Chapter Two: The Writing Skill

1. Introduction

The proposed chapter investigates the writing skill which is one of the important skills

in foreign language learning. It starts with defining the writing skill and how it functions,

and then it highlights the importance of students’ constant attempt in developing this skill

since it represents the most important mean of communication they use to transmit their

ideas with.

This chapter startes with reviewing the qualities of the writing skill that helps students

realize a correct piece of writing. Next it highlights the most common difficulties that

face EFL students in achieving a successful written production that can include their

handwriting, spelling, grammar and other common features.

This chapter aims at investigating the three main approaches used in teaching writing

lessons putting an emphasis on the process based approach and its function. As it explains

the relationship between teachers’ feedback and how it helps improving students’ written

productions.

2. Definition of writing

During the journey of EFL learning, students work to develop four main skills

speaking, listening, reading and writing. Writing is one of the important skills in EFL

learning it is also said to be the most complex skill to acquire. Writing is a form of

communication, and it is seen as a skill that must be cultivated through study and

practice. The ability to write is not something that comes naturally; it is generally learnt

through a collection of activities in formal institutions or other places. Meanwhile, writing

is a necessary talent for achieving success in any academic situation. (Oshima and Hogue,

1997).
 Brooks, (1960) suggests that: “writing is much more than an orthography

symbolisation of speech, it is more importantly a purposeful selection and organization of

expression”. This indicates that writing is a collection of ordered sentences that work

together to create a whole and convey certain meanings. Writing skills are special

qualities that allow writers to turn their thoughts into meaningful words and cognitively

interact with the message. There are several definitions of writing, each of which is given

by different expert. According to Harmer (2003) writing is an important component of a

bigger activity that focuses on anything else, such as language practice, drama, or public

speaking.

Additionally Elbow (1981) states that writing is the expression of a language in a

written medium using a set of signs or symbols. He adds that writing requires the ability

to generate words and thoughts from within oneself, but it also requires the ability to

analyze them in order to describe which ones to use. Brown (2003) defines writing as

Writing is the essence of the composing process of writing. Written works are frequently

the result of thinking, drafting, and revising methods that demand specialized abilities,

which not every speaker possesses naturally.

On the other hand Elhabiri (2013) states that Writing abilities could be defined as the

capacity to transmit thoughts and ideas in organised patterns to help readers grasp what is

meant by writing. As a result, EFL students must be able to express themselves in logical

and well-organized phrases in order to construct a meaningful whole. Based on the

previous definition we can summarize the definition of writing as In the process of

creating ideas, considering how to express them, and organizing them into statements and

paragraphs with the goal of indirectly communicating something with other people,

students make an effort to express their minds through language in writing.

teaching and learning of English as a Second Language (ESL) since it is a comprehensive

skill that reinforces vocabulary, grammar, thinking, planning, editing, rewriting, and other

factors. Writing also aids in the development of all other abilities such as listening,

speaking, and reading, as they are all connected (Saed and Al- Omari in Yunus, and Chirn

2016).

3. The importance of writing

Writing is a very important skill in EFL learning and teaching because mastering good

writing skills enables learners to communicate their thoughts in a clear way. Therefore its

necessity is approved by many scholars and linguists. Accurate and logical written

representation of ideas in a foreign or second language is a significant achievement. As a

result, writing is a complex activity for foreign language learners that require a competent

level of writing rules, linguistic knowledge, grammar, and vocabulary, as well as thinking

skills that allow language learners to express themselves fluently in the other language

(Yavuz-Erkan & İflazoğlu-Saban 2011).

Tercero Manzanares & Ramos González (2013) suggest that Learning to write in a

foreign language is part of the process of learning a foreign language. Furthermore, many

international students are not well-versed in the writing method. Because it is a difficult

to learn, only a small percentage of people feel obliged to utilize it in formal settings.

