RCA Review 1939 July

R
A QUaRTERLYJOURNAL OF RADIO PROGRESS

VOLUME IV July 1939
W
NUMBER 1
IN THIS ISSUE
THE BIRTH OF AN INDUSTRY

David Sarnoff
A MODERN RADIO CONTROL CENTER

D. S. Rau and V. H. Brown
APPLICATION OF MOTION -PICTURE FILM

TO TELEVISION
E. W. Engstrom, G. L. Beers and A. V. Bedford
A PUSH-PULL ULTRA-HIGH -FREQUENCY

BEAM TETRODE
A. K. Wing
RCA INSTITUTES TECHNICAL PRESS

A Department of RCA Institutes, Inc.
75 Varick Street New York, N. Y.
RCA REVIEW
Quarterly Journal of Radio Progress
A
Published in July, October, January and April of Each Year by
RCA INSTITUTES TECHNICAL PRESS
A Department of RCA Institutes, Inc.
75 Varick Street, New York, N. Y.
VOLUME IV July, 1939 NUMBER 1
CONTENTS
PAGE
The Birth of an Industry 3
DAVID SARNOFF
A Television Demonstration System for the New York World's Fair 6
DONALD H. CASTLE
A Modern Radiotelegraph Control Center 14
D. S. RAU AND V. H. BROWN
Great Lakes Radiotelephone Service 32
H. B. MARTIN
Application of Motion -Picture Film to Television 48
E. W. ENGSTROM, G. L. BEERS AND A. V. BEDFORD
A Push -Pull Ultra -High -Frequency Beam Tetrode 62
A. K. WING
The Application of the Tensor Concept to the Complete Analysis of
Lumped, Active, Linear Networks 73
D. W. EPSTEIN AND H. L. DONLEY
The Use of Gas -Filled Lamps as High -Dissipation, High -Frequency
Resistors, Especially for Power Measurements 83
ERNEST G. LINDER
An Iconoscope Pre -Amplifier 89
ALLEN A. BARCO
Antennas 108
H. H. BEVERAGE
Effect of Electron Transit Time on Efficiency of a Power Amplifier 114
ANDREW V. HAEFF
Our Contributors 123
Technical Papers Presented Before Scientific Bodies by RCA Engineers 126
Technical Articles by RCA Engineers 127
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Copyright, 1939, by RCA Institutes, Inc.
Entered as second-class matter July 17, 1936, at the Post Office at New York, New York,
under the Act of March 3, 1879.
Printed in U.S.A.
BOARD OF EDITORS
Chairman
CHARLES J. PANNILL
President, RCA Institutes, Inc.
RALPH R. BEAL O. B. HANSON

Research Director Vice President in Charge of Engineering
Radio Corporation of America National Broadcasting Company
DR. H. H. BEVERAGE CHARLES W. HORN
Chief Research Engineer Director of Research and Development,
R.C.A. Communications, Inc. National Broadcasting Company
ROBERT S. BURNAP
WILLSON HURT
Engineer -in -Charge,
Commercial Engineering Section, Assistant General Solicitor,
RCA Manufacturing Company, Radio Corporation of America
Radiotron Division
DR. CHARLES B. JOLLIFFE
IRVING F. BYRNES Engineer -in-Charge,
Chief Engineer, RCA Frequency Bureau
Radiomarine Corporation of America
FRANK E. MULLEN
LEWIS M. CLEMENT
Vice President in Charge of
Vice President in Charge of Advertising and Publicity,
Research and Engineering, Radio Corporation of America
RCA Manufacturing Company,
Victor Division CHARLES H. TAYLOR
DR. ALFRED N. GOLDSMITH Vice President in Charge of Engineering,
Consulting Engineer, R.C.A. Communications, Inc.
Radio Corporation of America F. VAN DYCK
ARTHUR
HARRY G. GROVER Engineer-in -Charge,
General Patent Attorney, Radio Corporation of America
Radio Corporation of America License Laboratory
W. S. FITZPATRICK
Secretary, Board of Editors
Previously unpublished papers appearing in this book may be reprinted,

abstracted or abridged, provided credit is given to RCA REVIEW and to
the author, or authors, of the papers in question. Reference to the issue
date or number is desirable.
Permission to quote other papers should be obtained from the publica-
tions to which credited.
THE BIRTH OF AN INDUSTRY*
BY
DAVID SARNOFF
President, Radio Corporation of America
,irHE successful planning of this building and the exhibits it

contains are due in the largest measure to the skill and the
experience of Major Lenox Lohr, whom I had placed in charge
of this task. He came to it well equipped by his record of success as
general manager of a previous Fair known as the Chicago Century
of Progress. In fact the record he made there so commended itself to
us here that we invited him three years ago to become President of
the National Broadcasting Company, the position he occupies today.
When one views the wonderful social and industrial developments
embodied in the exhibits at the New York World's Fair, he has reason
to be proud of the ingenuity of his fellow men. All about us here
today, in scores of great buildings, are exhibits which testify to the
unwillingness of man to remain satisfied with the marvels of our
present civilization. They prove his ability to bring to practical use
and service today and tomorrow the dreams of past generations.
This RCA Exhibit Building, which we are dedicating here, houses
only a small part of all the scientific advances displayed on these
grounds. But the services to mankind shown here represent one of
the outstanding advances that has been made in this century to over-
come limitations imposed by nature and to bring the peoples of the
world into closer contact.
Today we are on the eve of launching a new industry, based on
imagination, on scientific research, and accomplishment. We are now
ready to fulfill the promise made to the public last October when, after.
years of research, laboratory experiments and tests in the field costing
millions of dollars, the Radio Corporation of America announced that
television program service and commercial television receivers would
be made available to the public with the opening of the New York
World's Fair.
* An address at the dedication of the RCA Exhibit Building, New York
World's Fair, April 20, 1939.
3
4 RCA REVIEW
Ten days from now, this will be an accomplished fact. The long
years of patient experimenting and ingenious invention which the
scientists of the RCA Research Laboratories have put into television
development, have been crowned with success. I salute their accom-
plishments and those of other scientists both here and abroad whose
efforts have contributed to the progress of this new art.
On April 30th, the National Broadcasting Company will begin the
first regular public television program service in the history of our
country and television receiving sets will be in the hands of mer-
;
chants in the New York area for public purchase. A new art and a
new industry, which eventually will provide entertainment and in-
formation for millions, and new employment for large numbers of
men and women, is here.
There is something tremendously inspiring to all of us in the RCA
Family in launching a new service whose purpose is constructive, into
a world where destruction is rampant. We have all been impressed of
late by the ease with which things can be destroyed, compared with
the skill and the labor that go into their making.
Human aspiration and intelligence are at constant war with the
forces of reaction and destruction. When a major victory is won,
civilization is able to make a giant stride forward. The coming of
radio was one of those victories. After ages in which nature had
maintained the barriers of time and distance between men and nations,
radio eliminated them, and enabled man to send a whisper around the
earth.
And now we add radio sight to sound. It is with a feeling of
humbleness that I come to this moment of announcing the birth in this
country of a new art so important in its implications that it is bound
to affect all society. It is an art which shines like a torch of hope in a
troubled world. It is a creative force which we must learn to utilize
for the benefit of all mankind.
This miracle of engineering skill which one day will bring the
world to the home, also brings a new American industry to serve
man's material welfare. In less than two decades, sound broadcasting
provided new work for hundreds of thousands of men and women,
added work in mines and forests and factories for thousands more,
and aided the country and its citizens economically by causing the
flow of hundreds of millions of dollars annually. Television again bids
fair to follow in its youthful parent's footsteps, and to inherit its vigor
and initiative. When it does, it will become an important factor in
American economic life. Also, as an entertainment adjunct, television
will supplement sound broadcasting by bringing into the home the
THE BIRTH OF AN INDUSTRY 5
visual images of scenes and events which up to now have come there
as mind -pictures conjured up by the human voice.
Time does not permit me to describe the many other exhibits in
this building. They demonstrate important radio services and instru-
mentalities such as facsimile, which transmits printed words and
pictures through the air ; the automatic emergency alarm, which is
adding immeasurably to the safety of those who travel by sea ; and
the significant services for message communications by land and sea
and in the air.
In dedicating this RCA Building as the birthplace of a new Ameri-
can art and industry, we have in mind the conception of a great service
which will benefit our social and economic life, and the national ideals
of our people. The television receiving sets about us today, and millions
of their like to follow, will serve to bring about these practical results
and to foster these ideals. They represent radio's "World of Tomor-
row."
A TELEVISION -DEMONSTRATION SYSTEM
FOR THE NEW YORK WORLD'S FAIR
BY
DONALD H. CASTLE
Video Facilities Section, Engineering Department, National Broadcasting Company
Summary-A brief description is given of the television demonstration

system now in use in the RCA Building at the New York World's Fair.
A few of the many problems encountered in such an installation are men-
tioned and their practical solutions indicated. The various program sources
arranged for are described, together with the facilities provided for dis-
tribution of the television signals to the viewing receivers.
THE formal presentation of television by RCA at the New York

World's Fair required that ample facilities be provided for the
general public to see a television picture and to inspect modern
home television receiving equipment.
The viewing room arrangement shown in Figure 1 was decided
upon as being the one which would accommodate the largest audience
groups and provide good traffic control. It also makes it possible to
demonstrate the large -screen projector equipment, to provide a com-
plete show under good viewing conditions, and to schedule the shows
at definite intervals. Both the viewing room and adjacent equipment
room are located within the main RCA Exhibit Building at the Fair
grounds. Additional receivers, including the "flask" receivers and a
transparent receiver, are located in the main exhibit hall in the front
portion of the building, where visitors can see them. The television
receivers are arranged in rows so that the audience may file into the
viewing hall from the entrance doors, form groups around each receiver
and, when the show is completed, leave by the rear building doors.
The problem of suitable program sources gave some concern since,
in addition to reliable service, a variety of program types seemed
desirable. The signal-to-noise ratio with all the Fair exhibits in full
operation could not be estimated in advance, the general opinion being
that it would be an adverse factor. The final arrangement provided
for reception of the programs broadcast from the television trans-
mitter in the Empire State Building, for a film program from a local
film scanner, and a live -talent or "Vox -Pop" pickup at the Fair using
either the mobile -unit equipment or a direct -connected camera system.
6
TELEVISION -DEMONSTRATION SYSTEM 7
To assure a good signal and reduce noise a directive receiving -

antenna system was located atop the 250 -foot steel tower on the RCA
grounds. This was connected to two master receivers, the video out-
puts of which were used to supply video signals to the various receivers
on the premises. The video distributing system thus set up can also
be supplied from the local film scanner, the local camera equipment,
VIEWING ROOMS
EXIT
u
SERVICE i VIEWING ROOM
DOORS ENTRANCE
Fig. 1-Plan of television viewing and equipment room.
or the mobile-unit video outputs. In the latter case, it should be

pointed out that in the normal operation of the mobile units, the unit
transmitter supplies a radio signal on 177 megacycles to the Empire
State transmitter which then re -transmits it on the television band,
44-50 megacycles.
Figure 2 shows a block diagram of the equipment and connections.
The two master receivers are connected through suitable isolation
resistances to the antenna transmission line, the latter consisting of
8 RCA REVIEW
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OQ
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TELEVISION-DEMONSTRATION SYSTEM 9
two coaxial cables connected as a balanced line. These receivers are

standard models of home television receivers which were modified by
the addition of video -output amplifiers to enable them to transmit the
complete standard video signal to each output -transmission line. Each
master receiver remains equipped with its regular kinescope, thus
providing for monitoring of its picture output without connection to
other equipment. The video -output signal from these receivers is
routed through coaxial transmission lines to the video -jack field, at
which point all video switching is carried out.
The video outputs from the mobile unit and the film -camera system
are also available at this video -jack field. An attenuator is inserted
Fig. 3-Directive antenna system for master tele-

vision receivers. Steel tower 250 feet high.
in the video -output circuit from the mobile unit in order to match its
signal level with that produced by the film -camera system and the
master receivers. Both the mobile -unit and the master -receiver out-
puts provide complete video signals including deflection, blanking, and
timing impulses.
At the video -jack field, any one of the three program sources may
be connected to the inputs of the three video -line amplifiers. The
outputs of the video -line amplifiers lead to the video -jack field and
may, at this point, be connected to the various video -transmission lines
as desired.
Two main -transmission lines supply video signals to all the receivers
in the exhibit. Additional transmission lines lead to various working
10 RCA REVIEW
points on grounds of the RCA exhibit and are used for receiver
servicing or for special monitoring purposes. One of the two main -
transmission lines supplies signals to the thirteen receivers, the pro-
jection receiver, and is terminated at a position on the second -floor
lounge where a single receiver is connected. The other main -trans-
mission line connects to the miscellaneous receivers on display in the
main -exhibit hall in the front portion of the building. These include
the "flask" receiver, a special home receiver designed for the "living
room of tomorrow," and a "bread -board" type laboratory receiver.
Fig. 4-An experimental model "Flask" receiver, containing front excited

fluorescent screen. Provides sufficient illumination for daylight viewing.
Connections to all receivers are made by cutting the coaxial trans-
mission line at each receiver location and inserting special splicing
sleeves. The outer splice sleeve is cut out to accommodate a 500 -ohm
isolation resistance, connected directly to the center conductor of the
transmission line. The other side of the isolation resistance is con=
nected, through flexible low -capacity coaxial cable, to the input
terminals on the receiver.
Each viewing receiver, except for the few special -display receivers,
is a standard model TRK-12 RCA home -television receiver to which a
video amplifier has been added for line coupling. The input impedance
of this amplifier is high or "bridging" to prevent an objectionable
TELEVISION -DEMONSTRATION SYSTEM 11
degree of loading of the transmission line at the monitor points. The

output of this amplifier is connected directly to the control grid of
the kinescope, thus by-passing all normal video amplifier stages in the
standard receiver. The separating circuits and deflection circuits in
the receiver are not changed, being connected directly to the added
video amplifier.
The projection receiver produces a picture on a screen approxi-
mately 41/2 ft. x 6 ft. in size. It utilizes a 25,000 -volt, small-screen
Fig. 5-Equipment room, showing left to right, audio racks with

co -axialand audio jack fields,- 510-A demonstration cabinet, and
synchronizing generator and line -amplifier cabinet racks.
kinescope of the projection type, giving a picture of sufficient brilliance

for projection by means of an optical system. The screen for this
receiver is placed in such a position that the audience may view either
the projected image or the image on the television receiver which is
directly before them.
The "flask" receiver on display in the front exhibition hall con-
sists of a standard receiver equipped to operate a special laboratory
type of kinescope. In this kinescope the fluorescent screen is not
transparent, but is viewed from the side on which the electrón stream
impinges. This results in a bright image, making it possible to view
12 RCA REVIEW
the picture in an illuminated room. The screen and the

necessary
electron gun is assembled within a large laboratory flask, hence
the
name "flask" receiver.
and a
The film -scanning equipment includes a 16 -mm projector
"demonstration" type of film -camera system in which the entire
in a
camera chain, with exception of the camera itself is contained
cabinet similar, in general, to a receiver cabinet. Although this dem-
onstration -unit system generates special synchronizing impulses, a
standard type of synchronizing generator was connected to this equip-
ment in order to provide complete standard video signals at its output,
Fig. 6 --Film scanner, 16 -mm projector and camera (in box on rack).
Turntables driven from projector by Selsyn motors.
the same as received from the other program inputs. The projector
equipment for the film scanner comprises a standard 16 -mm projector
and a standard RCA 70-B turntable for sound source, both suitably
modified for television use. Since all other synchronization is obtained
from the 60 -cycle alternating current source, the film projector syn-
chronization is also obtained from that source. Thus the main 60-cyclè
a -c supply drives the synchronous motor in the projector as well as the
television -synchronizing generator supplying the deflection and timing
impulses to the film camera and associated circuits. The film projector
in turn drives the turntable by means of a Selsyn motor system. A
relay system is provided which automatically supplies power to the
Selsyn motors and the main synchronous motor in the proper time
TELEVISION-DEMONSTRATION SYSTEM 13
sequence when the machine is started. Since the synchronous motor

driving the film projector can operate either in phase or 180° out of
phase with the main television -synchronizing impulses, control relays
are arranged to interrupt automatically the main power supply to the
motor during the proper interval of time so that it will "slip" 180°
in phase by operating a "framing key" on the control panel.
A parking station is provided on the RCA grounds near the build-
ing to accommodate the television -mobile pickup unit which constitutes
one of the program -supply sources heretofore mentioned. Outlet
receptacles located at this point provide connection with cables leading
into the building. These cables carry the video -output signal and inter-
communicating circuits and supply the three-phase 60 -cycle alternating
current required for operation of the mobile -unit equipment. Since
"Vox -Pop" programs may be held at night, a lighting system is
installed under one of the parking canopies assuring a light intensity
of 1500 -foot candles over the necessary area.
The audio equipment setup is not unique, but parallels as closely
as possible the arrangement of the television equipment. All equip-
ment used is of the standard R.C.A. broadcast type, and the circuit
arrangements are according to usual practice.
The equipment room, which adjoins the theater, contains all the
operating and control equipment for this system. At this point all
switching is carried out, viewing -room lights controlled, master receiv-
ers adjusted, etc. A standard receiver, of the type used in the viewing
room is provided in the equipment room, and connected in the same
manner as all the viewing -room receivers. This provides for accurate
monitoring by the control -operator on picture conditions as seen on
the theater receivers.
The installation described above was completed April 30th for the
opening of the New York World's Fair. It has been in successful daily
operation since that time and as many as 22,800 persons have witnessed
the demonstrations in a single day. Thus it has provided a large
number of people with an opportunity to see their first home -television
program, but even more important, it has provided an educational
demonstration to many who reside outside the range of the Empire
State transmitter and who would otherwise not have a similar oppor-
tunity until local television transmission becomes available to them.
A MODERN RADIOTELEGRAPH CONTROL CENTER
BY
D. S. RAU AND V. H. BROWN

R.C.A. Communications, Inc.
Summary-High-powered transoceanic and medium -powered inter -city

radio stations located at points on Long Island, in New Jersey and in New
York City, representing 51 transmitters using 79 frequencies and a corre-
sponding number of receivers, are operated by remote control from a central
point at Sixty-six Broad Street, New York City. Audio -frequency circuits
over both land lines and ultra -high -frequency radio channels are utilized
as the medium for the remote control functions. The special apparatus
provided for handling these channels, their arrangement, and operation, are
described in this paper.
URING the early days of long -wave radio communication it

was the practice to concentrate operating personnel at the radio
stations. Messages received over the radio circuit were copied
at the receiving station, and retransmitted over land telegraph lines
to the city office, where they were again copied for delivery to the
addressees. Similarly, messages for transmission were telegraphed to
the radio station for retransmission over the radio circuit.
When transocean radio business increased so that additional facili-
ties had to be provided it was realized that the old method of telegraph
relaying was too slow and therefore commercially unsound. It was
then that concentration of operating personnel at central control offices
was inaugurated.1 A central office directly keys the transmitters at the
distant transmitting station, and receives signals directly from the
receiving station for recording and distribution to the addressees.
The central office handling that part of the world-wide network
of R. C. A. Communications, Inc., which centers in New York City is
located at 66 Broad Street. This office now controls :-
36 Transmitters on 60 frequencies at Rocky Point.
10 Transmitters on 14 frequencies at New Brunswick.
2 Transmitters on 2 frequencies at Tuckerton.
3 Transmitters on 3 ultra -high frequencies at 30 Broad Street.
39 Combination telephone and telegraph short-wave receivers
mostly used in diversity groups of 3, and
14
MODERN RADIOTELEGRAPH CONTROL CENTER 15
126 telegraph short-wave receivers mostly used in groups of 3, all

at the short-wave center at Riverhead.
16 long -wave receivers at the long -wave receiving center at Riv-
erhead.
1 Ultra -high -frequency receiver at Exchange Place.
Control of the radio equipment is intimately associated with the
broad subject of traffic handling. The latter includes, among other
items contact with customers through an elaborate private telephone
:
exchange supplemented with branch printer telegraph lines, pneumatic

tubes, and messenger service ; distribution of messages among operat-
ing positions by an extensive system of high-speed conveyor belts ;
Fig. 1-Chart showing location of stations.
conversion of printed text into telegraph signals by expert operators ;

and even the handling of addressed program material to and from
foreign stations for local rebroadcast. This article, however, will be
concerned only with that part of the system which ties in the traffic
handling processes to the radio stations. The tie or nerve center
of the system is the main control room.
In detail the functions performed in the control room are as
follows :-
Transmitting:
Switching facilities for tape transmitters.
Converting d -c keying impulses to tone signals.
Monitoring signals to check their formation.
16 RCA REVIEW
Switching facilities for distribution of tone signals to the

proper transmitters.
Receiving :
Switching facilities for incoming lines.
Amplifying and rectifying incoming tone signals to d.c.
Monitoring of incoming signals.
Adjustment of signals for best operation of recorders.
Switching facilities to recorder positions.
Intercommunication :
By telegraph to each station.
Fig. 2-Main control room.
By printer to Rocky Point and Riverhead.

By microphone and loudspeaker to operating centers.
Testing :
Lines.
Equipment.
Ultra -high -frequency transmitter control:

u -h -f link to New Brunswick.
u -h -f relay to Philadelphia.
The equipment with which these functions are performed is laid

out in a systematic arrangement designed to save steps on the part
of the operating staff. The heart of the entire system is the control
console which is in constant touch with all parts of the system, includ-
MODERN RADIOTELEGRAPH CONTROL CENTER 17.
ing the operating centers, the apparatus rooms, and all the stations.
Surrounding the console are the control racks where switching of
lines, operating positions, and accessory apparatus is performed.
Next in order and in some cases on other floors are located units of
equipment that require little attention or else special attention which
can be given by a separate group of attendants from those who man
the main control room.
THE CONTROL CONSOLE

The console provides for the major part of the manual control
functions necessary to keep traffic moving through the control center.
Fig. 3-Control console.
These functions include the following :-

1.Monitoring all signals, received and transmitted.
2. Communications to the stations.
3. Communications to the operating centers, and
4. Adjustment of the received signals.
The photograph of the console shows the arrangement of its panels,

all within easy reach of the operating technician seated before it. On
the upper panels are mounted attenuators for adjustment of the
received signals, meters for observation of signal levels, loudspeakers
for aural monitoring of signals and for the receiving end of the voice -
intercommunication system, telegraph sounders, and other items. On
the lower panels are mounted the key switches for cutting in any
desired signal for monitoring, and others for control of the communi-
18 RCA REVIEW
eating systems. Telegraph keys, sounders, and intercommunicating

microphone are located directly on the operator's shelf.
To monitor an incoming signal the key switch identified by the
call letters marked on its label is thrown into its operating position.
This switch connects a loudspeaker so that the signal may be heard,
and a milliammeter into the rectified output of the associated ampli-
fier -rectifier so that the amount of current going to the recorder at
the operating position may be observed. The level of the signal and
RECEIVERS
COMB. UNITS
RIVERHEAD
TRANSMITTING FILTERS
LINE
NEWYORI<
RECEIVING
FILTERS
OPERATORS
11 l 1111; rsj AMPLIFIERS
Fig. 4-Grouping of signals on common line.
the corresponding direct current to the recorder may be adjusted by

variation of the setting of the attenuator located on the panel above
the key switch. A total of 80 attenuators and key -switch positions
are provided on the console at the present time, and space for many
more may be made available by extending the console beyond its
present semicircular limits. If the speed of the monitored signal is
too great for aural reception, connections are available for trans-
ferring it to the adjoining test table for reception on a tape recorder.
Outgoing signals are monitored somewhat differently. Since out-
going signals are adjusted at their source to a definite level, further
individual adjustment is not required and no necessity exists for

bringing the individual signal channels to the console. To permit
monitoring, however, the outgoing lines, on each of which a number
of individual signals are grouped, are routed via the console. Means
are provided for selecting an individual signal by switching a group
of monitor filters on to the line involved and observing the output of
the filter corresponding to the tone frequency of the desired signal.
The group of monitor filters is coupled to the line through a bridging
amplifier so that signal levels on the line are not disturbed.
Although individual outgoing signals need not be adjusted, it is
necessary when a number of them are grouped on a single line to keep
the resulting amplitude peaks within definite limits in order to prevent
cross -talk into adjacent lines.2 Attenuators are provided on the con-
sole for this purpose and a standard procedure has been formulated
for their operation. Since the peak level on the line depends on the
number of tone signals on that line and also on their phasing, these
conditions must be considered in setting the combined signal level.
With each keyer-output tone adjusted to zero level of 1.92 volts (6
milliwatts at 600 ohms) and a line limitation of 1.92 volts rms, the
line attenuators must be set as follows to keep within this limit :-
Number of Tones Fixed Phase Random Phase
6 12 db 16 db
8 14 18
10 15 20
12 17 22
Communications to the stations consist in most part of orders

to start-up or shut -down transmitters and receivers; to change fre-
quencies on transmitters; and to retune receivers and to check quality
of signals at the stations. "Order Wires" for this purpose are avail-
able from the console to Rocky Point, Riverhead, New Brunswick,
and Tuckerton. In addition a communication circuit is provided to
Philadelphia for communications concerning the operation of the
ultra -high-frequency relay to that city. The sounders for the most
used circuits, Rocky Point and Riverhead, are mounted on resonators
located on the main shelf, while the other sounders are installed
on shelves hidden behind grille panels.
Communications to the operating centers and other parts of the
building are handled over an intercommunicating -voice system. A
dynamic microphone on the console shelf can be connected to various
lines by key switches. Standard public-address -type amplifiers and
permanent -magnet-type dynamic loudspeakers strategically located
20 RCA REVIEW
throughout the operating floors complete the outbound system. Similar

equipment is provided for the inbound circuits. The loudspeakers in
this case are mounted behind the telegraph-sounder shelves and are
thus hidden by the same grille panels.
LINE CONTROL AND TEST RACKS
Arranged on the left side of the console is a group of seven racks,

five of which are assigned for control and testing of the lines connect-
ing 66 Broad Street to the transmitting and receiving stations. Fig -
Fig. 5-Line and receiving rack.
ure 5 shows the general arrangement of apparatus mounted on these

racks. Numbered from right to left, since future growth will continue
to the left, racks No. 1 and No. 2 contain miscellaneous apparatus
directly associated with the lines, such as repeat coils, equalizers,
hybrid coils, and associated networks. On racks No. 3 and No. 4
are mounted all jacks directly concerned with the lines. A typical
lineup of jacks is shown in Figure 6. Although this actually illustrates
a receiving -line circuit, the circuit is the same for a transmitting
line except that for the latter no equalizer is provided at Broad Street.
Ample jacks are provided to permit tests to be made at several impor-
tant points in the lineup as well as to permit cross -patching to idle
lines or equipment in case of failure of any single part. Single -circuit

jacks have been used for the line circuits, separate jacks being pro-
vided for each side of the pair of conductors comprising the line. The
main reason for this measure is that in patching into these circuits
the tips only of the patch -cord plugs are utilized and the pressure of
the jack -contact springs on the tips of the plugs assures perfect
contact, an assurance which cannot be realized with two -circuit jacks
requiring contact to be made between the jack and plug sleeves. Since
in most cases the lines carry a number of signals due to frequency
channelling by means of wave filters, the importance of reliable con-
nections to avoid interruption to as many as twelve traffic channels
on a line justifies the method described.
Line from distributing frame
Line in - monitor
1 2
O 01001
Line in - cutoff
1 2
O 00 0
Equalizer in
1 2
O 0 00
Equalizer out monito
1 2
O 0 00
Equal. out -cutoff
O 0'00'
1 2
Transfer Bus
O
1
000 2
Transferbus to a group
cf receiving filters.
Fig. 6-Line jack layout and diagram of connection.
The line facilities provided on these racks are as follows.:-

