MODULE 10 - Logic

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Module

10 LOGIC

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Overview

In your daily life, you make boundless choice. For each activity, there's a comparing
result. Logic is around both how the world works and how we think. In case there were not
such commonality at that point it is difficult to see how we might get it or indeed work within
the world. Logic is more than fair the capacity to unravel issues and make substantial
reasoning's, in spite of the fact that, it is genuine that studying rationale will assist you reason.
Logic is the system upon which dialect hangs that permits the, intrinsically insignificant sounds,
pass on meaning between speakers of a dialect. Understanding logic makes a difference to
create a better conceptual "grain" and to kill wrong concepts and conceptual frameworks

Learning Outcomes

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:


a. Analyze information and the relationship between statements,
b. Determine the validity of arguments,
c. Determine valid conclusions based on given assumptions, and
d. Analyze electronic circuits.

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Course Materials
Lesson 1: Logic Statement and Quantifiers
In logic, the term statement is variously understood to mean either:
(a) a meaningful declarative sentence that is true or false, or
(b) the assertion that is made by a true or false declarative sentence.

Examples of sentences that are (or make) statements:

• "Socrates is a man."
• "A square has four sides."
• "Manila is the capital of Philippines."

Examples of sentences that are not (or do not make) statements:

• "How are you?"


• "Oh no!"
• "Open the window”
• "The President of Math Club is wise."
• "Ampalaya tastes good."

Simple Statements and Compound Statement


• A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea.
• A compound statement is a statement that conveys two or more ideas.
Logic Connectives and Symbols
Statement Connectives Symbolic form Type of Statement
not p not ~p negation
p and q and p˄q conjunction
p or q or p˅q disjunction
If p, then q If…then p→q conditional
p if and only if q if and only if p↔q biconditional

• The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F)
• The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple
statements and its connectives.
Example

Write the negation of each statement


1. Gary V. is a Filipino singer.
2. The carabao does not need to be fed.

Solution
1. Gary V. is not a Filipino singer.
2. The carabao needs to be fed.

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Example

Consider the following simple statements.

p: Today is Monday.
q: It is sunny day.
r: I am going to the beach.
s: I am not going to the badminton tournament.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.


a. Today is Monday and it is sunny day.
b. It is not sunny day and I am going to the beach.
c. I am going to the badminton tournament or I am going to the beach.
d. If it is sunny day, then I am not going to the badminton tournament.

Solution
a. p ˄ q b. ~q ˄ r c. ~s ˅ r d. q → s

Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols

If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then parentheses are used to indicate
which simple statements are grouped together.

Symbolic form The parentheses indicate that:


𝑝 ˄ (𝑞 ˅ ~𝑟) q and ~r are grouped together.
(𝑝 ˄ 𝑞) ˅ 𝑟 p and q are grouped together.
(𝑝 ˄ ~𝑞) → (𝑟 ˅ 𝑠) p and ~q are grouped together.
r and s are also grouped together.

English Sentence The comma indicate that:


p, and q or not r. q and ~r are grouped together because they are both on the
same side of the comma.
p and q, or r. p and q are grouped together because they are both on the
same side of the comma.
If p and not q, then r or p and ~q are grouped together because they are both to the left
s. of the comma.
r and s are also grouped together because they are both to the
right of the comma.

Example

Let p, q, and r represent the following.

p: You get a promotion.


q: You complete the training.
r: You will receive a bonus.

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a. Write (p ˄ q) → r as an English sentence.

b. Write: If you do not complete the training, then you will not get a promotion and you will not
receive a bonus.: in symbolic form.

Solution

a. If you get a promotion and you complete the training, then you will receive a bonus.

b. ~q (~p ˄ ~r)

Truth Value

The conjunction p ˄ q is true if and only if both p and q are true.

The disjunction p ˅ q is true if and only if p is true, q is true, or both q and q are true.