They add Writing is one of the primary means through which we engage with others to

construct a cohesive social reality. Furthermore, the practice of writing might give diverse

learning techniques, particularly for those who find it difficult to learn orally; for such

individuals, writing is likely to be assistance to retention. It implies that pupils feel more

safe and at ease writing from a distance rather of being forced to cope with direct

communication through spoken practice.

tactile form”. Writing may be as easy as utilizing visual symbols or recreating anything

that has been heard or read in written form. Yet it gets more difficult when it demands

creating significant portions in order to convey a message in the language. Furthermore,

Widdowson (2001) states that "writing is the use of visual medium to manifest the graph

logical and grammatical system of the language. That is to say, writing in one sense is the

production of sentences as instances of usages"( Widdowson 2001 p. 62)

According to Harmer (2007) there are numerous benefits to learning to write. For

starters, as in writing, learners usually have more time to ponder than they do in spoken

action. Second, they can go over what they know in their heads and even consult

dictionaries, grammar books, or other reference material to help them. Third, writing

encourages students to focus on correct language use, and because they think as they

write, it may well promote language growth as they tackle problems that the writing

brings to their attention.

Writing allows you to maintain social interactions and share personal information. It

also helps participants build skills that will enable them to be persuasive, critical, and

analytical readers and writers. Furthermore, it is commonly used as preparation for

another activity, giving students time to mull up ideas rather than having to come up with

instant fluent comments, which many students, particularly at lower levels, find difficult

and unpleasant (Camilleri et all 2007).

A recent study done by Marielle Zagada (2019) stated the importance of writing skill

in five main points.

 It allows you to organize and refine your ideas: students can learn new

vocabulary and spellings as they go along with writing. Once they are done, they

can also look back on what they've written and correct them if needed. Writing is
 a much slower process than reading so they can organize their thoughts more

effectively.

 It gives you a “hard copy” of your progress: students should write as much as

they can when learning a language. They should treat writing as a way to not just

apply their knowledge, but also a tool to continually improve their vocabulary and

sentence structure. As, they can also practice their reading skills with it.

 It helps others give you feedback: Having someone thoroughly checks what

students write and give them tips on how to improve their writing is very

important. It is essential to receive feedback either from teachers or pairs because

it can help them highlight different weaknesses that students may not see.

 It helps you recall what you’ve learned: Putting your learning into practice is

important for cementing it in your mind. When we write, we are putting some

degree of thought into evaluating and ordering the information that we are

receiving. That process helps fix ideas more firmly in our minds, leading to a

greater recall.

4. Characteristics of writing skill

When teaching writing skill it is necessary to teach students the qualities of writing or

how to write and what are the features that characterises a good piece of writing.

Different experts in the field highlighted many characteristics of writing, yet the proposed

study managed to focus only on four main qualities.

4.1 Organization

Your essay's structure approach is just as crucial as its substance. Your reader may

become confused and lose interest if there is no apparent organizing structure. The

structure of your essay assists your readers in drawing links between the body and the
 thesis, and it also helps you focus while you plan and compose the essay (“9.3

Organizing Your Writing – Writing for Success,” 2015).

4.2 Clear and concise

According to a recent study done by the Center of Academic Sucsess Some

students struggle to recognize what needs to be changed in their drafts. Some of them

may believe that adding more words or phrases to their work adds sophistication, but

in reality it causes clutter and can confuse readers. Recognizing wordiness,

redundancy, and ambiguous or needless language is a key technique for ensuring that

your writing delivers your thoughts as simply and concisely as possible. The editing

process includes examining word choice, concision, and sentence clarity.

4.3 Coherence

The broad notion that a text makes sense via the organization of its material is

referred to as coherence. It is supplied in writing by a clear and understandable

organization of paragraphs and phrases. A learner's argument essay is coherent

because it has a framework that provides coherence and adheres to a predetermined

format. Coherence is a necessary characteristic of successful academic writing. The

flow of ideas from one phrase to the next in academic writing should be smooth and

logical. The reader will not comprehend the primary arguments you are attempting to

communicate if there is no cohesiveness. It also reduces readability. Each thought

should be clearly related to others, and the writing will be cohesive when the reader

understands the ideas. As a result, the writer should supply his readers with variety in

sentence construction, sentence types, and sentence types (“Why coherence is

important in writing?,” 2021).

