Asset Intelligence Report

A PRIMER ON
ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING
JULY 2023

A Higher Level of Asset Integrity Intelligence

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CONTENTS

Overview 4

History and Development 5

Techniques and Methodology 5

Industry Applications 6

Advantages and Disadvantages 7

References 7

Further Reading 8

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Overview 1. The source of a physical event (i.e., crack) produces AE
Acoustic emission (AE) testing is a nondestructive examination 2. The AE waves will propagate along the component
(NDE) technique that measures sound waves produced by
sudden structural changes in a material. Many assets in the oil Acoustic Emission Sources
and gas and chemical processing industries are subject to Acoustic emissions occur when process equipment experiences
extreme operating conditions, such as high temperature and an increase in stress, ultimately leading to plastic deformation.
pressure, as well as continuous or repetitive mechanical loads. Plastic deformation simply means that the material has been
The most common damage mechanisms leading to structural permanently deformed and will not return to its original shape.
changes include hydrogen embrittlement, fatigue, stress Conversely, elastic deformation means that the stresses and
corrosion cracking, and creep deformation. When a component strains in the material are proportional, and upon release of the
is stressed or deformed, the formation or growth of a crack applied load, the material will return to its original shape.
releases energy in the form of high-frequency sound waves (i.e., Therefore, acoustic emissions only occur during plastic
acoustic emission). With AE, these elastic waves are monitored deformation where the net movement of microscopic
and recorded using sensor technology to locate the source of dislocations takes place, producing a crack. As a result, the
emission. formation or growth of a crack releases energy in the form of
AE is a viable and safe method to monitor the growth of a crack elastic waves that are detected by sensors. These sensors contain
in real time. With real-time monitoring, inspection personnel a transducing element that converts the acoustic waves into
have the ability to evaluate data remotely and to allocate time electrical signals which in turn pass through subsequent
appropriately to components that need immediate attention. amplifiers to process the electrical signals into quantifiable
Furthermore, AE testing differentiates from comparable NDE features for interpretation. Important signal features including
techniques, such as ultrasonic testing (UT), in two regards. First, amplitude, duration, count rate, and rise time will be discussed
AE does not supply energy to the component as in UT, but rather in further detail in the Techniques and Methodology section below.
it records energy produced by the component. Second, AE Acoustic Emission Waves
measures dynamic processes rather than static processes. In
AE waves will emit in all directions but will often have strong
other words, AE cannot measure the mere presence of a crack
directionality perpendicular to the generation of a crack or the
(static conditions). The crack must be “active,” or propagating, in
tip of a growing crack. As the elastic wave radiates from the
order for the sensors to detect the origin of the acoustic
crack, it will experience a decrease in amplitude as it travels
emission. Distinguishing between dynamic and static flaws is
along the component. This effect is known as attenuation and
important when calculating the remaining life of the component
there are many factors that contribute to the consequence of the
and determining whether or not the asset is fit for service. By
amplitude of AE as summarized in Table 1. Several other
tracking active cracks, personnel can determine the appropriate
phenomena also take place during AE wave propagation
time to repair or replace the component in order to minimize
including dispersion, diffraction, and scattering. AE waves are
shutdown time. However, some active flaws may go undetected
unique in that they cannot be controlled or pulsed like in UT
if the stress or deformation is not great enough to produce an
methods; instead, they are composed of different frequencies
acoustic event that can be detected by an AE instrument.
that travel at various velocities that lead to dispersion of the
Operators should be aware of the stresses involved in the
waves. Respectively, diffraction and scattering is simply how
process unit in order to make an informed decision as to
waves spread through a material and deflect into different
whether a certain amount of deformation is acceptable or not.
directions when encountering another discontinuity in the
Theory material. These three factors greatly affect the amplitude of AE,
Before AE testing techniques can be discussed, one should have a an important parameter when measuring the characteristics of
basic understanding of the mechanism that produces acoustic an AE signal.
emission waves. The mechanism can be explained in two steps:

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Table 1: Factors that Affect the Amplitude of Acoustic Emissions1

Factors that Increase Amplitude of AE Factors that Decrease Amplitude of AE

• High material strength • Low material strength
• High strain rate • Low strain rate
• Low temperature • High temperature
• Anisotropic material • Isotropic material
• Heterogeneous microstructure • Homogeneous microstructure
• Thick cross-sections • Thin cross-sections
• Brittle failure • Ductile failure
• Material containing discontinuities • Material not containing discontinuities
• Martensitic phase transformations • Diffusion controlled phase transformations
• Crack propagation (plastic deformation) • Elastic deformation
• Cast material • Wrought material
• Large grain size • Small grain size
• Mechanically induced twinning defects • Thermally induced twinning
1. - 2005, “ASNT Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 6, Acoustic Emission Testing (AE),” K. Ronnie, E. v.K. Hill, P.O. Miller, eds., ASNT.
- Dunegan, H.L., and Green, A.T., 1972, “Factors Affecting Acoustic Emission Response from Materials,” ASTM International, STP 505, pp. 100-113.