To Rocky Point- lines, usable frequency band up to 5000 cps.
2
lines, usable band up to 2500 cps.
4
To Riverhead- lines, usable band up to 5000 cps.
2
20 lines, usable band up to 2500 cps.
To New Brunswick- 2 u -h -f radio links, usable band up to 17,500 cps.
To Philadelphia- 1 u -h -f radio link, usable band up to 30,000 cps.
To Tuckerton- 2 single lines for d -c controls.
In addition, high -quality, program-material service lines are provided

to Rocky Point and Riverhead, but these do not terminate on the
racks being described, but lead directly to the special program-
material service racks on the fourth floor.
22 RCA REVIEW
Until recently, simplex circuits using ground return had been

provided on several of the Riverhead and Rocky Point lines for use
as interstation direct -current telegraph circuits. These circuits
required critical relay adjustments as additional terminal loops were
added, and occasionally became usable only with difficulty or not at
all when leaky lines were experienced, although the audio -frequency
tone circuits were little disturbed by the line conditions. Emergency
tone circuits were set up as a rule to permit necessary communications
to be passed on to the stations at such times. Steps have now been
taken to abandon the d -c telegraph circuits and substitute tone-com-
Hybrid
To 510^, 425 ^,
--t-
Line lots- band- outgoing
pass
--t
pass signal
5.'5N
hand-
pass
yincoming
signals
765N
band-
510, pass
high
pass
pass
band
band-
pass
To other
filters
Fig. 7-Hybrid coil and filter arrangement.
munication circuits, although retaining the d -c closed-circuit loops at

the terminals for their advantage in respect to local -branch circuits.
Three tone -communication channels are provided for Riverhead and
three for Rocky Point. The three channels to Rocky Point include one
printer channel for the more lengthy communications, a telegraph
"order wire", and a channel with a d -c extension loop from Rocky
Point to Riverhead assigned exclusively for facsimile service com-
munications. The three to Riverhead are similar except that the third
channel with a d -c extension loop from Riverhead to Rocky Point is
assigned to the program-material service.
The cable lines from 66 Broad Street are normally one-way circuits,.
that is, all lines to Riverhead are set up for transferring signals
from Riverhead to the Central Office, and all lines to Rocky Point
for transferring signals from the Central Office to the transmitters.
To provide the tone channels in the reverse direction necessary for
intercommunication circuits several of the lines to each station have,
therefore, been equipped with hybrid coils. To reduce possibility of
cross -talk to a minimum even under most unfavorable line conditions,
the hybrid circuits have been reinforced with additional channel filter-
ing to provide a high degree of protection to the very important
Line Transfer Bus
to
o£her
Filter in filtere
595 765 935 1105 12751
00000
425
O
I
11
Filter out - Monitor 425 1595 765 - Filters
00000
425 595 765 935 1105 1275
O 8
Filter out - cut off

425 595 765 935 1105 1275
O 000001 D``
Amplifier -rectifier in
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
O 000001
Ampl.-Rect. out -Monitor
p 11
3
Ampl.
4 5 6 Rect.
1 2 3
O 00000 U
Ampl. rect. TONE out
00000
1 2 3 4 5 6
O U
Operator's Phones
4 5 6
O 00000
1 2 3
or'
1
Ampl. rect. DC out to reo'g.
4
r-.---
5 6
O 00000
2 3
1
D
position
'T-
r--
-
Recorder In
1 3 4 5 6
O 0000oc
2
-1 D'
to recorders at receiving positions.
Fig. 8-Receiving jack layout and diagram of connections.
traffic channels. In Figure 7 the 425 -cycle channel of the multiple

group is assigned to the communication circuit carrying signals in
the direction reversed to that of the remaining channels of the group.
Any one of the channels of the main group may be assigned to the
communication circuit in the normal direction.
On line rack No. 5 are mounted several units of apparatus used for
testing lines, signals, and equipment. These include a calibrated
amplifier, volume indicator, and amplifier rectifiers to drive recorders
on the associated test table located in the center of the room. ''A port-
24 RCA REVIEW
able cathode-ray oscilloscope forms part of the test equipment, and

may be used to assist or replace the other test equipment. The patch-
ing jacks for the test equipment are located on line rack No. 4 for
convenience in patching to the line jacks either directly or through
the monitor filters. Any single signal or group of signals may thus
be checked at this point.
RECEIVING CONTROL RACK
The last two racks, No. 6 and No. 7, of the group described above
serve as switching and testing panels for the central office receiving
Fig. 9-Transmitting control rack.

equipment. On these panels transfer busses from the line rack con-
nect the lines from the receiving station to the filter groups. The
filters separate the individual channels from groups of as many as
twelve channels on each line. Each filter connects to an amplifier -
rectifier unit which in turn connects to a recorder at the receiving
operating position. Jacks for all these connections are installed on
the receiving panel since it is often necessary to divert channels to
other positions than those regularly used. A typical group of jacks is
illustrated in Figure 8.
To provide for present requirements the arrangement of lines
from Riverhead is as follows;
6lines each with a group of from 8 to 13 band-pass filters,

6 lines each with a set of 1200 -cycle high- and low-pass filters,
2 lines each with a 510 -cycle high-pass filter,
8 lines unequipped with filters.
The band-pass filter groups are subdivided into groups of narrow-

band -pass and wide -pass filters. The narrow -band filters have their
mid -band frequencies spaced at odd multiples of 85 cycles starting
with the fifth multiple or 425 cycles. These filters are usable for
keying speeds of 80 words per minute in Morse Code. The wide-band
filters have their mid -band frequencies spaced at odd multiples of 425
cycles starting with the third multiple or 1275 cycles. These filters are
usable for keying speeds up to 450 words per minute. The ability of
the wide-band filters to handle this speed of transmission makes them
suitable for use with the time -division multiplex equipment.
The 1200 -cycle high-pass and low-pass filter combination provides
two very wide bands on each line so equipped, and the resulting
channels may be used for extremely high-speed telegraph keying.
But even wider bands are necessary for facsimile transmission and
the 5000 -cycle lines equipped with 510 -cycle high-pass filters to cut
off low -frequency line noise, are available for this service.
Although the lines not equipped with filters may be used as spare
lines to which any of the filter groups may be transferred, their more
essential usage is for transfer of signals received at Riverhead with
such poor quality as to be unsuitable for actuating the diversity-
receiver tone keyers. Such signals must, therefore, be sent into the
central office just as received, with varying amplitude and varying
frequency, and an entire line must be turned over to each signal of
this kind. Fortunately such signals are the exception and are de-
creasing in number as the foreign stations improve their transmitters.
TRANSMITTING CONTROL RACK
Similar in arrangement to the receiving control board just de-

scribed is the transmitting control board taking up two racks, Nos. 3
and 4, of the group of racks to the right of the console. It differs
only in the type of equipment to which the jacks connect, consisting in
this case of tone keyers and their accessory apparatus, transmitting
position equipment to control the keyers, tone sources to provide the
audio -frequency signals to be keyed, and wave filters to pass the keyed
tones, free from harmonics, into the multiple groups of signals on
the lines to the transmitting stations.
26 RCA REVIEW
The transmitting operating -position equipment may be either auto-

matic, perforated -tape -controlled Wheatstone transmitters, teletype
printers, or time -division multiplex equipment controlled in turn by
either or both of the others.
The tone sources are either multiple -frequency generators or
vacuum-tube oscillators. On rack No. 2 is mounted the remote control
switching equipment for the tone generators which are installed in
the basement generator room. Space is also provided on this rack
for a group of recently designed vacuum -tube oscillators having a high
degree of stability combined with economy of material and space. The
new oscillators will generate tones suitable for the wide -band filters,
whose mid -frequencies are separated by 850 cycles, and can be ex-
tended up to the limit of the 5000 -cycle lines. The multiple -tone gen-
erators each provide twelve tones in steps of 170 cycles from 425
cycles to 2295 cycles. These correspond to the mid -frequencies of wide -
band filters as well. Neither of these tone sources is required for
certain special equipment such as multiplex and facsimile apparatus
which include suitable oscillators as part of their own assembly.
The tone keyers associated with the transmitter -control board are
of two types, mechanical relays and vacuum -tube locking-circuit
type keyers. The latter are located elsewhere than on these racks and
will be described later. The relays, however, are mounted on inclined
shelves in rack No. 1 of the group being described in this section. A
plate -glass door on this rack provides for constant visual observation
of the relays, while access may be easily had in case re -adjustment of
a relay is required at any time. The relays which are of the high-speed
polarized type are extremely rugged and reliable.
Although the tone filters are not mounted on this group of racks,
the separate rack on which they are mounted is located nearby and
may properly be mentioned at this time. This rack with the filters in
place is shown in Figure 10. A total of 191 individual filters are
available at the present time, of which 88 are assigned to transmitting
circuits, 84 to receiving circuits, and 19 for monitoring. All are not
used simultaneously ; depending on the type of signals being trans-
mitted or received at any given time, wide -band or narrow-band
filters in several possible combinations may be set up to suit.
To the right of the transmitter control panel, on rack No. 5 are
mounted two 480 -cycle frequency standards with their associated
power units and switching panel. These standards are extremely stable
fork -driven oscillators, whose outputs are fed to duplicate bus systems
to which are connected all apparatus whose operation depends on syn-
chronization with similar apparatus at the other end of the radio cir-
cuits. Included in this classification are multiplex terminals operating

with similar terminals at Amsterdam, San Francisco, Chicago and
Detroit,3 and facsimile terminals working with similar units at
Philadelphia.
Fig. 10-Filter rack.

The next two racks, Nos. 6 and 7, contain control equipment for
the three transmitters of the u -h -f station at 30 Broad Street. In
addition to switches for remote starting of the station at New York
and the relay stations at New Brunswick and Arney's Mount, there
are meters for indicating percentage of modulation on each trans-
mitter, attenuators for adjusting the percentage of modulation,
28 RCA REVIEW
carrier -level indicators, and carrier -off alarms. Since the u -h -f trans-
mitters are completely unattended, the equipment mounted on these
two racks is necessary to carry on two important operations asso-
ciated with transmitters, that is, the observation and control of the
character of the transmitted signals. The controls are operated over
two pairs of lines per transmitter. One pair carries the keyed -signal
tones of the transmitter while its simplex connection with ground
return provides a circuit for starting the transmitter. The second
Fig. 11-Apparatus room-tone keyers.

pair brings the transmitter -monitoring signals back to the control
rack for operating a carrier -level meter, a carrier-off alarm, and a
percentage -of -modulation indicator. Remote control of the distant
relay transmitters is effected by means of one of the tones of the group
transmitted over the radio circuit. The system has been described
in detail in a previous paper.4
Used in conjunction with the u -h -f relay to Philadelphia are the
printer -control units mounted on the remaining two racks of this
group, Nos. 8 and 9. The "outgoing units" are, in effect, tone keyers
operated by the transmitting portion of standard teletype printers,
while the "incoming units" are tone amplifier -rectifiers which convert
the incoming tone signals to direct -current impulses for actuating the
magnets of the teletype receiver mechanism. The jacks to which these
units are connected are so arranged that the units may be operated
either in simplex or duplex. Printer channels are provided by u -1i4
relay to Philadelphia, and via land -line extensions from that point to
Baltimore and Washington.
APPARATUS ROOM
Associated with the control center is the apparatus room located

on the third floor, in which a number of racks are installed for mount-
ing multiplex terminal apparatus, amplifier -rectifier units, vacuum -
tube keyers, and miscellaneous amplifiers.
The amplifier -rectifier unit is designed to take an incoming tone
signal from the receiving station at a level of 50 db or more below
reference volume, amplify it, and rectify it to supply approximately
10 milliamperes into a 3000 -ohm load, which in this case consists of
the movable coil of an ink recorder. The unit also supplies a tone
signal of 6 milliwatts into a 600 -ohm load for aural monitoring. Those
installed in the apparatus room are entirely self-contained units, each
with its own rectifier for operation on 115 volts a -c power supply.
Space is available for a number of additional units of this kind, some of
which will eventually replace the bulky d-c operated amplifier -rectifiers
still retained from the previous installation and which are temporarily
located on the second floor against the rear wall of the control room.
The tone keyer is a unit designed to convert the positive and neg-
ative d -c impulses from the automatic transmitter at the operating
position into tone signals suitable for transmission over a line to
the transmitting station. Utilizing the locking -circuit principle the
keyer regenerates the momentary pulses from the auto head, positive
for "mark" and negative for "space", into full-length characters. Its
action corresponds to that of the locking type of polar relay which,
in fact, it replaces in this service.
Five complete groups of multiplex terminal apparatus of the RCAC
time -division type are set up in this apparatus room for use on
circuits operating with Amsterdam, Chicago, Detroit, and San Fran-
cisco. A multiplex terminal using the Higgett system and operating
on a London circuit is also located here. The design of the RCAC
multiplex terminals is such as to facilitate inspection and mainte-
nance. The interior of each cabinet rack is painted white and all
parts of the equipment are in their natural metal or cadmium -plated
finish. Upon opening a cabinet door, lamps are automatically switched
on, flooding the interior with shadowless light. Each unit of equip-
30 RCA REVIEW
ment is connected to the rack wiring forms by means of grouped link
bars to permit ready removal of the unit from the rack when necessary.
However parts are so mounted on the chassis of each unit that all
Fig. 12-Apparatus room-multiplex terminals.
may be seen or worked on without removing the unit from the rack,
unless a replacement unit is to be installed.
Miscellaneous amplifiers, including those used for monitoring cir-
cuits and with the intercommunicating systems, all of which are either
fixed -gain or remote -gain -controlled units, are installed in the ap-
paratus room.
INSTALLATION DETAILS
As the photographs show, a uniform style of apparatus construc-

tion has been adopted in this installation. This style is characterized
by flat front panels, hinged doors for access to tubes, and dull rubber -
black finish. All units have standard 19 -inch wide panels, and are
mounted on cabinet -type racks.
Cabinet -rack shelves and floor are covered with a marbleized black
and white linoleum to harmonize with the equipment. Chromium-
plated trim has been used on the console, rack shelves, and rail. Be-
cause of the interest in the control room, shown by frequent visitors
to 66 Broad Street, the appearance of this section of the establishment
was considered an important feature in its design.
Each group of racks is mounted on a structural channel base
which not only serves as a firm and level support for the group, but
also becomes a very convenient trough for inter -rack connecting cables.
Overhead ducts carry the connecting cables between groups of racks
while an under -floor trench is provided for the cables to the console.
All ducts and trenches are built for easy access so that need for
pulling lines or cables through conduits has been entirely eliminated.
Interconnecting cables are of special design to provide maximum
protection against cross -talk and pick-up of possible interfering cur-
rents. Twisted pairs of tinned enamel and silk -insulated conductors
are individually shielded with copper -wire braid, and groups of 7, 11,
or 26 of these shielded pairs are formed into cables for convenience in
installation.
Close inspection of the installation would show that certain de-
tails have followed telephone -exchange and broadcast -studio practice.
Because of the extensive use of audio frequencies in this service some
of the problems are the same. For the most part, however, since the
requirements of high-speed radio -telegraph control are peculiar to
itself, no hesitation has been shown in departing from methods stand-
ardized in other services where it appeared advantageous to do so.
REFERENCES
1 E. F. W. Alexanderson, A. E. Reoch, and C. H. Taylor, "The Electrical

Plant of Transoceanic Radio Telegraphy" Journal of A. I. E. E., July, 1923.
2 J. E. Smith, F. Kroger and R. W. George, "Practical Application of an
Ultra -High -Frequency Radio -Relay Circuit". Proc. I. R. E., Nov. 1938.
3 J. L. Callahan, R. E. Mathes, and A. Kahn, "Time Division Multiplex
on Radiotelegraph Practice". Proc. I. R. E., January, 1938.
4 H. H. Beverage, "The New York -Philadelphia Ultra -High -Frequency
Facsimile Relay System". RCA REVIEW, July, 1936.
GREAT LAKES RADIOTELEPHONE SERVICE
BY
H. B. MARTIN
Engineering Department, Radiomarine Corporation of Amerlea
Summary-The radiotelephone communication systems now in use on

the Great Lakes are similar in many respects to United States Coastal and
Harbor services. Radiotelephone on the Great Lakes is used primarily for
dispatching cargo vessels and for communication with pleasure craft.
The Federal Communication Commission does not require radio equip-
ment on Great Lakes vessels except those in the passenger -ship classification.
During the last three navigation seasons, the use of radiotelephone
communication for business, pleasure, and safety purposes has shown con-
siderable growth.
RESENT -DAY radiotelephone communication on Lakes Erie,

Huron, Michigan, Ontario, and Superior presents many problems
which differ from established practices on the Atlantic and
Pacific coasts of the United States.
Radiotelephone communication with vessels using coastal ports
may be divided into two classes. In one class fall the trans -oceanic
passenger liners which employ radiotelephone as an added service in
conjunction with the regular radiotelegraph service carried for safety -
of -life -at-sea and for public correspondence. Ships in this category
utilize relatively expensive and complicated equipment which must of
necessity be operated by skilled radio personnel. Multi -channel trans-
mitters in the order of 400 and 600 watts output are commonly em-
ployed to enable reliable communication with high power coastal tele-
phone stations over distances of several thousand miles.
The other class of vessels using radiotelephone on salt water and
tidal rivers includes cargo vessels, yachts, tugboats, fishing vessels,
and small craft. These vessels carry radiotelephone equipment designed
to communicate over relatively short distances such as within harbors
and along the coasts. A number of harbor -telephone stations have been
established along the United States coastlines for this type of service.
At the present time nine stations for harbor service are in operation
and others are contemplated. Since communication is never intended
over large distances, the allocated frequencies are in the 2100 to 2600
kilocycle band.
The Canadian -American agreement of 1933 allocated certain fre-
quencies between 2100 and 2600 kilocycles for use on inland waterways,
32
GREAT LAKES RADIOTELEPHONE SERVICE 33
including the Great Lakes and the Gulf of St. Lawrence Waterway.
Due to the geographical separation and the distance ranges of the
frequencies involved, it is possible to duplicate frequency assignments.
The following tabulation shows ship transmitting and receiving fre-
quencies as contemplated for use on the Great Lakes and the Gulf of
St. Lawrence :
Ship Frequency
Location of Ship Transmitting Receiving
On Lakes Superior and Erie 2158 2550
On Lakes Michigan and Ontario 2118 2514
On Lake Huron 2182 2582
On St. Lawrence Waterway 2190 2598
Special temporary rules, governing radiotelephone operation on the

Great Lakes for the 1939 navigation season issued by the Federal Com-
munications Commission effective March 31, 1939, change the above
assignments. The frequency 2182 kc may be used by all Great Lakes
shore and ship telephone stations for calling and for safety purposes.
After communication has been established between the ship and shore
stations, both stations will change to the traffic frequencies, either
2118 and 2514 kc or 2158 and 2550. Ships are not authorized to trans-
mit on the traffic or working frequencies unless directed to do so by
the shore station contacted. Such a system will prevent a ship from
interfering with a conversation already in progress. In the case of
ship -to -ship communication, both ships would change to 2738 kc after
first having established communication on 2182 kc.
The U. S. Coast Guard will operate all of its approximately fifty
radio stations on the five lakes to conform to this plan. These stations
are being equipped to operate on 2182 kc so that ships requiring assist-
ance or emergency information may call the nearest Coast Guard
station directly and obtain assistance or information.
The rules also provide a special marine broadcast frequency of 2572
kc for periodical weather information.
New frequencies 4422.5 and 4282.5 ks for ship -shore communication
are authorized for daytime use only. In addition, a new day -only inter -
ship frequency of 5532.5 kc has been allocated.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR RECEIVERS
Since frequencies adjacent to those used on the Great Lakes are

used in other areas, the selectivity of ship receivers should be such that
34 RCA REVIEW
signals having a carrier frequency 8 kilocycles removed from the de-

sired signal will be highly attenuated.
Equipment designed for the reception of voice only from the harbor
stations must be capable of selectivity equal to or better than standard
broadcast practice. Selectivity, such as required, is attained in practice
only by the use of well -designed receivers of the superheterodyne type
where high adjacent channel attenuation and optimum gain are pos-
sible with a minimum number of tuned circuits. It is well known that
for random received noises, such as atmospherics, the voltage present
in the receiver output, as a result of these noises, will vary as the
square root of the effective band width of the receiver. The receiver
radio -frequency oscillator must, of necessity, equal the stability of the
shore station transmitters which are required by regulation to main-
tain frequency within ± 0.02 per cent. For example, a shore station
operating on 2500 kc would have a tolerance of only ± 500 cycles. If
the receiver intermediate amplifier (wherein the receiver derives most
of its selectivity) is assumed to have a response essentially flat for
transmitter side bands up to 2700 cycles, in order to give good voice
reception and limit received noise, the receiver oscillator could be off
frequency only a small amount without noticeable side -band attenua-
tion. In order to maintain frequency stability as required, the receiver
r -f oscillator must be quartz -crystal controlled.
To allow communication with weak signals the shipboard receivers
must be capable of reasonable headphone or loudspeaker signals with
inputs of 5 microvolts absolute or less. Electrical machinery and static
will, in many cases, prevent usable sensitivities of this order since,
assuming a receiving antenna of 5 meters effective height, it is more
than likely that noise in excess of a signal of 1 microvolt per meter
would be received.
Fading is usually present beyond the normal primary service area
of the shore station which necessitates the use of automatic
volume
control in order to reduce the effects of fading. Automatic volume
con-
trol is also desirable to prevent overloading and distortion when
strong
signals are received. It is well-known that delayed automatic
volume
control is desirable for weak signal reception in field strengths
only a
few microvolts above the noise level. The receiver "noise -equivalent",
which is a figure -of -merit for modern receivers, must be
loW enough
so that "carrier -hiss" is only a fraction of the audio
output obtained
when weak signals are received. The "noise -equivalent"
effectively
determines usable minimum signal reception since a signal
which is
present, but masked by noise is of no value for communication.
Radio -
frequency amplification ahead of the mixer or converter stage
is always
desirable so that receiver hiss may be reduced to values determined by

"first -circuit" noise.
The audio output of marine telephone receivers must be sufficient to
overcome room noise when the vessel is in rough weather. Audio
fidelity should be purposely restricted to frequencies containing essen-
tially all of the intelligence in a voice -modulated carrier.
TRANSMITTER AND WAVE PROPAGATION CONSIDERATIONS
The Federal Communications Commission licenses harbor telephone
stations for an antenna power of 400 watts. Propagation conditions
are variable depending on the frequency, power, transmitting site,
antenna efficiency, time of day, and the season of the year. For fre-
quencies in the order of 2500 kc it has been shown', 5 that attenuation
is 6 to 12 db per mile of overland transmission. The attenuation is
greatest adjacent to the transmitting site in the case of a station
located inland. When 400 watts antenna power at 2500 kc and an
antenna efficiency of 50 per cent is assumed, the radiated power would
be reduced to approximately 100 watts at the shore if the station is one
mile inland. This figure is based on the assumption that field strength
is attenuated 6 db for the first mile of overland transmission. For this
reason, in order to realize ground -wave field strengths as large as pos-
sible with relatively low power, land stations for communication with
ships are always located as close to the shore as practicable.
The conditions for ground -wave propagation over sea water are
considerably better3' 4, 6. The attenuation over sea water is less than
0.1 db per mile so that for 60 miles the signal would be reduced not
more than 6 db below the inverse distance field, resulting in a field
strength of approximately 300 microvolts. Attenuation over fresh
water is somewhat more than over salt water so that the exclusively
ground-wave or primary -service area of the average 2000 kc, 400 -watt
station may be only 25 to 50 miles over fresh water and interven-
ing land. During daylight hours the reflected sky wave does not
become appreciable under 50 miles. Since atmospherics are at a mini-
mum near noontime, it is usually possible to communicate farther, by
means of the ground wave, during the day than at night. For example,
during August, 1938, tests were conducted between Harbor Station
WAY (2514 kc), Lake Bluff, Illinois and low-power telephone equip-
ment on boats up to 70 miles north of Lake Bluff along the western
shore line of Lake Michigan. It was found that commercial signals were
obtainable on both ends of the radio link at distances of 50 to 60 miles
during the middle -daylight hours, but from late afternoon through-
out the night, the increase in atmospherics limited communication to
about 30 miles. Transmitters delivering 5,8 15,7 and 50 watts were used
36 RCA REVIEW
for transmissions to WAY. During October, November, and until the

close of Great Lakes navigation, it was generally possible to carry on
commercial telephone calls with WAY up to distances of 450 miles at
night.
GREAT LAKES TELEPHONE SHORE STATIONS
The Canadian Government has, for several navigation seasons
been carrying on limited tests with Canadian boats equipped with
Marconi radiotelephone apparatus. Following is a tabulation of Can-
adian shore stations:
VBA Port Arthur, Ontario (Northwestern Lake Superior)