4.4 Simple and plane

be all that is required to convey even the most complicated concept. Furthermore,

your work will be more pleasant to read and will be understandable to a broader

audience (Capstone Editing, 2017).

5. EFL students’ difficulties in writing

According to Raimes (1983), writing is a difficult endeavor because it involves

several components of language, such as punctuation, spelling, vocabulary, grammar, and

syntax. Writing difficulties refer to areas in which students struggle with one or more

aspects of the writing skill, such as the use of tenses, the usage of nouns, and spelling

errors. In other words, it refers to the issues that impact pupils' productivity when they

write or create a free piece of writing. A recent research conducted by Siham Ben Aissa

(2018) there are five main types of common writing difficulties that EFL students face:

5.1 Spelling

Spelling is the act of accurately constructing words from letters. When learners lack

the capacity to create words, they generate mediocre writing. The blending of spelling in

English languages also impacts pupils' writing accuracy, as they sometimes mistake

which word spelling to use, whether American English spelling or British spelling (Ben

Aissa 2018).

Spelling mistakes is a common problem in written productions provided by EFL

students. Smith (1973), Bahloul (2007), Al-Hassan (2011) and Jayousi ( 2011) suggest

that The first major cause of spelling errors is variations in English pronunciation,

because English spelling necessitates greater effort in learning standards. In the words he

and she, for example, the vowel /e/ is pronounced as /i/. Thus, in the word come, /o/ is

spelled as /a/, while in the word move, it is spelled as /oo/. Furthermore, spelling is

challenging for students because there is no perfect match between the sound of a word
 and how it is spelled; in other words, the lack of association between phonemes and

graphemes makes spelling more difficult for students. For example, the word "met" has

just one alternative pronunciation /m I t/; nonetheless, this form is also spelled as "meat."

5.2 Grammar

Grammar refers to the rules that organize language, and comprehending grammar

principles is required for creating a coherent sentence or paragraph. For example, "She

writes the lesson" has grammatical meaning, as opposed to "Her writes the lessons" or

"Writes the lesson she." The following two lines violate grammatical rules: the first

violates the rule that a pronoun must be in the subjective case when it is the subject of a

verb, and the second violates the rule that the traditional English sentence sequence is:

subject verb-object (Ben Aissa 2018).

Furthermore, according to Harmer (2001) grammatical norms are the laws that structure

language, and they are not the declarations of instructors, editors, or other authorities. It

only explains how people talk and write, and the rules change when people begin to speak

and write in new ways.

5.3 Vocabulary

Hubbard (1983) thinks that vocabulary is one of the most crucial language abilities for

a student to master because it is the primary means of communication in any language,

whether through writing or speaking. Al-Zahrani, M.(2011) adds that “vocabulary

teaching and learning represents one of the major challenges that face EFL / ESL

teachers and learners. Most ESL/EFL learners have difficulties in communicating with

the English language because of their limited vocabulary.” Which means that a Limited

vocabulary baggage can prevent EFL students from expressing their ideas.

5.4 Punctuation
 Punctuation is the use of symbols like full stops, periods, commas, and question

marks to separate written words into sentences and phrases. The punctuation system

serves two purposes. The first adds meaning to larger sentences so that they may be read

logically by categorizing consecutive units, such as sentences being separated by full

stops. The second specifies a linguistic function, such as a question mark used to ask an

inquiry (Halliday 1989).