History and Development performed but may be part of a combination of methods that
A simple analogy can be made for AE testing: acoustic emission includes quantifiable flaw measurements.
is to the ear what visual inspection is to the eye. Subconsciously,
Techniques and Methodology
humans hear forewarning signs of structural failure. For
Equipment and Calibration
example, imagine a tree collapsing, a ceramic mug shattering on
a tile floor, or an aluminum can being crushed. In all of these AE is most often used in a dynamic test environment, even
examples, material deformation produces acoustic emissions. In though it is primarily a passive method (i.e., it “listens” for
the 1950s, Joseph Kaiser developed and pioneered the AE method signals and the AE probes can emit pulses to assist in the
that would be able to detect crack growth in mechanically loaded calibration of all sensors). AE is used to locate crack growth in
components and structures. Over time, AE testing has become pressure equipment when the equipment is experiencing an
an acceptable NDE method and is especially useful for increase in stress. Set up for AE testing is rather simple and the
composite materials. testing components include sensors, preamplifiers, frequency
filters, a data acquisition device, and cables to connect each of
With the help of scientific investigation, sensors, amplifiers, and
the elements. Typically, multiple sensors are used to detect AE
other various instruments have made AE testing a more
events. Because piezoelectric sensors are the first components in
sensitive and accurate NDE method. A major challenge that still
the process to detect sound/signals and information about the
remains is eliminating the effects of background noise from AE
AE source, it is the component that is calibrated to ensure quality
signals.
data. One way to calibrate sensors is to perform a sensor
As with any NDE method, the limitations and benefits must be coupling calibration test which requires that one channel
understood before application. AE is most commonly used in the transmit an electrical pulse to a connected sensor which emits a
process industries for leak and anomaly detection. Triangulation mechanical wave that propagates along the component. This
provides approximate locations of suspect areas on the part or mechanical wave is detected by neighboring sensors. After
vessel. AE will not typically provide crack length or depth several pulse tests, the sensors are ready to identify AE events.
information or confirm the exact nature of the anomaly to the
When an AE event occurs, AE waves will emit from the source
point that an assessment, such as Fitness for Service, can be
and travel toward the sensors. This is achieved through

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transducers that convert mechanical movement into an Industry Applications
electrical signal. Moreover, it is almost impossible to get an AE AE testing is a versatile application in the oil, gas and chemical
signal without background noise or electromagnetic processing industries. Some of the most common applications
interference. For this reason, sensors and preamplifiers exist include detecting active cracks, testing for leaks, and monitoring
that are designed to help eliminate these unwanted signals. weld defects. The following are a few industry-related examples
Some sensors are connected to a separate device known as a of AE testing:
preamplifier; however, newer sensors have a preamplifier
Crack Detection
already integrated into them. The purpose of a preamplifier is to
amplify AE signals in order to differentiate between AE bursts One of the most common and successful applications of AE
and background noise. Additional elements, such as frequency testing has been to detect early crack growth in order to mitigate
filters, are used to further reduce background noise that may be subsequent damage and schedule maintenance or repair if
induced by hydraulic, mechanical, or cyclic processes. Each of necessary. AE is often used as a global screening method to
these elements is connected by a signal cable that transfers AE provide locations for more quantitative NDE follow ups (e.g., UT
signals to the data acquisition device where signal parameters flaw detection). An advantage of many AE systems is that they
can be analyzed. are capable of continuous, real-time monitoring of various
materials during manufacturing and operation processes.
AE Signal Parameters
Corrosion Detection
Signals are processed to provide information about the peak
amplitude, threshold, duration, rise time, and count rate that AE testing can also be used to locate active corrosion in
describe the source of AE as shown in Figure 1. The peak aboveground storage tanks. The source of the AE signal comes
amplitude is the maximum amount of voltage measured during from active corrosion in a static environment (no change in
an AE event. This feature is an important parameter because it applied stress) and thus, requires that the tank needs to be idle
must be above the operator-defined threshold in order to be for 6 to 24 hours prior to testing. It should be noted that there
recorded. The rise time is the interval between the first threshold can be other potential sources of AE signals or “noise” that are
crossing and the peak amplitude. Furthermore, the interval unrelated to corrosion, thus precautions must be taken so as not
between the first and the last threshold crossing is known as the to include these other “noise” sources in the final evaluation.
duration which helps identify different AE sources. Sometimes
The requirements of the tank operator are simple when
the total number of pulses, or counts, are recorded to provide
performing an AE test. The test procedure itself involves
more information about the signal. Counts are measured by
attaching two rows of sensors above the tank floor spaced
determining the number of pulses that are greater than the
uniformly apart. The space between the two rows of sensors
threshold.
depends on the tank (size and whether or not it is insulated).
Data is collected for a period of time and is analyzed to assign a
composite grading to the tank. The composite grade is based on
the data associated with the active corrosion in the tank floor.