VBB Sault St. Marie, Ontario (Junction Lakes Superior and Huron)
VBC Midland, Ontario (Georgian Bay, Lake Huron)
VBE Sarnia, Ontario (Lower Lake Huron)
VBF Port Burwell, Ontario (Lake Erie)
VBG Toronto, Ontario (Western Lake Ontario)
VBH Kingston, Ontario (Eastern Lake Ontario)
These stations were established primarily for radiotelegraph com-
munications and the telephone apparatus has been located adjacent to
the radiotelegraph equipment and is operated by the same personnel.
VBB and VBG during the 1938 season transmitted on either 2550 or
1630 kc and maintained a watch on 1630 kc for 50 minutes then changed
to the 2158 to 2550 channel for the remaining 10 minutes of each
hour. The five other stations used only 1630 kc for both transmitting
and receiving. It is expected that the Canadian radiotelephone sta-
tions will conform to the new plan. The Canadian ship stations use
antenna power of approximately 25 watts and the shore stations of
approximately 100 watts. Telephone communication to Canadian sta-
tions is on a "message" basis, it being necessary for the shore operator
to write down the telephone message from the ship, convey it to its
destination by land -line telephone or telegraph, receive the answer, if
any, the same way, and read the message to the ship. Such a system
is considerably slower in operation than the procedure employed by the
United States stations now in operation where the ship is connected
directly to the subscriber called just as in long-distance, land -line
practice.
There are at present four United States Harbor or Coastal -Harbor
telephone stations for Great Lakes service as follows:
WMI Lorain, Ohio 500 watts (near Cleveland)
WAY Lake Bluff, Ill. 400 cc (near Chicago)
WAS Duluth, Minnesota 400 `c
WAD Port Washington, Wisc. 400 4
4
It is estimated that 95 per cent of all Great Lakes cargo vessels

are dispatched and directed from the Cleveland offices of the various
shipping companies. Since reliable communication under adverse con-

ditions is a matter of somewhat less than 100 miles in the vicinity of
2000 kc frequencies, additional frequencies normally allocated to ocean
communication were assigned to WMI making that station a "Coastal -
Harbor" service-the only one of its kind to date on the Great Lakes.
The frequencies in use at WMI are as follows :
For transmission For reception
"Channel 30" 2550 kc 2158 kc
"Channel 20" 6470 kc 6660 kc
"Channel 10" 8585 kc 8820 kc
Channel 30 is used for all short distance communication in the
western part of Lake Erie during the daytime and at night for any
location in the lakes during low -static conditions, which normally
occur only during early spring and late autumn.
Channel 20 is normally good for communication to any point in the
lakes at night except for the gap between the ground wave and the
beginning of the sky -wave reflection. The latter begins to be service-
able at about 100 miles from Lorain, Ohio whereas the ground wave
is attenuated to non-commercial values only a few miles from the
transmitting site.
Channel 10 is necessarily an exclusively daylight channel so far as
Great Lakes communication is concerned since the minimum night time
range of 8 to 9 -megacycle transmission is about 1500 miles which is
greater than the distance from Cleveland to any point on the Great
Lakes. The minimum daylight range of this frequency is approximately
300 miles so that ships from lower Lake Huron to Duluth may normally
use Channel 10 for communication with WMI during midday.
Station WAY is located at Lake Bluff, Illinois, and serves the lower
part of Lake Michigan with Harbor Telephone service. WAY operates
on 2514 kc with 400 watts power. Ships communicating with this
station normally transmit on 2118 kc although the station is equipped
to receive calls on any telephone frequency used on the Great Lakes.
Station WAS at Duluth, Minnesota operates on 2550 kc and is also
rated at 400 watts power. It is expected that this station will improve
communication facilities in the western part of Lake Superior inas-
much as the ore carriers, in order to receive docking and loading infor-
mation, have previously depended on securing such orders from
Cleveland via WMI. When it was necessary to converse with company
agents in Duluth, or other harbors near the ore fields, a long radio
link to Lorain, Ohio plus a long land -line connection was required.
Station WAD at Port Washington, Wisconsin operates on either
2550 kc or 2514 kc, the latter frequency being shared with station
WAY. Port Washington is 70 miles north of Lake Bluff, Illinois.
38 RCA REVIEW
SHIP EQUIPMENT
Ship equipment, operated by holders of "Third Class Telephone"
licenses, must of necessity, due to government radio regulations and
from a practical standpoint, be comparatively low power, simple to
operate, and incapable of causing interference to services on other fre-
quencies. Ship telephone transmitters (except the ocean -liner types)
vary in power ratings up to 75 watts output. Normally the superior
receiving conditions on shore and the additional power used by shore
stations balances the generally unfavorable conditions for transmitting
and receiving aboard ships.
The size and construction of the vessel usually limits the trans-
mitting antenna so that it must be inductively loaded. This is true
even on ore carriers whose length generally exceeds 500 feet. Ore boats
are similar to tankers, the cargo holds being between the engine room
and the pilot house. Any radio antenna must extend forward from the
foremast in order to allow loading and unloading the forward holds
without letting down or moving the antenna. The greatest length from
the top of the mast to the pilot house or captain's office (two usual loca-
tions of the transmitting equipment) is not more than 60 feet. An
antenna of this length loaded to 2000 kc has a total resistance of 5 to
10 ohms of which probably no more than 1 to 2 ohms are radiation
resistance, the balance being distributed between dielectric losses,
ohmic resistance, leakage, etc. If 75 watts transmitter output and an
antenna efficiency of 20 per cent is assumed, the field strength at 50
miles, due to the ground wave only, would be approximately 200 micro-
volts per meter. If the effective height of the ship receiving antenna
is assumed to be 5 meters, the receiver r -f input would be 1000 micro-
volts. At 100 miles, and for the same assumed conditions, i.e. power,
antenna efficiency, frequency, etc., the field strength would be approx-
imately 80 microvolts per meter or 400 microvolts at the receiver input
terminals.
In a great many cases, particularly on lakes, in harbors, and on
inland waterways in general, the transmission path is along the coast-
line or over intervening land forming a large percentage of the propaga-
tion path. The attenuation of signals over fresh water is known to be,
greater than over salt water. In the case of predominant overland
transmission, the attenuation would be such that at 50 miles, a 75 -watt
ship transmitter could be expected to produce a field strength of
approximately 2 microvolts per meter. Obviously local ship interference
caused by electrical machinery and static conditions may frequently be
in excess of the received signal strength. Pertinent literature contains
many statements relative to signal-to-noise ratios for telephone com-
munication. While this is a debatable point, it is generally conceded

that for the reception of news broadcasts and voice only, in cases where
the listener has some special reason for wanting to listen and will toler-
ate annoyance, the signal must be 10 times stronger than the average
noise levels. Measurements made during summer static conditions to
indicate ratios of peak to average values show that during the day the
ratio varies between 80 to 1 and 2 to 1, averaging a ratio of about 10
to 1. Durir..g the night, measurements showed the ratio to vary between
30 to 1 and 2 to 1, averaging 5 to 1. Apparently the night-time ratios of
peak to average noise are more favorable for communication, since it
is the peak crashes which obscure communication with weak signals.
It must be remembered, however, that average static levels at night
may be 10 times the average day values so that in general and except
in rare cases when there is little night static, the primary service range
of a station is greater in the daytime than at night.
Actual observations made on the Great Lakes during November,
1938 and April, 1939 using transmitters of 75 watts power showed that
daylight intership communication over water and intervening land on
2738 kc was practical up to 100 miles in the absence of static. Night-
time intership communication was a variable factor. On occasion it
was possible to carry on conversations up to 600 miles over lake water
and intervening land. At other times difficulty was experienced in
attaining a 50 -mile range.
CALLING SYSTEMS
The use of loudspeakers for standing -by or monitoring shore station

and ship transmitting frequencies is objectionable for several reasons.
First, several channels must be monitored simultaneously in order that
calls may be received from any shore station operating on any one of
several channels. For example, WMI uses three transmitting channels
any one of which may be used to call the desired ship, depending on
the location of the ship and the time of day. This would require a
minimum of three receivers for monitoring WMI or similar stations
and one for intership incoming calls. Calls on all channels whose
propagation characteristics permit reception at the ship location would
be heard by all ships. The continual blaring of a loudspeaker located
in the pilot house would be a source of annoyance to such an extent
that the speaker volume would be reduced, causing incoming calls
destined for the ship in question to be missed. Also, loudspeaker mon-
itoring of all channels simulates a "party -line" where all conversations
are heard by all subscribers whether they intentionally listen or not.
40 RCA REVIEW
The majority of Great Lakes ships using radiotelephone utilize
loudspeaker monitoring arranged so that the speaker has a response
characteristic peaked at 300 cycles. The shore station normally com-
municating with these ships calls individual vessels by transmitting a
300 -cycle tone broken up into characters to simulate the ship's whistle
signal. Each lake carrier ship has a code signal different from other
ships and, therefore, quickly recognized by the ship's bridge personnel.
Ships use the same method to call each other, the "longs" and "shorts"
comprising the whistle signal of the boat called being made by manipu-
lating a telephone dial. The digit "8" is usually dialed to transmit a
"long" or dash and the digit "2" is dialed to transmit a "short" or dot.
Hence, to call the "Wm. H Wolf," another boat would dial 8222 222
on the intership frequency. The first group is the fleet signal of the
Gartland Steamship Company and the second group is the identifying
or name signal.
Stations WMI, WAS and WAD use the whistle-signal system to
call ships. Combined shore station calls and intership calls during cer-
tain hours of the day tend to make a bedlam of sounds in the pilot
house speaker and as a result the loudspeaker volume may be reduced
so as to be less of an annoyance. This would increase the attendant
likelihood of missing calls.
SELECTIVE SIGNALING SYSTEM

The two-tone audio -frequency, selective signaling system (when
calling boats equipped with an automatic ringing device) has much to
recommend it. This system has been developed particularly for marine
telephone calling service and has been successfully used for a number
of years by the Bell system harbor stations operating with harbor
craft, yachts, fishing vessels, etc.
The selective signaling system has several distinct advantages over
the loudspeaker method of attracting the attention of ship's personnel.
The device is noiseless, faster and more accurate in its results. Except
in exceptionally rare instances, a false alarm is practically impossible
-the bell is rung only on the ship called and not on some potential
400 others. It is possible to put calls through when the shore station
signals are only 2 db above the noise. Such a weak signal would be of
little value for a commercial call, but would be usable in cases of
distress. It is also possible to ring the bells on all ships at once in
order to organize distress communication and establish control by shore
stations or coast guard vessels.
The selective signaling device or automatic ringer, as it is some-
times called, consists fundamentally of a double filter network, two
copper -oxide rectifiers, a polarized relay, and a stepping relay. The

filters are fixed -tuned to 600 and 1500 cycles respectively. Each filter
highly attenuates all frequencies except the one to which it is tuned.
Separate copper -oxide rectifiers convert the filter outputs to direct
current. The pulsating current is used to operate a polarized relay
which is poled so that the reception of a 600 -cycle audio tone in the
radio receiver closes the relay in one direction where it stays until
a 1500 -cycle tone is received, which returns the relay armature to its
opposite position. The reception of alternate 600- and 1500 -cycle tones
therefore causes the polarized relay armature to travel back and forth
between fixed contacts. The function of the polarized relay is to charge
and discharge a capacitor through the winding of a special stepping
relay which must receive alternate impulses of capacitor charging and
discharging current in order to operate the stepping and retaining
mechanism. The stepping relay has a "code wheel" having movable
pins which may be set in holes corresponding to any number desired
so long as the sum of the digits in the number totals, for example, 23.
The number of pins required depends on the number of digits. For
example, a ship "telephone number" might be made up using three
numbers such as 779, whose sum totals 23. The shore station impulsing
telephone dial is specially constructed so that regardless of the number
dialed the first digit of the next number will cause the opposite tone
to be transmitted as A2 emission from the shore station. While it plays
no part in the actual code, the digit "1" is always dialed as a prefix
in order to reset the selector code wheel which might be resting on one
of its pins and not at "zero," and in order to insure that all polarized
relays are resting on either the 600- or 1500 -cycle contacts. Actually,
the change of tone from 600 to 1500 or vice versa, rather than the
presence of either tone, causes the code wheel to advance.
Since the number of 3 -digit codes whose sum equals 23 is limited,
the use of a 5 -digit code is recommended. For example, to call a certain
ship, the shore station operator would dial 1 2 5 4 6 6. The prefix "1"
moves the code wheel, but it returns to zero since no retaining pin is
used in the number 1 position. Another ship might use the code
1 5 2 4 6 6, an arrangement which still totals 23 for the last five digits,
but has the order of the 2 and 5 reversed. The code wheels of both
ships, using the numbers as above, would step up to position 5 when the
shore operator dialed "5," but only the second ship's code wheel would
be retained at 5 and ready for the "2"; the code wheel on the first ship
having fallen back to "zero" since no pin was in the 5 position. Using
a five -digit code as above, over 2000 different ships could be dialed
individually without the other ships being aware that a call or a con-
versation was in progress.
42 RCA REVIEW
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Exterior and interior views of transmitting and receiving equipment used
for four -channel operation.
Selective ringing can be applied to intership calling by somewhat
complicating the ship transmitting equipment. Station WAY uses the
selective ringing system for calling all ships so equipped.
SHIP RADIOTELEPHONE EQUIPMENT

Figure shows a view of ship equipment installed in 1938 and 1939
1
on several ore carriers operating on Lakes Erie, Huron,
Michigan, and
Superior. This equipment was especially designed for telephone
com-
munication on the Great Lakes.
The complete installation consists of:
Transmitter and receiver cabinet

Local hand set
Remote hand set

Loudspeaker and bell box
Motor generator and starter
Transmitting and receiving antennas
The main cabinet is 20" wide, 20" deep, and 72" high. The front
is hinged and swings open for access to the tubes, for servicing, initial
tuning during installation, etc. A lock is provided on the door. Figure
2 shows the front opened for inspection. The lower section of the
apparatus panel includes a terminal board and fuse block arranged for
easy access. The lower panel has three adjustable controls for obtaining
the correct receiving tube and transmitting tube heater voltages and
the high -voltage d.c. used for transmitting. These adjustments are
made during the installation and need no attention thereafter since
none of the voltages are especially critical.
The transmitter audio -frequency tubes and associated parts are on
the lower panel. A carbon -button microphone such as is used in land -
line telephone service swings the grid of a Class A microphone amplifier
which in turn supplies grid voltage for the driver stage. The modula-
tors are arranged in a high-level Class B circuit and modulate the plate
and screen circuits of the r -f power amplifier. The complete audio cir-
cuit is designed so that a normal voice level at the microphone will
produce 60 watts of undistorted a -f power output. This is sufficient to
modulate completely a d -c input of 120 watts in the r-f power -amplifier
stage. High-level, plate-circuit modulation of a Class C, r -f amplifier,
as used in this transmitter, is considered better practice than grid or
suppressor circuit modulations, which although requiring less audio
power, are subject to more distortion, are more difficult to adjust, are
critical as to output loading, and definitely have more distortion at high
percentages of modulation. The latter is particularly true of suppressor
modulation. The overall power efficiency of high-level and low-level
modulation is approximately the same since to get the same antenna
power, the high-level system uses highly efficient Class C r -f amplifiers
at the expense of having to develop high audio power whereas the low-
level system conserves on audio power, but requires inefficient Class B
operation of the r -f modulating amplifier.
The equipment shown in Figures 1 and 2 is for four -channel opera-
tion, but has the advantage that one of the channels may be tuned to
any one of five transmitting and receiving frequencies. The middle
section of the equipment panel contains four separate, six -tube super-
heterodyne receivers with crystal -controlled oscillators. Each receiver
consists of a 6L7 r -f amplifier, a 6K8 mixer-oscillator, 2 6L7 i -f ampli-
fiers, a 6R7 detector and audio amplifier, and a 25A6 audio power tube.
44 RCA REVIEW
The combined output of the receivers is fed to the loudspeaker, selective

ringer, or handsets as will be described later.
The four channels are known as 10, 20, 30, and 40. A tabulation
follows:
Channel Ship Transmits On Ship Receives On

10 8820 kc 8585 kc
20 6660 kc 6470 kc
40 (intership) 2738 kc 2738 kc
30 2118 kc 2514 kc
30 2158 kc 2550 kc
30 (coast guard) 2182 kc 2182 kc
30 (coast guard) 2670 kc 2670 kc
30
Any one of the four channels may be selected by means of a tele-

phone dial located on the local or remote handset mountings. Since
Channel 30 is normally a short -distance or local channel, the ship is
expected to set Channel 30 for the shore -station serving their location.
For example, a ship while in Lake Michigan would set the Channel 30
knobs, which protrude through the front cover, for operation with
WAY or WAD. When in Lake Superior or Lake Erie, the Channel 30
knobs would be set for operation with WMI, Lorain, Ohio or WAS,
Duluth, Minnesota or Canadian stations at Sault St. Marie or
Toronto, Ontario. If communication is desired with various Coast
Guard stations, the Channel 30 controls would be set for 2182 kc. An
additional channel -30 pair of frequencies may be added at any time
whenever a station begins to use them.
Channel 40 is used exclusively for intership communication except
that the Coast Guard station at White Fish Point, Lake Superior, is
set up to use 2738 as well as 2670 kc for the exchange of weather infor-
mation with ships. This was done because very few of the Lakes
vessels are equipped to use the Coast Guard calling and emergency fre-
quency of 2670 kc or the new 2182 kc safety frequency. It is
believed
that the use of 2738 kc by Coast Guard stations and cutters is only a
temporary expedient, pending the installation of a 2182 kc channel on
existing and new Lakes telephone equipment.
Channels 10 and 20 are used exclusively for long distance
com-
munication with station WMI.
The r -f portions of the transmitter consist of three
separate oscilla-
tor tubes and four power amplifier tubes operated in parallel.
The tubes
used are of the "beam" type and require very little
excitation for full
output. One oscillator tube serves the intership
and five channel 30
frequencies. The other two oscillators operate
on 6660 and 8820 kc
respectively. Special crystal -oscillator circuits
are utilized so that
crystal currents are relatively low and also in order
that the Channel 10
and 20 crystals may be one-half the output frequency to insure reliabil-

ity, low heating, negligible feedback, and consequently high frequency
stability.
The power output circuits of Channels 30 and 40 are tuned by a
high -efficiency adjustable -inductance circuit. The Channel 40 (inter -
ship) antenna circuit is fixed tuned to 2738 kc, but the Channel 30
antenna circuit is resonated for any one of the five frequencies to which
Channel 30 may be tuned. This is accomplished by the user after the
proper crystal selector knobs are set for the local Channel 30 frequency.
The Channel 10 and 20 antenna circuits utilize an inductively
coupled antenna tank circuit so that the antenna may be voltage fed.
Micalex and Isolantite insulation is used wherever necessary to
obtain the high insulation required on marine transmitting equipment.
The oscillator, power amplifier, and antenna circuits are switched by
relays controlled from the telephone dial at the local or remote control
points.
Since the receivers must operate 24 hours a day, the receiving tubes
use the ship's line voltage (110 volts d.c.) for power to all elements. The
use of ship's power directly for the receivers and selective ringer is
desirable in that rotating parts are reduced to a minimum. The trans-
mitter motor generator operates only during communication periods
which are normally of short duration. The motor generator supplies
6.3 volts d.c. for transmitter tube heaters and for relay coils energized
during communication and 500 volts for the transmitter plate and
screen supply. A motor starter is used so that the motor generator
may be conveniently started and stopped from a remote point and to
minimize the starting load on the ship's line.
The loudspeaker box is normally installed in the pilot house where
incoming calls will always be heard by the officers on duty. The loud-
speaker box contains the bell which is actuated by the selective ringer.
The speaker is equipped with a volume control and a filter network
which attenuates high audio frequencies, but permits the 300 -cycle
intership or shore station calling tone to be clearly heard.
The local and remote handset and control units are similar to ordi-
nary land -line apparatus using an automatic dial. A volume control and
a pilot light are mounted in the handset cradle. The pilot light indicates
when the motor generator is running.
MANIPULATION OF EQUIPMENT
Assuming the ship is in lower Lake Michigan, the Channel 30 trans-

mitter and receiver crystal -selector knobs and the Channel 30 antenna
46 RCA REVIEW
tuning knob would be set for communication with station WAY and
WAD. The equipment is now monitoring 2514 kc (WAY and WAD)
2738 kc (intership), 6470 kc (WMI) and 8585 (WMI). If the bell in
the pilot house rings, or the ship's whistle signal is heard in the loud-
speaker the captain, mate, or wheelsman lifts the handset from its
cradle and replies on the channel indicated. The shore station normally
identifies itself immediately by voice or by a tone and indicates by
one, two, or three short tones which channel to use for the reply. When
either the local or remote handset is removed from its cradle, the motor
generator starts and the handset is connected to the output of all four
channels. The loudspeaker is automatically disconnected from the cir-
cuit when either handset is in use.
If the call was from WAY, the ship operator would dial "3" which
sets up the transmitting and receiving frequencies for Channel 30. The
three receivers for Channels 10, 20, and 40 are automatically discon-
nected when "3" is dialed. The conversation is carried on much the
same as in land -line communication except that it is not possible for
either the ship or shore end to interrupt each other since when the ship
is talking the ship receiver is deadened. Also, it is necessary to use
voice -operated relays in the shore station to connect the incoming 2 -wire
land line to the 4 -wire radio circuit leading to the transmitter and
coming from the shore receiver. No trouble in carrying on a conversa-
tion is experienced by the conversationalists at either end of the circuit
as soon as both realize that they must not talk at the same time. At
the close of the conversation, the handset is replaced on its cradle,
stopping the motor generator and returning the receivers to their
monitoring condition as previously explained.
If the ship's crew hears their whistle signal on the loudspeaker, but
no channel indication following the call, it means that another ship is
calling on Channel 40. The handset is lifted from its cradle, the num-
ber "4" is dialed and the ship announces its name and asks who is
calling.
If a ship desires to call another ship by the whistle signal system,
the handset is lifted, and "4" is dialed. This sets up the transmitter
for 2738 kc and disconnects receivers on Channels 10, 20, and 30, dis-
connects the loudspeaker and selector, and allows the dial to be used
for making "longs" and "shorts" by dialing 8 and 2 as previously
explained.
In any case, since recycling is automatic it is only necessary when
transferring from one channel to another to "hang up" and dial the
channel desired. The send -receive functions are automatic. The pres-
ence of voice in the microphone turns on the transmitter and deadens
the receiver. After a cessation of voice, the transmitter is shut off and
the receiver returns to full sensitivity. A small interval between words
will not shut off the transmitter. This is done intentionally to allow a
slight pause occasionally to avoid starting the transmitter carrier for
each word since invariably a small part of the first syllable is lost.
REFERENCES
1 "Federal Communications Commission Ship Power Hearing", Nov. 14,
1938, FCC document 30539.
2 "Effect of Shore Station Location Upon Signals". R. A. Heising,
Proc. IRE, Vol. 20, No. 1.
3 "Report of Committee on Radio Wave Propagation". Proc. IRE, Vol.
26, No. 10.
4 "North Atlantic Ship -Shore Radiotelephone Transmission, 1932-1933".
C. N. Anderson, Proc. IRE, Vol. 22, No. 10.
5 "Attenuation of Overland Radio Transmission in the Frequency Range
1.5 to 3.5 Mc." C. N. Anderson, Proc. IRE, Vol. 21, No. 10.
6 "Report of Committee on Radio Wave Propagation." Proc. IRE, Vol.
21, No. 10 (Oct. 1933) .
7 "Ship to Shore Harbor Telephone Equipment." H. B. Martin, RCA

REVIEW, July 1938.
$ "Radiotelephone for Small Yachts." I. F. Byrnes, RCA REVIEW, Jan.
1939.
"Special Temporary Rules Governing the Operation of Ship and
Coastal-Harbor Telephone Stations in the Great Lakes Region, Effective
March 31, 1939." FCC document No. 33190.
APPLICATION OF MOTION -PICTURE FILM
TO TELEVISION*
BY
E. W. ENGSTROM, G. L. BEERS, AND A. V. BEDFORD

RCA Manufacturing Company, Inc., Camden, New Jersey
Summary-Motion-picture film will form an important source of pro-
grams for television broadcasting. Film projectors for this use are required
to meet a number of conditions peculiar to television. Methods for project-
ing and utilizing motion -picture film are outlined. A specific film projector
and associated television channel are described in some detail.
In establishing a technique for producing films most suitable for tele-
vision, equipment is needed to interpret the final results. Apparatus that
will be used by broadcasting stations is described. A simpler system has
been designed that may be useful for the specialized service of gaging the
merit of films for television. This is described and its operation indicated.
Some very preliminary observations are included on the characteristics
of films that have given good results in experimental work and in field tests.
THE production and utilization of motion -picture film for tele-

vision programs introduces many new problems. It is the
purpose of this paper to review these problems and to describe
methods and apparatus for the use of film in television.
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF UTILIZATION METHODS

It is desirable first to review the general characteristics of two
electronic television pickup systems, which are known to give prac-
tical results. In both systems the scene to be transmitted is projected
upon a photo -emissive area or mosaic. The resulting "electrical
image" is methodically explored by electronic means, one narrow
strip or line at a time, in a process called scanning. The result of this
scanning process is an electrical signal which varies in accordance
with the scene brightness along the scanning lines. The information
residing in this signal is used at the receiver to reconstruct the image-
one element at a time-in a similar synchronized scanning process.
In one pickup system, exemplified by equipment using the Farns-
worth dissector tube, only the light falling upon an element of the
photo -emissive area at the instant that element is being scanned is
effective in producing the signal. The other pickup system, exemplified
by equipment using the Iconoscope, makes use of the principle
of
storage, whereby, when a particular photo -emissive element is scanned
the light which has fallen upon that element since it was last scanned
is effective in producing the signal.
* Reprinted from the Journal of Society of

Motion Picture Engineers,
July, 1939.
48
MOTION -PICTURE FILM IN TELEVISION 49
The characteristics of these pickup tubes determine the manner

in which film can be used to provide television programs. In the
system using the dissector tube which has no storage, for every instant
that signal is transmitted, the film projector must supply a light image
to the elemental area being scanned, though not necessarily from the
entire frame. In the Iconoscope system utilizing storage, a charge
image may be built up by a very brief projection of the image upon
the photo -emissive mosaic, which is then scanned by an electron beam
SPIDER
FOLLOWER
3600 R P. M.
SYNCH. MOTOR
60 C.P.S.
12 R.P.S. 60 R.P.S.
SHUTTER
INTERMITTENT CAM
WITH TWO THROWS
UNEQUALLY SPACED
Fig. 1-Schematic of film projector for Iconoscope camera.
while the mosaic is dark to produce the signal. The film pull -down
occurs during the relatively long interval while the mosaic is being
scanned. The detailed discussion to follow will be based on the system
utilizing the Iconoscope.
DISCUSSION OF FILM TRANSMISSION SYSTEM UTILIZING

