixels in oil spill remote sensing (ORS) imagery are

facilitated by oil's distinct optical properties. Higher refraction index and absorption/scattering

coefficients than water enable the identification and characterization of oil types and

estimation of concentration or thickness. While SAR can detect presence/absence effectively,

ORS, with its multiband sensors, excels in classifying oil types and quantifying concentration

or thickness, surpassing field-based interpretations (Hu, Lu, Sun, & Liu, 2021).

In cases of maritime pollution, national laws, and relevant international regulations

govern the legal framework. However, certain provisions related to accountability for marine

pollution lack uniformity. State responsibility is determined through diplomatic dispute

resolution to foster cooperative relations, prevent future conflicts, and promote sustainable

economic development for affected nations (Purwendah, Mangku)

Oil spills from tank vessels pose a significant threat to the marine environment,

ecosystems, and human livelihoods. The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation

(2023) has been diligently collecting and maintaining a comprehensive database of oil spills

from tank vessels, covering incidents since 1970. This database includes spills from various

types of vessels, such as combined carriers, FPSOs, and barges, with a focus on accidental

spillages of both persistent and non-persistent hydrocarbon oils.


The information amassed by ITOPF encompasses critical details such as the location

and cause of each incident, the involved vessel, the type of oil spilled, and the quantity of the

spill. The data, gathered from diverse sources like the shipping press, specialized publications,

vessel owners, insurers, and ITOPF's own incident experiences, now encapsulates data on over

10,000 incidents. Remarkably, the majority of these incidents fall within the smallest spill

category, i.e., less than 7 tons (ITOPF, 2023).

Historically, the reporting of oil spills was skewed towards larger spills resulting from

collisions, groundings, structural damage, fires, or explosions. However, recent decades have

witnessed an improvement in reporting, capturing smaller spills that may have previously gone

unnoticed. The focus on spills of all sizes is crucial for a holistic understanding of the trends,

impacts, and potential mitigation strategies (NOAA, 2023).

In 2022, the recorded data points to three large spills (>700 tons) and four medium

spills (7-700 tons). Geographically, two of the large spills occurred in Asia, while one

transpired in Africa. The medium spills were distributed across North America, Asia, and

Africa. This brings the average number of spills (>7 tons) per year in the current decade to

almost 6, a figure consistent with the average for the 2010s (ITOPF, 2023). The total volume

of oil lost to the environment from tanker spills in 2022 was approximately 15,000 tons, with

more than 14,000 tons attributed to the three large incidents. While these figures are

concerning, they underscore the importance of understanding the trends in oil spills over time.

Over the past half-century, statistics reveal a marked downward trend in the frequency

of spills greater than 7 tons from tankers. In the 1970s, the average number of spills per year

was around 79, but this has decreased by over 90% to 6 in the 2010s, maintaining a similar

level in the current decade (Encyclopedia Britanica, 2023).


Concomitant with the reduction in spill frequency is a significant decrease in the

quantity of oil spilt. In the 2010s, approximately 164,000 tons of oil were lost from tanker

spills of 7 tons and above, reflecting a remarkable 95% reduction since the 1970s. For the

present decade, the figure stands at 26,000 tons, based on three years of data.

It is essential to note that individual incidents, such as the ATLANTIC EMPRESS

(1979), CASTILLO DE BELLVER (1983), ABT SUMMER (1991), and SANCHI (2018),

significantly distort annual figures due to their massive spill volumes. These incidents

underscore the importance of not only considering the frequency of spills but also the volume

spilled in assessing the environmental impact (ICSMD, 2023).The costs of oil spills are

substantial, encompassing both economic and ecological dimensions. Oil on ocean surfaces

hampers sunlight penetration, reduces dissolved oxygen levels, and poses a direct threat to

aquatic life. The damage to marine habitats, reproductive rates of animal populations, and

long-term ecological recovery all contribute to the multifaceted impact of oil spills (NOAA,

2023).

Furthermore, the fishing industry is severely affected by major oil spills, with

immediate suspension of commercial fishing common to prevent contamination of seafood.

The adverse effects extend to coastal areas, where tourism, commerce, and utilities can be

significantly impaired (S. Othumpangat, 2014).