Creep Damage Detection in High Energy Piping Systems

High energy piping (HEP) systems are known to be susceptible

to creep damage which can lead to leaks or failure if left
untreated. Fortunately, creep damage can be monitored by AE
testing. For HEP systems, AE requires the installation of sensors
and waveguides, at 15-foot intervals, to handle the 950° to 1,000°F
temperatures. The advantage to exploiting AE testing, in this
case, is that the sensors and waveguides can be attached on-
stream, eliminating the need for system shutdown. Once the AE
Figure 1. Diagram illustrating important signal features.

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Table 2: Summary of Fundamental AE Process2

Action Process
1. Component under applied load Produces mechanical energy

2. AE Releases elastic energy

3. Wave propagation From source to sensor

4. Sensors Converts mechanical wave into electrical AE signal

5. Acquisition of measurement data Converts electrical AE signal into data set

6. Display measurement data Plots recorded data into diagrams

7. Evaluation of display Interpret diagrams to determine areas for follow up exam with complimentary NDE or other methods
2. Vallen, H., 2002, “AE Testing Fundamentals, Equipment, Applications,” NDT.net, Vol. 7, No. 09, Munich, Germany.

testing instruments are installed, plant operators can monitor larger assets lead to attenuation as a natural consequence of
for creep damage during plant cycles. signal propagation over long distances.

Pressure Vessel Inspection References

Since AE sensors are able to operate in harsh conditions, the 1. NDE, 2012, “Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing,”
method proves to be a viable and cost-effective technique to Iowa State University Center for Nondestructive Evaluation,
inspect both metal and fiber-reinforced plastic pressure vessels. Ames, IA.
During testing, the vessel is incrementally pressurized up to 10 2. Ternowchek, S., 2013, “Non-Intrusive Inspection of Above
percent above its typical operating conditions. By increasing the Ground Storage Tanks and Its Use in a Tank RBI Program,”
pressure of the system, the applied stress acting on the vessel Inspectioneering Journal, 19(5), pp. 22-28.
also increases, making it easier to identify indications and
3. Foster, C.L., 1995, “Utilities’ High Energy Piping Systems -
locations which may or may not be leaks, and flaws.
Utility Industry’s Application of Acoustic Emission (AE)
Advantages and Disadvantages Yields Measurable Improvement in Inspection Program
AE testing offers several advantages and disadvantages over Cost and Overall System Integrity,” Inspectioneering
other conventional NDE techniques. Some advantages include Journal, 1(1), pp. 4-6.
real-time evaluation monitoring and remote scanning.
4. Miller, R.K., Hill, E.v.K., Moore, P.O., 2005, Nondestructive
Additionally, the entire component can be monitored by using
Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 6, Acoustic
multiple sensors that determine the location of acoustic
Emission Testing (AE), ASNT.
emissions, even under harsh operating conditions.
5. Dunegan, H.L., and Green, A.T., 1972, “Factors Affecting
AE systems do however possess some major disadvantages. For
Acoustic Emission Response from Materials,” ASTM
example, the mere presence of a flaw cannot be detected and
International, STP 505, pp. 100-113.
consequently, quantitative information about the size, depth,
and shape of the flaw cannot be obtained without performing 6. Carlos, M. F., 2003, “Acoustic Emission: Heeding the
follow-up NDE techniques. Furthermore, external factors in the Warning Sounds from Materials,” ASTM Standardization
surrounding environment, such as the inherently loud operation News, 31(10), ASTM International.
of other nearby equipment, may contribute to extraneous noise 7. Vallen, H., 2002, “AE Testing Fundamentals, Equipment,
during signal processing. The size and shape of the component Applications,” NDT.net, 7(9), Munich, Germany.
under inspection should also be taken into consideration as

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8. Hellier, C.J., 2003, Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation,
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY., Chap. 10.

9. Unnborsson, R., 2013, “Hit Detection and Determination in

AE Bursts,” Chapter 1, Acoustic Emission - Research and
Applications, InTech.

10. Muravin, B., 2009, “Acoustic Emission Method: History.

Fundamentals. Applications.,” Slideshare.

11. www.muravin.com

Further Reading
For more in-depth information and supplementary resources
regarding Acoustic Emission Testing, please visit
inspectioneering.com/tag/acoustic+emission.

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