AN ICONOSCOPE
Figure 1 shows schematically an Iconoscope camera and a special

projector adapted to project standard 24 -frame -per -second film upon
the Iconoscope mosaic in such way as to generate television signals
according to the Radio Manufacturers Association standards; namely,
50 RCA REVIEW
at 30 frames per second and 60 fields per second, interlaced.* The

projector must flash a still picture upon the mosaic every 1/60 second
with each flash lasting less than 1/600 second. Since the film must
run at a mean speed of 24 frames per second for proper reproduction
of sound and motion, it is evident that each frame must be projected
more than once to provide the required sixty flashes per second. Since
sixty divided by 24 is 21/2, it would seem logical that each frame
should be projected two and one-half times. This is impracticable,
but a very satisfactory method is to project alternate frames of film
two and three times each, respectively; for example, the even frames
twice and the odd frames three times. Figure 2 shows the various
steps of projection and scanning in proper relative time on a horizontal
time scale. Since the light flashes are very brief, a relatively long
(approximately 1/67 second) interval is available between flashes for
PULL-DOWN PULL-DOWN PULL -DOWN
FILM FRAME N FILM FRAME N+ I N+2

LIGHT FLASHES 1200
ON MOSAIC 60/SEC.
g
SCAN SCAN SCAN SCAN SCAN SCAN SCA N Q

TIME 60 600
YYY
I COMPLETE CYCLE = 222 SEC.
Fig. 2 Preferred sequence of events in film transmission by Iconoscope.
the film pull -down. However, if the full time available is used, the
alternate pull -downs must occur at non -uniform intervals of 2/60 and
3/60 seconds, respectively. Note from this figure that the scanning
or transmission times occur between adjacent light flashes so that the
television picture signal is actually produced and transmitted during
periods when no optical image is present on the mosaic. However,
during these periods an electrical image is present in the form of
bound electrostatic charges on the tiny photo -sensitized silver globules
comprising the mosaic. It is the act of neutralizing or rather equaliz-
ing these charges by the electrons of the scanning beam which causes
the useful signal current to flow from the conducting back coating of
the mosaic plate.
Referring again to Figure 1, the film is drawn through an illumi-
nated gate by an intermittent sprocket which is driven by an inter-
mittent cam and spider -follower of the early Powers type. The
* G. L. Beers, E. W. Engstrom, and I. G. Maloff : "Some Television
Problems from the Motion Picture Standpoint." J. Soc. Mot. Pict. Eng.
XXXII (Feb., 1939) , pp. 121-136.
3600-r.p.m. special synchronous motor drives the cam at 12 revolutions

per second through a suitable gear, thus pulling the film down 24 times
per second, since the cam has two "throws" instead of the customary
one "throw." In order to pull the film at unequal intervals as required,
the "throws" are located 144 degrees and 216 degrees apart, respec-
tively. The film picture in the gate is projected upon the small photo -
emissive mosaic of the Iconoscope by a standard projection lens. The
light is chopped 60 times per second by a large rotating shutter,
located near the lens. The shutter is accurately timed relative to the
intermittent cam so that the film is always stationary when the light
flashes occur.
The generator of synchronizing signals for the television deflecting
system is synchronously controlled by the same 60 -cycle power supply
which drives the projector synchronous motor. The phase of this
signal generator is adjustable so that the operator can make the short
duration light flashes fall safely within the 1/600 -second intervals
between the vertical scanning periods with some tolerance on each side
for slight phase displacements such as are caused by small changes
in the mechanical load on the projector or by voltage variations. This
adjustment is very important, as any abrupt change in the illumina-
tion of the mosaic during the picture signal transmission time pro-
duces a spurious light streak across the received picture.
An ordinary 3600-r.p.m. synchronous motor has two identical pole
structures which can assume either polarity and hence such a motor
can lock into synchronism in either of two phase positions, depending
fortuitously upon starting conditions. Two such lock -in positions are
one-half of a cycle of the power -supply frequency apart in time, which
for a 60 -cycle power system is 1/120 second. Inspection of the diagram
of Figure 2 shows that displacing the light flashes 1/120 second with
respect to the scanning periods would cause them to occur during
instead of between the scanning periods. The abrupt change in mosaic
lighting caused by a flash during the scanning period would produce a
serious streak across the middle of the picture as mentioned above.
To prevent the frequent locking -in of the motor in the wrong position,
a special synchronous motor is used which includes an additional d -c
winding for fixing the polarity of the poles and thus determining the
lock -in position with respect to the a -c power supply.
The sound head used is standard, since the mean speed of the film
is 24 frames per second. It has been found that a suitable fly -wheel
associated with the intermittent cam prevents any detectable deteriora-
tion of the reproduced sound due to the dissymmetry of the intermit-
tent cam.
52 RCA REVIEW
OTHER PROJECTING SEQUENCES AND MECHANISMS

There is some evidence that the television picture transmitted by
a system depending completely upon the storage principle might not
be as satisfactory as one transmitted by a system in which the film
image is projected upon the photo -emissive mosaic either continu-
ously or during the entire scanning period. It is natural, therefore,
that investigations of the latter type of system should have been made.
So far, the results obtained have not been wholly satisfactory and
certainly have not been as excellent as those produced by the storage
method described in the previous section. However, refinement of cer-
tain projection methods may at some time in the future make other
systems of greater interest. It is, therefore, of value to digress and
review some of the various schemes that have been investigated.
For obtaining a continuous and constant light image on the Icono-
scope photo -emissive mosaic, a commercial type of theater projector
was used, in which the film passed the picture gate at constant speed
PULL -DOWN PULL -DOWN PULL- DOWN PULL -DOWN
600 SEC. OR LESS

LIGHT LIGHT
FLASH
ò0 FLASH
-
--i I
1-616.0
SCAN SCAN 1f D
TIME I COMPLETE CYCLE =2-7, SEC
Fig. 3-Idealized sequence of events in film transmission by Iconoscope.

and a stationary projected image was obtained by means of an "optical
intermittent." This projector employed several rocking mirrors on a
rotating wheel. The lens system was properly proportioned for the
projection of the small image required for the Iconoscope mosaic
plate. In testing this system it was noted that the television per-
formance was limited by various types of movement in the projected
optical image and by low resolution. Motion of the optical image, in
addition to causing objectionable motion in the received television pic-
ture, also contributed to loss of resolution in the picture. This is due
to the storage action of the Iconoscope whereby the signal derived
from each element of the mosaic in scanning is due to the summation
of all the light which has fallen on that element since the preceding
contact of the scanning beam. The effect is similar to that obtained
when the optical image on a sensitized photographic plate moves
during exposure.
Figure 3 shows a projection sequence by which an intermittent
type projector might project film on an Iconoscope for
the entire
scanning time provided the pull -down occurred in the almost
pro-
hibitively short time of 1/600 second or less. This would
permit
MOTION-PICTURE FILM IN TELEVISION 53
projection throughout the entire scanning period. There is no apparatus

now available for meeting the 1/600 second pull -down requirement.
If suitable equipment could be developed it is doubtful if the film would
withstand the stresses imposed by the rapid motion.
An experimental projector using a continuously moving film, and
a rocking mirror for producing a stationary image, was built and
tested. A diagrammatic view of it is shown in Figure 4. The cam-
FILM
wIAIN CAM
CO
GÁMTIVE
s3 R. MIRROR
POSITION
A 209' r B 137' A
'
TIME - 7.
Fig. 4-Experimental rocking mirror projector.
driven mirror was arranged to neutralize accurately the film motion
during the intervals marked "light flash" in Figure 3 and to return
to receive light from the next consecutive film frame during the
1/600 -second non-uniformly -spaced intervals marked "pull-down."
Limitations were found due to slight non -uniform illumination of
the approximately two and one-half frames of film always in the
picture gate. This resulted in objectionable flicker in the television
picture. Also, in spite of the very small amplitude of motion required
for the rocking mirror, the cam and follower -roller created a very
annoying noise and were subject to rapid wear.
54 RCA REVIEW
DESCRIPTION OF FILM PROJECTOR
It is of interest to return now to the method for using film which

is considered best at present, and review the apparatus in more detail.
Fig. 5-RCA 35 -mm sound motion -picture projector designed

for 30 -frame -per-second television with interlaced
scanning.
Figure is a general view of a 35 -mm sound motion -picture projector*
5
designed for 30 -frame -per -second television with interlaced scanning.
* This projector was built to RCA specifications
jector Corp. by International Pro-
This projector differs from standard theater projectors in the following

major respects:
1. A special shutter is used to provide efficient light pulses of very
short time duration for projecting, 60 times per second, images
of the film pictures onto the photo -emissive mosaic of the
Iconoscope.
Fig. 6-Film projector for television with doors open.
2. The intermittent mechanism is designed for the three -to -two

ratio of pull -down periods required in using 24 -frame film for
30 -frame television.
3. A special synchronous driving motor is used to assure that
the projector mechanism always "locks -in" in proper time rela-
tion with the synchronizing pulses.
4. An additional film gate with light source and photo-electric cell
is included near the picture gate for deriving a control potential
which varies with the average density of the film.
In the projector shown in Figure 5, it was impracticable to locate
the shutter between the light source and the film. The shutter was,
56 RCA REVIEW
therefore, mounted just beyond the projection lens. Sufficient clear-

ance between the shutter and lens was provided to permit a limited
movement of the lens for focusing. The time during which the image
may be projected onto the photo -emissive mosaic of the Iconoscope
is limited to the vertical return time of the scanning beam. With
present television standards this is not more than 10 per cent of 1/60
second or 1 /600 second.
In order to make efficient use of the projection lens, it is necessary
for the aperture in the shutter to be at least as wide as the diameter
of the lens. A large diameter shutter (23") is necessary to meet this
requirement. This shutter rotates at 3600 r.p.m. and has a peripheral
speed of approximately 41/4 miles per minute. The shutter is enclosed
in the circular housing which is shown at the extreme right-hand side
of Figure 5. In the shutter housing opposite the projection lens is a
window through which the picture is projected. The shutter disc is
made of two overlapping sections of thin metal. These two sections
can be rotated with respect to each other through a small angle in
order to vary the width of the aperture. Figure 6 is a photograph
showing the film side of the projector with the cover removed.
A second gate is located four frames of film above the picture
gate. To the left of this gate, as shown in Figure 6, is a lamp housing.
To the right of this gate is a photocell housing which also includes
an optical system for forming an image of the lamp filament on the
photocell. The output voltage from this photocell is rectified, and
after being passed through a suitable filter is used to control the
return -line blanking signals. The resultant variation in the blanking
signals is used to control the average brightness of the reproduced
picture. Figure 7 shows a view of the film side of the projector with
a film threaded ready for projection.
Although the projector just described is equipped with a small
30 -ampere arc, either an incandescent lamp or an arc may be used.
EQUIPMENT FOR BROADCASTING TELEVISION FILM PROGRAMS

In considering the production of motion -picture films for television,
it is important to review the apparatus that will be used in the broad-
casting station. The essential elements of a system for television
transmission from motion -picture film are shown in Figure 8. These
include: Film Projector; Iconoscope Film Camera; Camera Amplifier
Equipment; Control Equipment; Monitor Equipment; Synchronizing
Generator.
The Iconoscope camera used with the film projector includes deflect-
ing circuits and a pre -amplifier for the video signals. This pre -ampli-
fier provides a signal level suitable for transmission over
a coaxial
cable to the camera amplifier equipment. The camera is usually

mounted on one side of a wall, with the film projector located on the
other side. The picture is projected through a window in the wall
into the camera onto the photo -emissive mosaic of the Iconoscope.
The camera amplifier equipment includes apparatus for amplifying
further the video signals from the camera and a line amplifier to
Fig. 7-View of film projector for television showing film path.

prepare these signals for transmission over coaxial cable to any desired
location. Amplifiers providing suitable wave shapes for horizontal
and vertical deflection of the Iconoscope beam are included as well as
the power supplies for the several parts of the system. This equip-
ment is usually rack -mounted in some convenient location.
The control equipment provides means for varying the video signal
gain, the picture brightness, and the uniformity of the picture -
background illumination (shading), and for starting and stopping the
58 RCA REVIEW
VIDEO AMPLIFIER TO
F ILM FILM LINE AMPLIFIER TRANSMITTER
PROJECTOR CAMERA DEFLECTION AMPLIFIERS
POWER SUPPLY RECTIFIERS
CONTROL MONITOR
EQUIPMENT UNIT
SYNCHRONIZING
GENERATOR
Fig. 8-System for television transmission from motion -picture film.

film projector. In an installation designed to provide a continuous
program from motion picture film, where two or more film projectors
and television channels are included, controls are also provided for
switching from one channel to another.
The monitor equipment includes a 12" Kinescope by means of
which television images obtained from the film can be viewed. It
also includes a cathode-ray oscilloscope for observing the wave shapes
Fig. 9-Television control equipment for studio and film

-type cameras.
and amplitudes of the television signals. This monitor equipment is

usually located so that it may be observed conveniently by the operator
manipulating the control apparatus.
The synchronizing generator supplies the several complex wave-
forms which are required to determine the timing of scanning processes
in the transmitting equipment and to synchronize the reconstruction
of the images at the receivers. The wave shapes of the synchronizing
signals have been standardized by the Radio Manufacturers Associa-
tion.
Fig. 10-Television terminal equipment suitable for television

broadcasting stations.
Views of television equipment of a type suitable for television

broadcasting stations are shown in Figures 9 and 10. Figure 9 shows
an installation of control equipment for studio and film type cameras.
This equipment is grouped on a common control console with the
monitors mounted in a recess in the wall above the console. In this
installation, the control engineer may look directly into the studio.
Figure 10 shows a typical installation of racks of television -terminal
equipment.
SIMPLIFIED TELEVISION APPARATUS
For specialized services, more simple and compact television equip-
ment is desirable. Apparatus of this sort has been developed both for
60 RCA REVIEW
direct studio pickup and for film applications. The simplified equip-
ment suitable for producing television signals and television images
from motion -picture film includes all of the elements previously
described, but in far more compact form. The equipment less the
Iconoscope camera and the projector is included in one cabinet approxi-
mately 44 inches high, 34 inches wide, and 21 inches deep. This
equipment produces a television signal which is suitable for trans-
mission to remote viewing positions or for other uses.
Fig. 11-Simplified television apparatus suitable for

judging the merits of motion -picture film.
This simplified equipment is not as flexible in some respects as

the broadcasting type of equipment, nor does it lend itself
well to
large complex systems. However, it does provide the facilities neces-
sary for judging the merits of film for television use. In this simpli-
fication of apparatus and circuits, the synchronizing wave
shapes do
not conform entirely to the Radio Manufacturers Association
stand-
ards. The synchronizing signals are, however, satisfactory
for the
self-contained monitor and for other receivers or reproducing
devices,
but the adjustments may be a little more critical than
would be the
case with standard synchronizing signals. Figure 11 shows
a view of
the equipment with the Iconoscope camera mounted on
a simple wooden
dolly.
APPARATUS FOR JUDGING THE MERITS OF MOTION PICTURE

FILM FOR TELEVISION
An earlier paper* reviewed some of the limitations inherent in

present-day television and compared these with similar limitations in
motion -picture film and apparatus. Experience has indicated that the
production of television pictures from a particular film is the only
practical method for judging the merits of that film as television pro-
gram material. It is, therefore, suggested that this method be used
for checking and studying motion -picture films produced for television
programs and for determining the usefulness of film available from
other sources. Apparatus of the type used at the television -broad-
casting station or apparatus of the simplified type just described will
be satisfactory for this service.
FILM BEST SUITED FOR TELEVISION
Laboratory work and field-test experience permits some preliminary

generalizations on film that has given good results for television.
Comment is here directed to the technical characteristics of film and
not to the entertainment qualities. It appears that film having char-
acteristics best suited for theater projection is also generally best for
television. Studio sets having all dark backgrounds should be avoided.
A goodly number of close-ups should be used, but these should be
generously interspersed with long shots. Some experience may be
necessary to take into account the resolution limits* of present-day
television. Special processing of film does not seem to be necessary.
Film photographed in color directly from real life or nature appears
satisfactory for television. Some cartoons in color have not given
particularly satisfactory results. Thus, it appears that there may be
no really serious technical problems in the production of motion -
picture films suitable for television -program material.
* Loc. cit.
A PUSH-PULL ULTRA -HIGH -FREQUENCY BEAM
TETRODE
BY
A. K. WING
Research and Engineering Department, RCA Manufacturing Company, Inc., Harrison, N. J.
Summary-The design of a vacuum tube capable of delivering 10 watts

useful power output at frequencies of the order of 250 megacycles and with
a d-c plate voltage of 400 volts and good economy of space and cathode
power, is discussed. In order to keep the physical dimensions of the tube
small and to make it adaptable to straightforward circuit arrangements,
the tube was designed as a push-pull beam tetrode. Unusual constructional
features include the use of short, heavy leads sealed directly into the
moulded glass bulb.
Characteristics of the tube are given. Tests show that the tube will
operate as a stable Class C amplifier at frequencies up to 250 megacycles.
At that frequency a power output of the order of 13 watts with an efficiency
of 45 per cent has been obtained. Satisfactory operation as a frequency
multiplier is possible in the same frequency range. Oscillator operation has
been obtained at considerably higher frequencies. The variation of output
and efficiency with frequency is shown.
THE frequency spectrum above 100 megacycles has proved itself

valuable for communication over line -of -sight ranges. Since
relatively small amounts of power are satisfactory and it is
relatively easy to build efficient antennas for communication at these
frequencies, the frequency band above 100 megacycles seems to be
eminently suited for aircraft communication from plane to plane or
from plane to ground over short distances. It was for such an appli-
cation that the development of a tube suitable for use in the
output
stage of transmitters was undertaken.
Consideration of some of the necessary points in the design
of a
satisfactory ultra -high -frequency transmitter indicates a number
of
limitations and qualifications which a suitable tube should
meet. In
order to make the equipment simple and operable at all times
its fila-
ment and plate power should be obtainable from the regular
storage
battery, and should be kept at a minimum. To have frequency
stability,
the transmitter should consist of an amplifier stage driven
either by a
crystal -controlled oscillator through a frequency multiplier,
or by a
stable high -frequency oscillator. The transmitter should
preferably be
capable of operating at several frequencies and the final
amplifier stage
should operate stably at frequencies up to approximately
250 mega-
cycles. A useful output of the order of 10 watts was
chosen as sufficient
for requirements.
62
PUSH-PULL U -H -F BEAM TETRODE 63
There are several limitations on the proposed tube which are de-
termined by these considerations. In the first place, the tube must be
economical in filament and plate power. Second, because of the difficulty
of insulating high voltages at the reduced pressures encountered at
high altitudes, the operating plate voltage must be as low as possible.
Therefore, a value of 400 volts for unmodulated service was decided
upon. Third, the tube must function as a stable amplifier. The neces-
sity for neutralization would render a triode unsatisfactory for opera-
tion over a band of frequencies and, consequently, a tetrode or pentode
design was indicated. Because it is possible to develop a greater plate
voltage swing in a pentode or beam power amplifier than in a tetrode
for the same direct plate voltage, and thus to obtain higher plate -
circuit efficiency, the beam power -amplifier design was chosen for this
tube. The reasons for choosing the beam power amplifier in preference
to the pentode will be discussed below. The use of a low plate -supply
voltage makes it especially desirable to have the peak plate -voltage
swing as high as possible. And last, the tube must be sufficiently
rugged to withstand vibration and physical shock without an elaborate
mounting. Simplicity in tube and circuit is important to insure satis-
factory performance and ease of maintenance.
Besides these requirements, there should be noted those require-
ments which are imposed by the frequencies at which the tube is in-
tended to operate. The various qualifications which a tube should
possess for successful operation at high frequencies have been covered
rather completely in the literature.' 2 3
The important considerations
which entered into the design of this tube are summarized below :
1. The tube must lend itself to satisfactory circuit design. The
greatest possible amount of circuit must exist outside the tube at any
given frequency. In order to meet this requirement, the input and
output capacitances and the lead inductances must be kept at a mini-
mum, and the tube must be small in size. For the higher frequencies,
the use of transmission lines as circuit elements has the advantage of
allowing greater physical size of circuit than when lumped circuits are
used. The tube leads should preferably be so arranged that the tube
is adaptable to operation in either type of circuit.
2. The leads to the tube electrodes must be of such a size as to
carry safely the high -frequency currents to the electrodes and to avoid
losses which would reduce the output.
3. In order to minimize the limiting effect of electron transit time,
the spacings between electrodes must be kept small. In particular, the
cathode -to -grid distance must be small since it is in this space that
the electron must be accelerated from a low velocity at the cathode
64 RCA REVIEW
surface to a considerable velocity at the plane of the grid. The effect

of an appreciable transit time in this region is to increase the input
conductance of the tube. The result of the finite time of transit from
cathode to plate in reducing the plate -circuit efficiency has been pointed
out by Haeff.4
4. Because of the small spacings, the grids are subjected to severe
conditions of temperature. The grids, however, must not emit primary
or secondary electrons to any appreciable extent. To avoid such emis-
sion requires that the grid temperature be kept low and, consequently,
adequate provision for cooling the grids.
5. The insulation provided must be sufficient to prevent break-
down at the operating frequencies and voltages. Also, it must not in-
troduce excessive losses at these frequencies.
On the basis of these requirements, consideration was given to the
use of a push-pull circuit. Such a circuit offers advantages in design
and ease of operation over a single -ended circuit which at ultra -high
frequencies is not so straightforward. Because of the symmetrical
character of the push-pull circuit, an effective ground plane exists in
the circuit which materially simplifies the problem of by-passing and
connecting low potential leads. The connection between screens and
cathodes in the two units allows the fundamental frequency and odd -
harmonic components to cancel out, and leaves only even harmonics
to be by-passed. In addition, push-pull operation is well -suited to the
use of parallel -line circuits, since the conductors are symmetrical in
arrangement. For these reasons, it was decided to design the tube for
push-pull operation. In order to keep the space required at a minimum,
both units of the push-pull combination were placed in a single envelope.
A similar arrangement has been described by Samuel.' The spacing
between the two units may be made smaller than where separate
envelopes are used, and considerable improvement may be obtained
from the point of view of length of connecting leads. Those electrodes
which are connected together in the push-pull circuit, the screen grids
and the cathodes, may be connected inside the tube by a lower in-
ductance path than is possible for two separate tubes. A low -impedance
connection between the screen grids becomes an important factor in
attaining stable operation at the high frequencies. To obtain maximum
shielding between input and output circuits, it is essential that the
screen grid be at r -f ground potential, a condition which is easily met
at low frequencies with external by-passing. At high frequencies,
however, the connection from screen to ground through the
external
by-pass condenser will present considerable impedance, and result in
an appreciable r -f voltage on the screen. When the screens
are con-
nected within the tube, the impedance of the lead to the effective ground
point may be decreased very appreciably. In a similar manner, the
short connection between the two cathodes results in a smaller im-
pedance between the cathodes and the effective ground point, and re-
duces the effects of degeneration. The smaller spacing between units
and the smaller total assembly aid in fulfilling the circuit requirements.
The structure of each unit of the tube has been made that of a
beam power amplifier' in which directed electron beams are obtained
by electrical focusing with properly chosen grid wires, grid side rods,
beam confining plates, and electrode shapes and in which it has been
found practical to suppress secondary emission effects by space charge
Fig. 1-Early developmental type of ultra -high -frequency

amplifier tube.
rather than by a suppressor grid. Both the space charge in this beam
tube and the suppressor grid in the conventional pentode act to form
a potential minimum which prevents the relatively low -velocity sec-
ondary electrons from passing to the screen from the plate. The use
of the beam structure makes the construction simpler and consider-
ably more rugged, and at the same time allows use to be made of
aligned screen and control grids with the attendant decrease in screen
current. The lowering of the screen current and the consequent
decrease in screen dissipation is of importance in transmitting
pentodes where screen dissipation is a serious limitation. Economy of
high -voltage power is achieved at the same time.
66 RCA REVIEW
A photograph of one of the early developmental tubes of this type

is shown in Figure 1. The construction will be seen to be somewhat
similar to an enlarged Acorn -type tube with its low potential leads
extending radially through the main seal. The cathode and screen leads
may be seen at the front of the tube. The plate and grid leads from
the two units extend symmetrically from the top and bottom of the
tube, respectively. The input and output sides of the tube are shielded
from each other by the flat disc shield which extends horizontally
across the tube below the plates. This shield connects to the two
cathodes and serves as connection between them. The low plate voltage
allows the use of oxide -coated cathodes and mica insulation, both of
which increase the ruggedness of the assembly and improve its re -
Fig. 2-The RCA -832 ultra -high -frequency

beam tetrode.
sistance to vibration. The screen grids are joined together by a low-

impedance connection, and from this a common lead is brought out.
The structure shown proved satisfactory in operation, but for three
reasons it was thought wise to modify the design. In the first place,
the tube occupied considerable space, largely because the radial leads
increased the mounting area appreciably over that required for the
envelope alone. Second, the radial leads were required to withstand
severe strains when the tube was inserted in or removed from a
socket. And last, the radial construction did not permit easy fabrica-
tion. Accordingly, a redesign was undertaken which ultimately re-
sulted in the tube shown in Figure 2. This tube is identified as the
RCA-832. The leads which formerly extended radially from the bulb
were placed parallel to the grid leads, and were made heavier. This
structure gives greater strength and provides increased current -carry-
ing capacity. The tube can be placed in a socket without danger to th?
seals from strain on the leads. The bulb has been made short and the
space required for the mounting has been decreased approximately 50
per cent.
The arrangement of the electrodes was changed only slightly. The
plate leads were shortened inside the envelope and a double lead was
Fig. 3-A view of the mount structure of the RCA -832.