Synthesis

The synthesis of existing literature on oil spills reveals a complex landscape

characterized by various dimensions, including public perception, regulatory frameworks,


response strategies, health concerns, innovative solutions, modeling limitations, detection

challenges, and legal implications. Despite the hazards posed by oil spills, they often elicit

substantial public outrage, highlighting a paradoxical perception among communities. Scholars

such as Little, Sheppard, and Hulme (2021) stress the necessity of transitioning from oil as a

fuel to a crucial chemical feedstock for decarbonization, emphasizing the importance of well-

organized contingency plans and regulatory frameworks to address environmental risks

effectively.

Studies by Chen et al. (2019) and Asif et al. (2022) underscore the importance of

diverse response strategies, including physical, mechanical, chemical, and biological methods,

in mitigating the impacts of oil spills. However, challenges persist, as highlighted by Eklund,

Knapp, Sandifer, and Colwell (2019), who draw attention to the extensive use of dispersants in

oil cleanup, linking it to human health concerns and emphasizing the vulnerability of

communities reliant on natural resources. Moreover, Keramea et al. (2021) point out

limitations in current oil spill models, calling for enhancements to predict oil dissolution,

biodegradation, and particle size distribution accurately.

Innovative solutions, such as magnetic adsorbents and nanoparticles, offer promising

alternatives to conventional remediation methods, as suggested by Singh, Bhardwaj, Arya, and

Madhu Khatri (2020) and Pete et al. (2021). However, challenges in detecting and segmenting

oil spill instances in satellite images persist, as discussed by Shaban et al. (2021), and legal

frameworks governing maritime pollution require attention, as noted by Purwendah and

Mangku (2019).

Relating this synthesis to the study on the social and economic impact of oil spills on

fisherfolks in selected barangays in Oriental Mindoro, Philippines, underscores the


significance of a multidisciplinary approach. Understanding the complexities and diverse

aspects of oil spill incidents highlighted in the literature is crucial for developing targeted

interventions and policies to mitigate the social and economic repercussions faced by

fisherfolks in affected communities. By incorporating insights from existing research on

response strategies, health concerns, innovative solutions, and legal implications, the study can

provide a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities for addressing oil

spills in the context of Oriental Mindoro, ultimately contributing to more effective socio-

economic prevention, mitigation, and recovery efforts.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework underpinning this study provides a crucial conceptual

scaffold, orchestrating a synthesis of established theories and concepts that illuminate the

intricate dynamics surrounding the social and economic repercussions of oil spills on

fisherfolks. In navigating the complex terrain of this investigation, the study strategically

employs the Social-Ecological Systems (SES) framework.

At its core, the SES framework operates as a theoretical compass, spotlighting the

intricate interplay between social and ecological elements within a specific environment. This

theoretical lens discerns and acknowledges the dynamic interconnections governing the

relationships between human communities and the ecosystems upon which their livelihoods

hinge (Pallero, et. al., 2018). The three pivotal components of the SES framework — the

resource system, governance system, and actors — jointly form the linchpin for a

comprehensive analysis. The resource system delves into the ecological facets, notably
fisheries and marine ecosystems, elucidating the delicate balance disrupted by oil spills.

Concurrently, the governance system unravels the intricate web of institutions, policies, and

regulations that dictate resource utilization. Finally, the actors component encapsulates the

diverse array of individuals, prominently the fisherfolks, along with other stakeholders

entangled in or impacted by the pervasive reach of oil spills (McGinnis and Ostrom, 2014).

This SES framework, meticulously applied in this study, affords an encompassing lens through

which the multifaceted impacts of oil spills on the social and economic dimensions of

fisherfolks’ lives are scrutinized, unraveling a narrative of interconnectedness, vulnerability,

and resilience within the broader context of environmental crises.


Conceptual Framework of the Study

INPUT
PROCESS OUTPUT

Questionnaire Data
responses Data Gathering Proposed
Interview of Validating Contingency Plan
Fisherfolks Analyzing
Interpreting

Feedback Loop
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework on Social and Economic Impact of Oil Spill in Mindoro

The conceptual framework for this study is designed to elucidate the complex interplay

of social and economic dynamics arising from oil spills, specifically within the context of

fisherfolks in Oriental Mindoro, Philippines. The framework integrates key elements derived

from the Social-Ecological Systems (SES) framework proposed by McGinnis and Ostrom

(2014). This conceptual framework serves as a guide for understanding and analyzing the

intricate relationships between ecological, social, and economic elements in the aftermath of

oil spills, shedding light on the nuanced dynamics that shape the experiences of fisherfolks in

Oriental Mindoro, Philippines.


