MODULE 10 - Logic
MODULE 10 - Logic
MODULE 10 - Logic
10 LOGIC
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Overview
In your daily life, you make boundless choice. For each activity, there's a comparing
result. Logic is around both how the world works and how we think. In case there were not
such commonality at that point it is difficult to see how we might get it or indeed work within
the world. Logic is more than fair the capacity to unravel issues and make substantial
reasoning's, in spite of the fact that, it is genuine that studying rationale will assist you reason.
Logic is the system upon which dialect hangs that permits the, intrinsically insignificant sounds,
pass on meaning between speakers of a dialect. Understanding logic makes a difference to
create a better conceptual "grain" and to kill wrong concepts and conceptual frameworks
Learning Outcomes
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Course Materials
Lesson 1: Logic Statement and Quantifiers
In logic, the term statement is variously understood to mean either:
(a) a meaningful declarative sentence that is true or false, or
(b) the assertion that is made by a true or false declarative sentence.
• "Socrates is a man."
• "A square has four sides."
• "Manila is the capital of Philippines."
• The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F)
• The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple
statements and its connectives.
Example
Solution
1. Gary V. is not a Filipino singer.
2. The carabao needs to be fed.
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Example
p: Today is Monday.
q: It is sunny day.
r: I am going to the beach.
s: I am not going to the badminton tournament.
Solution
a. p ˄ q b. ~q ˄ r c. ~s ˅ r d. q → s
If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then parentheses are used to indicate
which simple statements are grouped together.
Example
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a. Write (p ˄ q) → r as an English sentence.
b. Write: If you do not complete the training, then you will not get a promotion and you will not
receive a bonus.: in symbolic form.
Solution
a. If you get a promotion and you complete the training, then you will receive a bonus.
b. ~q (~p ˄ ~r)
Truth Value
The disjunction p ˅ q is true if and only if p is true, q is true, or both q and q are true.
A quantifier is a way to state that a certain number of elements fulfill some criteria.
• A quantified statement is a statement with at least one quantifier.
• Universal Quantifiers: “All”, “Every”, “Each”, “No”, “None”
• Existential Quantifiers: “Some”, “At least one”. “There exist”, “There is/are”
Example
• “All roses are red”, “Every rose is red”, “Each rose is red”
• “Some violets are blue”, “At least one violet is blue”
• “There exists a blue violet”, “there is a blue”.
Example
Solution:
a. No airports are open.
b. Some movies are not worth the price of admission.
c. Some odd numbers are divisible by 2.
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Lesson 2: Truth Tables and Tautologies
• A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all
possible truth values of its simple statements.
Example 1
a. Construct a table for ~ (~p ˅ q) ˅ q.
b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of ~ (~p ˅ q) ˅ q, given that p is
true and q is false.
Solution
a.
p q ~p ~p ˅ q ~ (~p ˅ q) ~ (~p ˅ q) ˅ q
T T F T F T row 1
T F F F T T row 2
F T T T F T row 3
F F T T F F row 4
b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that when p is true, and q is false, the statement
~ (~p ˅ q) ˅ q in the rightmost column is true.
Example 2
a. Construct a truth table for (p ˄ q) ˄ (~r ˅ q).
b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of (p ˄ q) ˄ (~r ˅ q), given that
p is true, q is true, and r is false.
Solution
a.
p q r p˄q ~r ~r ˅ q (p ˄ q) ˄ (~r ˅ q)
T T T T F T T row 1
T T F T T T T row 2
T F T F F F F row 3
T F F F T T F row 4
F T T F F T F row 5
F T F F T T F row 6
F F T F F F F row 7
F F F F T T F row 8
1 2 3 4
b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that (p ˄ q) ˄ (~r ˅ q) is true when p is true, q is
true, and r is false.
Equivalent Statement
Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same truth value for all possible truth
values of their simple statements. Equivalent statements have identical truth values in the
final columns of their truth tables. The notation p ≡ q is used to indicate that the statements p
and q are equivalent.
Example
Show that ~ (p ˅ ~q) and ~p ˄ q are equivalent statements.
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Solution
Construct two truth tables and compare the results. The truth tables below show ~ (p ˅ ~q)
and ~p ˄ q that have the same truth values for all possible truth values of their simple
statements. Thus, the statements are equivalent.
p q ~ (p ˅ ~q) p q ~p ˄ q
T T F T T F T T T T F
T F F T T T T F T T T
F T T F F F F T F F F
F F F F T T F F F T T
4 1 3 2 1 3 2
identical truth value
Thus, ~ (p ˅ ~q) ≡ ~p ˄ q.