used to lower the resistance and inductance of the connection. The
center shield between the two units was found to contribute nothing
to the tube's performance and was eliminated. The ends of each unit
were shielded to decrease the number of stray electrons which ordi-
narily leave the active section and bombard the insulators or the bulb.
Such bombardment tends to release secondary electrons which return
to the plate by a long transit -time path and, lagging behind the normal
plate current pulse, increase the plate loss. Bombardment of the in-
sulators and bulb also tends to release gas which gradually impairs
68 RCA REVIEW
the vacuum and eventually ruins the cathode emission. The screen
grids of the two units were joined together by a short connector
which forms one plate of a by-pass condenser. The other plate of the
condenser was connected directly to the cathode. The combination of
the low -impedance connector and the direct high -frequency by-pass
maintains the screens very close to ground potential and materially
improves the stability of the tube as an amplifier at the higher fre-
quencies.
A photograph of the mount structure with one of its plates cut
away to show the arrangement of the electrodes, is presented in Fig-
ure 3. The shields at the ends of the unit are shown, as are the beam -
CATHODE
ELECTRON
SHIELD MICA SPACER
ELECTRON
SHIELD
CATHODE
CONTROL
CONTROL GRID
GRID
SCREEN,
BEAM -
FORM ING INTERNAL
PLATES SHIELD
SECTION THROUGH B -B SECTION THROUGH A -A
Fig. 4-Arrangement of the electrodes in the RCA -832.

confining plates.' These plates or channels extend longitudinally
through the structure around the grid side rods and, as their name
implies, confine the active area of the tube to the section between the
grid side rods in order to improve the uniformity of the electron
stream throughout the active area. The arrangement of the electrodes
may be seen in the line drawings of Figure 4, where the left-hand dia-
gram shows the cross-section of one unit in a plane perpendicular to the
cathode and the right-hand diagram shows a section taken in the plane
through the cathode axis. The two grids are aligned so that the turns
of the screen grid are directly behind the turns of the control grid
as viewed from the cathode. The control grids are cooled by the use
of large -diameter side rods which are connected to a short wide strap
having a blackened surface to improve its radiating characteristics.
The strap is in turn connected directly to the external grid terminal.
This construction serves to conduct a fairly large amount of heat from
PUSH-PULL U-H -F BEAM TETRODE 69
the grid to the outside of the tube envelope, and at the same time re-
sults in a low -resistance, low-inductance grid connection. The screens
are cooled in a similar manner. The strap welded to the screen side rods
is, however, not blackened and forms one plate of the internal by-pass
condenser.
The use of a large cathode surface and a small grid -cathode spac-
ing results in high perveance for the tube. The grid -cathode spacing
is of the order of ten thousandths of an inch. The heaters have been
designed to operate at 12.6 volts to facilitate operation directly from a
12 -volt storage -battery supply. The heaters for the two units are
UNMODULATED CLASS C AMPLIFIER
75
Z EFFICIENCY
w
U co
1
W50 Q40 - POWER INPUT

3
rU tr - PLATE. VOLTAGE
w
W25 ó20 -POWER OUTPUT
Q.
w
0
MODULATED CLASS C AMPLIFIER

EFFICIENCY
w
050 040 500
tx F J
(1.
Q O
- PLATE VOLTAGE
>- r
25 w20 -POWER INPUT 250

Q
L.1
U Q. -POWER OUTPUT
d
11.
w 0 O 0
OSCILLATOR
75
F- 1
z EFFICIENCY
w
U
v't
á50 Q40 -POWER INPUT 500 J
O
i
3
- PLATE VOLTAGE w
Ú
z w 1
F-
17-`225 ó20 -POWER 250 J

a OUTPUT a
w
w
0 0 0
0 100 200 300 400
FREQUENCY - MEGACYCLES
Fig. 5-Variations of efficiency and

power output with frequency.
connected in series and the mid -point is brought out to a terminal so

that 6.3 -volt operation may also be obtained.
The fact that the finite electron transit time from cathode to plate
results in a decrease in plate -circuit efficiency from the value obtained
at low frequencies where the transit time is negligible has already been
mentioned.4 As the frequency is increased, the transit time becomes a
larger .fraction of a high -frequency cycle, and its effect, therefore,
becomes greater. The variation of efficiency with frequency is plotted
70 RCA REVIEW
in Figure 5 for various classes of service. The efficiency decreases less

rapidly with frequency for amplifier than for oscillator service be-
cause of the difference in phase relation between the instantaneous
plate and grid voltages in the two classes of operation. In the usual
oscillator circuit, the plate and grid voltages are almost 180° out of
phase. Because of the time of transit, electrons leaving the cathode
under the action of the grid voltage arrive at the plate lagging behind
the grid voltage and, consequently, after the plate voltage has passed
its minimum. The energy of these electrons is thus higher because of
the higher plate voltage than it would be with negligible transit time.
As a result, the plate loss is higher and the efficiency is reduced. In
an amplifier, on the other hand, the grid voltage is independent of the
plate voltage. The plate circuit is tuned so that the plate -current pulse
and the plate -voltage swing bear the optimum phase relationship to
each other, with the result that the efficiency is higher than for the
oscillator case. The efficiency is not so high as at low frequencies,
however, because the appreciable transit time causes spreading and
distortion of the plate -current pulse and because the electrons are
acted upon for a longer time by the plate voltage. The effect is the
same as if the angle of plate -current flow were made larger at ordinary
frequencies. Increased losses in the leads and electrodes also tend to
lower the efficiency obtainable at high frequencies. Because the effici-
ency falls off, the input must be dropped at the higher frequencies in
order that the plate dissipation will not be exceeded. Since the loss in
the glass and in the internal insulation increases with frequency and
with the voltage applied to the insulation, the voltage on the tube must
also be decreased at the higher frequencies. Figure 5 shows how the
input power and plate voltage are reduced. This same plot shows also
the approximate values of output which may be obtained at various
frequencies. These curves are based on results obtained in operating
the tube at various frequencies.
One of the requirements specified for the tube was that it lend
itself to satisfactory circuit design. The RCA -832 has shown itself to
be well -adapted for use with parallel -line circuits at the highest fre-
quencies at which it is capable of operation. For instance, when the
tube is used as an oscillator at 200 megacycles with grid and plate
lines having approximately 150 ohms surge impedance, the length of
plate line from tube terminals to shorting bar is 7 inches while the
grid line measures 5 inches. At 300 megacycles, there is still 11/2 inches
of grid line external to the tube and the plate line measures
31/2 inches.
At 400 megacycles, the grid line must be 3/4 wavelength long
since the
first voltage node is inside the tube.
PUSH-PULL U -H-F BEAM TETRODE 71
A photograph showing the use of the RCA-832 with parallel -line

circuits is shown in Figure 6. This is a master -oscillator power ampli-
fier combination which was made up for test purposes. A brass cylinder
supports the various parts of the circuit and at the same time serves
as shield between the input and output circuits of the RCA-832 power
amplifier. The driving oscillator unit is shown at the left and in front
of the cylindrical shield. It consists of two RCA -955 tubes in a push-
pull circuit in which each grid is excited by capacitance coupling to
that conductor of the plate transmission line which is connected to the
plate of the other tube. The unit shown at the right is the mounting
for the amplifier tube and the tuned grid line. These two transmission
lines are supported inside the cylindrical shield in the relative position
Fig. 6-The RCA -832 used as an amplifier with parallel -line circuits.
shown, and the oscillator unit may be rotated about the axis of the
shield to vary the coupling between the lines and with it, the amplifier
excitation. The plate circuit is entirely external to the shield and is
clearly shown in the photograph. As pictured, the circuit is tuned to
operate at a frequency of 240 megacycles.
The RCA -832 presents advantages for operation in mobile installa-
tions as well as other types of service when outputs of the order of 10
watts are required at frequencies up to 250 megacycles. At these fre-
quencies the tube will operate as a stable amplifier without the necessity
for neutralization. It is compact, rugged, easily adapted to circuit
design, and economical in power consumption.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to express his appreciation for the many con-
tributions of those who have assisted in the development of the
72 RCA REVIEW
RCA -832, in particular those of Mr. J. C. Hapgood and Mr. C. F.

Nesslage who have solved many of the problems connected with the
fabrication of the tube, and of Mr. W. Happe, Jr., to whom the
author is indebted for much of the necessary circuit design.
REFERENCES
1 W. G. Wagener-"The Developmental Problems and Operating Char-

acteristics of Two New Ultra -High -Frequency Triodes," Proc. I.R.E., Vol.
26, pp. 401-414; April (1938) .
2 M. J. Kelly and A. L. Samuel-"Vacuum Tubes as High -Frequency

Cscillators," Bell System, Tech. Jour., Vol. 14, pp. 97-134, January (1935).
3 C. E. Fay and A. L. Samuel-"Vacuum Tubes for Generating Fre-
quencies Above One Hundred Megacycles," Proc. I.R.E., Vol. 23, pp. 199-
212; March (1935).
4 A. V. Haeff-"Effect of Electron Transit Time on Efficiency of a
Power Amplifier," RCA REVIEW, Vol. IV, pp. 114-122, July (1939).
s A. L. Samuel and N. E. Sowers-"A
Power Amplifier for Ultra -High -
Frequencies," Bell System Tech. Jour., Vol. 16, pp. 10-34, January (1937).
G
O. H. Schade-"Beam Power Tubes," Proc. I.R.E., Vol. 26, pp. 137-
181; February (1938).
THE APPLICATION OF THE TENSOR CONCEPT
TO THE COMPLETE ANALYSIS OF LUMPED,
ACTIVE, LINEAR NETWORKS
BY
D. W. EPSTEIN AND H. L. DONLEY

General Research Laboratories, RCA Manufacturing Co., Inc., Camden, N. J.
Summary-With the aid of the tensor concept, an integral equation is

derived which applies to any lumped, active, linear network with any initial
conditions and any applied e.m.f.'s in any or all the meshes of the network.
This integral equation is solved by means of the Mellin inversion theorem
with the help of the theory of complex variables.
The tensor integral equation is specialized to the case of any number
of identical amplifier stages connected in cascade, each amplifier containing
any number of meshes.
The salient features of the tensor method are illustrated by a simple
two -mesh network.
The analysis of the shunt "peaking" type of video amplifier is given in
addition to video amplifiers consisting of low-pass filters as described by
Percival and Wheeler. Analysis shows that these amplifiers yield objection-
able transients when subjected to a Heaviside unit e.m.f., but if the applied
e.m.f. contains no frequencies above the cut-off frequency of the amplifier,
the resulting transient is quite satisfactory. This indicates that noise may
be more important when using these amplifiers than when using the conven-
tional shunt "peaking" type amplifiers. Further, one of the two types of
amplifiers considered is theoretically superior to the other.
I. INTRODUCTION
TENSOR analysis has been very successfully applied in the

solution of divers complex engineering problems.' The success
of the tensor concept arises primarily from the conciseness with
which the interrelations of the components of a complex system can be
expressed. The tensor notation of itself systematizes the work neces-
sary to solve a specific problem, enabling one to proceed in a routine
manner to the solution of the problem at hand once the equations of
the system have been set up. This paper presents with the aid of the
tensor concept an integral equation, the solution of which gives the
complete solution under certain conditions of any n -mesh lumped,
active, linear network. The method is illustrated by an example and
applied in some detail to the solution of various television amplifier
circuits.
See, for example, series of articles by Gabriel Kron in G.E. Review
I.
beginning p. 181, April, 1935. Also "Tensor Analysis and its Application
to Equivalent Circuits," D. W. Epstein, RCA REVIEW, Vol. III, p. 239,
October, 1938.
73
74 RCA REVIEW
II. THE INTEGRAL EQUATION FOR GENERAL n MESH NETWORK

The differential equation in tensor form of a lumped linear n -mesh
network is
div
Luv + Ruviv
+ Suvgv = Eu !, = 1,
; V 2, . . . . n (1)
dt
where Lµv, Rµv and Sµv are the covariant inductance, resistance, and
stiffness tensors of the second rank respectively ; iv and qv the contra-
variant2 current and charge tensors of the first rank ; Eµ the covariant
applied e.m.f. tensor of the first rank.3
To explain the meaning of (1) consider for simplicity a two -mesh
network, then µ, v = 1, 2 and equation (1) written out in terms of the
components of the tensors becomes
di1 di2
L11 + L12 + R11i1 + R12i2 + S11g1 + S12g2 = E1
dt dt
dit di2
L21 + L22 + R2121 + R2222
+ S21g1 + S22q2 = E2
dt dt
where L11, L1,, L,1, L29 are the components of the tensor Lµv, similarly
for Rµv, Sµv; and i1, i2 are the components of iv, similarly for qv and
E. It is thus readily seen that Equation (1) is Kirchoff's law expressed
in the compact tensor form.
Following van der Pol,4 multiply Equation (1) through by e -pt
and integrate with respect to t between zero and infinity. Here p is
a complex number whose real part is greater than zero. Equation (1)
then becomes
Luv
o
div
dt
e-ptdt -}- R -
ivePtdt -I- Suv
o
gve-ptdt , Eue-µtdt
(2)
2 The current is chosen as contravariant since velocity is contravariant
and current is velocity multiplied by charge density which is a scalar; having
chosen current as contravariant, voltage must be covariant since volt-
amperes is a scalar and impedance must be covariant and of the second rank
since Zuviv must be covariant of the first rank.
3 For further elucidation see, for example, D. W. Epstein, RCA REVIEW,
Vol. III, p. 239 (1938) .
4 Phil. Mag. VII, p. 1153 (1929) .
TENSOR ANALYSIS OE LINEAR NETWORKS 75
Now by integration by parts
co
div
° dt
e-Ptdt = - (iv) o +p f0 ive-Ptdt
co co
(e)
gve-Ptdt =
0
+ -
1
o
ive-ptdt
where the integrated term vanishes at the upper limit and (iv)0 and
(qv)c, are the contravariant current and charge tensors at time t = O.
Inserting the values obtained immediately above in equation (2) there
results
co
(PLUP + Ruv +
Suv
p
if ive-ptdt = Luv (iv) o- Suv
(qv) o
p
+ 0
Eue-Ptdt
(3)
Zuv f0 ive-ptdt = o
Eue-Ptdt + Luv (iv) o - Suv
(e) o
where Z,,,v is the second rank impedance tensor of the network. Since y
in the terms Luv (iv) o and Suv (qv) o appears twice it is called a "dummy"
suffix and indicates that Luv (iv)0 = E Luviv. Hence, another letter
v=1
may be used for v without changing anything. To avoid confusion
the v on the right hand side of (3) will be changed to Q and (3) may
be rewritten ass
oo co
J
Suo.
ive-ptdt = Aµv [fEUePtdt -F- Lµ° (i°) o (q°) o (4)
p
v,v=1,2,3n
5 A more formal manner of obtaining (4) from (3) is to multiply both
sides of (3) by the contravariant tensor Zp°, where Zµ° is the tensor called
Ain' above. Since Zp°Z uv = Z v ° = °9 =v
is merely a substitution operator, then
00
J
ZZuvive-Ptdt = 0
i°e-ptdt
76 RCA REVIEW
where the contravariant admittance tensor A ß is the inverse tensor of

the covariant impedance tensor Z.
Aµv is defined as,
cofactor of component Zuv
Aµv =
Z
Zln
and Z th d term:nalt
Zn
Z2n
For example, A" - Z

Znn
The generality of Equation (4) is readily apparent since it concerns

all the mesh currents for any initial conditions, and for any applied
e.m.f.'s in any or all the meshes. Carson's integral equation is a
special case of Equation (4) where (P)0 = (q0)0 = 0; Eg = 1,
0 t co; and for particular values of suffixes µ, v. For example,
let µ = v = 1, then (4) reduces to
f ile-Ptdt = A11fe-Ptdt
Since there is only one component, drop the suffixes; and upon
integration Carson's integral equation results, namely
a
ie -Ptdt = A/p (5)
For an n mesh network Equation (4) represents n equations, one for

each mesh current. Applied to a particular mesh, the first for instance,
then y = 1 and it, a run from 1 to n. Thus for the input current or
first mesh current (4) takes the form
TENSOR ANALYSIS OF LINEAR NETWORKS 77
fi1ePce
Su,
tdt = Ala [fe-ß'clt + Lu6 (ia) o (qu) o
p
= A11 [f Ele ptdt + L1, (ia) o-

Sl,
(V) o + (6)
co
A21
[i Ele-Ptdt + L20. (ja) o - --
S2,
p
o
Enetdt -- Lri, (Za) o - Sri,
where also further terms arise when the summation over u from 1
to n is taken. The example worked out later will illustrate this.
Regarding the solution of Equation (4) , note that the right-hand
side of this equation is a function of p only, so rewrite it as
five-ntdt = Av (p) (7)
where
00
SuQ
Av (p) = At`v [fe_vtdt L, (ia) o- -}- (qa) o (8)
There is only one continuous solution iv (t) of the integral equation

(7) between Av (p) and iv (t) . AP (p) is said to be the Laplace trans-
form of iv (t) and a complete table of Laplace transforms would enable
one to write down the solution of (7) immediately. In the absence of
such a table the solution of (7) may be obtained by means of the
inversion theorem which states that6
if ft) i( e-Ptdt = A (p) (9)
6
This theorem is often called the Mellin Inversion Theorem. From a
purely formal point of view the two equations (10) are merely Fourier
Transforms (see, for example, Titchmarsh, Theory of Fourier Integrals,
Section 1.3).
78 RCA REVIEW
i(t), t> 0
then
f_j A (p) ePtdp =
0 , t<0 j=V-1
c real, > 0 (10)
In general the conditions under which this theorem is valid are

those which govern the Fourier Integral Transforms. In addition the
solution (10) holds provided all the singularities of A (p) lie to the
left of c + joo, c> 0 where by a singularity of A (p) is meant a point
at which A (p) becomes infinite. In this paper only pole singularities
are considered where at a pole the function becomes infinite to a finite
order. Thus, if p1 is a pole
lim (p-pi)" A(p) 00

p -->pl
provided n is chosen large enough, but finite. The order of a pole is

the value of n required to remove the discontinuity. Thus p/p + 1 has
a first -order pole at p = -1 and (p/p + 1) has a second -order pole 2
at p = -1. From complex variable theory, the value of the line integral
of a function around a path which encloses a pole is 2rrj times the
residue of the function at the pole. If the pole is of the first order,
the residue is
P
lim
pl
(p - p1) A (p) . Thus, the residue at p = -1 of
p/p + 1 is p - -1lim
(p + 1)
p
p
-}- 1
= -1 and the value of the line
integral of p/p + 1 around a path which encloses this point is -27j.

Similarly, the line integral of 1/p about the origin is 27rj since
lim
p->0 p -
p
1
= 1.
Since lumped, dissipative, linear networks are considered in this

paper, A (p) has, in general, complex roots which have negative real
portions. Thus, A (p) has pole singularities all lying on and to the left
of the axis of imaginaries. The path of integration, c joo to c + joo
can then be deformed into a large semi -circle which includes all the
-
singularities of A (p) . The integral (10) can then be evaluated by
summing the residues of the integrand.
The solution of Equation (4) may thus be written as
1 c+ j°°
(t) = Av (p) eptdp
27rj J-jo°
1 c+j°°
f
I-
°°1 - L,6 (ia)
Agv Su6 enrdp
2
Eue-ptdt o (ga) o
ice
p
1 c+j°° 1
etdt At`vLuo (ia) oeptdp -
= Aµv E +
27rj-i°° LI eptdp
2rjJ-j°o 2rj
c+j°° Si,
Agv (qa)oeptdp (12)
I-joo p
The solution (11) is thus composed of three integrals (12). The

first integral gives the currents at time t resulting from applied volt-
ages Eft; the second the currents at time t because of currents (ia)o
flowing in the meshes at time t = 0; the third integral the currents at
time t because of charges (qa) o on the condensers in the meshes at time
t = O. Hence each integral may be calculated separately and added
to obtain the final currents.
The method of solving Equation (11) may be illustrated by con-
sidering only one integral of (12) , for instance, the first,
1 c -I- j °°
iv (t) = E0-ptdt ePtdp (13)
2"rj c - joo JO
Further, consider only one current, say in the nth mesh and only
one applied voltage, say in the first mesh, then (13) becomes
1 °°
in (t) = Aln dtJ'Ele_Pt

(14)
27rjfe-Fi
or since only one component is involved drop the suffixes and write
1
=
2irj c- j°o
A (p)[fc°Ee-Ptdt eptdp (15)
In this case A (p) is the transfer admittance from the first to nth
mesh.
III. GENERAL SOLUTION FOR n IDENTICAL STAGE AMPLIFIER
The final current flowing in the final mesh of an n -stage amplifier

in which all the stages are the same can be found by an extension of
the results for a single-stage amplifier.
80 RCA REVIEW
Now consider an n identical stage amplifier, such as shown in Fig-

ure 1, with coupling circuits containing m meshes. Then the current
in the mth mesh of the first stage is given by the integral equation.
}1ePdt = µAlmfiElePtdtJ7'{i(t) (16)
where E1 is the grid voltage on first tube, µ, (in this section) is the
amplification constant and where the subscript following the wavy
bracket refers to the number of the stage under consideration. Then
the voltage applied to the grid of the second amplifier stage will be
Rg {inn (t) }1. The current in the mth mesh of the second stage is
Fig. 1-n -stage amplifier with coupling circuits containing m meshes.
l /
{im (t) }2e-Ptdt - µA1mRg
o
w
{ini (t) }le-Ptdt
CO
= (µAlm)
\ l
2Rg
Ele-Ptdt
o
Similarly the current in the mth mesh of the nth stage is
l {im (t) }ne-Ptdt = (µAlm) nRgn-1
(For the case where the nth stage is different from the n
o
Ele-Ptdt
- 1
(17)
pre-
ceding stages
CO
{im (t) }ne-Ptdt = (µ,1Alk) n (µ2A1m) n-1RPn-1

Ele-Ptdt (18)
where k is the number of meshes in the output tube.)

Therefore, the current in the final mesh of the nth stage of the n
identical stage amplifier is given by (19),
(t) }n =
R n-1 f C -}- jot)
jr Eie-ptdt ]
co
eptdp (19)
{2m [ (µA1m)n
2m-j c - jam o
It is then necessary to calculate the sum of the residues of the

function
oo co
(Alm) n Ele-ptdt ] ept where the residues of [ Aim E1e-ptdt 11ept

[
0 0
correspond to the single-stage amplifier. For simplicity assume

El = 1, 0 G t G co then the sum of the residues of (Alm) Wept/p are
desired where the residue at p = 0 gives the steady state term. In
general (Alm) Wept can be written
(Alm) Wept [F (p) ] nept
p p(p-P1)n(p-p2)n (p- Pm) n
where pi, 2)2 pm are roots of the denominator of Alm when Alm has
been expressed as the quotient of two polynomials a form which is, in
general, always possible.
To calculate the residue at p =292, for example, write
(Alm) nept [F (p) ]nept

p p(p-p1)n(p-p2)n" (p -pm)n
f2 (p)
_ =f(p)
(P-P2)n
where
[F(p) ]ngpt
f2 (p) =
P (p - p1) (p - p3)n n .... (p - pm) n
Since the function f (p) has a pole of order n at p = p2 an equation

of the form
b-n b- (n-1) b-1
(p)
f (p) =
(p - p2)'2 (p - p2)n--1 (p - p2)
is true near p2 and where 4 (p) is analytic near and
at 292, i.e., it may
b_1 is by
be expanded in a Taylor series around p2. The coefficient
definitionthe residue of the function f (p) relative to the pole 2)2.
82 RCA REVIEW
By Laurent's theorem
1
b_n =
2jf(PP2)-'f(P)dP
where c is a closed curve enclosing 2)2 and no other singularity, so
b_1 =
1
27rj I f(p)dp=
The theory of functions of a complex variable teaches that since

27rj
1
(p
f2 (p)
- p2) n
dp
f2 (p) is analytic at and in the neighborhood of 232 then the nth deriva-
tive of f2 (p) at point 232 is
d"fz (p) n! /' 12(P)

dpn j at p2 27rj Jc (p - p2) n+1
dp
hence
b1= 1 f2 (p)
dp =
1 (n - 1) ! f2 (p)
dp
27rj
c (p - p2) n (n - 1) ! 27rj (p -P2)"
1 d"-1 f2 (p)
(n - 1) t dpn-1 at
or
1
b_1 = f2 (p2)
(n-1)!
1
Similarly, the residue at p = pi, is Dn--1f k (pk) where
(n-1) r
[F (p) ]Wept
fk(p) - - p1) .... - - Pk+1)
P (p n (P Pk -1) n (P n .. (p = pm)
Hence, the problem of finding the residues or the solution for a
multi -stage amplifier is reduced to a problem in differentiation. The
solution of a multi -stage amplifier in which there are groups of iden-
tical stages, each group differing from the other, is obtainable as a
simple extension of the above process.
(To be continued)
THE USE OF GAS -FILLED LAMPS AS
HIGH -DISSIPATION, HIGH -FREQUENCY RESISTORS,
ESPECIALLY FOR POWER MEASUREMENTS
BY
ERNEST G. LINDER
RCA Manufacturing Company, Inc., Camden, N. J.
Summary-A type of hydrogen -filled lamp suitable for use as a high -

frequency resistance is described, which possesses unusually great heat -dis-
sipation ability. This dissipation may be several hundred times that obtain-
able with vacuum lamps, and the gain is greatest for filaments of the smallest
diameter. Other advantages are pointed out. The theory of heat loss in a
gaseous atmosphere is summarized. Details of experimental lamps are given.
Design data are presented in the form of a chart which includes, watts dis-
sipated, resistance, temperature, and filament diameter.
THE measurement of power output at high frequencies has

always been a troublesome problem. The method most commonly
employed is that of feeding the power into incandescent lamps
which have been calibrated in terms of power dissipation versus
filament brightness. This is quite satisfactory for long wavelengths,
but limitations are encountered as the frequency is increased. The
first limitation is on the filament length. This should be small in
comparison with a wavelength in order to obtain a uniform current
and temperature distribution. Second, the filament diameter should
be small, in order to obtain a sufficiently high resistance. Third, the
filament should be able to dissipate the power to be measured.
The third requirement is at variance with the first two. A short,
thin filament cannot dissipate much energy in a vacuum since energy
loss from high -temperature filaments in vacuo occurs largely by radia-
tion and is proportional to filament surface area.
To present an idea of the gains which may be had with wire
sizes and temperatures practicably obtainable, Table I has been pre-
pared. Wr represents the heat loss in watts per centimeter length in
vacuo, and WH the loss for the same wire in hydrogen at atmospheric
pressure. The gain is greatest for thin wires at low temperatures,
and least for thick wires at high temperatures. It is seen that for a
0.010 inch wire at 3000° K the gain is only 3.8, whereas for a 0.00025
inch wire at 1000° K it is 1250. The gain is greatest for the thin, i.e.,
high -resistance, wires.
In addition to greater heat dissipation the gas -filled lamp has
several other desirable characteristics. First, the dissipation is not
83
84 RCA REVIEW
proportional to filament surface area, as with a filament in vacuo.