Definition of Terms

The following were terminologies used in the study:

Coping Mechanism: strategies made or used by the people to manage the stressful effects

brought by the oil spill

Economic Impact: The effects on the economic well-being, activities, resources, and

structures of individuals, businesses, industries, or societies.

Fisherfolks: Individuals or communities engaged in fishing activities like capture fisheries,

fish vendor, gleaning and fish processing.

Local Government Intervention: strategies, procedures or programs made by the government

to respond and mitigate the effects of the oil spill to marine areas as well as the community.

Oil Spill: an accident release of harmful liquid occurring in marine or coastal areas directly

affecting marine life as well livelihood of fisherfolks.

Social Impact: The effects on the social well-being, behaviors, relationships, and dynamics of

individuals, groups, or communities.


Chapter III
Research Methodology

Research Design

The researchers will be employing a mixed-methods research design. Mixed-methods

research involves researchers or research teams integrating components of qualitative and

quantitative research approaches (Schoonenboom & Johnson, 2017). This includes

incorporating qualitative and quantitative viewpoints, employing diverse data collection

methods, utilizing varied analysis techniques, and applying inference methods. The

overarching goal is to achieve a comprehensive and corroborated understanding by combining

the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative research, thereby enhancing the depth of

insights into the economic loss caused by oil spills.

Sampling

A purposive sampling technique will be used. The researchers will target respondents

directly impacted by oil spills in selected barangays in Roxas, Oriental Mindoro. This

approach allows for a focused and intentional recruitment of individuals who can provide

valuable insights. The research aims to include 924 respondents, 251 from Barangay Dangay

and 673 from Barangay San Jose, ensuring a diverse and representative sample that captures

the various perspectives and experiences related to economic losses from oil spills in the

region.
Data Instruments

The researcher will be employing two primary data instruments:

Interviews: Engaging in in-depth, semi-structured interviews will be a pivotal component

of the research methodology. This qualitative approach allows for a comprehensive exploration

of respondents' perspectives on economic loss due to oil spills. The semi-structured format

ensures flexibility, enabling probing into nuanced aspects. Through these interviews, a rich and

contextual understanding will be derived, providing valuable qualitative insights that

complement the quantitative data obtained through the Likert scale survey, fostering a holistic

analysis of the economic impact.

Self-constructed Questionnaire: A 5-point Likert Scale Survey Questionnaire will be

crafted to assess respondents' perceptions of the economic loss resulting from oil spills. This

self-constructed questionnaire will undergo face validation by an expert in the field to ensure

its relevance, clarity, and effectiveness. Administering this survey will involve presenting

respondents with a range of statements related to economic loss, allowing them to express their

agreement or disagreement on a 5-point Likert scale. This quantitative approach aims to

provide a nuanced and measurable understanding of respondents' perceived extents of

economic loss, contributing valuable data to the comprehensive study on the impact of oil

spills.

Data Collection Method

The research on economic loss due to oil spills employs a meticulous and ethical data-

gathering method, commencing with the essential step of securing permissions and ethical
clearance. Written permissions are diligently obtained from pertinent authorities, establishing a

foundation for ethical and lawful research conduct. Employing a purposive sampling strategy,

respondents directly impacted by oil spills or possessing expertise in the economic aspects of

such incidents in Oriental Mindoro are thoughtfully identified and selected. Community

leaders, environmental organizations, and industry stakeholders facilitate the process of

participant recruitment.

Prioritizing ethical considerations, the informed consent and participant information

stage is crucial. Potential respondents are provided with comprehensive details about the study,

including its objectives, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. Written informed consent is

then obtained, ensuring respondents fully comprehend their voluntary participation rights and

the confidentiality of their responses. A semi-structured interview guide is meticulously

developed, addressing key themes related to economic loss, such as income, livelihood,

property loss, and coping mechanisms. The clarity, relevance, and sensitivity of questions are

carefully ensured to elicit rich and meaningful responses from respondents.

The subsequent step involves conducting interviews, scheduled at convenient times and

locations for respondents. Each interview begins by reiterating the study's purpose, reassuring

confidentiality, and obtaining verbal consent. Open-ended questions are skillfully employed to

encourage respondents to share detailed and nuanced experiences. Interviews are recorded

(with participant consent) or detailed notes are taken, ensuring a comprehensive record of the

qualitative data.

