LOGIC

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Logic Statements
and Quantifiers
• Statements- A statement is a declarative sentence that
is either true or false, but not both true and false. A
simple statement is a statement that does not contain a
connective.
Determine whether each sentence is a statement.
a. Florida is a state in the United States.
b. How are you?
c. 99 + 2 is a prime number.
d. x+1=5
 Solution
a. Florida is one of the 50 states in the United States, so this
sentence is true and it is a statement.
b. The sentence “How are you?” is a question; it is not a declarative
sentence. Thus it is not a statement.
c. You may not know whether 99 + 2 is a prime number; however you
do know that it is a whole number larger than 1, so it is either a
prime number or it is not a prime number. The sentence is either
true or it is false, and it is not both true and false, so it is a
statement.
d. x + 1 = 5 is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is
true for x + 4, and it is false for any other values of x. For any
given value of x, it is true or false but not both.
Logic Statements
and Quantifiers
• Compound Statement- A compound statement is
formed by connecting simple statements with the
connectives and, or, if...then, and if and only if.
Consider the following simple statements.
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game.
Logic Statements
and Quantifiers
Write the following compound statements in symbolic
form.
a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going
to a movie.
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the
basketball game.
 Solution
a. p ∧ q
b. ∼q ∧ r
c. ∼s ∨ r
d. q → s
Logic Statements
and Quantifiers
Consider the following statements.
p: The game will be played in Atlanta.
q: The game will be shown on CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Mets are favored to win.
Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.
a. q ∧ p
b. ∼r ∧ s
c. s ↔ ∼p
 Solution
a. The game will be shown on CBS and the game
will be played in Atlanta.
b. The game will be shown on ESPN and the Mets
are favored to win.
c. The Mets are favored to win if and only if the
game will not be played in Atlanta
Logic Statements
and Quantifiers
• Truth Values – The conjunction p∧q is true if and
only if both p and q are true. The disjunction p∨q
is true provided p is true, or both p and q are true.
Determine whether each statement is true or false.
a. 7 ≥ 5
b. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
c. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.
 Solution
a. 7 ≥ 5 means 7 > 5 or 7 = 5. because 7 > 5 is
true, the statement 7 ≥ 5 is a true statement.
b. This is a false statement because 5 is not an
even number.
c. This is a true statement because each simple
statement is true.
Logic Statements
and Quantifiers
• The Negation of a Quantified Statement – The information in
the following table can be used to write the negation of many
quantified statements.

negation
All X are Y. Some X are not Y.

negation
No X are Y. Some X are Y.
Logic Statements
and Quantifiers
Write the negation of each of the following
statements.
a. Some airports are open.
b. All movies are worth the price of admission.
c. No odd numbers are divisible by 2.
 Solution
a. No airports are open.
b. Some movies are not worth the price of
admission.
c. Some odd numbers are divisible by 2.
 Construction of Truth Tables
1. If the given statement has n simple statements, then start
with a standard form that has 2𝑛 rows. Enter the truth
values for each simple statement and their negations.
2. Use the truth values for each simple statement and their

Truth
negations to enter the truth values under each connective
within a pair of grouping symbols– parenthesis ( ), brackets
[ ], braces { }. If some grouping symbols are nested inside

Tables
other grouping symbols, then work from the inside out. In
any situation in which grouping symbols have not been used,
then we use the following order of precedence agreement.
First assign truth values to negations from left to right,
followed by conjunctions from left to right, followed by
disjunctions from left to right, followed by conditionals from left
to right, and finally by biconditionals from left to right.
3. The truth values that are entered into the column under the
connective for which truth values are assigned last from the
truth table for the given statement.
 Construct a truth table for p ∨ [∼(p ∧ ∼q)].
Step 1: the given statement p ∨ [∼(p ∧ ∼q)] has the two simple
statements p and q. Thus we start with a standard form that has
22 = 4 rows. In each column, enter the truth values for the

Truth statements p and ∼q, as shown in the columns numbered 1, 2,

and 3 of the following table.