According to Halliday (1989), these functions are organized into three major parts; the

first step consists of drawing boundaries to distinguish grammatical units, such as words

and sentences, from one another. In the writing system, a full stop indicates stronger

boundaries, such as sentences, whereas colons, semi-colons, and commas indicate lesser

limits, such as words and phrases. The second function is status marking, which denotes

the speech functions of phrases, such as a statement or an inquiry. The full stop denotes a

statement, whereas the question mark denotes a question. The third denotes the sentence's

related units. This includes the hyphen, which marks a compound word like "full-time

job," the apostrophe, which shows the possessive relationship between words as in this

sentence "learner's writing level," or the deletion of letters, which signs an informal

variant, as in this sentence "I didn't come," the dash, which indicates the opposite

relationship between two elements, and parentheses, which add minor elements to the

sentence.

Murray and Hughes (2008) demonstrate that punctuation marks enhance

comprehension and reading because a well-capitalized and punctuated piece of writing

makes the learners' work easier to read and comprehend, and it creates a favorable

impression on the readers.

5.5 Handwriting
 Handwriting is a personal matter. According to Harmer (2001), while most

communication nowadays is done through a computer keyboard, handwriting is still

necessary for personal correspondence, written assignments, and, most importantly, tests.

As a result, teachers must address the value of good handwriting while also motivating

their students to improve their handwriting through copying exercises, because poor

handwriting has a negative impact on the reader or test corrector.

6. Causes of Writing Difficulties

According to Ben Aissa (2018) The majority of EFL students struggle with writing for

a variety of reasons. the likely causes of the learners' writing challenges comprises in a

lack of reading, desire, time, practice, and the effect of the first language on target

language writing.

6.1 Lack of Reading

Many authors agree that better readers make better writers, and that better

writers have greater difficulties with language exposure than weaker readers.

Focusing on reading in a foreign language Raimes (1994) states that “the more our

students read, the more they become familiar with the vocabulary, idiom, sentence

patterns, organizational flow, and cultural assumptions of native speakers of the

language” (Raimes 1994,p. 42).

Additionally Kroll (1997, p. 48) suggests that , “It is reading that gives the

writer the feel for the look and texture of reader based prose.” In the sense that,

one of the causes of dissatisfaction with EFL learners' writing is a lack of reading.

6.2 Lack of Motivation

According to Harmer (2007), motivation is the driving force behind conduct. It

is classified into two types: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic
 motivation stems from a person's satisfaction, interest, or pleasure. Extrinsic

originates from the outside, such as the requirement to pass an exam.

There are various sources of motivation. Harmer (2006) also discusses four types

of motivation. The first source is the society in which the learners live, which

influences their learning attitude since it is the first location where individuals

gain information, thus students can bring ideas to class in order to grasp the

teachings. The second source denotes the assistance of others. The students'

language acquisition is influenced by individuals who are near to them, such as

their parents or their communities; the third source is teachers.

7. Approaches to teaching writing

Teaching writing requires a variety of techniques combined with methods. Lavelle

and Bushrow (2007) describe writing approaches as “describe the relationship between

the beliefs that writers have about writing and the patterns of writing strategies that they

employ”. (Lavelle and Bushrow 2007, p.808). As a result, the idea of approach offers a

broad perspective on the relationship between writers' attitudes about writing and the

methods they use, which impacts the performance of writing output. In summary, writing

approaches are the concepts, principles, and ethics associated with the writing processes

that are used in classrooms, particularly when teaching writing.

Approaches to writing for first language users differ from those for second language

learners. Many ideas and techniques have been developed by researchers to meet the

writing demands of ESL students. These writing styles have evolved significantly over

the years in order to help second language learners become competent writers (Fujida

2006).

According to Scott (2006) every writing lesson must include writing techniques. For a

variety of reasons, EFL teachers should decide which strategy to use in a given class.
 Identifying the proper strategy in a writing classroom is critical to achieve a successful

end. Choosing a less-than-ideal strategy will only make the lessons intimidating for the

EFL students and generate disappointment for the teachers after all of their hard work in

planning and teaching. In other words, it will demotivate both instructors and learners.