For small filaments, the heat dissipation varies but slightly as the
diameter is changed. This permits a wide range of resistance without
great change in dissipative ability. Second, the possible use of much
smaller diameter wires eliminates the necessity of calculating the skin
effect in many cases, since the r -f resistance may be taken equal to
the d -c resistance. Third, whereas in vacuo the energy dissipated
varies as a high power of the temperature (usually between 4 and 5),
in a gas the variation follows a much lower power law. A variation
following a fourth or fifth power law makes accurate readings difficult
at high temperatures, due to the steepness of the rise in dissipation.
Loss of heat from filaments in gases occurs mainly by conduction
and not by convection, as might at first be supposed (see Theory
below) . For this reason the dissipation is not noticeably affected by
the shape of the bulb or its position, and errors due to these factors
will not be important.
TABLE I
Heat Loss per Centimeter Length in Vacuo and in Hydrogen
Temp. 1000° K 2000° K 3000° K

Dia. Wv WI¡ Wu/Wr Wv WH WH/Wv Wv WH WH/Wv
0.00025" 0.0012 1.50 1250 0.06 5.70 95 0.50 36.00 72

0.0005 0.0024 1.70 710 0.12 6.60 55 1.00 41.00 41
0.001 0.0048 2.00 417 0.24 7.70 32 2.00 48.00 24
0.005 0.025 2.75 110 1.20 10.60 8.7 10.00 66.00 6.6
0.010 0.050 3.20 64 2.40 12.30 5.1 20.00 76.00 3.8
THEORY
The theory briefly summarized here was published by Irving
Langmuirl in 1912. It is based upon the presence of a sheath of non -
convecting gas about the hot wire. The sheath forms by virtue of
the fact that the viscosity of a gas increases with the square root of
the absolute temperature, whereas the convection forces increase much
more slowly. Thus the gas in the neighborhood of the wire tends to
become motionless as the temperature rises. Furthermore, the heat
conductivity of the gas increases very greatly with temperature
1 Phys. Rev. 34, 401.
GAS -FILLED LAMPS AS H -F RESISTORS 85
increase. For these reasons heat -conduction losses are much greater
than convection losses, and the latter may be neglected without great
error. The problem then becomes that of computing the heat transfer
through a cylinder of motionless gas surrounding the wire.
By solving the differential equation for heat flow applicable to this
case, the solution
W =S (02 .11) - (1)
is obtained, where W is the watts of heat energy conducted away per

centimeter length, S is a form factor which depends upon the wire
and sheath radii, and 02 and 01 are temperature factors determined
by the temperatures of the wire and the outer sheath boundary respec-
tively, and also by the thermal conductivity of the gas.
Langmuir shows that S may conveniently be expressed in terms
of B, the thickness of the sheath for a plane surface. B is shown
experimentally to be independent of temperature within the experi-
mental error for any given gas. The factor S is thereby made to
depend only upon the filament radius.
The factor 4 is defined as
= 4.19 kdT,
(15
J0
where k is the thermal conductivity, and T is the gas temperature
which varies from T2 at the wire surface to T1 at the outer sheath
boundary. Hence we have
4.19
[fTCzT
0
-f T-=
0
kdT
T1, the
Since in cases of interest at present, T2 is much greater than
second term will be neglected.
The factor 02 has been measured experimentally for hydrogen
and found to agree with the theory satisfactorily up to a
temperature
the
of about 2300° C. At this point deviations become appreciable,
is due to the
loss becoming greater than predicted theoretically. This
and results
dissociation of hydrogen molecules into atomic hydrogen,
cooling agent.
in a greatly increased efficiency of hydrogen as a
expres-
Because of this discrepancy with the above given theoretical
effects due to gas
sion, in which no attempt was made to include
in construct-
dissociation, the experimental values of 4 have been used
ing Table II, instead of the theoretical ones.
86
__I
I.1'l0
-.I-.1_=,:-
I11 Í;140
RCA REVIEW
_
000 1000 500
I_
-11./C M.
1020
80 3000
K
60
rignellEMNIC...
4.0,
,I
2500
2o
2000
8.0
friiirrilimildifji! ,
1500
1000
3
2. 0
1.0ekt-INIFerio.8 ,''' i 750
i1iLiI"fA-1
'III
500
/CM.
irr
TABLE 7I
DATA FOR TUNGSTEN IN I-
m
O O O N V to co
O 8 O O 8 O O N
O O O O O O O 8 Ó q O
d (inches)
EXPLANATION OF TABLE
II
Table II represents a plot of the four factors wire diameter
d in :
inches, heat dissipation W in watts per centimeter length,
wire tem-
perature T in degrees Kelvin, and d -c resistance in ohms per
centi-
meter. The diameters are expressed in inches rather than
centimeters
since that unit is commonly used by wire manufacturers.
If any two
of the above factors are given, the remaining two are
uniquely deter-
mined and may be read directly off the chart.
The chart is based on the relation
W = S5.
Experimentally determined2 values of
db for one wire size (0.0018
inch) were used, and W for other wire sizes was determined
by using
2 G. E. Rev., pp. 310-319, June, 1927.
GAS -FILLED LAMPS AS H -F RESISTORS 87
Langmuir's computed values of S. The resistance data were taken

from the work of Jones and Langmuir. These data are plotted in
the form of a family of constant-temperature curves, and a family of
constant -resistance curves. Each point has four coordinates, T, R,
W, and d, the first two (R, T) being read from the constant-tempera-
ture, constant-resistance curves as coordinates, and the second two
(W, d) from the logarithmic scales along the left-hand and lower
edges of the chart. As an example, suppose it is desired to have a
load one centimeter long to dissipate 10 watts and have a resistance
of 100 ohms. The intersection of the 10-W ordinate with the 100 -ohm
curve is located. From the other two coordinates of this point it is
then found that the required diameter is 0.00036", and the operating
temperature is about 2350° K.
Sufficient experimental data to check the chart over its entire
range are not available. In the region of diameters from 0.0004 inch
to 0.002 inch and temperatures from 1000° to 2500°, the error has
been found to be seldom more than 20 per cent. The chart is intended
for use mainly as a guide in preliminary design. For greater accuracy
lamps may be directly calibrated after construction.
Other gases than hydrogen may be used as cooling media, but
hydrogen appears to be considerably superior. Available experimental
data, although scarce, as well as theoretical considerations, indicate
that the cooling efficiency drops rapidly as the molecular weight of
the gas increases. For a temperature of 1500° K, Langmuir gives
values of 4) for hydrogen, air, and mercury vapor as 4.79, 0.74, and
0.18, respectively, and for 2500° K, 11.82, 1.87, and 0.48.
The pressure of the gas is not critical. Variations such as would
of the
be introduced by various barometric pressures during filling
lamps, or due to the lamp temperature while filling, should not cause
noticeable effects.
Materials other than tungsten may be used for filaments, to pro-
vide, for example, higher resistance. It is necessary, of course,
that
they withstand the required temperature, and be chemically
inert
with respect to the gas employed. However, Tables I and II
apply
only to tungsten in hydrogen.
LAMP CONSTRUCTION AND CALIBRATION

in Figure
A typical lamp, used in the experimental work, is shown
1. These were used for the measurement of magnetron oscillator
output at wavelengths of from 8 to 9 ems, and powers up to 20 watts.
inches and
The bulb was made of Pyrex glass. Its length was 2%
its diameter 1/2 inch. The dashed lines C indicate glass tubes which
88 RCA REVIEW
were used in introducing the hydrogen. These were eventually sealed

off at points a and b. The wires t were of 0.040 inch nickel welded to
tungsten pieces g at the seal. Their spacing and size was the same
as that of the transmission line of the magnetron. The distance from
the seal at g to the filament f was made such that a voltage node
occurred at g, thus minimizing losses in the glass at g. With a fila-
ment of length 1.2 centimeters and diameter 0.0004 inch, this type of
lamp provided a load of about 100 ohms capable of dissipating 25 watts
at 2700° K.
The lamps were calibrated with d.c. against the readings of an
optical pyrometer, which is one of the simplest methods for cases
where the filament becomes visibly hot. The d -c calibrations for W
2 2
Li c
Fig. 1-Experimental load lamp.
and R may be used without correction only if the filament is so short
that the h -f current distribution is essentially uniform, and of so
small a diameter that skin effect is negligible. In any case, the error
due to these factors may be calculated if desired.
Although the use of an optical pyrometer will generally be found
the most convenient method of calibration, other methods may easily
be devised. Instead of the regular pyrometer a duplicate lamp may
be employed, this being operated by direct or low -frequency current
and adjusted to equal the brightness of the h -f operated lamp. Also,
calorimetric methods should be suitable. For rough measurements,
a thermocouple or; thermometer may be fastened to the lamp bulb, and
calibrated in terms of lamp dissipation. Also, it is possible to devise
bridge circuits in which the change in lamp resistance is used to
indicate power output. Methods capable of employing lamps operating
at low temperature are desirable from the standpoint of lamp life.
In general lamps should be designed to operate at as low a tempera-
ture as possible in order to secure long life and prevent progressive
change of resistance and dissipative ability.
AN ICONOSCOPE PRE -AMPLIFIER
BY
ALLEN A. BARCO
RCA License Laboratory
Summary-This paper describes a video -frequency pre -amplifier type

de-
Icono-
signed for use with the standard silver-caesium sensitized studio
scope. This unit constitutes a portion of the equipment used by the RCA
License Laboratory to generate a complete standard television signal for
laboratory test purposes.
Under normal operating conditions, the Iconoscope output current is
of the order of a few tenths of a microampere. This current, when
caused
to flow through any practicable value of load impedance, produces relatively
feeble signals. Hence, it is desirable to raise the signal level to about one
-
quarter volt (peak to peak video signal) before the signal is subjected to
subsequent mixing, clipping, and transmission processes. This is done so
that the signal will be well above any noise or hum introduced in trans-
mission lines or control circuits.
Briefly, the amplifier consists of five stages, each employing a type 1851
tube. In its design and construction particular care was taken regarding
signal-to-noise ratio, frequency response, and stability. The unique expedi-
ents necessarily employed to secure the desired characteristics are explained
in a stage -by -stage analysis.
HE nature of the Iconoscope load impedance and the first

amplifier-stage circuit merit greatest consideration in Icono-
scope pre -amplifier design, for it is here that the ultimate limits
of signal-to-noise ratio and frequency response are almost wholly
determined. It is impossible to remove noise once it has been mixed
with the video signal. Hence, it is desirable to amplify the signal as
much as possible in the early stages, and to bring about this amplifica-
tion with the introduction of a minimum of noise and frequency distor-
tion.
These problems permit of more simple solutions than would, at
first thought, seem possible. This is true because it has been found
possible, and often entirely practicable, to permit the frequency
response of the Iconoscope load circuit to depart from a flat charac-
teristic and then, by means of proper correcting circuits, to restore
the desired frequency characteristic in some subsequent stage. In other
words, the process consists of first obtaining a good signal-to-noise
ratio, with little regard to frequency characteristics, and then, after
the signal is well above the noise level, correcting the frequency
response to conform with the desired characteristic.
89
90 RCA REVIEW
To be more specific, assume for the sake of discussion that the
video -frequency band shall extend from a very low frequency (say 60
cycles, where the gain is independent of shunt capacitance) to a fre-
quency at which the gain falls to 70.7 per cent. This is convenient
because the Iconoscope load impedance consists of resistance and
capacitance in shunt. Thus, it may be noted that the upper limit occurs
at the frequency at which the shunt resistance and capacitive reactance
are of equal magnitude. Assuming an ultimate desired band width of
5 Mc, Iconoscope output capacitance of 10 µµf, and the input capaci-
tance of a type 1851 tube as 16 if (at 9000 g,,,) we find, upon the
;
inclusion of a few micro-microfarads for socket and stray -circuit

capacitance, that the total capacitance shunting the Iconoscope load
resistor is of the order of 28 µµf. Calculation reveals that, in order
to achieve the assumed band width of 5 Mc, the load resistor should
be about 1150 ohms. Such a low value of load resistor is perfectly
satisfactory as far as frequency response is concerned, but is very
undesirable from the standpoint of signal-to-noise ratio. This is true
because the noise generated in the low -frequency range (where shunt
capacitance may be neglected) by thermal agitation in the load resistor
varies as the square root of the resistance, while the signal voltage
(assuming the Iconoscope to be a constant -current source) increases
directly as the load resistance.
Upon cursory examination, the condition existing in the upper -
frequency range may appear to be quite different. Here, the signal
voltage is determined almost entirely by the magnitude of the capaci-
tance shunting the Iconoscope load resistor. The situation is further
complicated by the fact that this capacitance also shunts the thermal
noise generated in the load resistor. However, if the shunt capacitance
and resistance are converted mathematically to their effective series
values, the series resistance thus obtained may be used to calculate
directly the thermal agitation potentials which are impressed upon
the grid of the first amplifier tube. The effective series resistance
decreases as the value of the shunt resistance is increased, thus causing
an improvement in signal-to-noise ratio insofar as noise voltages
produced by thermal agitation in the load resistor are concerned.
It is important to note that thus far we have been concerned only
with the resistor thermal noise. However, increasing the load resistor
provides an added advantage in that it gives a greater signal
voltage
and hence a better ratio of signal to tube -noise. Naturally, any
im-
provement in signal to tube -noise ratio obtained by increasing
the
magnitude of the load resistor is appreciable only in the low -frequency
portion of the video spectrum, where shunt capacitance may
be
neglected.
ICONOSCOPE PRE -AMPLIFIER 91
At this point it should be apparent that, for a given value of

Iconoscope output -signal current, there are only two ways in which the
signal-to-noise ratio may be improved without destroying the desired
overall flat frequency-response characteristic. First, the value of the
capacitance shunting the Iconoscope load may be reduced, thus permit-
ting the use of a higher value of load resistor. Second, after obtaining
minimum capacitance, the value of the load resistor may be further
increased, disregarding the effect on frequency response for the
present, but with the thought of correcting it in some subsequent stage.
A combination of both of these methods was used in the final design
of the pre -amplifier.
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
FIRST STAGE
The evolution of the Iconoscope load and first amplifier circuits is
shown in Figures 1 to 8. In Figure 1 is shown the conventional
resistance -coupled circuit, similar in all respects to that used in con-
ventional resistance -coupled audio -frequency amplifiers. Here the out-
put is taken at the plate of the first amplifier. In Figure 2 the first
amplifier is operated with an unbypassed cathode load and the output
is taken at the cathode. This type of degenerative or cathode -loaded
amplifier has a number of unusual characteristics. The most impor-
tant of these (insofar as this stage is concerned) is the reduction of
the effect of input impedance (grid -cathode) of the first amplifier by
1
where R is the cathode resistor and the
a factor ,
1 + gºnR
transconductance of the first amplifier tube. In the video -frequency
range the input conductance is very small, so that its reduction of
is
little consequence. However, the reduction of the effect of input capaci-
is reduced
tance is appreciable ; the normal input capacitance of 16 µµf
to an effective value of about 2 µµf.
It is also possible to remove the coupling condenser C of Figure 2
coupled
because the Iconoscope signal plate is effectively capacitance
The removal
to the mosaic. Therefore no blocking condenser is needed.
92 RCA REVIEW
of this condenser affords a slight measure of reduction in the stray -

circuit capacitance. Obviously the resistor R of Figure 2, which for-
merly served as plate -feeding resistor in the conventional resistance -
coupled audio amplifier, is no longer needed as it is not necessary to
apply voltage to the Iconoscope signal plate.
With the aforementioned changes the circuit becomes that indicated
in Figure 3 where, in addition, the proper bias has been obtained from
a tap on the cathode resistor. As was previously mentioned, it is not
necessary to supply a potential to the Iconoscope signal plate in order
to make the system operative. However, it has been found that some
improvement in shading characteristics may be realized by operating
the collector at a potential equal to, or slightly positive with respect to,
the signal -plate potential. The required potential may be conveniently
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
obtained from the cathode of the first amplifier through a suitable
filter as shown in Figure 4.
Measurement revealed that the Iconoscope output capacitance could
be separated into two parts. The first is the direct internal capacitance
between signal plate and collector-about 5µµf. The second is the capa-
citance between signal plate and the shielded case in which the Icono-
scope is housed. This also was found to be about 5µµf. Mathematical
analysis of the cathode -loaded type of circuit shows that the apparent
reduction in input capacitance is due to the fact that the cathode -
signal voltage has approximately the same amplitude and phase as the
grid -signal voltage. In accordance with this concept an electrostatic
shield for the Iconoscope was constructed of fine wires, spaced about a
half -inch and placed as shown in Figure 5. The shield was connected
to the cathode of the first amplifier (Figure 6). This arrangement
places the signal plate and its surrounding shield at nearly the same
potential (signal voltage, not d -c potential). Hence any capacitative
current, which would tend to flow between signal plate and ground in
the unshielded arrangement, is reduced in the shielded circuit by the

ratio of the grid -cathode voltage to the signal voltage (grid -ground).
This very materially reduces the effective capacitance between signal
plate and ground. Note, however, that the capacitance between shield
and ground is effectivly placed across the cathode -load resistor of the
first stage, but that this has no undesirable effect because it is char-
acteristic of such degenerative amplifiers that the output impedance
1
(at cathode) is approximately . In the case of the 1851 this is
9m
about 110 ohms. Hence, the 20 if (approximate) of capacitance
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
between shield and ground may be neglected for most practical pur-
poses (reactance at 5 Mc is 1590 ohms) .*
By proper mathematical analysis it may be shown that the effective
values of the Iconoscope load components (using constants given in
the complete circuit diagram shown in Figure 7) are R=300,000
ohms and C = 8 µµf. The value of 300,000 ohms (effective value) for
the Iconoscope load resistor was chosen for the best possible signal-
to-noise ratio commensurate with the ability to equalize the frequency
response at the third amplifier stage. These values were checked by
actual measurement and found to be substantially correct. There was,
however, a slight increase in both R and C at the higher video
fre-
of
quencies because of slight phase shifts due to the net capacitance
approximately 40 µµf shunting the cathode -load resistor in the first
by
amplifier stage. The increase in effective load resistance is caused
the introduction of a negative resistance component which, at very high
frequencies, may be sufficient to permit oscillation. Hence, it was found
* The use of the electrostatic shield
was proposed independently at
the laboratories of Electric & Musical Industries, Ltd., Hayes, Middlesex,
England.
94 RCA REVIEW
necessary to include the 100 -ohm series grid resistor in the cathode -
loaded stage (see Figure 7) . The resistor should be of the non -
inductive type and placed as near the grid pin as possible.
Theory and quantitative measurement have indicated that both
the Iconoscope load -resistor thermal noise and the first -amplifier tube
noise are of the same order of magnitude. It is apparent in such cases
that some measure of improvement in overall signal-to-noise ratio
may be realized by minimizing the noise contributed by the first -
amplifier tube. Note that such is not always true. In cases where the
8+.002 4000
/00
50K
2m
150
81.05
\I SI/AO/NG
INPUT 750
7500
NOTE' ONE S/OE OF NEATER
GROUNOEO ..0/RECTL Y AT 64.05 2000
SOCKET ON ALL TUBES.
.25
8+.05 2500
B/F/LAR N/NO/NG ON
S/B FORM 60 TUQNS
TOTAL 4`.î2 O S. C.
50K
8+.25
64,0.5"
5000 75
T
90
-/,S
TO
B/AS CELL
OUTPUT JACK
-v
TO 65a LINE
6+,o5T
h/AG,P,M OF /CONO<SCOPE P,PEAMPL /F/E2 +8 .
250
Fig. 7
resistor noise is larger (by, say, 10 times) than the tube noise, even
complete elimination of the tube noise would result in only a frac-
tional percentage reduction in overall noise.
Previous investigations of tube noise have indicated that some
reduction of tube noise may be obtained by operating the first amplifier
as a triode rather than as a pentode. This requires that the screen -
grid bypass of the cathode -loaded stage be returned to ground rather
than to the cathode. While this practice results in a slight increase in
effective input capacitance it affords about 30 per cent reduction in
overall noise voltage. The effect of the undesirable increase in input
capacitance (caused by control -grid to screen -grid capacitance) may
easily be compensated in the third stage.
There is another problem which, though not directly associated with

the design of the pre -amplifier, may nevertheless be most conveniently
dealt with at this point. That is the problem of shading -signal inser-
tion. The need for shading signals arises from the fact that the
Iconoscope has the characteristic, inherent due to its principle of
operation, of having appear in its output a number of spurious signals
in addition to the desired video signal. It is the purpose of the shading
signals to neutralize or buck out the undesired spurious signals. Since
the spurious signal may have an amplitude comparable to that of the
video signal, it has been found desirable to neutralize this undesired
signal at as low a level as possible. The major portion of the amplitude
characteristic of subsequent amplifiers may then be devoted to the
useful video signal without danger of overload, and the resultant loss
in picture contrast which would occur if the shading signals were
inserted near the end of the video chain.
Fig. 8
The method used for inserting shading signals is shown in Figure

8. Here, the shading signals, produced in a separate unit, are
fed into
a 7500 -ohm resistor which serves as the apparent constant-voltage
source of shading signals for the Iconoscope proper. The shading
signals are then applied to the grid of the first amplifier through a
5-megohm resistor. This must be done in order to make the shading
signals at the first -amplifier grid appear as being derived from a
constant -current source. In other words, the source of shading sig-
nals must not act as an appreciable shunt upon the Iconoscope load
impedance.
SECOND STAGE
amplifier
The second -stage amplifier consists of an 1851 pentode
the frequency
employing the conventional shunt peaking to extend
a gain
characteristic. This stage is compensated to 5 Mc and affords
the frequency
of approximately 13. The technique of equalizing
numerous
response by shunt peaking has had excellent treatment in
other papers and will not be discussed in detail here.
96 RCA REVIEW
THIRD STAGE
This stage will be found to he unique in regard to its plate load

and the method of coupling into the following stage. It is the function
of the third stage to correct for the alteration in frequency response
which occurs in the Iconoscope load circuit. The Iconoscope load con-
sists, effectively, of 8 µµf and 300,000 ohms in shunt. Assuming the
Iconoscope to be a constant-current source, and that the composite
gain of the first and second stages is of magnitude A (constant
throughout the video band) , the output characteristic of the second
stage may be represented by
1
R1 X
JwCl
E I A
1
R1+
JwC1
where E = output voltage of the second stage.

I= Iconoscope output current.
R, = Iconoscope load resistance (effective value) .
Cl = Iconoscope load resistance (effective value) .
Since A and I are assumed constant, they may be denoted by the

lumped constant K. After due simplification, the output characteristic
may be seen to be of the form
R1
E=K
1+ JwC1R1
The output obviously varies in phase and in amplitude as a function

of frequency. Note, however, that if a third stage were used having
a plate load of the form R2 + JwL2 the gain over three stages would be
R1
Kl (R2 + JwL2)
1 + JwC1R1
where K1 is a new constant taken to include the g, of the third stage.