Tables
 Step 2: Use the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to determine the
truth values to enter under the “and” connective. See column 4
in the following truth table. Now negate the truth values in

Truth
column 4 to produce the truth values in column 5.

Tables
 Step 3: Use the truth values in the columns 1 and 5 to determine
the truth values to enter under the “or” connective. See column
6 in the following table. Shaded column 6 is the truth table for p

Truth
∨ [∼(p ∧ ∼q)].

Tables
 Two statements are equivalent if they both

Equivalent have the same truth value for all possible

truth values of their simple statements. The
Statements notation p = q is used to indicate that the
statements p and q are equivalent.
 Show that ∼(p ∨ ∼q) and ∼p ∧ q are
equivalent statements.
Solution
Construct two truth tables and compare
Equivalent the results. The truth tables below show
Statements that ∼(p ∨ ∼q) and ∼p ∧ q have the same
truth values for all possible truth values of
their simple statements. Thus the
statements are equivalent.
 For any statements p and q,
∼(p∨q) = ∼ p∧ ∼ q and ∼(p∧q) = ∼ p∨ ∼ q

Example

De Morgan’s Use one of De Morgan’s laws to restate the following

sentence in an equivalent form.

Laws for It is not true that, I graduated or I got a job.

Statements Solution
Let p represent the statement “I graduated.” Let q
represent the statement “I got a job.” In symbolic form,
the original sentence is ∼(p ∨ q). One of De Morgan’s
laws states that this is equivalent to ∼p ∧ ∼q. Thus a
sentence that is equivalent to the original sentence is “I
did not graduate and I did not get a job.
 A tautology is a statement that is always

Tautologies
true. A self-contradiction is a statement
that is always false.
and Self-
Contradictions Example
Show that p ∨ (∼p ∨∼q) is a tautology.
 Solution
Enter the truth values for each simple statement and its
negation as shown in the columns numbered 1, 2, and 3. use
the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to determine the truth

Tautologies
values to enter in column 4, under the “or” connective. Use
the truth values in columns 1 and 4 to determine the truth
values to enter in column 5, under the “or” connective.
and Self-
Contradictions
The Conditional and the Biconditional

Antecedent and Consequent of a Conditional

In a conditional statement represented by “if p, then q” or by “if p, q,” the p statement is
called the antecedent and the q statement is called the consequent.
Identify the antecedent and consequent in the following statements.
a. If our school was this nice, I would go there more than once a week. - The Basketball
Diaries
b. If you don’t get in that plane, you’ll regret it. - Casablanca
c. If you strike me down, I shall become more powerful than you can possibly imagine.
- Obi-Wan Kenobi, Star Wars, Episode IV, A New Hope
 Solution
a. Antecedent: our school was this nice; Consequent: I would
go there more than once a week
b. Antecedent: you don’t get in that plane; Consequent: you’ll
regret it
c. Antecedent: you strike me down; Consequent: I shall become
more powerful than you can imagine
The Conditional and the Biconditional

Equivalent Disjunctive Form of p → q

p → q ≡ p∨q
The conditional p → q is false when p is true and q is false. It is
true in all other cases.
The Conditional and the Biconditional

Equivalent Disjunctive Form of p → q

Example
Determine the truth value of each of the following conditional
statements.
a. If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational number.
b. If 3 is a negative number, then 5 > 7.
c. If 5 > 3, then 2 + 7 = 4
 Solution
a. Because the consequent is true, this is a true
statement
b. Because the antecedent is false, this is a true
statement.
c. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent
is false, this is a false statement.
The Conditional and the Biconditional

Equivalent Disjunctive Form of p → q

Example
Construct a truth table for [ p ∧ (q ∨ ∼p)] → ∼p.
 Solution
Enter the truth values for each simple statement and
its negation as shown in columns 1, 2, 3, and 4. use
the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to determine the
truth values to enter in column 5, under the “or”
connective. Use the truth values in columns 1 and 5 to
determine the truth values to enter in column 6 under
the “and: connective. Use the truth values in columns
6 and 4 to determine the truth values to enter in
column 7 under the “If ... Then” connective.
Solution
The Conditional and the Biconditional

