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The Basics of Crystallography and Diffraction. Fourth Edition. By Christopher

Hammond. IUCr Texts on Crystallography, No. 21. IUCr/Oxford Science
Publications, 2015. Paperback, Pp....

Article in Acta Crystallographica Section A Foundations and Advances · January 2016

DOI: 10.1107/S2053273315020926

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 book reviews

The Basics of Crystallography and Diffraction.

Fourth Edition. By Christopher Hammond. IUCr Texts
on Crystallography, No. 21. IUCr/Oxford Science
ISSN 2053-2733
Publications, 2015. Paperback, Pp. 544. Price GBP 34.99.
ISBN 978-0-19-873868-8.

Hans Grimmer*

Research with Neutrons and Muons, Paul Scherrer Institut, WHGA/342, Villigen PSI, CH-5232, Switzerland.
*Correspondence e-mail: hans.grimmer@psi.ch
Keywords: book review; crystallography;
diffraction.

The Basics of Crystallography and Diffraction is a textbook written for students at the
beginning of their university education. It presupposes only elementary knowledge of
mathematics. Crystallographic notions are introduced starting with everyday experience
whenever possible. In this way the author attempts to arouse the interest of students in
crystallography and to avoid frightening them off by mathematical formalism. Many
notions are taken up again later when the notions of lattices and symmetry have been
introduced, which allows for a treatment in more depth. The fact that the book now
appears in its fourth edition shows that this approach meets the needs of many students.
The book seems to have developed from lecture notes written by the author for his
materials-science students at the University of Leeds. This becomes clear from the
exercises, e.g. 1.10 ‘Make ball-and-stick models of the cubic-diamond and rhombohedral-
graphite structures’. It is also reflected in the treatment of the symmetry of patterns in
woven textiles in Section 2.8 and in a whole chapter devoted to the diffraction of visible
light.
The book consists of 14 chapters and seven appendices; the first chapter deals with
crystal structures starting with sphere models, Chapters 2–5 are devoted to lattices and
symmetry, Chapter 6 introduces the reciprocal lattice, which is used in Chapters 7–11 to
discuss diffraction. The stereographic projection, which in many texts appears at the very
beginning, is introduced in Chapter 12. Chapter 13 introduces Fourier analysis and
Chapter 14 crystal physics. Among the seven appendices, let me point to the last one, new
to the fourth edition, which introduces ‘Group theory in crystallography’.
Let me now present the contents of the various chapters and appendices in more detail.
Chapter 1 on ‘Crystals and crystal structures’ uses sphere models to discuss simple
element structures and their packing densities. Interstitial sites and the corresponding
radius ratios of spheres are considered in discussing binary ionic and covalent structures.
The notions of stacking faults, twins, plastic deformation and dislocations are introduced.
Different types of bonding are distinguished, coordination polyhedra are introduced and
various types of inorganic structures discussed.
Chapter 2 considers patterns, lattices and symmetry in two dimensions. Starting with
periodic two-dimensional patterns, the notion of a (point) lattice is introduced. The five
(Bravais types of) plane lattices and their symmetry elements are described. The
symmetries of the 17 (types of) plane groups are discussed by means of corresponding
patterns; symmorphic and non-symmorphic plane groups are distinguished. I appreciate
that space-group symmetry is first introduced in two dimensions, where the distinctions
between p3m1 and p31m and between symmorphic and non-symmorphic groups already
appear and can easily be illustrated. Examples of the seven (types of) frieze patterns are
given. In addition to the ten (monochromatic crystallographic) point groups the 11 black/
white ones are introduced. The 80 (types of) layer groups are mentioned and it is argued
that only 52 of them can appear in woven textiles. Finally, Penrose tilings, Fibonacci series
and the golden ratio are mentioned. In Fig. 2.12, which gives examples of black/white
plane groups, the vertical periodicity is not well satisfied in parts (b) and (c). The letters K
# 2016 International Union of Crystallography and L are misplaced in Fig. 2.20, which illustrates continued similarity.

Acta Cryst. (2016). A72, 173–175 http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S2053273315020926 173