Simultaneously, a 5-point Likert scale survey questionnaire is constructed, focusing on

quantifiable aspects of economic loss. This instrument is pretested with a small sample to

guarantee clarity, relevance, and reliability. The surveys are then administered either
electronically or in-person, ensuring respondents understand the Likert scale's purpose and

response options. Demographic data, including age, gender, occupation, proximity to oil spill

incidents, and other pertinent factors, are systematically collected during both interviews and

surveys. Respondents are encouraged to share additional insights during interviews, enriching

both qualitative and quantitative datasets. Thematic analysis is applied to interview transcripts,

identifying recurring themes and patterns related to economic loss. A coding system is

developed to organize qualitative data systematically.

Statistical Treatment and Data Analysis

The researchers will be utilizing the following statistical analysis to provide an in-depth

examination of the economic effects induced by oil spills.

Frequency Distribution. Frequency distribution will serve as an analytical tool, systematically

organizing and summarizing the diverse elements within respondents' demographic profiles.

This method allows for a detailed examination of the distribution patterns of various

demographic characteristics, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the study

respondents.

Mean and Standard Deviation. This will be utilized in the analysis of the severity of economic

loss due to oil spills among affected respondents. These statistical measures provide a

quantitative assessment, offering insights into the central tendency and variability of economic

impact levels.

Thematic Analysis. Thematic analysis will be employed to systematically process data obtained

from interviews, focusing on immediate and long-term social consequences, effects on

economic activities, and the livelihoods of fisherfolks. This qualitative method aims to identify
recurrent themes, providing an in-depth exploration of the coping mechanisms employed by

fisherfolks to mitigate the impact of oil spills on their livelihoods.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. (2023, March 22). The Black Tide: Philippines’ Oil

Spill Causes Ecological Disaster, Loss of Livelihoods. Retrieved from Asia Pacific Foundation of

Canada: https://www.asiapacific.ca/publication/black-tide-philippines-oil-spill-causes-

ecological-disaster

Asif, Z., Chen, Z., An, C., & Dong, J. (2022). Environmental Impacts and Challenges
Associated with Oil Spills on Shorelines. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering,
10(6), 762. MDPI AG. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse10060762

Chen, B., Ye, X., Zhang, B., Jing, L., & Lee, K. (2019). Marine Oil Spills—Preparedness and
Countermeasures. World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation, 407–426.
doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-805052-1.00025-5

Chilvers, B.L., Morgan, K.J. & White, B.J. Sources and reporting of oil spills and impacts on
wildlife 1970–2018. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 754–762 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10538-0

de Oliveira Estevo M, Lopes PFM, de Oliveira Júnior JGC, Junqueira AB, de Oliveira Santos

AP, da Silva Lima JA, Malhado ACM, Ladle RJ, Campos-Silva JV. Immediate social

and economic impacts of a major oil spill on Brazilian coastal fishing communities.

Mar Pollut Bull. 2021 Mar;164:111984. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.111984. Epub

2021 Jan 28. PMID: 33517088.


Eklund, R. L., Knapp, L. C., Sandifer, P. A., & Colwell, R. C. (2019, October). Oil Spills and
Human Health: Contributions of the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative. GeoHealth,
3(12), 391-406. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GH000217

Encyclopedia Britanica. (2023, NOVEMBER 1). Oil Spill. Retrieved from Britanica:

https://www.britannica.com/science/oil-spill

Etkin, D. S., & Nedwed, T. J. (2020). Effectiveness of mechanical recovery for large offshore
oil spills. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 111848. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.1118

Galieriková, A., & Materna, M. (2020). World Seaborne Trade with Oil: One of Main Cause
for Oil Spills? Transportation Research Procedia, 44, 297–304.
doi:10.1016/j.trpro.2020.02.039

Grosell, M., & Pasparakis, C. (2020). Physiological Responses of Fish to Oil Spills. Annual
Review of Marine Science, 13(1). doi:10.1146/annurev-marine-040120-094802

ICSMD. (2023, March). Oil spill in the Philippines. Retrieved from ICSMD:

https://disasterscharter.org/web/guest/activations/-/article/oil-spill-in-philippines-

activation-807-

ITOPF. (2023). Oil Tanker Spill Statistics 2022. Retrieved from ITOPF:

https://www.itopf.org/knowledge-resources/data-statistics/statistics/

Hu, C., Lu, Y., Sun, S., & Liu, Y. (2021, February). Optical Remote Sensing of Oil Spills in
the Ocean: What Is Really Possible? Jpurnal on Remote Sensing, 21. doi:DOI:
10.34133/2021/9141902