Solution
Let p represent the statement “I graduated.”
Let q represent the statement “I got a job.”
In symbolic form, the original sentence is ~ (p ˅ q).
One of the De Morgan’s laws states that this is equivalent to ~p ˄ ~q.
One of De Morgan’s laws states that this is equivalent to ~p ˅ ~q.
Thus, a sentence that is equivalent to the original sentence is “I did not graduate and
I did not get a job.”
Example
Solution
Enter the truth values for each simple statement and its negation as shown in the columns
numbered 1, 2, and 3. Use the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to determine the truth values
to enter in column 4, under the “or” connective. Use the truth values in columns 1 and 4 to
determine the truth values to enter in column 5, under the “or” connective.
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p q p ˅ (~p ˅ q)
T T T T F T T
T F T T F F F
F T F T T T T
F F F T T T F
1 5 2 4 3
Column 5 of the table shows that p ˅ (~p ˅ q) is always true. Thus, p ˅ (~p ˅ q) is a
tautology.
Adopted from Mathematics in the Modern World, Cengage Philippine Edition 2018
There are different ways to express the conditional proposition p → q. The conditional
proposition p → q can be expressed in three variations using the logical connectives ~ and →
.
Name Statement
Conditional p→q
Converse of p → q q→p
Inverse of p → q ~p → ~q
Contrapositive of p → q ~q → ~p
The truth tables below show the comparison on the variations of conditional propositions.
Truth Tables for Conditional and Related Statements
p q p→q q→p ~p ~q ~p → ~q ~q → ~p
T T T T F F T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T
Observe that p → q is equivalent to ~q → ~p, while q → p is equivalent to~p → ~q. On the other
hand, p → q is not equivalent to q → p and ~p → ~q.
Example
Given the conditional proposition “If Jorgena goes to school, then Lithuania will go to
home,” determine the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the proposition.
Solution
Converse: If Lithuania will go home, then Jorgena goes to school.
Inverse: If Jorgena does not go to school, then Lithuania will not go home.
Contrapositive: If Lithuania will not go home, then Jorgena does not go to school.
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Standard Forms of Four Valid Arguments
Modus Ponens Law of Syllogism Modus Tollens Disjunction Syllogism
p p→q p→q p˅q
p→q q→r ~q ~p
∴q ∴p→q ∴ ~p ∴q
Fallacies
Logical Fallacies refers to faulty reasoning in logic of an argument. It is advantageous to
know logical fallacies in order to avoid them in an argument.
1. Appeal to Authority
It is an argument that occurs when we accept or reject a claim merely because of the
sources or authorities who made their positions on a certain argument.
Example 1: The government should impose death penalty. Many respected people, such as
the former Secretary of Justice, have publicly stated her opposition to it.
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Example 2: Manny Pacquiao uses Alaxan FR as pain reliever, so obviously Alaxan FR is the
most effective pain reliever in the market.
2. Appeal to Force
It is an argument which attempts to establish a conclusion by threat or intimidation.
3. Appeal to Ignorance
It is an argument supporting a claim merely because there is no proof that it’s wrong.
Example: Since time people have been trying to prove that God exists. But no one has yet
been able to prove it. Therefore, God does not exist.
4. Appeal to Pity
It is an argument that involves an irrelevant or highly exaggerated appeal to pity to get
people accept a conclusion by making them feel for someone.
Example: Mark has worked hard on his research project, and he will be depressed if he fails.
For these reasons, you must give him a passing grade.
Example: Everyone I know is voting for Marcelo Dominguez, so he’s probably the best
choice
for mayor.
7. Circular Argument
It is a premise of an argument presupposes the truth of its conclusions; meaning, the
argument takes for granted what it’s supposed to prove.
8. Equivocation
It is an argument used in two or more different senses/meanings within a single argument.
Example: Giving financial support to charity is the right thing to do. So charities have the right
to our finances.
9. Fallacy if Division
A reasoning which assumes that the characteristic of a group is also the characteristic of
each individual in the group.
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Example: Your family is crazy. That means that you are crazy too.
Example: If you don’t vote for this candidate you must be antichrist.
Example: A MacBook broke after a month, so there must be something wrong in the
manufacturer of MacBook.