book reviews
Chapter 3 is devoted to ‘Bravais lattices and crystal systems’ how the Miller indices and direction symbols for trigonal
in three dimensions. First the 14 Bravais types of lattices are crystals with rhombohedral lattices are affected by changing
illustrated and discussed. Next the point groups of some of the from a primitive rhombohedral to a hexagonal basis or vice
lattices are considered without introducing the term ‘holo- versa. The equation on the last two lines of Section 5.10
hedry’. The author then states that ‘the Bravais lattices are must be changed to H þ K þ L = ðh  kÞ þ ðk  lÞ
grouped, according to the shapes of their unit cells, into seven + ðh þ k þ lÞ ¼ 3k.
crystal systems’. This is wrong: grouping according to this In Chapter 6 the reciprocal lattice is introduced by
criterion leads to the seven lattice systems; where hexagonal considering the normals characterizing families of parallel
and rhombohedral lattices are distinguished, instead the lattice planes. It is shown that the components h; k; l of a
trigonal and the hexagonal crystal systems are introduced. To reciprocal-lattice vector d* are the Laue indices of a plane
avoid a wrong classification of Bravais lattices, the author normal to d*. Geometrical relations involving lattice planes
splits in Table 3.1 the hexagonal family (a term not mentioned are formulated using reciprocal-lattice vectors. Formulas are
in the book) into three systems: trigonal with rhombohedral given that relate vectors a*, b*, c* defining a unit cell of the
lattice, trigonal with hexagonal lattice, and hexagonal. Finally, reciprocal lattice with vectors a, b, c defining a unit cell of the
the notion of the Voronoi polyhedron (Wigner–Seitz cell) is (direct) lattice.
introduced. In the discussion of the holohedries, I noticed a In Chapter 7 the diffraction of light from gratings is
serious mistake: ‘If there are two diad axes then they have to explained in terms of the reciprocal lattice. Notions like
be mutually orthogonal, otherwise chaos would result’. This is coherence, polarization, phase, interference, satellite reflec-
wrong: tetragonal and hexagonal lattices have diad axes that tions and line broadening, which are also important for X-rays,
are not mutually orthogonal. are explained. Finally, the resolving power of the eye and of
Chapter 4 ‘Crystal symmetry: point groups, space groups, optical instruments is discussed.
symmetry-related properties and quasiperiodic crystals’ Chapter 8 is devoted to the beginnings of crystal
begins with remarks on crystal habits and their relation to the structure determination by X-rays. The Laue equations and
point-group symmetry of the crystal. The author mentions that Bragg’s law are derived and Ewald’s reflecting sphere is
the crystals are classified into 32 classes according to their explained.
point-group symmetry. Then centres and inversion axes of Chapter 9 on the diffraction of X-rays first introduces
symmetry are discussed and the Hermann–Mauguin symbols notions that play an important role in structure determination:
of the 32 crystallographic point groups are explained, and atomic scattering factor, structure factor, primary and
listed in Table 3.1. The usual stereographic representation of secondary extinction, Laue point group, anomalous scattering
all the 32 point groups is not given anywhere, not even in and the phase problem. Next, the broadening of diffracted
Chapter 12, devoted to the stereographic projection. There beams in real crystals is considered: the Scherrer equation,
follows a discussion of physical properties of crystals that can integrated intensity, grain size, mosaic structure and coherence
be described by scalars or vectors. The ten polar point groups length. Then different experimental methods are sketched,
are mentioned and that they allow ferroelectricity. There beginning with Laue techniques using fixed incidence angle 
follow preliminary discussions of piezoelectricity and optical and varying wavelength . There follows a discussion of
properties of crystals, which are taken up again in Chapter 14. oscillation, rotation and precession methods, which use fixed 
The end of the section on physical properties is devoted to and varying . The investigation of thin films and multilayers
enantiomorphous molecules. Next, glide planes and screw with X-ray diffractometers is mentioned, as is the investigation
axes are introduced and some examples of space groups of short- and long-range order in solid solutions with X-rays
discussed. There follow remarks on the space groups of close- and neutrons. Finally, detectors and sources of X-rays are
packed organic molecules. The chapter ends with remarks on briefly discussed: as updates in the present edition image
quasiperiodic crystals. plates and wigglers are mentioned, but not undulators.
Chapter 5 is devoted to symbols describing lattice planes Explaining the use of nickel filters for the suppression of the
and directions. Zones are defined and symbols for zone axes K peak in a copper X-ray tube, the author gives K = 1.542 Å
explained. Miller indices for lattice planes are introduced. for Cu and the K absorption edge K = 1.488 (omitting units)
Formulas for lattice plane spacings in terms of Miller indices of Ni but, unfortunately, leaves out the value of K for Cu.
are given for crystals with orthogonal axes; Miller and Laue Figure 9.24 does not help; it refers to Mo not to Cu, which is
indices are distinguished. It is shown how the zone axis of two not mentioned in the caption.
intersecting planes can be computed from their Miller indices Chapter 10 is devoted to the diffraction of X-rays by
and how the Miller indices of a plane parallel to two directions polycrystalline materials. The Seeman–Bohlin camera, X-ray
can be obtained from their direction symbols. Miller–Bravais diffractometer (with Bragg–Brentano focusing geometry),
indices and Weber symbols are introduced for hexagonal and Laue back reflection, Debye–Scherrer camera and texture
rhombohedral lattices. The Weber symbols were not intro- goniometer are mentioned as diffraction techniques; lattice-
duced by Wilhelm Eduard Weber, whose life is sketched in parameter measurement, identification of unknown phases
Appendix 3, but by Leonhard Weber (1883–1968), a Swiss and the measurement of grain size and internal elastic strains
crystallographer who was Professor of Mineralogy at the as possible applications. A section is devoted to the
University of Fribourg from 1925 to 1955. Finally, it is shown measurement of fibre and sheet textures. The chapter ends