Keramea, P., Spanoudaki, K., Zodiatis, G., Gikas, G., & Sylaios, G. (2021). Oil Spill
Modeling: A Critical Review on Current Trends, Perspectives, and Challenges. Journal
of Marine Science and Engineering, 9(2), 181. MDPI AG. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse9020181
Little, D. I., Sheppard, S. R. J., & Hulme, D. (2021). A perspective on oil spills: What we
should have learned about global warming. Ocean & Coastal Management, 202,
105509. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2020.1055

McGinnis, M. D., & Ostrom, E. (2014). Social-ecological system framework: initial changes

and continuing challenges. Ecology and Society, 19(2).

http://www.jstor.org/stable/26269580

Murga, A. (2019, October 11). Saving an Island from the Worst Oil Spill in the Philippines:

The Case of Guimaras. Retrieved from Mongabay:

https://news.mongabay.com/2019/10/saving-an-island-from-the-worst-oil-spill-in-the-

philippines-the-case-of-guimaras/

NASA. (2022). Support and Recovery Efforts After Oil Spills. Retrieved from NASA:

https://appliedsciences.nasa.gov/what-we-do/disasters/oil-spills

NOAA. (2023). How does oil impact marine life? Retrieved from National Oceanic and

Atmosphere Association: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/oilimpacts.html

Ongcal, A. (2023, March 27). From Living Water to Toxic Sludge: The Philippine Island

Devastated by an Oil Spill. Retrieved from The Gurdian:

https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2023/mar/27/philippines-princess-

empress-oil-spill-mindoro-island

Othumpangat, S., & Castranova, V. (2013). Oil Spills. Encyclopedia of Toxicology (Third

Edition), 677-681. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386454-3.00359-6


Pallero, C., Barragán, J., & Scherer, M. (2018). Management international estuarine systems:

The case of the Guadiana river (Spain-Portugal). Environmental Science & Policy, 80,

82-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.11.005

Pete, A. J., Bharti, B., & Benton, M. G. (2021). Nano-enhanced Bioremediation for Oil Spills:
A Review. ACS ES&T Engineering, 1(6), 928-946.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestengg.0c00217

Purwendah, E. K., Mangku, D. G., & Periani, A. (2019). Dispute Settlements of Oil Spills in
the Sea Towards Sea Environment Pollution. Proceedings of the First International
Conference on Progressive Civil Society (ICONPROCS 2019). Atlantis Press.
doi:10.2991/iconprocs-19.2019.51

Sandifer, P.A., A. Ferguson, M.L. Finucane, M. Partyka, H.M. Solo-Gabriele, A.H. Walker, K.

Wowk, R. Caffey, and D. Yoskowitz. 2021. Human health and socioeconomic effects

of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Oceanography 34(1):174–

191, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2021.125.

Schoonenboom, J., & Johnson, R. B. (2017). How to Construct a Mixed Methods Research
Design. Kolner Zeitschrift Fur Soziologie Und Sozialpsychologie, 69(Suppl 2), 107-131.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11577-017-0454-1

Shaban, M., Salim, R., Abu Khalifeh, H., Khelifi, A., Shalaby, A., El-Mashad, S., Mahmoud,
A., et al. (2021). A Deep-Learning Framework for the Detection of Oil Spills from
SAR Data. Sensors, 21(7), 2351. MDPI AG. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21072351

Singh, H., Bhardwaj, N., Arya, S. K., & Madhu Khatri. (2020). Environmental impacts of oil
spills and their remediation by magnetic nanomaterials. nvironmental Nanotechnology,
Monitoring & Management, 14. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2020.100305.
Ugwu, C. F., Ogba, K. T., & Ugwu, C. S. (2020). Ecological and Economic Costs of Oil Spills

in Niger Delta, Nigeria. Economic Effects of Natural Disasters, 439-455.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817465-4.00026-1

Yuching, M. G. (2023, March 6). LIST: Major Oil Spills in the Philippines. Retrieved from

Rappler: https://www.rappler.com/nation/list-major-oil-spills-in-the-philippines

Zhang, W., Li, C., Jihong Chen, Z. W., Shu, Y., Lan Song, L. X., & Di, Z. (2021, November).
Governance of global vessel-source marine oil spills: Characteristics and refreshed
strategies. Ocean & Coastal Management, 213.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.105874.

You might also like