Furthermore adapting a suitable technique in the classroom is important based on the

teacher's aim. Beginners with very low skill, for example, should be exposed to a product-

based approach since they require a model or examples to begin their writing journey.

Without a strategy, the writing classroom will veer in a variety of ways, making the aim

intended for the specific session unattainable. As a result, writing techniques are critical

in order to achieve the work's objectives.

There are three widely used techniques to teaching writing: product-based approaches,

process-based approaches, and genre-based approaches. Furthermore, the combination of

these three approaches is known as the Process-Genre approach.

7.1 The Product-based approach

The term "product-based approach" refers to a writing method that seeks to see the

finished result. Students frequently replicate a model text in order to create one. To put it

another way, learners imitate a sample piece offered by the teachers. For example, in

writing classes, teachers present examples or model compositions for students to follow,

and students create comparable compositions based on the models (Selvaraj & Aziz,

2019).

According to Steel (2004) There are four stages to follow in order to use this strategy

in the ESL writing classroom: first, students must read the model composition and take

notice of the characteristic elements of a composition, which include arrangement of

ideas, use of language, and mechanics of writing. Second, Students engage in controlled

activities to put the model text's aspects to the test. Third, Students attempt to replicate the
 model essay by arranging a group of pre-set concepts in the manner of the model. Finally,

Students complete the job by composing the predicted composition using their abilities,

sentence structures, and varied levels of vocabulary.

One of the benefits of this strategy is that students begin learning how to employ

certain pattern-product strategies in writing composition in a systematic manner,

particularly in narrative descriptive and persuasive essays. Furthermore, students learn to

fix vocabulary and sentence structures for certain text formats, as well as increase their

grammatical awareness (Tangpermpoon 2008). However J. Robbins (2014) claims that

repetition is the most significant drawback that impacts the work of the product method

because students feel that they are doing the same thing over and over, until it gets

monotonous. It has an impact on their creativity because it leads them to believe that there

is only one way to write, which is incorrect.

7.2 The Process-based approach

The steps involved in drafting and redrafting texts are the focus of writing instruction

in a process approach (Nunan 1999). Because writing is a combination of process and

product, the product method focuses on the ultimate result of the learner's draft, whereas

the process approach focuses on the processes through which EFL learners construct their

work. Brown (2001) claims that writing is a cognitive process in which students produce

a final written result. The writing process consists of four steps: planning, drafting,

rewriting, and editing.

Raimes (1991) identified basic stages of the writing process approach:

 Pre-writing (selecting a topic and planning what to say)

 Writing (putting a draft version on paper)

 Revising (making changes to improve writing)

 Editing and proofreading (working on expression and punctuation)

Flower and Hayes (1981) says that these five steps enable students to produce ideas

before they begin writing, to revise their ideas back and forth, and to edit their thoughts

before the final output is published. According to Tribble (1996) “the process approach

focuses on the learners’ independent ability to produce coherent texts after going through

writing activities in stages”. This means that under the process method, learners are given

opportunities to be in charge of their writing, while the teacher supports writing growth

by guiding and supporting. Unlike the product method, learners in the process approach

are not required to finish and create a draft of the work. Tribble (1996) also states that

“processes of drafting and receiving feedback on their drafts, be it from peers and/or from

the teacher, followed by revision of their evolving texts.” In the sense that Feedback

during the writing process is essential because it allows the learner to identify flaws in his

or her work and so improve before moving on to the final stage of the writing process

7.3 The Genre-based approach

Aside from the product and process methods to teaching writing, the genre-based

approach has gained popularity as a method for developing learners' writing skills. The

genre-based approach, which is based on Martin's (1993) Systemic Functional Linguistic

(SFL) model of language, puts a larger emphasis on the social environment in which

literature is generated. The genre-based approach is based on the idea that teachers should

offer students precise and systematic explanations of how language works in social

situations. Teachers in genre-based classrooms should thus encourage students to

investigate and use texts from a variety of genres, allowing them to communicate in a

variety of situations for a variety of purposes and audiences (Selvaraj & Aziz, 2019).