The Negation of p → q
∼(p → q) ≡ p∧ ∼ q
Write the negation of each conditional statement.
a. If they pay me the money, I will sign the contract.
b. If the lines are parallel, then they do not intersect.
 Solution
In each case, we write the conjunction of the
antecedent and the negation of the consequent.
a. They paid me the money and I did not sign the
contract.
b. The lines are parallel and they intersect.
The Conditional and the Biconditional

The Biconditional of p ↔ q
p ↔ q ≡ [(p → q)] ∧ (q → p)]
The biconditional p ↔ q is true only when p and q have the same
truth value.
The Conditional and the Biconditional

The Biconditional of p ↔ q
Let p, q, and r represent the following:
p: She will go on vacation.
q: She cannot take the train.
r: She cannot get a loan.
Write the following symbolic statements in words:
a. p ↔ ∼q
b. ∼p↔ ∼q
 Solution
a. She will go on vacation if and only if she
can take the train.
b. She can get a loan if and only if she does
not go on vacation.
The Conditional and
Related Statements
Equivalent Forms of the Conditional
The conditional “if p, then q” can be stated,
in English, in several equivalent forms. For
example, p only if q; p implies that q; and q
provided that p are all equivalent forms of if
p, then q.
The Conditional and
Related Statements
Equivalent Forms of the Conditional
Write each of the following in "If p, then q" form.
a. The number is an even number provided that it is
divisible by 2.
b. Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.
 Solution
a. The statement, "The number is an even number provided that it
is divisible by 2," is in "q provided that p" form. The antecedent is
"it is divisible by 2," and the consequent is "the number is an even
number." Thus its "If p, then q" form is
If it is divisible by 2, then the number is an even number.
b. The statement, "Today is Friday, only if yesterday was
Thursday," is in "p only if q" form. The antecedent is "today is
Friday." The consequent is "yesterday was Thursday." Its "If p,
then q" form is
If today is Friday, then yesterday was Thursday.
The Conditional and
Related Statements
Statements Related to the Conditional Statement
• The converse of p → q is q → p.
• The inverse of p → q is ∼p → ∼q.
• The contrapositive of p → q is ∼q → ∼p.
Example
Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of
If I get the job, then I will rent the apartment.
 Solution
Converse: If I rent the apartment, then I got the job.
Inverse: If I do not get the job, then I will not rent
the apartment.
Contrapositive: If I do not rent the apartment, then I
did not get the job.
The Conditional and
Related Statements
Determine whether the given statements are equivalent.
a. If a number ends with a 5, then the number is divisible by
5.
If a number is divisible by 5, then the number ends with a
5.
b. If two lines in a plane do not intersect, then the lines are
parallel.
If two lines in a plane are not parallel, then the lines
intersect.
 Solution
a. The second statement is the converse of the first.
The statements are not equivalent.
b. The second statement is the contrapositive of the
first. The statements are equivalent.
 The Conditional and
Related Statements

A Conditional Statement and Its Contrapositive

are equivalent statements. Therefore, if the
contrapositive of a conditional statement is a
true statement, then the conditional statement
must also be a true statement.
 The Conditional and
Related Statements
Write the contrapositive of each statement and use the
contrapositive to determine whether the original
statement is true or false.
a. If a + b is not divisible by 5, then a and b are not
both divisible by 5.
b. If 𝑥 3 is an odd integer, then x is an odd integer.
(Assume x is an integer.)
c. If a geometric figure is not a rectangle, then it is
not a square.
 Solution
a. If a and b are both divisible by 5, then a + b is
divisible by 5. This is a true statement, so the original
statement is also true.
b. If x is an even integer, then 𝑥 3 is an even integer.
This is a true statement, so the original statement is
also true.
c. If a geometric figure is a square, then it is a
rectangle. This is a true statement, so the original
statement is also true.
Symbolic Arguments
Valid argument
An argument consists of a set of statements
called premises and another statement
called the conclusion. An argument is valid
if the conclusion is true whenever all the
premises are assumed to be true. An
argument is invalid if it is not a valid
argument.
Symbolic Arguments
Determine whether the ff. argument is valid
or invalid.
If it rains, then the game will not be played.
It is not raining. Therefore, the game will be
played.
 If we let r represent “it rains” and g represent “the game will
be played”, then the symbolic form is
r → ∼g
∼r
______