Simplification of this expression gives
JwL2
1-{-
R2
P0-R1R2
1 -{- JwC1R1 1
L2
Thus, it may be seen that if = C1R1, the output of the third stage
R2
will be of constant amplitude and free of phase shift throughout the
video band. The circuit would appear as shown in Figure 9. How-
ever, from a practical standpoint there are limitations to be taken
into consideration. First, there is about 25 µµf of tube and stray-
circuit capacitance shunting the load circuit of the third stage. This
requires that the value of reactance of L2 be kept small compared to
the value of the shunt -capacitive reactance at the highest frequency
POWER
SUPPLY
/MPEOANCE
Fig. 10
Fig. 9
to be amplified; i.e., the resonant frequency of the composite -plate

load should fall well above the upper end of the video -frequency range.
This condition may be fulfilled by making L2 = 15 µh. With these con-
stants, resonance occurs at about 8.2 Mc.
L2
The value of 6.25 ohms for R2 R2 = is difficult, if
C1R1
not impossible, to obtain in practice. This is true because the power -
supply impedance appears in series with the load as shown in Figure
10. In conventional plate -voltage supplies, the output impedance is
a capacitive reactance of approximately 50 ohms at 60 cycles. Although
an electronic-regulated supply would afford a much lower impedance,
the condition would still be undesirable because the regulated -supply
output-impedance varies both in magnitude and phase with respect
to frequency. It may occasionally be negative in nature. Even if the
supply had negligible impedance, the leads (from power supply to
camera) may possess appreciable impedance.
98 RCA REVIEW
The most satisfactory solution of the problem lies in making the

load impedance of the form R7 -I- JwM9. It is then possible to eliminate
the effect of power -supply impedance by means of the circuit shown
in Figure 11. Here, a bifilar winding is used to secure high mutual
inductance. The reactances of the windings are made to have their
resonant periods (resonance with shunt -circuit capacitances) fall
well outside the video -frequency band. The time constant of the com-
ponents R1 and C1 is made sufficiently large to eliminate any appre-
ciable attenuation or phase shift at low frequencies. The same is
true of R3 and C3, which constitute a conventional grid -coupling cir-
cuit. The resistor R9 is made variable (about 25 ohms total resistance).
and its final value determined by observation of the picture after the
unit is placed in operation. One excellent type of picture subject
matter, for use when adjusting the low -frequency gain -control
resistor R2, consists of film titles, the high degree of contrast being
particularly desirable. Incorrect adjustment of R2 will be indicated
by a smeared appearance of the picture. That is, an appearance of
black or white shadows following the vertical edges of the letters.
Upon correct adjustment of R2 the edges become clear and sharp.
The discussion thus far has been based upon the tacit assumption
that the tube used in the third stage has a straight-line amplitude
characteristic. However, such is far from true in practice, particu-
larly when high gm tube types are used with large grid swings. Non -
linearity in the first and second stages may be neglected because the
signal swing is small compared to the bias voltage, hence the tubes
operate over only a small portion of the total characteristic. The third
stage, however, operates with relatively large grid swing, the effect
of which is to make the positive and negative plate-current excursions
unequal. Oscilloscopic tests with a square -wave signal source have
shown that in the event of excessive non -linearity of the third stage
it is impossible to compensate precisely on both the positive and

negative swings. The response of the first three stages to a 15-kc
square wave may be made perfect on either positive or negative grid
swings by the adjustment of R.,, but perfect response on both swings
is possible only upon the inclusion of the 150 -ohm unbypassed cathode
load as shown in Figure 11. Here again is employed another of the
useful features of cathode -loaded amplifiers-improvement in linearity
of the amplitude characteristic.
While there are many other methods of compensating frequency
response, this one has been found to be most desirable in regard to
ease of adjustment, permissible gain per stage, and ability to correct
accurately large variations in frequency response (about 50:1 in this
case).
It should be noted that the principle of correcting a highly deficient
frequency response at a subsequent stage has an additional advantage
which may not be apparent upon cursory inspection. Since the overall
gain of this amplifier is rather low (about 8 at the low -frequency end,
400 at high) in the low -frequency spectrum the effect of microphonics
is greatly minimized. The use of the compensation principle would
be advantageous in this respect even if it were ineffective in reducing
noise.
FOURTH STAGE
The fourth stage is quite similar to the second stage. It too is in

general a conventional video amplifier. However, it utilizes a some-
what higher value of load resistor by virtue of the lower value of
shunt capacitance appearing in its plate circuit. The reason for the
reduction in capacitance will be apparent upon consideration of the
fifth stage.
FIFTH STAGE
In most practical applications it is desirable to locate the pre-

amplifier in the camera head proper, directly beneath the Iconoscope.
In such cases the output leads may range from 5 feet to 50 feet, or
in some cases, even longer. It is convenient to have this output lead
take the form of a concentric cable, all or a portion of which may be
flexible. It is also desirable to be able to couple into, or out of, this
cable without having to resort to excessively large blocking condensers
or other undesirable coupling means which are usually necessitated by
low-impedance lines. Again it is found convenient to use the degen-
erative or cathode -loaded amplifier. In this case, the principal reasons
for using it are to provide a low -output impedance, and also to main-
100 RCA REVIEW
tain the cable near ground potential insofar as direct current is

concerned. As was previously mentioned, the reduction in effective
input capacitance which is characteristic of the cathode -loaded ampli-
fier is advantageous here, in that it permits the use of a higher value
of load resistor in the plate circuit of the preceding stage, and hence
greater gain.
The cathode -loaded output stage is shown in Figure 12. Here C1
and R1 are the conventional grid -coupling components. The value of
R2 is chosen so that R., plus the cable impedance is sufficient to furnish
the correct value of bias necessary to maintain the zero -signal plate
current of the 1851 at about 10 ma. This total value will normally
be about 160 ohms. It has been found sufficient to terminate the
cable at one end only.
Bf
Miele/WT/0N /47 FAR

END. 6.5"-r` PO2
REPA ESENTAT/YE L/NE.
Fig. 12
POWER SUPPLY
The plate -voltage supply for the pre -amplifier should be capable
of delivering about 60 milliamperes at 250 volts. It is highly desirable
that this supply be of the voltage -regulated type, not necessarily
because of the low output impedance afforded by such supplies, but
railer because of its low hum level and its ability to remove the
effect of line -voltage variations and surges which might cause changes
in the plate voltage, and hence shifting of the picture background or
brightness level. However, the factor of low output impedance is
certainly not undesirable. As an additional safeguard toward greater
stability, ample use has been made, throughout the pre -amplifier, of
adequate plate -circuit decoupling filters. As has been pointed out in
the many recent papers on video -frequency amplifier design, the
decoupling filters also serve as equalizing networks which compensate
for low -frequency response deficiencies in the grid-coupling circuits.
Note that all electrolytic condensers are bypassed by small paper or

mica condensers. This must be done because electrolytics have been
found to show appreciable impedance at the higher video frequencies.
PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Since the particular model of Iconoscope pre -amplifier herein

described was an experimental model, which was subjected to numerous
and frequent changes, it is by no means intended to represent the
optimum insofar as physical and mechanical considerations are con-
cerned. However, there are a number of points pertaining to con-
struction which, while they may not be considered desirable in every
case, may at least suggest a possible method of attacking the problem.
For convenience in handling, and from the standpoint of portability,
it is desirable to have the camera case of reasonable dimensions and,
to facilitate experimental work, to have the components readily acces-
sible for servicing or for circuit alterations. Hence, the pre -amplifier
was built in a drawer, which was arranged to slide into the end of
the camera case just beneath the Iconoscope. All leads, with the
exception of those to the signal plate and collector of the Iconoscope,
were brought out at the end of the drawer through jacks and plugs.
The drawer was constructed of heavy sheet -brass with a bakelite
bottom and a removable sheet -brass top. Additional shielding was
provided internally by a lengthwise baffle, and externally, particularly
on the bottom, by the camera case. All tubes were mounted in a
horizontal position and staggered from side to side to provide short
grid and plate leads.
Circuit elements and tie -points were mounted on the bakelite
bottom. This served to reduce materially the stray-circuit capacitance.
All bypass returns and grounds were made directly at each tube socket
with short leads and well soldered connections.
While the unit may appear to be unduly compressed, a little
experience with this type of construction will reveal the ease with
which compactness may be realized.
ADJUSTMENT OF CIRCUIT CONSTANTS FOR PROPER FREQUENCY RESPONSE
As was previously mentioned, it will be necessary to measure the

total shunt capacitances appearing in the plate circuits of the second
and fourth stages, and to calculate the proper values of plate -load
resistor and peaking inductance to be used in these stages. This must
be done to take into account possible variations in capacitance caused
by differences in construction and wiring.
102 RCA REVIEW
A somewhat similar condition prevails with regard to the low -

frequency response characteristic. Here it is necessary to make minor
adjustments to eliminate errors caused by tolerances in grid -return
resistors and in the electrolytic condensers used in the low -frequency
plate -circuit equalizing networks. The adjustment may be facilitated
by applying a 60 -pulse -per -second square wave at the grids of the
proper stages, and by observing the amplifier-output waveform on a
reliable oscilloscope. The sequence of adjustments is as follows:
Apply a square wave to the grid of the fourth stage (remove the
grid cap and apply the signal from grid to bias cell) and adjust the
grid -return resistor of the fifth stage until the output, as observed
on the oscilloscope, shows no wave tilt.
Apply the square wave to the grid of the first stage and adjust
the grid -return resistor of the third stage until the output shows no
wave tilt.
The time constants of the grid -coupling circuits of the second
and fourth stages need not be adjusted, as it is desirable to have
these as large as conveniently possible. The constants given in the
circuit diagram have been found satisfactory.
OPERATION
This amplifier, when used in conjunction with an f :3.5 lens and a

studio -type Iconoscope operating at about 0.1 microampere beam
current (combined signal -plate and collector currents) is capable of
producing an excellent picture. With outdoor pickup on a very cloudy
day the noise level is so low as to be unnoticeable. Under the afore-
mentioned conditions the output level is about 0.2 volt (peak to peak) .
Overload occurs at about 1.5 volts (peak to peak) output. However,
this condition is rarely met in practice and may be prevented in cases
of excessive illumination by stopping down the lens.
APPENDIX I
Analysis of cathode -loaded stage with particular regard to output

impedance.
Throughout this discussion the tube used is assumed to be of the
pentode type; that is, having a high dynamic plate resistance so that
it may be considered as a constant -current device; also, grid -plate
capacitance is assumed negligible and the screen grid is assumed to
be by-passed to cathode.
Fig. 13
The dynamic circuit of a cathode loaded stage is shown in Figure 13.

D -c components have been eliminated for the sake of simplicity.
Upon examination of Figure 13 the following relationships may
be noted.
Ip -E9k gm (1)
E,,k = Esib - Eout (2)
Eout = Ip Zk (3)
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1)
Ip = (E Sig - IpZk) gna (4)

or
Esig
Ip (5)
1
-- Zk
gm
The equivalent circuit for this expression is shown in Figure 14.
Fig. 14
The following useful conclusions may be drawn regarding cathode -

1
loaded stages. Note that is of the form of resistance. The output
gm
1
impedance equals , which in the case of the 1851 is 110 ohms.
gm
104 RCA REVIEW
1
If Z7 is purely resistive in nature and large compared to the
gm
gain is constant with respect to frequency and almost equal to unity.
Specifically, the gain is
Z.
A (6)
1
+ Zk
gm
APPENDIX II
Analysis of cathode -loaded stage with particular regard to reduc-
tion of apparent input capacitance.
In Figure 15 is shown the dynamic circuit of a conventional
amplifier.
Fig. 15
Here the reactive component of the input impedance is seen to be
Esig 1
Xill - Ig JwCg_,ti
(7)
In the case of the degenerative or cathode -loaded stage shown in

Figure 16 we may say
Fig. 16
IQ =
Esig - Eout (8)
1
JtüC9-k
It is advantageous to make note of the fact that
Zç
Emit = Esig (9)
gm
as given in Appendix I equation (6) .
Then, substituting and rearranging (8)
gt
I9 = E.SigJ(I)C9_,ç (10)
1
+ Zk
gin
whence by equation (7)
Xin = (11)
1
JcOCg
By comparing (7) and (11) it may be noted that the grid -cathode
portion of the input capacitance has effectively been reduced by a
factor
1
gm 1
or
1 1 + Zkgm
+ Zk
gin
106 RCA REVIEW
For a type 1851 with resistive cathode load of 900 ohms this factor is
about .11.
It must be noted that if the screen grid is bypassed to cathode
the entire input capacitance is decreased by the given factor. However,
it has been found desirable to return the screen bypass to ground for
purposes of improving the signal-to-noise ratio. In this latter case only
the grid -cathode portion of the input capacitance is effectively reduced.
Naturally this analysis also holds true for cases in which it is
desirable to reduce the effect of grid -cathode capacitances which are
in the external circuit and not necessarily interelectrode capacitances.
It is interesting to note that if Zk contains capacitive reactance, a
negative resistance component is introduced into the input impedance.
A similar analysis may be made for the case in which it is desired
to determine the apparent resistive component of the input impedance
when the grid -return resistor is brought back to a tap on the cathode-
load resistor. The dynamic circuit to be considered in this case is
indicated in Figure 17.
Fig. 17
From equation (6) Appendix I it may be noted that

Zk
Emit = Esig
whence
R3 Rz -}- R3 R3
E9 = EOlit = Esig[
R, -I- R3 1 R., -{- Rs
-E-R,-i-R3
1a
R3
= Esig
1
+ R2 + R3
but the effective input resistance is
Esig ESIg Esig

R1 =
I9 E Esig - E2
R R1
EsigRl
R1 =
Esig - Esig 1
R3
+ R2-f- R3
gm
cancelling Esig
1
R1= Ri
R3
1
--
1
gm
R2+Rs
ANTENNAS*
By
H. H. BEVERAGE
Chief Research Engineer, R.C.A. Communications, Inc.
MARCONI, during his early work with wireless telegraphy in

1895, used a simple dipole oscillator similar to those used by
Heinrich Hertz in his classical experiments eight years
earlier. Marconi soon discovered that he could greatly increase the
range of transmission by connecting one side of the dipole oscillator
to earth and the other side to an elevated plate. By using structures
of greater and greater elevation to support his antenna, he found that
the range of transmission increased. Since the wavelength emitted by
this early equipment was a function of the length and size of the
antenna, it is evident that Marconi's success quickly set a trend to-
ward the use of longer and longer wavelengths as well as larger and
higher antennas. When Marconi transmitted the historic letter "S"
from Poldhu to Newfoundland in 1901, the antenna at Poldhu was sup-
ported by masts about 200 feet high, and it is probable that the wave-
length was between 2000 and 3000 feet. During the next 20 years, it
is not surprising that the trend toward the use of longer wavelengths
continued which in turn called for higher antennas to increase the
efficiency of radiation, and antennas of larger area to hold the voltage
down to reasonable values when the antennas were energized by the
hundreds of kilowatts found necessary for reliable communication over
great distances. By 1921, it was not unusual to find some long -wave
transmitting antennas supported by towers 800 feet high, and other
types of antennas over a mile long. The Alexanderson multiple-tuned
antenna is a familiar example of the latter type.
During this period, the bugbear to long distance communication
was atmospheric disturbances, more commonly known as "static". It
was found that static originated mostly over land masses, so that, in
general, on transoceanic circuits, the static originated in a direction
* A "guest editorial" in Radio and Television, April,

1939. Reprinted
by permission,
108
ANTENNAS 109
more or less opposite to the direction from which the signals were
arriving over their ocean path. Consequently it was possible to reduce
greatly the effects of static by using directive reception. Numerous
arrangements were used with varying degrees of success, such as the
unidirectional "loop -vertical" combinations of Pickard, the ground
wires of A. Hoyt Taylor, and the long antennas supported on poles, such
as Weagant's antenna and the "Wave Antenna". The voltages induced
in these long antennas traveled at nearly the velocity of light so that
very long antennas could be used effectively, the usual length being
8 to 10 miles for the transoceanic wavelengths in general use at that
time.
Fig. 1-Hertzian di -pole

antenna.
The Wave Antenna was the first antenna to utilize the traveling
wave principle, as distinguished from standing waves. Its effective-
ness was due in large part to its simplicity which eliminated the critical
adjustments that were required in its predecessors which depended
upon some sort of a balancing arrangement.
The second era of long distance radio communication started with
the discovery, during the early 1920's, that short waves below 100
meters were useful for long distance communication in the daytime, as
well as at night. For these short wavelengths, it was practical to re-
turn to the Hertzian dipole as a radiator. It also became feasible to
use directivity in the transmitting antenna to project a large propor-
tion of the radiated power in the desired direction. It was logical that
the first directive antennas should consist of arrays of dipoles with re-
flectors. Very effective arrays were developed as exemplified by the
110 RCA REVIEW
British Marconi Beam antenna, the German Tannenbaum antenna, and
the arrays developed in America by the A. T. & T. Company and the
RCA. These antennas, however, were relatively expensive to construct
and maintain, and as the number of short-wave circuits rapidly in-
creased, it was necessary to develop less expensive types of antennas.
Economical and effective antennas were devised consisting of wires
several wavelengths long orientated in such a way as to concentrate
the radiation in the desired direction. Typical antennas of this gen-
eral classification which have found wide use are the harmonic wire
antenna, the V-shaped antenna with reflector, the Rhombic antenna,
Fig. 2-Alexanderson multiple -tuned antenna.
and the Marconi Series -Phase antenna. The latter two are generally
terminated in a dissipative network equivalent to their surge impedance
so that they employ traveling waves rather than standing waves.
The early short-wave receiving antennas were frequently arrays
similar to the transmitting arrays, but less costly receiving antennas
were eventually developed by the operators of radio communication
services. In America, the antennas most generally used for trans-
oceanic services are the Rhombic antenna and the Fishbone antenna,
both of which are of the traveling wave type.
The short waves have been very useful as a means for studying the
characteristics of the ionosphere and the mechanism of radio trans-
mission in general. This knowledge has been useful in connection with
studies of propagation in the broadcasting spectrum. The anti -fading
ANTENNAS 111
service area of broadcasting stations have been approximately doubled

by antennas designed to suppress the radiation at high angles above
the horizon.
We are now entering upon the third era of radio communication,
the development of the ultra-short waves. These waves do not ordi-
narily travel via the ionosphere and are limited in their reliable range
to distances not greatly in excess of the horizon. This quality is an
advantage in many ways since it makes it possible to duplicate the
use of these frequencies without interference at points on the order of
200 miles or so apart. It is interesting to note that there are as many
cycles between 5 meters (60 megacycles) and 10 meters (30 mega-
cycles) as there are in the entire radio spectrum above 10 meters.
The services that will undoubtedly develop in the ultra-short wave
spectrum may eventually become as important, or even more important,
Fig. 3-Wave antenna.
than the services now existing in all of the rest of the radio spectrum.
For example, the ultra-short wave band is the only part of the
spectrum suitable for high -definition television. Bands of 6 mega-
cycles width in this spectrum have already been earmarked by the
Federal Communications Commission for experimental television
transmission.
We have seen that in the transition from the long waves to short
waves, there was a radical change in the type of antennas that were
found useful and necessary for the new services. Will the develop-
ment of the ultra-short wave spectrum see a radical change in antenna
structures such as we do not dream of today ?
In the long distance use of shortwaves, a limit was found in the
concentration of the radio beam that could be used successfully. To
obtain a high power gain, it was necessary to concentrate the radia-
tion into a narrow beam in the vertical plane as well as the horizontal
plane. It was found that there is no single vertical angle at which
the radiation can be launched that will be effective over a considerable
period of time. The classic work of the Bell Laboratories in the de-
112 RCA REVIEW
velopment of the MUSA system indicates very clearly that the signals
may travel over several bundles of rays, but that these paths are quite
variable and require a wide range of vertical angles to obtain reliable
communication over a considerable period of time. This phenomenon
sets a limit on the usable concentration of the radiated or received radio
-v
-,-,.,.7
2'1
Fig. 4 Marconi beam antenna.
energy. As a practical matter, an antenna with a concentration which

produces a power gain of 100 is probably close to the useful limit. Will
a similar limitation in the concentration of power be found on the ultra -
short waves ? No such limitation is known today, and as the wave-
length becomes shorter, it is practicable to build antennas that will
Fig. 5 Rhombic antenna.
highly concentrate the radio beam. Will we see strange contraptions

with power gains of 1000 or more on relay chains carrying television
network programs and multiplexed mass communication? If power
gains of a high order can be used, the transmitter power required
will decrease in proportion so we may see a miniature "acorn" tube
transmitter associated with an enormous directive antenna structure.
The possibilities of using radio repeaters even smaller than telephone
type repeaters, and concentrations of energy that reduce the attenua-
tion over a given path to a very low value are indeed intriguing to the
imagination.
Another factor that will affect the antenna design for the ultra -
short waves is the necessity for providing antennas covering an ex-
ANTENNAS 113
tremely wide band for high -definition television. We have already seen
some radical departures from familiar forms of antennas in this field
in the television antenna recently erected on the Empire State Building
in New York. Here we see radiator elements looking like Indian clubs
which project from an expanding throat and appear somewhat like the
streamlined nacelle of a modern air liner. By this unusual design, a
radiator is obtained which electrically looks like a resistance over the
Fig. 6-Empire State Building television

antenna.
a band many
complete octave of frequencies from 30 to 60 megacycles,
times wider than provided by any omni-directional
antenna known to
flat characteristic
the prior art. In other words, this antenna has a
band.
over a range 30 times as wide as the normal broadcasting
wavelengths, we may
As we learn how to use shorter and shorter
designs which have little
well expect to see increasingly radical antenna
resemblance to the antennas that have been
familiar to us in the long -
wave and short-wave fields.
EFFECT OF ELECTRON TRANSIT TIME ON
EFFICIENCY OF A POWER AMPLIFIER
BY
ANDREW V. HAEFF
Research and Engineering Department, Radiotron Division, RCA Manufacturing
Company, Inc., Harrison, New Jersey
Summary-Measurements of the plate efficiency of a neutralized triode

amplifier operated at high frequencies are reported. The results are com-
pared with those obtained for an oscillator operated at the same frequency.
At a frequency at which the oscillator efficiency approaches zero the
amplifier efficiency is found to be reduced to only 50 per cent of the low -
frequency value. It is shown that the difference in efficiency is primarily
due to a large phase angle between the plate current and the grid voltage
produced by the electron transit time.
N a recent paper' W. G. Wagener discusses the effect of electron

transit time on amplifier efficiency and presents generalized curves
of transit -time -efficiency factors for triode oscillators and ampli-
fiers. Wagener refers to the work done early in 1936 by the author,
who at that time suggested that in a neutralized amplifier, or in any
amplifier in which the phase of output voltage is independent of the
phase of input voltage, the efficiency of a tube as an amplifier will be
higher than as a triode oscillator at higher frequencies when, as a
result of electron transit time, appreciable phase difference may exist
between grid voltage and plate current. In order that this suggestion
might be checked, curves of plate efficiency versus transit angle were
obtained for a push-pull cross -neutralized amplifier. These curves
clearly demonstrated the improved performance of a tube as an ampli-
fier and indicated the possibility of extending the high -frequency limits
of conventional tubes. It is the purpose of the present paper to present
the original data on amplifier efficiency as affected by electron transit
time and to discuss the significance and usefulness of such informa-
tion for the design of high -frequency power -amplifier tubes.
The study of the effect of electron transit time on the performance
of tubes at high frequencies has been the subject of many recent pub-
lications. Starting with the original work of Benham' and other
investigators, 3'4'5'6 we find that a satisfactory theory confirmed by
experiment, has been developed for analyzing the high -frequency per-
formance of conventional diodes and triodes. However, application of
114
AMPLIFIER EFFICIENCY AND ELECTRON TRANSIT TIME 115
this theory is limited to receiving tubes because small radio -frequency

signal amplitudes are assumed in the theory. The problem of high -
"
frequency power tubes where r -f voltages comparable with the d-c

voltages are involved, still is in need of an adequate theoretical treat-
ment, although attempts to find a solution have already been made.'
Lacking an adequate theory, a researcher and designer has to resort
to experiment to obtain the quantitative information necessary for
design of high -frequency power tubes.
The purpose of the author's original work was to determine the
effect of electron transit time on the plate efficiency of a tube operated
as an amplifier and to compare it directly with the transit -time effect
in the case of an oscillator. For this comparison to be sufficiently
TUNING
SLIDER
TUNING TUNING
SLIDER SLIDER
7
Eb
OSC
LOAD
TUNING I
SLIDER
GROUND ////// //////

Fig. 1-A schematic diagram of the amplifier circuit.
significant, it was necessary to use the same tube, under the same
operating conditions, and to use the same circuit both for the amplifier
and for the oscillator tests, except for the addition of neutralizing con-
densers for the amplifier tests. The circuit is shown in Figure 1. Two
developmental h -f triodes (similar to RCA -834) were used. Variable
air condensers connected to grids and plates by short low-inductance
leads were used for capacitive cross-neutralization. Low -loss, parallel -
wire, tuned transmission lines were used as circuit elements to facili-
tate tuning and loading adjustments. The filaments were also tuned
by means of half -wave lines. The excitation for the amplifier was
obtained from an oscillator coupled inductively to the grid lines.
The load consisting of one or two ten -watt lamps was placed across
the plate line and the value of output impedance was adjusted by
varying the position of the load lamps along the plate line. It was
found necessary to change the adjustments of the neutralizing con-
116 RCA REVIEW
densers when the frequency was changed because of lead inductance.

For each frequency, the setting was adjusted to obtain a minimum
transfer of energy from input to output circuit. The plate voltage
was reduced below normal so that an increased power dissipation on
the plate would not be a limitation at higher frequencies.
First, oscillator -efficiency data for a frequency range from 180 to
300 megacycles were obtained with the neutralizing condensers
removed, and then the amplifier -efficiency data were taken. To obtain
results which would directly indicate the relative plate efficiency of
6
X
5 Y-----------
X Tla
4
x
10 x
o
30
X\ \\
O \\ \
\\
20
O
\\
o
10
o a,. ._..
200 250 300 350
FREQUENCY (f) -MC
Fig. 2-Variation with frequency of amplifier (ma) and oscillator
(no) efficiency.
oscillator and amplifier, the following procedure was adopted. The

low -frequency performance as oscillator or amplifier was checked
against the performance calculated from the static characteristic
curves of each tube used in the experiment. The grid and plate cur-
rents were noted so that for amplification tests at high frequency, the
grid excitation could always be adjusted to give approximately the
same average grid and plate currents. This adjustment was considered
to indicate approximately the same input voltage, the error due to
variation in magnitude and phase of plate voltage being small because
of the high amplification factor of the tube (µ 10). The negative
bias on the grid was adjusted so as to obtain approximately class B
operation at low frequency and was kept the same at higher fre-
quencies.
Figure 2 shows the curves of oscillator efficiency (77o) and amplifier

efficiency (77¢) versus frequency (f) . The oscillator -efficiency curve
extends practically to a limit of oscillations, i.e., f = 310 Mc, where the
efficiency approaches zero. The amplifier curve was measured only up
to a frequency of 240 Mc because of the difficulties in neutralization
at higher frequencies. It can be seen that at the limit, when oscillator
efficiency approaches zero, the power -amplifier efficiency is reduced to
only one-half of the normal efficiency obtained at low frequencies. (The
difference in efficiencies at f = 0 is due to grid power required for
excitation in the case of an oscillator.)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
INDEX TRANSIT ANGLE 01 -DEGREES
Fig. 3-Efficiency factors for amplifier (fl'a) and oscillator (n'0)

plotted against the index transit angle (e).
To make the above information on variation of efficiency with

frequency more generally useful, the curves were replotted as shown
in Figure 3. Here the "transit-time efficiency factor" 17' (0i) _is plotted
against the electron transit angle (0i) . The transit -time efficiency
factor 27' (02) is defined as the ratio of efficiency at a given first
(cathode -grid) transit angle to the efficiency at low frequency, i.e.,
9 (0i)
77' (Of) (1).
7)(0)
The transit angle 92, referred to above, can be called the index transit
angle and is defined as the product of the operating angular frequency
and the transit time between cathode and grid computed for peak grid
voltage at low frequency. Experience indicated that this generalized
representation of experimental results, while not wholly justified
118 RCA REVIEW
theoretically, is very useful in analyzing and predicting the perform-

ance of tubes at high frequencies.
It is realized, of course, that the index transit time is a fictitious
transit time and does not correspond to the actual electron transit
time at high frequencies. However, it has been selected as a convenient
transit -time index, easily calculable from tube dimensions and voltages.
The formulas and chart, given by W. R. Ferris' are very useful for
this calculation. The actual transit time varies during the r -f cycle
when the r-f voltage amplitudes are large compared with direct volt -
16
\
12
2°`
\
\
eMIN.=90 8t. = 87.10°
X/ \
\
x----70.5°
\
\
4° \
53.2° \
40 ,°
-* 35.7° \
\
\
B° \____
17.9° \
\
0 ., ,,
80 120
\\
160
¡3 - DEGREES
Fig. 4-Variation of electron transit angle in a temperature limited

diode during a positive half -cycle for different values of index
transit angle. ß expresses the time at which electrons
leave the cathode.
ages. To give an idea of variation of transit time during an r -f cycle,

the curves of Figure 4 may be of interest. They represent the varia-
tion of transit angle in a temperature -limited diode during a positive
half -cycle computed for the case of class B operation. The crosses
indicated in the figure correspond to the values of the index transit
angle calculated for the peak voltage.
One may expect that qualitatively an analogous situation exists
in the case of a space -charge -limited tube. The transit time for elec-
trons starting in the beginning and near the end of the positive half -
cycle will be greater than for electrons starting near the peak of the
voltage wave. Some electrons starting near the end of the half -cycle
will not reach the grid at all and will be returned to the cathode with
appreciable velocity to produce cathode bombardment. The actual
shape of the current pulse has not been calculated, but a qualitative
description given by Wagenerl is sufficient to explain the drop in
efficiency of an amplifier.
The decrease in efficiency with frequency of an oscillator is more
rapid than in the case of an amplifier. Two effects contribute to this
difference in performance. First, due to increased input-circuit losses
and electron -input loading the driving power increases with frequency.
Since it is derived from the plate output of the oscillator the apparent
plate efficiency will be lower. However, an estimate of the additional
driving power at the highest frequency indicated that it would account
for only a 10 per cent reduction in output power as compared with
the low-frequency performance.
The second effect is the change in phase of plate current with
respect to plate voltage due to electron transit time. In an oscillator
employing grid -plate capacity for feed-back the coupling admittance
at high frequencies is so high that the best adjustment that can be
obtained is the one in which the grid -plate voltage phase does not
differ materially from 180 Therefore in the oscillator the phase shift
in plate current due to electron transit time cannot be corrected. In
the neutralized amplifier, however, the phase of output voltage can
be adjusted for optimum condition, that is, a 180° phase angle between
plate current and plate voltage can be realized even for large transit
angles. If the electron loading effect is neglected and one assumes that
the shape of the current pulse is a function of transit angle only and
is the same for both the amplifier and oscillator, then one might con-
sider that the difference in efficiency in the case of an oscillator is
due primarily to the uncorrected phase angle between the place current
and plate voltage.
The efficiency of an oscillator and amplifier can be expressed as
IpEp
77a= cos 4
IbEb
IpEp
77a =
IbEb
where
= phase angle between the plate current and plate voltage of
an oscillator due to electron transit time.
Ip = fundamental component of r-f plate current.
Ep = fundamental component of r-f plate voltage.
Ib = average plate current.
Eb = average plate voltage.
120 RCA REVIEW
If the magnitudes of currents and voltages are assumed to be the same

in oscillator and amplifier, then the ratio of efficiencies will be
770
cos 95 (4)
77
As a first approximation, it may be assumed that the phase angle is

directly proportional to transit angle, i.e.,
= KBi (5)
'. ,....
..s.
\ ..." ... COS Z ¿
0. S
ri O/,
N.
. N.
9a
N.
0.
0.4
\
0.2
0 121 .-t2,
Zo 50 60,
B¿ - DEGREES
Fig. 5-The experimental curve 3

of n'o/n'a and the function cos e
2
plotted against the index transit angle.
Since at = 60°, io/i¢ = 0, we