A quantifier is a way to state that a certain number of elements fulfill some criteria.
• A quantified statement is a statement with at least one quantifier.
• Universal Quantifiers: “All”, “Every”, “Each”, “No”, “None”
• Existential Quantifiers: “Some”, “At least one”. “There exist”, “There is/are”

Example
• “All roses are red”, “Every rose is red”, “Each rose is red”
• “Some violets are blue”, “At least one violet is blue”
• “There exists a blue violet”, “there is a blue”.

Quantified Statements and Their Negation


Statement Negation
All A are Y. Some X are not Y.
No X are Y. Some A are Y.
Some X are not Y. All X are Y.
Some X are Y. No X are Y.

Example

Write the negation of each of the following statements.


a. Some airports are open.
b. All movies are worth the price of admission.
c. No odd numbers are divisible by 2.

Solution:
a. No airports are open.
b. Some movies are not worth the price of admission.
c. Some odd numbers are divisible by 2.

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Lesson 2: Truth Tables and Tautologies
• A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all
possible truth values of its simple statements.
Example 1
a. Construct a table for ~ (~p ˅ q) ˅ q.
b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of ~ (~p ˅ q) ˅ q, given that p is
true and q is false.
Solution
a.
p q ~p ~p ˅ q ~ (~p ˅ q) ~ (~p ˅ q) ˅ q
T T F T F T row 1
T F F F T T row 2
F T T T F T row 3
F F T T F F row 4

b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that when p is true, and q is false, the statement
~ (~p ˅ q) ˅ q in the rightmost column is true.

Example 2
a. Construct a truth table for (p ˄ q) ˄ (~r ˅ q).
b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of (p ˄ q) ˄ (~r ˅ q), given that
p is true, q is true, and r is false.
Solution
a.
p q r p˄q ~r ~r ˅ q (p ˄ q) ˄ (~r ˅ q)
T T T T F T T row 1
T T F T T T T row 2
T F T F F F F row 3
T F F F T T F row 4
F T T F F T F row 5
F T F F T T F row 6
F F T F F F F row 7
F F F F T T F row 8
1 2 3 4

b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that (p ˄ q) ˄ (~r ˅ q) is true when p is true, q is
true, and r is false.

Equivalent Statement
Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same truth value for all possible truth
values of their simple statements. Equivalent statements have identical truth values in the
final columns of their truth tables. The notation p ≡ q is used to indicate that the statements p
and q are equivalent.

Example
Show that ~ (p ˅ ~q) and ~p ˄ q are equivalent statements.

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Solution
Construct two truth tables and compare the results. The truth tables below show ~ (p ˅ ~q)
and ~p ˄ q that have the same truth values for all possible truth values of their simple
statements. Thus, the statements are equivalent.

p q ~ (p ˅ ~q) p q ~p ˄ q
T T F T T F T T T T F
T F F T T T T F T T T
F T T F F F F T F F F
F F F F T T F F F T T
4 1 3 2 1 3 2
identical truth value
Thus, ~ (p ˅ ~q) ≡ ~p ˄ q.

De Morgan’s Laws for Statements

For any statements p and q,


~ (p ˅ q) ≡ ~p ˄ ~q
~ (p ˄ q) ≡ ~p ˅ ~q
De Morgan’s laws can be used to restate certain English sentences in an equivalent form.
Example
Use one of De Morgan’s Laws to restate the following sentence in an equivalent form.
It is not true that, I graduated or I got a job.

Solution
Let p represent the statement “I graduated.”
Let q represent the statement “I got a job.”
In symbolic form, the original sentence is ~ (p ˅ q).
One of the De Morgan’s laws states that this is equivalent to ~p ˄ ~q.
One of De Morgan’s laws states that this is equivalent to ~p ˅ ~q.
Thus, a sentence that is equivalent to the original sentence is “I did not graduate and
I did not get a job.”

Tautologies and Self-Contradictions

A tautology is a statement that is always true.


A self-contradiction is a statement that is always false.

Example

Show that p ˅ (~p ˅ q) is a tautology.