This approach is divided into stages, with Evans (1997) identifying three of them. The

first stage is to present and examine a model of a certain genre on which to work. During
 the second stage, students practice manipulating associated language forms through

activities. The third step is to create text. Thus, the genre approach regards writing as the

examination and imitation of texts supplied by the instructor, which is also the goal of the

product method.

It is argued by some scholars that The genre technique is not always appropriate for

EFL learners since it does not allow them to identify the correct or hidden content behind

the text. According to Badger and White (2000), because the genre method focuses on the

substance of the text, it inhibits the learner's creativity.

7.4 The process-genre approach

Today, many writing teachers know that we do not have to stick to a single strategy in

the writing classroom. Combining the techniques can result in a new way of thinking

about writing in some circumstances. The process genre-based method is a hybrid of the

three approaches discussed above; it concentrates on the process of writing while also

taking into consideration knowledge of the social context and objectives of the text in

genre writing and observing qualities of texts as in the product-based approach. This

strategy offers advantages, such as being more appropriate for secondary school pupils.

Its disadvantages are that it necessitates meticulous and time-consuming planning, and

that it costs a significant amount of time in both preparing and teaching (Rhalmi 2018).

Aside from these ways, teachers use a variety of strategies to make teaching and

learning writing in a second language classroom productive. Some well-known

techniques “include modeling, shared writing, guided writing, and interactive writing”.

(Lan et al. 2011, p.148).

8. The Role of feedback in The process-based approach

A process approach to writing relies heavily on feedback. It's described as feedback

from a reader to a writer with the goal of providing information for modification. To put
it another way, it's the reader's comments, questions, and recommendations that help a

writer create “reader-based writing.” The writer learns where he or she has deceived or

confused the reader by not providing enough information, illogical organization, and lack

of development of ideas, or improper word choice or tense through feedback (Flower,

1979).

In writing, feedback is crucial. It aids students in comprehending the writing purpose's

tasks. It can help students develop self-awareness, confidence, and excitement for writing.

Furthermore, the Turnitin website lists seven ways in which feedback improves writing:

 Feedback allows students to connect with their goals by letting them know how

far they've progressed and when they should do more to achieve them.

 Feedback is more valuable than a mark; to put it another way, a grade merely

measures performance and does not inform the student on how to improve.

 Feedback allows students to ask the proper questions; for example, if students

don't understand the comments, they can ask for explanation and suggestions to

assist them grasp them.

 It informs students of what is most important; nonetheless, students must read all

feedback and focus on the most important aspects in order for their writing to be

more clear and understandable.

 Feedback aids revision and practice, allowing students to develop their skills.

 Feedback helps students take control of their writing. As a writer, the writer must

discover his or her own voice.

 Students benefit from feedback because it helps them comprehend what the

teacher is saying. Because the instructor devotes a significant amount of time to

provide feedback, students must value it in order to enhance their writing skills.
 To conclude, the role of feedback in the process approach is fundamental since it

works as the instrument that guides students through the writing process. As it helps them

provide a well revised final product which is the goal of the process-based approach is to

reach a creative final result. This feedback is not necessarily received from teachers it can

be received from peers too.

9. Conclusion

The current chapter tackled an overview about the writing skill. First it discussed

thoroughly the definition of writing, its characteristics and its importance. As it provided

some of the obstacles that faces EFL learners that prevents them from achieving a

successful piece of writing which can be exemplified in lack of vocabulary, spelling

mistakes and many other causes. These difficulties were the consequence of a number of

reasons like the lack of motivation and reading. Additionally this chapter investigated the

approaches used to teach the writing skill putting an emphasis on the process-based

approach. Thos chapter also highlighted the role of feedback in the process-based

approach and how it helps students to develope their written productions to achieve a

satisfying result.