174 Hans Grimmer  Book review Acta Cryst. (2016). A72, 173–175
 book reviews
with a discussion of the Rietveld method for structure instead of ij. Changing from tensor to matrix notation in the
refinement. section on elasticity, factors 2 are missing in the transition
Chapter 11 deals with electron diffraction and its applica- "ij ! " and factors 2, 4 in sijkl ! s ð;  ¼ 1; . . . ; 6Þ. Other,
tions. Discussing the Ewald reflecting sphere construction for less serious errors are: ‘(temperature or electrical field
electron diffraction, precession electron diffraction (PED) gradient)’ on p. 362 should be replaced by ‘(temperature
and rotation electron diffraction (RED) are mentioned. gradient or electrical field)’; in Fig. 14.9 the angles corre-
Applications of electron diffraction to determine orientation sponding to OPD = 3/8 and /2 are given incorrectly; the
relationships between adjacent crystals and to identify quasi- anagram ‘ceiiinosssttuv’ on p. 380 stands for ‘ut tensio, sic vis’.
periodic crystals are described. The formation of Kikuchi Appendix 1 deals with computer programs, models and
patterns in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and of model building in crystallography; Appendix 2 lists and clas-
electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) patterns in scan- sifies polyhedra mentioned in the text. Appendix 3 is the
ning electron microscopy (SEM) are discussed. longest with 46 pages. It gives biographical notes on crystal-
In Chapter 12 the stereographic projection is introduced lographers and scientists mentioned in the text, not always in
and the use of the Wulff net is described. The stereographic strictly alphabetic order. Many of the 66 biographies deal at
projection of symmetry elements is shown for some point least as much with family background and education as with
groups. The stereographic projection is applied to represent scientific achievements, especially in the case of British
preferred orientation between neighbouring crystal grains researchers. On p. 408 the predecessor of J. M. Bijvoet at the
belonging to the same phase, and to orientation relationships University of Utrecht, Ernst Cohen, is mentioned, who was
between grains of different phases. killed by the Nazis in 1944. He had to retire in 1939 because he
Chapter 13 introduces Fourier series of periodic functions reached age 70, not because he was a Jew. Appendix 4 gives
and Fourier transforms of non-periodic ones. Fourier series formulas for interplanar spacings, interplanar angles and
are used to express the structure factors in terms of the charge volumes of unit cells, omitting the triclinic system. Relations
distribution in a crystal and vice versa. New in the present between zones and planes are also collected. Appendix 5
edition is a section on methods of structural analysis discussing introduces vectors and complex numbers for readers not
trial and error, Patterson maps, heavy-atom and isomorphous familiar with these topics. Appendix 6 explains and lists
replacement techniques, direct methods and charge flipping. systematic absences of diffraction peaks and discusses double
Finally, Fraunhofer diffraction patterns from a grating are diffraction. Appendix 7, which is new to the present edition,
analysed and Abbe’s theory of image formation is illustrated. deals with group theory and its applications to crystallography.
Chapter 14 on physical properties of crystals and their It contains a table of the 73 symmorphic space groups, where
description by tensors is new to the present edition. It starts by R3 1m and R3 m1 should be replaced by P3 1m and P3 m1,
considering symmetric second-rank tensors and their repre- respectively.
sentation quadrics for the case where the three eigenvalues There are other misprints in the text that I shall not mention
are all positive, i.e. where the quadric is an ellipsoid. Then individually. Some are caused by giving page numbers that
Neumann’s principle is invoked for matter tensors to derive have not been updated in the new edition.
restrictions on the form and orientation of the ellipsoid. The book presents crystallographic notions and diffraction
Thermal and electrical conductivity are given as examples methods in such a way that a reader confronted with a
where the representation quadric is an ellipsoid; thermal problem in materials science gets an indication of whether
expansion is mentioned as an example where the repre- X-ray or electron diffraction might help to solve the problem.
sentation quadric may be a hyperboloid in exceptional cases. The text often refers to the section ‘Further reading’, where
Stress and strain are presented as symmetric second-rank field books are recommended that can lead to a deeper under-
tensors, for which Neumann’s principle does not apply. Optical standing. However, the powerful applications of synchrotron
properties of uniaxial crystals are discussed using the indica- X-ray radiation and of neutron sources are barely mentioned
trix. Piezoelectricity and elasticity are considered as examples in the text.
of tensors of third and fourth rank, respectively. A number of The book contains many exercises; short answers are given
mistakes have been noted. The left-hand side of the last to most of them, which makes the book also suitable for self-
equation in the section on piezoelectricity should be "jk study.

Acta Cryst. (2016). A72, 173–175 Hans Grimmer  Book review 175
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