Solution

Enter the truth values for each simple statement and its negation as shown in the columns
numbered 1, 2, and 3. Use the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to determine the truth values
to enter in column 4, under the “or” connective. Use the truth values in columns 1 and 4 to
determine the truth values to enter in column 5, under the “or” connective.

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p q p ˅ (~p ˅ q)
T T T T F T T
T F T T F F F
F T F T T T T
F F F T T T F
1 5 2 4 3

Column 5 of the table shows that p ˅ (~p ˅ q) is always true. Thus, p ˅ (~p ˅ q) is a
tautology.
Adopted from Mathematics in the Modern World, Cengage Philippine Edition 2018

Lesson 3: Conditional, Biconditional and Related Statements

There are different ways to express the conditional proposition p → q. The conditional
proposition p → q can be expressed in three variations using the logical connectives ~ and →
.
Name Statement
Conditional p→q
Converse of p → q q→p
Inverse of p → q ~p → ~q
Contrapositive of p → q ~q → ~p

The truth tables below show the comparison on the variations of conditional propositions.
Truth Tables for Conditional and Related Statements
p q p→q q→p ~p ~q ~p → ~q ~q → ~p
T T T T F F T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T

Observe that p → q is equivalent to ~q → ~p, while q → p is equivalent to~p → ~q. On the other
hand, p → q is not equivalent to q → p and ~p → ~q.
Example
Given the conditional proposition “If Jorgena goes to school, then Lithuania will go to
home,” determine the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the proposition.
Solution
Converse: If Lithuania will go home, then Jorgena goes to school.
Inverse: If Jorgena does not go to school, then Lithuania will not go home.
Contrapositive: If Lithuania will not go home, then Jorgena does not go to school.

Lesson 4: Symbolic Arguments

• An argument consists of a set of statements called premises and another statement


called the conclusion.
• An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever all the premises are assumed
to be true.
• An argument is invalid if it is not a valid argument.

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Standard Forms of Four Valid Arguments
Modus Ponens Law of Syllogism Modus Tollens Disjunction Syllogism
p p→q p→q p˅q
p→q q→r ~q ~p
∴q ∴p→q ∴ ~p ∴q

Example1: Rule for Detachment


a. Avri wins 30,000,000 lotto.
p
b. If Avri wins 30,000,000 lotto, then Pransya will put up a business.
c. Therefore, Pransya will put up a business. p→q
∴q
Example 2: Law of Syllogism
p→q
a. If 18 is divisible by 6, then 6 is divisible by 3.
q→r
b. If 6 is divisible by 3, then 18 is divisible by 3.
c. Therefore, if 18 is divisible by 6, then 18 is divisible by 3. ∴p→q

Example 3: Modus Tollens


a. If Bong Go is elected Philippine President, p→q
then Harry Roque will pledge as cabinet secretary.
~q
b. Harry Roque did not pledge as cabinet secretary.
c. Therefore, Bong Go was not elected Philippine President. ∴ ~p

Example 4: Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism


a. Hadjie’s pencil is in his bag or it is on his table.
p˅q
b. Hadjie’s pencil is not in his bag. ~p
c. Therefore, Hadjie’s pencil is on his table. ∴𝑞

Example 5: Establish the validity of the arguments.


a. [(𝑝 → ~𝑞)˄ (~𝑞 → ~𝑟) ˄ 𝑝] → ~𝑟
Solution
[(𝑝 → ~𝑞)˄ (~𝑞 → ~𝑟) ˄ 𝑝] → ~𝑟
Steps Reasons
1. 𝑝 → ~𝑞 Premise
2. ~𝑞 → ~𝑟 Premise
3. 𝑝 → ~𝑟 Law of Syllogism (Step 1 and 2)
4. p Premise
5. ∴ ~𝑟 Rule od Detachment (Step 3 and 4)

Fallacies
Logical Fallacies refers to faulty reasoning in logic of an argument. It is advantageous to
know logical fallacies in order to avoid them in an argument.