Example: I know I forget to clean the toilet yesterday. But, nothing I do please you.
Example: If I fail Algebra, I won’t be able to graduate. If I don’t graduate, I probably won’t be
able to get a good job, and may very well end up like a beggar.
Example: A mandatory helmet law for motorcycle drivers could never be enforced. You can’t
issue tickets to dead people.
Adopted from Mathematics in the Modern World, Sirug WS., Mindshaper Co., Inc. 2018
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Lesson 5: Arguments and Euler Diagrams
Euler Diagrams is a diagrammatic means of representing sets and their relationships. They
are particularly useful for explaining complex hierarchies and overlapping definitions. They are
similar to another set diagramming technique, Venn diagrams.
Steps in making Euler diagram
Sample question:
Step 1: Draw three circles to represent the three categories (wizard, lizard, magic). Overlap
them all (use a pencil or software so you can move the circles later):
Step 2: Read the first statement and move the corresponding circle accordingly. “All wizards
can do magic” must mean that the entire wizard circle has to be inside the magic circle.
Step 2: Read the second statement and move the corresponding circle accordingly. “No lizards
can do magic” must mean that the entire lizard circle has to be outside the magic circle.
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Step 3: Read the third statement and move the corresponding circle accordingly. “No
wizards are lizards” must mean that the entire lizard circle has to be outside the wizard circle.
In this case, the graph already has the lizard circle outside the wizard circle, so we’re done!
Adopted from University of Kent . Retrieved October 19th, 2015
An argument can be classified as either valid or invalid. A valid argument occurs in situations
where if the premises are true, then the conclusion must also be true. And an argument can
be valid even if the conclusion is false.
Example 1
These arguments usually have the following format with the premises listed first and the
conclusion under a horizontal line:
First premise: All dogs have fleas.
Second premise: Hank is a dog.
Using a Euler diagram to analyze this argument, draw a circle to contain all objects that have
fleas. Inside the circle, put another circle to contain all dogs. And inside the circle of dogs, put
Hank. The figure illustrates this approach.
The argument isn’t necessarily true, because you know that not all dogs have fleas. All this
shows is that the argument is valid. If the two premises are true, then the conclusion must be
true.
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Example 2
Now consider an argument involving rectangles and triangles. A polygon is a figure made up
of line segments connected at their endpoints.
All rectangles are polygons.
All triangles are polygons.
Two circles are drawn inside the larger circle—one containing rectangle and the other triangles.
The two circles don’t overlap, because rectangles have four sides, and triangles have three
sides.
The argument is invalid. Rectangles are not triangles—not even sometimes.
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Assessment
D. Write each sentence in symbolic form. Represent each simple statement in the sentence
with the letter indicated in the parentheses. Also state whether the sentence is a
conjunction, a disjunction, a negation, a conditional, or a biconditional.
16. p ˄ ~q 17 r ˅ s
18. r → ~s 19. p → r
20. s ↔ ~r 21. ~𝑡 ˄ u
F. Construct a truth table for each compound statement.
22. (q ˄ ~p) ˅ ~q
23. (p ˅ q) ˄ [~(𝑝 ˅~q)]
G. Make use of one of the De Morgan’s laws to write the given statement in an equivalent form.
24. I did not pass the test and I did not complete the course.
25. It is not the case that, the students cut classes or took part in the demonstration.
H. Given the following conditional statements, determine the converse, inverse, and the
contrapositive.
26. 13 is composite number if Algebra is a branch of Mathematics.
27. Snow White has seven dwarfs only if 14 – 4 = 10.
I. Consider each of the arguments. Identify the rule of inference that establishes its validity.
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28. If 10 is divisible by 5, then 8 is an even number
If 8 is an even number, then 6 is a perfect number.
Therefore, if 10 is divisible by 5, then 6 is a perfect number.
30. We have no evidence that Greek Gods don’t exist. Therefore, they must exist.
31. Lots of individuals purchased new model of smartphones, so it must be great.
32. Abortion is murder, since killing of baby is an act of murder.
33. The Land Transportation Office (LTO) examination was extremely unfair. Just ask
everyone who took it.
34. The car is red. Therefore, the engine is red.
35. I am a good teacher because my students, says so. Trust my students, I will vouch
for them.
36. I know that you couldn’t do it right, so I ignored your statement.
Grading System
Numerical Points.
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References
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