Oi conclude that the constant of propor-
tionality K = 3/2. Therefore,
770 3
= cos -9i (6)
ia 2
Figure 5 the experimental curve of 77'0In

computed from data
of Figure 3 is shown together with the curve representing
i'a
the rela-
tionship (6) . In view of the experimental error, the agreement
between
the simple theory and the experiment is quite satisfactory.
One may
consider, then, that the difference in efficiency of oscillator and ampli-

fier is primarily due to the plate -current phase lag caused by finite
electron transit time and that, as a first approximation, the efficiency
of an amplifier can be calculated from the relationship (6) when the
oscillator efficiency is known.
The above information, although not complete and not as accurate
as might be desirable, can be used as a first approximation in the design
of high -frequency tubes. To illustrate its use, suppose it is desired
to design a triode amplifier to be operated at a frequency f. Ordinarily
from mechanical considerations a minimum grid -cathode spacing will
be selected. Then the design will be carried out as is usually done for
low-frequency tubes. The required peak grid voltage will be
calculated
and then an estimate of the grid -cathode angle at the operating fre-
quency will be made. From the curve of Figure 3, the transit -time
of
efficiency factor can be found and the previously assumed values
plate efficiency and plate dissipation corrected accordingly. The tube
plate
dimensions are corrected to correspond to the new value of
dissipation. A second approximation can then be made.
are
In conclusion, it may be stated that at present empirical data
tubes. The
the only guide for the designer of high -frequency power
will make
author is hopeful that a more refined experimental technique
effects
it possible to separate and evaluate accurately the different
-frequency
(circuit losses, grid -plate transit time) influencing the high
analysis would
performance of power tubes. Such an experimental
addition, the
greatly aid in the design of high -frequency tubes. In
highly desirable and
development of a satisfactory theory is also
differing materially
important, particularly when a design of tubes
from the conventional is contemplated.
REFERENCES
and Operating Char-

1 W. G. Wagener, "The Developmental Problems Triodes," Proc. I.R.E., Vol.
-High -Frequency
acteristics of Two New Ultra(1938)
26, No. 4, pp. 401-414; April .
the Internal Action of Thermionic Systems

2 W. E. Benham, "Theory of (1928) ;
Part I, Phil. Mag., p. 641; March
at Moderately High Frequencies," February (1931)
Part II, Phil. Mag. Vol. II, p. 457;
.
3 J. Müller, "Electronenschwi)
en in Hochvacuum," Hochfrequenz-
technik u. El:ak., Vol. 41; May 1933
Tube Electronics at Ultra -High(1933) Fre-
4 F. B. Llewellyn, "Vacuum November
1532-1573;
quencies," Proc. I.R.E., Vol. 21, No. 11, pp.
.
at Ultra -High Frequencies," Proc.

"Note on Vacuum Tube Electronics February (1935).
I.R.E., Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 112-127; The Bell Sys-
"Operation of Ultra -High -Frequency Vacuum
en5; October Tubes,"
tem Tech. Jour., Vol. XIV, pp.
122 RCA REVIEW
5 D. O. North, "Analysis of the Effects

of Space Charge on Grid Im-
pedance," Proc. I.R.E., Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 108-136; January (1936).
6 W.
R. Ferris, "Input Resistance of Vacuum as Ultra -High -
Frequency Amplifiers," Proc. I.R.E., Vol. 24, No. 1,Tubespp. 82-107; January
(1936).
7 G. Grünberg, "On the Theory of the Operation of Electron Tubes
With Rapidly Varying Anode Voltages," Techn. Phys. of the USSR, Vol.
3,No. 1, pp. 65-80; (1936) .
"On the Initial Current Flowing Through an Electron Tube at the

Sudden Application of an Impulse Voltage," Techn. Phys. of the USSR,
Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 101-110; (1936) .
OUR CONTRIBUTORS
ALLEN A. BARCO, a native of St. Louis, Missouri, re-

ceived his degree of B.S. in Electrical Engineering from
Washington University in 1937. Following his gradua-
tion he joined the engineering staff of the Radio Corpo-
ration of America License Laboratory, where he con-
tinues to be engaged. Mr. Barco is an associate member
of Sigma Xi.
ALDA V. BEDFORD attended the University of Texas

where he obtained a degree of B.S. in Electrical Engi-
neering in 1925. He joined the General Electric Com-
pany that year, starting in the general engineering
department and later transferring to the testing depart-
ment and research laboratories, working on sound record-
ing by film and disc, audio amplifiers, loudspeakers,
sound -printers for film, and television. While in Schenec-
tady he obtained an M.S. in E.E. degree from Union
College. Since 1929 he has been employed in the labora-
tories of the RCA Manufacturing Company, first on disc
sound recording and then on television.
G. LISLE BEERS received his B.S. degree in Electrical

Engineering at Gettysburg College in 1921, following
which he entered the student course and engineering
school of the Westinghouse Company. In 1922 he joined
that Company's engineering department and was placed
in charge of superheterodyne receiver development.
Eight years later, in 1930, he transferred to the research
department of the RCA Manufacturing Company and at
present is Section Engineer in charge of Television
Studio and Terminal Equipment Design and Develop-
ment at the RCA Manufacturing Company's Camden
plant. Mr. Beers is a member of the Institute of Radio Engineers.
HAROLD H. BEVERAGE is an alumnus of the University

of Maine, from where he received a B.S. degree in Elec-
trical Engineering. Following graduation he the spent five
years with the General Electric Company, latter
four years in Dr. Alexanderson's radio laboratory. When
the U. S. Navy took over the high-powered transmitting
assisted in the
station at New Brunswick, Mr. Beverage Alternator
installation there of an Alexanderson and
special receiving equipment for the Navy's program of
usìneY that station for trans-oc-anic communication. Dur-
ing the early tests the receivers were under his care. In
1920 he became Research Engineer on Communication
Receivers for the Radio Corporation of AmericaInc., and in
1929 transferred to R.C.A. Communications, for
which company he now is Chief Research Engineer. In 1923 Mr. Beverage
was awarded the Morris Liebmann MemorialisPrize for outstanding con-
a past -president of I.R.E.
tributions in radio antenna development. Heof Engineering
He received the honorary degree of Doctor from his Alma
Mater in 1938.
123
124 RCA REVIEW
VINCENT H. BROWN became a radio amateur and ex-

perimenter in 1909 and as such transmitted phonograph
music and talks by vacuum tube oscillators much before
the advent of commercial radio broadcasting. During the
war he served as radio operator at sea and later at the
trans -oceanic stations at Belmar and Lakewood, N. J.
When R.C.A. Communications installed its Central Radio
C ffice for the remote control of high-powered
stations
from New York City, Mr. Brown moved to that point.
Several of the devices and systems in use
installed by him. He was official observer at there
the
were
accept-
ance tests of the Marconi beam system between London and New
1936 he has been assistant superintendent in charge of the York. Since
of R.C.A. Communications, Inc. New York plant
DONALD H. CASTLE received his degree

from Stevens Institute of Technology of M.E. in 1928
and
years as a member of the RCA Technical and spent
Test
two
Divi-
sion at Van Cortlandt Park, New York, first as a student
engineer and later as an engineer in the Television
Development Group. In 1930, upon the disbanding of
that group, he joined the technical staff the Bell
Telephone Laboratories, working on carrierof telephone
systems development. In 1933 he became associated with
the New York Operations Division of the National
Broadcasting Company
Audio -Video Facilities Group, where he sinceand
has
two years later joined the
studio design and installation work. Mr. Castle isbeen engaged in television
I.R.E., and a member of the New York State an associate member of
Engineers. Society of Professional
HUGH L. DONLEY received the B.S. degree

College in 1930; the M.S. degree from Brownfrom Hobart
in 1932, and the Ph.D. degree from the same University
University
in 1935. From 1930 to 1933 he served as Assistant
Physics, Brown University, and was honored with in
University Fellowship in Physics, Brown a
1933-34. Since May, 1935, he has been in the University,
General
Research Division of the RCA Manufacturing Company
at Camden, N. J. Dr. Donley is a member of Phi Beta
Kappa, of Sigma Xi, of the American Physical Society,
and an associate member of the Institute of
Engineers. Radio
ELMER W. ENGSTROM is Director of General

Research
for the Victor Division of the RCA Manufacturing
pany. Since joining that company in 1930 he has Com-
been
associated with engineering on Photophone apparatus,
broadcast receivers and research. Prior to that he
de-
voted seven years to radio transmitters and receivers
while in the engineering organization of the
Electric Company. Mr. Engstrom graduated from General
University of Minnesota the
in 1923.
OUR CONTRIBUTORS 125
DAVID W. EPSTEIN received a B.S. degree in engi-

neering physics from Lehigh University in 1930, an
M.S. in 1934, and a D.Sc. in electrical engineering in
1937 from the University of Pennsylvania. Since join-
ing RCA in 1930 he has been in the Research Depart-
ment of the RCA Victor Division, RCA Manufacturing
Company. Dr. Epstein is a member of the American
Physical Society and an associate member of the Insti-
tute of Radio Engineers.
ANDREW V. HAEFF received the degree of Electrical

and Mechanical Engineer from the Russian Polytechnic
Institute at Harbin, China, in 1928. Coming to this
country in 1928, he majored in Electrical Engineering,
his
at the California Institute of Technology, obtained
For the
M.S. degree in 1929, and Ph.D. degree in 1932.
year 1932-1933, Dr. Haeff was a special Research Fellow
in the E. E. Dept. of the California Institute of Tech-
nology, engaged in research work on ultra-short wave
problems. In 1934, he joined RCA Manufacturing Com-
pany where he is working in the field of ultra -high
frequency.
ERNEST G. LINDER received a B.A. degree in 1925, and

an M.S. degree in 1927 at the State University of Iowa,
and his Ph.D. at Cornell University in 1931. He was
instructor in physics at the University of Iowa from
1925 to 1927, and at the California Institute of Tech-
a
nology from 1927 to 1928. From 1928 to 1932 he was
Detroit Edison Research Associate at Cornell. Since
1932 he has been connected with the General Research Dr.
Laboratory of the RCA Manufacturingof Company.
the American
Linder is a member of Sigma Xi, and
Physical Society.
H. B. MARTIN received a B.S. degree at theheUniversity

of Illinois in 1928. Following graduation Inwas
em-
East Pittsburgh. 1929 he
ployed by Westinghouse at
became attached to the Signal Corps Procurement Office,
New York, and was later transferred to the 1930 Signal Corps
Laboratories, Fort Monmouth, N. J. In he was
employed by the Radiomarine Corporation of America for
From 1932 to
flight testing of aircraft radio equipment. Institutes.
1935 he was on the instruction staff of RCA
He is now Assistant Chief Engineer of Radiomarine Corp.
DAVID S. RAU has been associated with the. Radio Cor-

poration of America and R.C.A. Communications, Inc.,
States Naval Acad-
since his graduation from the United transoceanic
emy in 1922. Periods of duty at variousand Engineer -
stations as Assistant Engineer -in -Charge
in -Charge were followed in 1934 by assignment to the
office of the Plant Engineer, in which office he is engaged
as station design engineer. Mr. Rau is an and associate mem-
a Lieu-
ber of the Institute of Radio Engineers Navalis Reserve.
tenant Commander in the United States
126 RCA REVIEW
DAVID SARNOFF, President of the Radio Corporation of

America, has been continuously identified with radio since
1906. He received his early education in New York public
schools and later was graduated from Pri J Institute,
where he took the electrical engineering course. He is a
fellow, Institute of Radio Engineers, and served as sec-
retary and director of I.R.E. for three years. Mr. Sar-
noff is a member, Council of New York University;
member, Academy of Political Science and member,
American Institute of Electrical Engineers. He holds the
honorary degrees of Doctor of Science from St. Lawrence
University, Marietta College, and Suffolk University;
Doctor of Literature from Norwich University; and Doctor of Commercial
Science from Oglethorpe University. He is an honorary
Gamma Sigma and an honorary member of Tau Delta Phi. member of Beta
He is a colonel
SC Res., U. S. Army.
A. KYLE WING received his B.S. degree in electrical
engineering from Sheffield Scientific School, Yale Uni-
versity, in 1930, and his M.S. degree from Massachusetts
Institute of Technology in 1931. During the summers of
1929 and 1930 he was employed in the vacuum tube
department of the General Electric Company. Following
work on broadcast receiver development with the Kolster
Radio Company, he spent three years on transmitter tube
development with the Federal Telegraph Company. Since
1934, Mr. Wing has been engaged in development work
on transmitting tubes in the Research and Engineering
Department of the RCA Manufacturing Company at Harrison,
Wing is an associate member of the Institute of Radio Engineers.N. J. Mr.
TECHNICAL PAPERS PRESENTED BEFORE

SCIENTIFIC BODIES BY RCA ENGINEERS
Second Quarter, 1939
BAHLS, W. E. Cold -Cathode Gaseous -Discharge Tubes-Presented before I.R.E., Connecticut
Valley Section, at Yale University, May 4.
CARTER, P. S. Simple Television Antennas Presented before I.R.E. Convention,
June 27-30. San Francisco,
EDDY, WILLIAM C. --Television Lighting Presented before Spring Convention, S.M.P.E., Holly-
wood, April 17-21.
FOSTER, DUDLEY E. (Coauthor with C. V. AGGERS, Westinghouse E. and M. Co., and C. S.
YOUNG, Pennsylvania Power and Light Co.)-Instruments and Methods of Measuring
Radio NoisePresented before the A.I.E.E., Pacific Convention, June 26-30.
GODDARD, R.-Trans-Atlantic Reception of London TelevisionCoast
D. Signals-Presented before joint
meeting, U.R.S.I. and I.R.E., Washington, April 29.
IAMS, HARLE- -seeRosE and LAMS.
KATZIN, M.-Ultra-High Frequency Propagation-Presented before Radio Club of America,
New York, May 11.
KIMBALL, G. W. see VANCE and KIMBALL.
MACLEAN, K. G., and G. S. WICxIzER-Notes on the Random Fading of
Mc Signals Over
Paths-Presented before joint meeting, U.R.S.I. and 50
Non -Optical I.R.E., Washington,
April 29.
PREISMAN, ALBERT-Some Unusual Technical Features of Our Television System-Presented
before I.R.E., Chicago Section, and Radio Servicemen of America, Chicago, June 16.
PRorzMAN, A.-Television Studio Technic-Presented before Spring Convention, S.M.P.E.,
Hollywood, April 17-21.
ROSE, ALBERT, and HARLEY IAMS A New Television Pickup Tube --Presented before I.R.E.,
New York Section. June 7.
TREVOR, B.-Ultra-High Frequency Propagation Through Woods and Underbrush-Presented
before joint meeting, U.R.S.I. and I.R.E., Washington, April 29.
VANCE, HAROLD C.-(Assisted by G. W. KIMBALL)-RCA Facsimile Transmitting and Recording
Equipment-Presented before joint meeting, I.R.E., Chicago. Section; A.I.E.E., and
Western Society of Engineers, Communications Engineering Section. Chicago, May 19.
WICKIZER, G. S.-Field Strength Survey, 52.75 Mc From Empire State Building-Presented
before joint meeting, U.R.S.I. and I.R.E., Washington, April 29.
see MACLEAN and WICKIZER.
TECHNICAL ARTICLES BY RCA ENGINEERS
Published Second Quarter, 1939
ALBURGER, J. R.-RCA Aluminate Developers (Abstract of paper of Spring

Convention)-Journal Society Motion Picture Engineers, April.
BARCO, ALLEN A.-Measurement of Phase Shift in Television Amplifiers-
RCA REVIEW, April.
BEDFORD,
Video -Frequency Amplifiers
neers, April.
-
A. V., and. G. L. FREDENDALL-Transient Response of Multistage
Proceedings Institute of Radio Engi-
BEERS, G.L.-see ENGSTROM and BEERS.

BEVERAGE, H. H.-Antennas-Radio & Television, April.
BRADY, R. F.-see HASBROUCK and BRADY.
BROWN, G. H.-Directional Antennas-Reprinted from Proceedings of I.R.E.,
in Broadcast News, May.
DENT, ELLSWORTH C.-RCA Facsimile for Schools-Broadcast News, May.
DUTTERA, WILLIAM S.-see FITCH and DUTTERA.
EDDY, W. C.-Miniature Staging; The Technical Side of Video Effects-
Communications, April.
Television Lighting-Communications, May.
EISELEIN, J. E.-Tomorrow's Transmitter Today-Broadcast News, May.
ENGSTROM, E. W., and G. L. BEERS-Application of Motion Picture Film to
Television (Abstract of paper of Spring Convention)-Journal Society
Motion Picture Engineers, April.
and R. S. HOLMES-Power for Television Receivers-Electronics, April.
FITCH, WILLIAM A., and WILLIAM S. DUTTERA-Measurement of Broadcast
Coverage and Antenna Performance, Part III-RCA REVIEW, April.
FOSTER, DUDLEY E. - Receiver Characteristics of Special Significance to
Broadcasters-Presented before Second Annual Broadcast Engineer-
ing Conference, held at Ohio State University in February and pub-
lished in Communications, May.
FREDENDALL, G. L.-see BEDFORD and FREDENDALL.
GEORGE, R. W.-Field Strength Measuring Equipment for Wide -Band
U -H -F
Transmissions-RCA REVIEW, April.
GOLDSMITH, DR. ALFRED N.-Opportunities in Television-Radio &
Televi-
sion, June.
Television Economics, Part III-Communications, April.
Television Economics, Part IV-Communications, May.
Television Economics, Part V-Communications, June.
HANSON, O. B.-How NBC Television Evolved-Radio & Television,
June.
HASBROUCK, H. J., and R. F. BRADY-Lacquer Disc Recording
and Reproduc-
ing-Broadcast News, May.
HOLMES, R. S.-see ENGSTROM and HOLMES.
KELLOGG, E. W.-Reversed Speech-Journal Acoustical
Society of America,
April.
127
128 RCA REVIEW
KIMBALL, C. N.-see SEELEY and KIMBALL.
LANGMUIR, D. B. --see MALTER and LANGMUIR.
LINDENBLAD, NILS E.-Television Transmitting Antenna for Empire State
Building-RCA REVIEW, April.
MALOFF, I. G.-Gamma and Range in Television-RCA
REVIEW, April.
MALTER, L., and D. B. LANGMUIR-Rate of Evaporation
cal Review, April 15. of Tantalum-Physi-
and D. B. LANGMUIR-Resistance, Emissivities, and
Tantalum-Physical Review, April 15. Melting Point of
MILLER, JOHN M., and BERNARD SALZBERG-Measurements
Ultra -High Frequencies-RCA of Admittances at
REVIEW, April.
MORRICAL, KERON C.-A Reverberation -Time Scale for High Speed Level Re-
corders-Journal Acoustical Society of America, April.
MORRIS, ROBERT M. (Coauthor with H.
A. AFFEL, Bell Telephone Labs., and
HOWARD A. CHINN, Columbia Broadcasting
and Reference Level-Communications, April. System)-A Standard VI
NELSON, HERBERT-Phenomenon of Secondary
Electron Emission-Physical
Review, May 15 (Letters to Editor Section).
OLSON, HARRY F. - Multiple Coil, Multiple -
Acoustical Society of America, April. Cone Loudspeakers Journal
The Uni -Directional Microphone-Broadcast
News, May.
PERKINS, T. B.-An Automatic Spectral
Optical Society of America, June. Sensitivity Curve Tracer-Journal
POLLACK, DALE-Tubes at Work-Electronics,
April.
PREISMAN, ALBERT-A Wide -Range
Video Amplifier for a Cathode -Ray Oscil
loscope-RCA REVIEW, April.
RACKEY, C. A., and R. F. SHUETZ-NBC,
Hollywood-Electronics, May.
RETTINGER, M.-Absorption Limits
for Interference Nodes in Rooms-Jour-
nal Society Motion Picture Engineers, May.
(Coauthor with C. L. LOOTENS and D. J. BLOOMBERG,
tions, Inc.)-A Motion Picture Dubbing and of Republic Produc-
Society Motion Picture Engineers, April. Scoring Stage-Journal
(Coauthor with J. P. LIVADARY of Columbia Pictures
directional Microphone Technic-Journal Society Corp. Ltd.)-Uni-
gineers, April. Motion Picture En-
SALZBERG, BERNARD-see MILLER and SALZBERG.
SEELEY, S. W., and C. N. KIMBALL-Transmission
Lines as Coupling Elements
in Television Equipment-RCA REVIEW, April.
SHUETZ, R. F.-see RACKEY and SHUETZ.
TURNER, R. H.-Radio Frequency Generator
for Television Receiver Testing
-R. M. A. Engineer, May.
USSELMAN, G. L.-Wide-Band Variable -Frequency
RCA REVIEW, April. Testing Transmitters-
VAN DYCK, ARTHUR-The Radio Receiver as Part:óf
The Broadcast System_
Presented before Second Annual Broadcast Engineering
held at Ohio State University in Februarys and Conference,
nications, April. published in Commu-
Looking Ahead (Abstract from previous article
Service, April. in Communications)
WALLER, L. C.-Kinescopes for Television
Receivers-Communications,
April.

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R

A QUaRTERLYJOURNAL OF RADIO PROGRESS

THE BIRTH OF AN INDUSTRY

A MODERN RADIO CONTROL CENTER

APPLICATION OF MOTION -PICTURE FILM

A PUSH-PULL ULTRA-HIGH -FREQUENCY

RCA INSTITUTES TECHNICAL PRESS

VOLUME IV July, 1939 NUMBER 1

RALPH R. BEAL O. B. HANSON

Previously unpublished papers appearing in this book may be reprinted,

,irHE successful planning of this building and the exhibits it

Summary-A brief description is given of the television demonstration

THE formal presentation of television by RCA at the New York

To assure a good signal and reduce noise a directive receiving -

Fig. 1-Plan of television viewing and equipment room.

or the mobile-unit video outputs. In the latter case, it should be

two coaxial cables connected as a balanced line. These receivers are

Fig. 3-Directive antenna system for master tele-

Fig. 4-An experimental model "Flask" receiver, containing front excited

degree of loading of the transmission line at the monitor points. The

Fig. 5-Equipment room, showing left to right, audio racks with

kinescope of the projection type, giving a picture of sufficient brilliance

the picture in an illuminated room. The screen and the

sequence when the machine is started. Since the synchronous motor

D. S. RAU AND V. H. BROWN

Summary-High-powered transoceanic and medium -powered inter -city

URING the early days of long -wave radio communication it

126 telegraph short-wave receivers mostly used in groups of 3, all

exchange supplemented with branch printer telegraph lines, pneumatic

Fig. 1-Chart showing location of stations.

conversion of printed text into telegraph signals by expert operators ;

Switching facilities for distribution of tone signals to the

By telegraph to each station.

Fig. 2-Main control room.

By printer to Rocky Point and Riverhead.

Ultra -high -frequency transmitter control:

The equipment with which these functions are performed is laid

THE CONTROL CONSOLE

Fig. 3-Control console.

These functions include the following :-

The photograph of the console shows the arrangement of its panels,

eating systems. Telegraph keys, sounders, and intercommunicating

11 l 1111; rsj AMPLIFIERS

Fig. 4-Grouping of signals on common line.

the corresponding direct current to the recorder may be adjusted by

individual adjustment is not required and no necessity exists for

Communications to the stations consist in most part of orders

throughout the operating floors complete the outbound system. Similar

LINE CONTROL AND TEST RACKS

Arranged on the left side of the console is a group of seven racks,

Fig. 5-Line and receiving rack.

ure 5 shows the general arrangement of apparatus mounted on these

lines or equipment in case of failure of any single part. Single -circuit

Fig. 6-Line jack layout and diagram of connection.

The line facilities provided on these racks are as follows.:-

In addition, high -quality, program-material service lines are provided

Until recently, simplex circuits using ground return had been

Fig. 7-Hybrid coil and filter arrangement.

munication circuits, although retaining the d -c closed-circuit loops at