Types of fallacies with their corresponding examples

1. Appeal to Authority
It is an argument that occurs when we accept or reject a claim merely because of the
sources or authorities who made their positions on a certain argument.
Example 1: The government should impose death penalty. Many respected people, such as
the former Secretary of Justice, have publicly stated her opposition to it.

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Example 2: Manny Pacquiao uses Alaxan FR as pain reliever, so obviously Alaxan FR is the
most effective pain reliever in the market.

2. Appeal to Force
It is an argument which attempts to establish a conclusion by threat or intimidation.

Example 1: If you don’t believe in God, you won’t go to heaven.


Example 2: You will support my idea and tell the others that I am right; because if you don’t I
will do everything for you to lose your job.

3. Appeal to Ignorance
It is an argument supporting a claim merely because there is no proof that it’s wrong.

Example: Since time people have been trying to prove that God exists. But no one has yet
been able to prove it. Therefore, God does not exist.

4. Appeal to Pity
It is an argument that involves an irrelevant or highly exaggerated appeal to pity to get
people accept a conclusion by making them feel for someone.

Example: Mark has worked hard on his research project, and he will be depressed if he fails.
For these reasons, you must give him a passing grade.

5. Appeal to the People


It is an argument that the opinion of the majority is always valid.

Example: Everyone I know is voting for Marcelo Dominguez, so he’s probably the best
choice
for mayor.

6. Argumentum Ad Hominem (Latin for “to the man”)


It is an attack on the character of a person of his opinions or arguments. It is a tactic used
by an adversary when they do not have a logical counter-argument.

7. Circular Argument
It is a premise of an argument presupposes the truth of its conclusions; meaning, the
argument takes for granted what it’s supposed to prove.

Example: Senator Chiz Escudero is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.

8. Equivocation
It is an argument used in two or more different senses/meanings within a single argument.

Example: Giving financial support to charity is the right thing to do. So charities have the right
to our finances.

9. Fallacy if Division
A reasoning which assumes that the characteristic of a group is also the characteristic of
each individual in the group.

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Example: Your family is crazy. That means that you are crazy too.

10. False Dilemma


It is an argument which implies one or two outcomes is inevitable and both have
negative consequences, but actually there could be more choices possible.

Example: If you don’t vote for this candidate you must be antichrist.

11. Hasty Generalization


It is an argument that a general conclusion on a certain condition is always true based on
insufficient or biased evidence.

Example: A MacBook broke after a month, so there must be something wrong in the
manufacturer of MacBook.

12. Red Herring


It is an argument which introduces a topic related to the subject at hand. It is diversionary
tactic to avoid key issues, often way of avoiding opposing argument rather than
addressing them.

Example: I know I forget to clean the toilet yesterday. But, nothing I do please you.

13. Slippery Slope


It is an argument which claims a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some extreme
and after ludicrous will happen, but there’s really not enough evidence for such
assumption.

Example: If I fail Algebra, I won’t be able to graduate. If I don’t graduate, I probably won’t be
able to get a good job, and may very well end up like a beggar.

14. Strawman Fallacy


It is an argument that misrepresents position of the opponent in an extreme or
exaggerated form or attacking the weaker and irrelevant portion of an argument in order to
make it appear weaker than it actually is. The objective is to refute the misrepresentation
of the position, and conclude that the real position has been refuted.

Example: A mandatory helmet law for motorcycle drivers could never be enforced. You can’t
issue tickets to dead people.

Adopted from Mathematics in the Modern World, Sirug WS., Mindshaper Co., Inc. 2018

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Lesson 5: Arguments and Euler Diagrams

Euler Diagrams is a diagrammatic means of representing sets and their relationships. They
are particularly useful for explaining complex hierarchies and overlapping definitions. They are
similar to another set diagramming technique, Venn diagrams.
Steps in making Euler diagram
Sample question:

Draw a Euler diagram to represent the following statements:

All wizards can do magic.


No lizards can do magic.
No wizard is a lizard.

Step 1: Draw three circles to represent the three categories (wizard, lizard, magic). Overlap
them all (use a pencil or software so you can move the circles later):

Step 2: Read the first statement and move the corresponding circle accordingly. “All wizards
can do magic” must mean that the entire wizard circle has to be inside the magic circle.

Step 2: Read the second statement and move the corresponding circle accordingly. “No lizards
can do magic” must mean that the entire lizard circle has to be outside the magic circle.

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Step 3: Read the third statement and move the corresponding circle accordingly. “No
wizards are lizards” must mean that the entire lizard circle has to be outside the wizard circle.
In this case, the graph already has the lizard circle outside the wizard circle, so we’re done!
Adopted from University of Kent . Retrieved October 19th, 2015

An argument can be classified as either valid or invalid. A valid argument occurs in situations
where if the premises are true, then the conclusion must also be true. And an argument can
be valid even if the conclusion is false.

Example 1

The following argument has two premises:


(1) “All dogs have fleas.”
(2) “Hank is a dog.”
The conclusion is that, therefore, Hank has fleas.

These arguments usually have the following format with the premises listed first and the
conclusion under a horizontal line:
First premise: All dogs have fleas.
Second premise: Hank is a dog.

Conclusion: Hank has fleas.

Using a Euler diagram to analyze this argument, draw a circle to contain all objects that have
fleas. Inside the circle, put another circle to contain all dogs. And inside the circle of dogs, put
Hank. The figure illustrates this approach.

Poor Hank has fleas.

The argument isn’t necessarily true, because you know that not all dogs have fleas. All this
shows is that the argument is valid. If the two premises are true, then the conclusion must be
true.

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Example 2
Now consider an argument involving rectangles and triangles. A polygon is a figure made up
of line segments connected at their endpoints.
All rectangles are polygons.
All triangles are polygons.

∴All rectangles are triangles.

When analyzing the validity of this argument,


the Euler diagram starts with a circle containing all polygons,
as shown here.

Two types of polygons.

Two circles are drawn inside the larger circle—one containing rectangle and the other triangles.
The two circles don’t overlap, because rectangles have four sides, and triangles have three
sides.
The argument is invalid. Rectangles are not triangles—not even sometimes.

Arguments can have more than two premises.


Example 3
For example:

One Euler diagram that can represent this situation


has three intersecting circles, as shown here.

President Abraham Lincoln and other Illinois lawyers.


As you can see from the diagram, there can be presidents born in Kentucky who were not
lawyers in Illinois and there can be presidents who were lawyers in Illinois but not born in
Kentucky. The argument is invalid. To be valid, it must always be true

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Assessment

A. Determine whether each sentence is a statement.


1. January 1, 2024, will be a Sunday.
2. Do you like to eat?
3. Henry Sy is one of the richest men in the Philippines.
4. A regular die ha six faces.
5. AMD is the computer part of Pentium in computer processors.

B. Determine the simple statements in each compound statement.


6. The principal will attend the class on Monday or Wednesday.
7. 7 is an odd number and 8 is an even number.
8. A triangle is an acute triangle if and only if it has three acute angles.
9. If this is Friday, then tomorrow is Saturday.

C. Write the negation of each statement.


10. The Giants lost the Game.
11. The lunch was served at noon.
12. Frogs do not jump.

D. Write each sentence in symbolic form. Represent each simple statement in the sentence
with the letter indicated in the parentheses. Also state whether the sentence is a
conjunction, a disjunction, a negation, a conditional, or a biconditional.

13. If today is Sunday (s), then tomorrow is Monday (m).


14. I went to the post office (p) and the bookstore(b).
15. A triangle is an equilateral triangle (l) if and only if it is an equiangular triangle (a).

E. Write each symbolic statement in words. Use p, q, r, s, t, and u as defined below


p: The tour goes to Palawan.
q: The tour goes to Cebu.
r: We go to Puerto Gallera.
s: We go to Mactan.
t: The hotel fees are included.
u: The meals are not included.

16. p ˄ ~q 17 r ˅ s
18. r → ~s 19. p → r
20. s ↔ ~r 21. ~𝑡 ˄ u
F. Construct a truth table for each compound statement.
22. (q ˄ ~p) ˅ ~q
23. (p ˅ q) ˄ [~(𝑝 ˅~q)]
G. Make use of one of the De Morgan’s laws to write the given statement in an equivalent form.
24. I did not pass the test and I did not complete the course.
25. It is not the case that, the students cut classes or took part in the demonstration.
H. Given the following conditional statements, determine the converse, inverse, and the
contrapositive.
26. 13 is composite number if Algebra is a branch of Mathematics.
27. Snow White has seven dwarfs only if 14 – 4 = 10.

I. Consider each of the arguments. Identify the rule of inference that establishes its validity.

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28. If 10 is divisible by 5, then 8 is an even number
If 8 is an even number, then 6 is a perfect number.
Therefore, if 10 is divisible by 5, then 6 is a perfect number.

29. If mango is a tropical fruit, then tomato is a fruit.


Tomato is not a fruit.
Therefore, mango is not a tropical fruit.

J. Indicate the type of fallacies in the following arguments/passages.

30. We have no evidence that Greek Gods don’t exist. Therefore, they must exist.
31. Lots of individuals purchased new model of smartphones, so it must be great.
32. Abortion is murder, since killing of baby is an act of murder.
33. The Land Transportation Office (LTO) examination was extremely unfair. Just ask
everyone who took it.
34. The car is red. Therefore, the engine is red.
35. I am a good teacher because my students, says so. Trust my students, I will vouch
for them.
36. I know that you couldn’t do it right, so I ignored your statement.

K. Use a Euler diagram to determine whether the following syllogism is valid.

37. All goats like to chew.


Some dairy animals don’t like to chew.
∴Some dairy animals aren’t goat.

38. No thieves are good.


Some politicians are thieves.
∴Some politicians aren’t good.

39. No square are triangles.


Some triangles are squares.
∴No squares are rectangles.

40. All rainy days are cloudy.


Yesterday is not cloudy.
∴Yesterday is not rainy.

Grading System

Numerical Points.

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References

Adam, J. A. (2011). Mathematics in Nature: Modeling Patterns in the Natural World.


Princeton University Press.
Adam, J. A. (2015). A Mathematical Nature Walk. https://ifarus.com/mathematical-
nature-wal-john-adam .
Aufmann, R. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Sampaloc, Manila: Rex Book
Store, Inc.
Chein, A. a. (n.d.). Mathematics Excursions.
Daligdig, R. (2019). Mathematics in the Modern World. Qezon City, Manila: Lorimar
Publishing, Inc.
Education, C. o. (2013). General education curriculum: Holistic understandings,
intellectual and civic competencies. . Retrieved March 31, 2017, from
http://www.ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2013/ 07/CMO-No.20-s2013.pdf .
Enzensberger, H. M. (2016). The Number Devil .
Hipolito, L. M. (2019). Mathematics in the Modern World. Sampaloc, Manila: Rex
Book Store, Inc. .
Polytechnic University of the Philippines. (1998-2020). Vision and Mission. Retrieved
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Ruiz, A. a. (2008). A day’s adventure in Math Wonderland.
Sirug, W. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Intramuros, Manila :
Mindshapers Co.,Inc. .
Stewart, I. ( 1997). Nature’s Number: the unreal reality of Mathematics . Basic Books,
A division of HarperCollins Publisher, Inc.
Statistics how to (2020). Euler Diagram: How to Draw one in Easy Steps
https://www.statisticshowto.com/euler-diagram/
Sterling, M.J. (2020). How to Analyze Arguments with Euler Diagrams
https://www.dummies.com/education/math/analyze-arguments-euler-diagrams/
Wikipedia (2020, September 4). Logical quantifier-Simpler English Wikipedia
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_quantifier
Wikipedia ( 2020, February 24). Statement(logic)
https://tinyurl.com/y6ykahe4
Wikipedia (2020, August 24). Euler diagram
https://tinyurl.com/y63sfrvq

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