Solution
∴g
The truth table for this argument follows.
 Symbolic Arguments
Determine whether the ff. argument is valid or
invalid.
If I am going to run the marathon, then I am going
to buy new shoes.
If I buy new shoes, then I will not buy a television.
_______________________________________________________
∴ If I buy a television, I will not run the marathon.
 Label each simple statement.
m: I am going to run the marathon.
s: I will buy new shoes.
t: I will buy a television.

Solution
The symbolic form of the argument is
m→s
s→∼t
______
∴ t → ∼m
The truth table for this argument follows.
Solution
Symbolic Forms of Arguments
Standard Forms of Four Valid Arguments
Symbolic Forms of Arguments
Standard Forms of Two Invalid Arguments
 Symbolic Forms
of Arguments
Example
Use a standard form from Table 5.15 to determine a valid conclusion for
each argument.
a. If Kim is a lawyer (p), then she will be able to help us (q).
Kim is not able to help us. (∼q).
_______________________________________________
∴?
b. If they had a good time (g), they will return (r).
If they return (r), we will make more money (m).
________________________________________
∴?
 a. The symbolic form of the premises is:
p→q
~q
This matches the standard form known as contrapositive

Solution
reasoning. Thus a valid conclusion is ~p: “Kim is not a lawyer.”
b. The symbolic form of the premises is:
g→r
r→m
This matches the standard form known as transitive reasoning.
Thus a valid conclusion is g → m: “If they had a good time, then
we will make more money.”
 Symbolic Forms
of Arguments
Example
Use a standard form from Table 5.15 to determine a valid conclusion for
each argument.
a. If Kim is a lawyer (p), then she will be able to help us (q).
Kim is not able to help us. (∼q).
_______________________________________________
∴?
b. If they had a good time (g), they will return (r).
If they return (r), we will make more money (m).
________________________________________
∴?
Solution
 Symbolic Forms
of Arguments
Determine whether the following argument is valid.
If the movie was directed by Steven Spielberg (s),
then I want to see it (w). The movie's production
costs must exceed $50 million (c) or I do not want
to see it. The movie's production costs were less
than $50 million. Therefore, the movie was not
directed by Steven Spielberg.
Solution
Arguments
and Euler
Diagrams
Euler Diagrams
Example
Use a Euler diagram to determine whether
the ff. argument is valid or invalid.
All college courses are fun.
This course is a college course.
_________________________
∴ This course is fun.
Solution
Example
Use a Euler diagram to determine whether the ff.
argument is valid or invalid.
Some Impressionist paintings are Renoirs.
Dance at Bougival is an Impressionist
painting.
______________________________________
∴ Dance at Bougival is a Renoir.
Solution

Although Figure 5.18 supports the argument, Figure 5.19

shows that the conclusion does not necessarily follow from
the premises, and thus the argument is invalid.
Example
Use a Euler diagram to determine whether
the ff. argument is valid or invalid.
No psychologist can juggle.
All clowns can juggle.
__________________
∴ No psychologist is a clown.
Solution
Example
Use an Euler diagram to determine whether the
ff. argument is valid or invalid.
All fried foods are greasy.
All greasy foods are delicious.
All delicious foods are healthy.
_________________________
∴ All fried foods are healthy.
Solution

The figure above illustrates that every fried food

is an element of the set of healthy foods, so the
argument is valid.
Thank you!
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD