Database CS-229T All - LABs

Lab #01
Introduction to Database and Microsoft SQL Server

SQL:
Structured Query Language is a database computer language designed for
managing data in relational database management systems(RDBMS), and originally based
upon Relational Algebra. Its scope includes data query and update, schema creation and
modification, and data access control. SQL was one of the first languages for Edgar F. Codd's
relational model in his influential 1970 paper, "A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared
Data Banks"[3] and became the most widely used language for relational databases.
• IBM developed SQL in mid of 1970’s.
• Oracle incorporated in the year 1979.
• SQL used by IBM/DB2 and DS Database Systems.
• SQL adopted as standard language for RDBS by ASNI in 1989.
SQL language is sub-divided into several language elements, including: CLAUSES, which are in
some cases optional, constituent components of statements and queries. EXPRESSIONS, which
can produce either scalar values or tables consisting of columns and rows of data. PREDICATES
which specify conditions that can be evaluated to SQL three-valued logic (3VL) Boolean truth
values and which are used to limit the effects of statements and queries, or to change program
flow. QUERIES which retrieve data based on specific criteria. STATEMENTS which may have a
persistent effect on schemas and data, or which may control transactions, program flow,
connections, sessions, or diagnostics. SQL statements also include the SEMICOLON (";")
statement terminator. Though not required on every platform, it is defined as a standard part of the
SQL grammar.
There are five types of SQL statements.
• Data definition language (DDL)

• Data manipulation language (DML)
• Data retrieval language (DRL)
• Transactional control language (TCL)
• Data control language (DCL)
1. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL): The Data Definition Language (DDL)

is used to create and destroy databases and database objects. These commands will primarily be
used by database administrators during the setup and removal phases of a database project. Let's
take a look at the structure and usage of four basic DDL commands:
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(Department of Computer Science and Information Technology)
CREATE: This is used to create a new relation and the corresponding ALTER: This is used to
add some extra fields into existing relation. DROP TABLE: This is used to delete the structure of
a relation. It permanently deletes the records in the table. RENAME: It is used to modify the
name of the existing database object. TRUNCATE: This command will remove the data
permanently. But structure will not be removed.
Difference between Truncate & Delete:-
• By using truncate command data will be removed permanently & will not get back where
as by using delete command data will be removed temporally & get back by using roll back
command.
• By using delete command data will be removed based on the condition whereas by using
truncate command there is no condition.
• Truncate is a DDL command & delete is a DML command.
2. DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML): The Data Manipulation

Language (DML) is used to retrieve, insert and modify database information. These commands
will be used by all database users during the routine operation of the database. Let's take a brief
look at the basic DML commands:
INSERT INTO: This is used to add records into a relation. These are three type of INSERT
INTO queries which are as UPDATE: This is used to update the content of a record in a relation.
DELETE-FROM: This is used to delete all the records of a relation but it will retain the structure
of that relation.
3. DATA RETRIEVAL LANGUAGE (DRL): Retrieves data from one or more tables.
SELECT FROM: To display all fields for all records. SELECT - FROM -WHERE: This query is
used to display a selected set of fields for a selected set of records of a relation. SELECT -
FROM -GROUP BY: This query is used to group to all the records in a relation together for each
and every value of a specific key(s) and then display them for a selected set of fields the relation.
SELECT - FROM -ORDER BY: This query is used to display a selected set of fields from a
relation in an ordered manner base on some field. JOIN using SELECT - FROM - ORDER BY:
This query is used to display a set of fields from two relations by matching a common field in
them in an ordered manner based on some fields.
JOIN using SELECT - FROM - GROUP BY: This query is used to display a set of fields from
two relations by matching a common field in them and also group the corresponding records for
each and every value of a specified key(s) while displaying. UNION: This query is used to
display the combined rows of two different queries, which are having the same structure, without

duplicate rows. INTERSET: This query is used to display the common rows of two different
queries, which are having the same structure, and to display a selected set of fields out of them.
MINUS: This query is used to display all the rows in relation_1, which are not having in the
relation_2.
4. TRANSACTIONAL CONTROL LANGUAGE (TCL): A transaction is a logical

unit of work. All changes made to the database can be referred to as a transaction. Transaction
changes can be mode permanent to the database only if they are committed a transaction begins
with an executable SQL statement & ends explicitly with either role back or commit statement
COMMIT: This command is used to end a transaction only with the help of the commit
command transaction changes can be made permanent to the database. SAVE POINT: Save
points are like marks to divide a very lengthy transaction to smaller once. They are used to
identify a point in a transaction to which we can latter role back. Thus, save point is used in
conjunction with roll back. ROLE BACK: A role back command is used to undo the current
transactions. We can roll back the entire transaction so that all changes made by SQL statements
are undo (or) role back a transaction to a save point so that the SQL statements after the save
point are roll back.
5. DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE (DCL): DCL provides uses with privilege

commands the owner of database objects (tables), has the soul authority ollas them. The owner
(data base administrators) can allow other data base uses to access the objects as per their
requirement
GRANT: The GRANT command allows granting various privileges to other users and allowing
them to perform operations with in their privileges REVOKE: To with draw the privileges that
has been GRANTED to a uses, we use the REVOKE command.
TASK:
Visit the below link for the Installation of Microsoft SQL Server 2008.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4WEFTQ3VJNg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WKWZZcrin5I

Lab #02
Data Definition Operations and to become familiar with data

definition language.
DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL): The Data Definition Language (DDL) is

used to create and destroy databases and database objects. These commands will primarily be
used by database administrators during the setup and removal phases of a database project. Let's
take a look at the structure and usage of four basic DDL commands:
CREATE: This is used to create a new table.
Syntax: Create table tablename (column_name1 data_ type constraints, column_name2 data_
type constraints ...) Example: Create table dept (deptno NUMBER (2), dname VARCHAR2
(14),loc VARCHAR2(13));
ALTER: This is used to add and modify table. Example:
1. Alter table emp add phone_no char (20);
2. Alter table emp alter column phone_ no int;
DROP TABLE: This is used to delete the structure of a relation. It permanently deletes the
records in the table. Example: drop table prog20; here prog20 is table name
TRUNCATE: This command will remove the data permanently. But structure will not be
removed. Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE <TABLE NAME>;
Example: Truncate table customer;
CONSTRAINTS:
In SQL, we have the following constraints:
NOT NULL - Indicates that a column cannot store NULL value

UNIQUE - Ensures that each row for a column must have a unique value
PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Ensures that a column (or
combination of two or more columns) have a unique identity which helps to find a particular
record in a table more easily and quickly
FOREIGN KEY - Ensure the referential integrity of the data in one table to match values in
another table

CHECK - Ensures that the value in a column meets a specific condition
Syntax: Create table <table-name> <column-name1> <type1> {<column-constraints1>],
<column- name2> <type2> {<column-constraints2>],.........<column-namen> <typen>
{<column- constraintsn>].
Example:
Create table emp(empno NUMBER (4), ename VARCHAR2 (10), deptno NUMBER (7,2) NOT
NULL, constraint EMP_EMPNO_PK PRIMARY KEY (empno));
Create table emp (empno NUMBER(4), ename VARCHAR2 (10) NOT NULL,deptno NUMBER
(7,2) NOT NUL,........., CONSTRAINT emp_deptno_fk FOREIGN KEY (deptno)
REFERENCES dept (deptno));
Create table emp (empno NUMBER(4), ename VARCHAR2 (10) NOT NULL,deptno NUMBER
(2), CONSTRAINT emp_deptno_ck CHECK (DEPTNO BETWEEN 10 And 99));
TASKS:
• Create a new table Person and insert at least 5 records.
• Create a new table Customer and insert at least 5 records.
• Create a new table Order and insert at least 5 records
• Add a new field in the Person table.
• Modify any field in the Person table.
• Use some constraints in your queries.
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(Department Of Computer Science and Information Technology)
Lab #03
Introduction to Data Manipulation Language with Insert ,Update

and Delete Command
DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML): The Data Manipulation Language
(DML) is use to retrieve, insert and modify database information. These commands will be used
by all database users during the routine operation of the database. Let's take a brief look at the
basic
DML commands:
1. INSERT 2. UPDATE 3. DELETE
1. INSERT Only one row is inserted at a line with this command, optionally list the columns in
the insert clauses. List values in the default order of the columns in the table.
Encloses character and date values with in single quotation marks.
SYNTAX: Insert into table [(column [, column....])] Values (value [, value...])]
Examples Insert into dept(deptno,dnmae,loc) values (50, 'production', 'san francisco’);
Insert into emp(empno, ename, job, sal, comm, deptno) values (7890,'jinks','clerk',1.2e3,null,40);
2. UPDATE Using update command, we can modify each row in the table
SYNTAX: Update table Set column= value [, column=value] [Where condition]);
If we don’t use the where condition, all the rows in the table will be updated.
Examples Update emp set comm = null where job = ‘CLERK’;
Update emp set job = ‘manager', sal = sal +1000, deptno = 20 where ename=’JONES’;
3. DELETE Removes existing rows by using the delete command.
SYNTAX: Delete [from] table [Where condition];
If the WHERE condition is omitted, all rows in the table will be deleted.

If you will try to delete a row that contains a primary key used as a foreign key in another table,
you will experience an integrity constraint error.

Examples Delete from emp where Job = 'SALESMAN';
TASK 1:
● Insert new employee’s records.
● Insert new department records deptno=50, dname=ADVERTISING and loc=MIAMI.
● Delete the records of Sales department
● Change the employees sal for Smith
● Confirm all these changes by using Select statement
● Update the salary of each employee to 5000.
● Change the salary to $1,000 for all employees with a salary less than $900.
● Change the commission of department 20 to 1000.
● Change the hire date of all clerks to 02-04-2000
● Delete all the records having hire date before 21-dec-81
● Delete all records where salary is greater than 2000.
TASK2:
● Use insert, update & delete commands in 10 different scenarios.

Lab # 04
Data Retrieval Operations using SELECT, Relationship among
Tables considering constraints.
THE SELECT STATEMENT
To select data from a table, the table must be in your own schema or you must have SELECT
privilege on the table. To select rows from the base tables of a view, the owner of the schema
containing the view must have SELECT privilege on the base tables. Also, if the view is in a
schema other than your own, you must have SELECT privilege on the view.
SYNTAX Select < Column Names > From < Table Name >.
EXAMPLES The following statement selects rows from the employee table. Select * from emp;
The following statement selects the name, job, salary and department from Emp. Select ename,
job, sal, and deptno from emp; The following statement selects all records from Dept. Select *
from dept;
COLUMN ALIAS Provides a different name for the column expression and causes the alias to
be used in the column heading. The AS keyword is optional. The alias effectively renames the
select list item for the duration of the query.
Example: The following Example assigning a temporary column and rename it with Bonus.
Select empno, ename, job, sal, sal * 2 “ bonus “ from emp;
Queries with Distinction

If you look at the original table, EMP, you see that some of the data repeats. For Eliminating
duplicate rows, use distinct
Examples: The following example eliminates duplicate job from EMP.
Select distinct job from EMP;
The following example eliminates duplicate deptno from EMP.
Select distinct deptno from EMP;
CONDITIONS If you ever want to find a particular item or group of items in your database, you
need one or more conditions. Conditions are contained in the WHERE clause. In the preceding
example, the condition is

Syntax Select < Column Names > From < Table Name > Where < Search Condition >.
Select from and where are the three most frequently used clauses in SQL. Where simply causes
your queries to be more selective. Without the WHERE clause, the most useful thing you could
do with a query is display all records in the selected table(s).
Examples:
The following statement selects rows from the employee table with the department number of
40.
Select * from EMP where deptno = 40;
The following statement selects rows from the employee table with the department number of
40.
Select empno, ename, job, sal from EMP where sal < 3000;
Operators are the elements you use inside an expression to articulate how you want specified
conditions to retrieve data.
There are 4 different classes of operators used in SQL, they are
♦ Arithmetic operators ♦ Logical operators ♦ Comparison operators ♦ SQL operators
ARITHMETIC OPERATORS These are the arithmetic operators available in SQL. You may
use arithmetic operators in any clause of a SQL statement except the FROM clause.
+ Add
- Subtract
* Multiply
/ Divide
Examples
● Select empno, ename, sal + 2000 from emp;

● Select empno, ename,sal – 100 “deduction” from emp;
● Select empno, ename, sal * comm “New_sal” from emp;
COMPARISON OPERATORS
= Equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
Examples
● Select empno, ename from emp where sal=800;
● Select empno, sal from emp where ename=’Smith’;
● Select * from emp where sal > 1500;
● Select empno, sal, hiredate from emp where sal >=1600;
● Select * from emp where sal < 1500;
● Select * from emp where sal <= 1600;
● Select * from emp where comm*3 < sal;
● Select empno, ename, hiredate from emp where ename =’ALLEN’;
● Select empno, sal, comm from emp where sal! = 1600;
● Select ename, sal, hiredate from emp where sal + comm >=1600;
● Select empno, ename from emp where comm < sal;
SQL OPERATORS There are four SQL operators that operate with all data types:
BETWEEN AND Between two values(inclusive)
IN(list) Match any of a list of values
LIKE Match a character pattern
IS NULL Is a null value

Examples
● Select sal from emp where ename like 'sm’;
● Select sal from emp where ename like 'smith’;
● Select * from emp where deptno in (10,20);
● Select * from emp where ename in (‘smith’,’allen);
● Select empno, ename from emp where deptno between 10 and 20;
● Select * from emp where sal not between 1000 and 2000;
● Select * from emp where deptno not between 10 and 30;
● Select empno, ename from emp where comm is null;
● Select * from emp where mgr is null;
LOGICAL OPERATOR
AND If both component conditions return TRUE then the result is TRUE
OR If either component condition returns TRUE, then the result is TRUE
NOT Returns the opposite condition
Examples
● Select * from emp where ename=’Smith’ and deptno=20;

● Select * from emp where job=’CLERK’ and sal > 800;
● Select * from emp where ename=’Smith’ or deptno=20;
● Select * from emp where sal<2000 or deptno=20;
● Select * from emp where sal not between 1000 and 1400;
● Select * from emp where deptno not between 10 and 20;
ASSIGNMENTS
1. List all rows of the table emp.
2. List all rows of the dept.
3. List all employees’ number from emp.
4. List all employees name from emp.
5. List all departments’ number from emp.
6. Find all employees whose salaries are between 500 and 1500.
9. Find all employees whose salaries are less than 2000.
10. Find all employees whose salaries are greater than 2000.

11. Find those employees whose mgr are 7902, 7566, 7788.
12. Find those employees whose mgr is between 7788 and 7092.
13. List all employees whose name starts with ‘s’.
14. List all employees whose name start with 'a'.
15. List all employees having first name as 'scott’.
16. List all employees having first name as ‘smith' or 'king'.
17. List all employees having first letter in their name 'w' or 'k’ and they don’t belong to
Department number 10,20 and 40.
18. List all employees whose name begin with 'scott’ and end with martin.
19. List all employees whose name start with 'm' and belong to department number 30.
20. List all employees whose name started with character 'b' and their jobs are manager.
21. List all employees who do not have job manager..
22. Find those employees whose job do not start with ‘a’.
23. Find those employees whose job does not start with 'c'.
24. List of those employees whose mgr is not null.
25. List of those employees whose jobs are 'manager or clerk' of department number 10.
26. List of those employees whose jobs are 'analyst' and 'salesman' of department 30.
27. Find all clerks who earn salaries between 1000 and 2000.
28. Find all managers who earn salaries between 2500 and 3000.
29. Find all employees who are either clerk or 'manager' and all employees who earn Salaries
in the range of 1000 and 2000.
30. Find all employees who are either manager and/or all employees who earn salaries
between 2000 and 3000.
31. Find all employees whose salaries are equal to 1500 and jobs are manager or salesmen.

LAB # 05
Data Retrieval Operations using Join operations
The JOIN Statement:
One of the most powerful features of SQL is its capability to gather and manipulate data from
across several tables. Without this feature you would have to store all the data elements necessary
for each application in one table. Without common tables you would need to store the same data
in several tables. Imagine having to redesign, rebuild, and repopulate your tables and databases
every time your user needed a query with a new piece of information. The JOIN statement of SQL
enables you to design smaller, more specific tables that are easier to maintain than larger tables.
SQL JOIN (INNER JOIN) An SQL JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more
tables, based on a common field between them. The most common type of join is:
SQL INNER JOIN (simple join). An SQL INNER JOIN return all rows from multiple tables
where the join condition is met.
Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2 ON

table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
Examples:
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderDate FROM Orders INNER

JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID=Customers.CustomerID;
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID FROM Customers INNER JOIN Orders

ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;
SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword :The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table
(table1), with the matching rows in the right table (table2). The result is NULL on the right side
when there is no match.
Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table1 LEFT JOIN table2 ON



Example SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID FROM Customers LEFT JOIN
Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID ORDER BY
Customers.CustomerName;
SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the right table
(table2), with the matching rows in the left table (table1). The result is NULL in the left side
when there is no match.
Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table1 RIGHT JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name =

table2.column_name;
Example SELECT Orders.OrderID, Employees.FirstName FROM Orders RIGHT JOIN

Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID ORDER BY Orders.OrderID;
SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all rows
from the left table (table1) and from the right table (table2). The FULL OUTER JOIN
keyword combines the result of both LEFT and RIGHT joins.
Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 FULL OUTER JOIN table2 ON

Example: SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID FROM Customers FULL

OUTER JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID ORDER BY
Customers.CustomerName;

Database Systems (CS-329)
TASKS:
(I) Consider the following relation

EMPLOYEE (EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, EMP_ADDRESS, SKILL, PROJ-ID).
EQUIPMENT (EQP-ID, EMP_ID, EQP-TYPE, PROJECT).
● Find the join of relations EMPLOYEE and EQUIPMENT.
● Get all employees for projects using EQP-TYPE as a “Welding machine”.
● Get all machines being used at the Mumbai Project?
● Find all employees of the project using equipment number 110.
(II) Consider the following relation
SALESMAN (SALESMAN_ID, NAME, CITY, COMMISION)
CUSTOMER (CUSTOMER_ID, CUST_NAME, CITY, GRADE, SALESMAN_ID) ORDERS
(ORD_NO, PURCH_AMT, ORD_DATE, CUSTOMER_ID, SALESMAN_ID).

● Write a SQL statement to know which salesman are working for which
customer.
● Write a SQL statement to make a list in ascending order for the customer who works
either through a salesman or by own.
● Write a SQL statement to make a list in ascending order for the salesmen who works
either for one or more customers or not yet joined under any of the customers.
● Write a SQL statement to make a report with customer name, city, order no. order date,
purchase amount for those customers from the existing list who placed one or more orders
or which order(s) have been placed by the customer who are not in the list.

Lab #06
Single Row Functions & Aggregating Data Using Group Function
ORDER BY CLAUSE
SYNTAX: Select column from table [Where condition] [Order by column] By default rows are
sorted by ascending order. By using the Order by clause, we can override this. Two options can
be used with the Order_By clause Ascending (Asc, if not mentioned results are sorted in
ascending order) Descending (desc, results are sorted, starting with the lowest value)
Examples
● Select ename, job, deptno, and hiredate from emp order by hire date desc;
● Select ename, deptno, and sal from emp order by deptno asc, sal desc;
SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS

Single row functions are used to manipulate data items; they operate on single rows only,
accept one or more arguments and return one result per row. There are basically three types of
Single Row Functions. ♦ Character Functions ♦ Number Functions ♦ Conversions.
CHARACTER FUNCTION
LOWER(col): Converts alpha character values to lowercase.
UPPER(col): Converts alpha character values to upper
CONCAT(col1,col2) Concatenates the first character value to the second
character value. Equivalent to concatenate operator(||)
SUBSTRING(col m[n]) Returns specified character from character value starting at character
position m,n character long. If m is negative, the count starts from the end of the character value.
LEN(col) Returns the number of character in value
CHARINDEX(‘alphabet’ , col): Searches an expression in a string expression and returns its
starting position if found Examples

Select lower (ename ) from emp;
● Select Upper ( ename ) from emp;

● select ename,CHARINDEX ('a',ename) from emp;
● select substring(ename,1,2)from emp;
NUMBER FUNCTION
ROUND(column\ expression, n) Rounds the col expression or value to n decimal places. If n is
omitted no decimal place. If n is negative ,numbers to the left of the decimal point are rounded
POWER To raise one number to the power of another, use Power. In this function the first
argument is raised to the power of the second:
CEILING AND FLOOR Ceil returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to its argument.
Floor does just the reverse, returning the largest integer equal to or less than its argument.
CONVERSIONS SYNTAX:
DATEDIFF(datepart,startdate,enddate)
SELECT DATEDIFF(day,'1980-12-17','1982-01-23') AS DiffDate
SELECT GETDATE() AS CurrentDateTime
SELECT DATEPART(yyyy,hiredate) AS OrderYear,
DATEPART(mm,hiredate) AS OrderMonth,
DATEPART(dd,hiredate) AS OrderDay FROM emp
AGGREGATES FUNCTION
COUNT Counts the number of records
SUM Sum of definite column value
AVG Average of specified column value
MAX,MIN To find maximum and minimum values of a column
Examples
● Select COUNT (*) from employees;
● Select SUM (SALARY) from employees;
GROUP BY Aggregate functions are normally used in conjunction with a GROUP BY clause.
The GROUP BY clause enables you to use aggregate functions to answer more complex
managerial questions such as:
What is the average salary of employees in each department?

How many employees work in each department?
How many employees are working on a particular project?
Group by function establishes data groups based on columns and aggregates the information
within a group only. The grouping criterion is defined by the columns specified in GROUP BY
clause. Following this hierarchy, data is first organized in the groups and then WHERE clause
restricts the rows in each group.
Examples
SELECT deptno , COUNT (*) as total_no FROM emp GROUP BY deptno;
SELECT deptno, job, SUM(Salary) as total_salary FROM emp GROUP BY deptno, Job;
TASKS
1. Group the employees by their salaries.
2. List hiredates in descending order.
3. List hiredates in ascending order
4. List all employees and add 20 rupees in each salary.
5. List all 'manager' and add 100 rupees in each salary.
6. List all 'salesman and add 500 rupees in each salary.
7. List all 'clerk' and add 50 rupees in each salary.
8. Find eight percent of salesmen salary.
9. Find the annual salary of each employee.
10. Find the six-month salary of each employee.
11. Find the two-month salary of each manager.
12. Make a query in which all the arithmetic expressions will include all the result
will be remain same.
13. Find the daily wages of each employee.

14. Find the daily wages of each 'manager.
15. Display your name in lowercase.
16. Find the first and second characters of enames.
17. Find the minimum salary from the table emp.
18. Find the maximum salary from the table emp.
19. Find the length of all ename.
20. Find the length of job.
21. Find the sum of all salaries.
22. Find those employees whose department location is Newark.
23. Find those employees who are working in accounting department.
24. Count all employees.
25. Display the sum of all employees’ salaries.
26. How many managers do we have?
27. How many departments do we have?
28. List average salary of each job.
29. Find the Maximum and Minimum salary of all employees.
30. Find the average salaries of those employees who work in dept 10.
31. Find average and sum of all the salaries of each job excluding clerks.
32. Find the minimum and average salary of each department excluding deptno 10.

Lab # 07
IMPLEMENTING CARDINALITIES(MINIMUM ,MAXIMUM)
AND MAPPING CONSTRAINTS ON MULTIPLE TABLES
Mapping cardinality (cardinality constraints)

It represents the number of entities of another entity set which are connected to an
entity using a relationship set.
It is most useful in describing binary relationship sets.
For a binary relationship set the mapping cardinality must be one of the following types:
• One to one
• One to many
• Many to one
• Many to many
TASK :
• Implement mapping of tables from theory classes

Lab #08
SUB-QUERIES IN SQL
SUBQUERIES
Why do we use sub-queries?

Suppose we want to write a query to find out who earns a salary greater than Jones’ salary. To
solve this problem, we need two queries: one query to find what Jones earns and a second query
to find who earns more than that amount. The above problem can be solved by combining the
two queries, placing one query inside the other query. The inner query or the sub-query returns a
value that is used by the outer query or the main query. Using a sub-query is equivalent to
performing two sequential queries and using the result of the first query as the search value in the
second query.
Main Query
“Which employees have a salary greater than Jones’ Salary?”
Sub-query
“What is Jones’ salary?”
Sub-query
A sub-query is a SELECT statement that is embedded in a clause of another SELECT statement.
They can be very useful when we need to select rows from a table with a condition that depends
on the data in the table itself. The sub-query generally executes first and its output is used to
complete the query condition for the main or outer query.
The subquery can be placed in a number of SQL clauses:
WHERE clause, HAVING clause FROM clause
The syntax of SELECT statement using sub-queries is:
SELECT select_list FROM table WHERE expr operator (SELECT select_list FROM table);
Note: In the syntax, operator means comparison operator. Comparison operators fall into two

clauses: single-row operators (>, =, >=, <, <>, <=) and multiple-row operators (IN, ANY, ALL).
For example, to display the names of all employees who earn more than
employee with empno 7566.
SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE sal > (SELECT sal FROM emp WHERE empno = 7566);
Types of Sub queries
Single-row subquery: Query that returns only one row from the inner SELECT statement.
Multiple-row subquery: Query that returns more than one row form the inner SELECT
statement.
Single-Row SubQuery
Examples
1. To display the employees whose job title is the same as that of employee 7369
SELECT ename, job FROM emp WHERE job = (SELECT job FROM emp WHERE empno =
7369);
2. To display employees whose job title is the same as that of employee

7369 and whose salary is greater than that of employee 7876.
SELECT ename, job FROM emp WHERE job = (SELECT job FROM emp WHERE empno =
7369) AND sal > (SELECT sal FROM emp WHERE empno = 7876);
3. To display the employee name, job title and salary of all employees
whose salary is equal to the minimum salary.
SELECT ename, job, sal FROM emp WHERE sal = (SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp);

Multiple-Row
Subqueries
Operator Meaning
IN Equal to any member in the list
ANY Compare value to each value returned by the subquery
ALL Compare value to every value returned by the subquery
Note: The NOT operator can be used with IN, ANY, and ALL operators.
Examples
1. Find the employees who earn the same salary as the minimum salary for departments.
SELECT ename, sal, deptno FROM emp WHERE sal IN (SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp GROUP
BY deptno);
2. To display employees whose salary is less than any clerk and who are not
clerks.
SELECT empno, ename, job FROM emp WHERE sal < ANY (SELECT sal FROM emp WHERE
job = ‘CLERK’);
3. To display employees whose salary is greater than the average

salary of all the departments.
SELECT empno, ename, job FROM emp WHERE sal > ALL (SELECT avg(sal) FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno);
Multiple-Column Sub queries
If we want to compare two or more columns, we must write a compound WHERE clause using
logical operators. Multiple column subqueries enable us to combine duplicate WHERE
conditions into a single WHERE clause.
For example, to display the name of all employees who have done their present

job somewhere before in their career.
SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE (EMPNO, JOB) IN (SELECT EMPNO, JOB FROM
JOB_HISTORY);
COMPOUND QUERIES
In SQL, we can use the normal set operators of Union, Intersection and
Set Difference to combine the results of two or more component queries
into a single result table. Queries containing SET operators are called
compound queries. The following table shows the different set operators
provided in Oracle SQL.
Operator Returns
UNION All distinct rows selected by either query
UNION ALL All rows selected by either query including all
duplicates
INTERSECT All distinct rows selected by both queries
MINUS All distinct rows that are selected by the first
SELECT statement and that are not selected in the
second SELECT statement
There are restrictions on the tables that can be combined using the set operations, the most
important one being that the two tables have to be union-compatible; that is, they have the same
structure. This implies that the two tables must contain the same number of columns, and that their
corresponding columns contain the same data types and lengths. It is the user’s responsibility to
ensure that values in corresponding columns come from the same domain. For example, it would
not be sensible to combine a column containing the age of staff with the number of rooms in a
property, even though both columns may have the same data type i.e. NUMBER.
The UNION Operator
The UNION operator returns rows from both queries after eliminating duplicates. By default, the
output is sorted in ascending order of the first column of the SELECT clause.
For example to display all the jobs that each employee has performed, the following query will be
given. (NOTE: If an employee has performed a job multiple times, it will be shown only once)
SELECT EMPNO, JOB FROM JOB_HISTORY UNION

SELECT EMPNO, JOB FROM EMP;

The UNION ALL Operator
The UNION ALL operator returns rows from both queries including all duplicates. For example to
display the current and previous jobs of all employees, the following query will be given. (NOTE:
If an employee has performed a job multiple times, it will be shown separately).
SELECT EMPNO, JOB FROM JOB_HISTORY UNION ALL
The INTERSECT Operator
The INTERSECT operator returns all rows that are common to both queries. For
example, to display all employees and their jobs those have already performed their
present job somewhere else in the past.
SELECT EMPNO, JOB FROM JOB_HISTORY INTERSECT

The MINUS Operator
The MINUS operator returns rows from the first query that is not present in the
second query. For example to display the ID of those employees whose present job is
the first one in their career.
SELECT EMPNO, JOB FROM EMP

MINUS
SELECT EMPNO, JOB FROM JOB_HISTORY;

TASK:
1. Write a query to display the employee name and hiredate for all employees in the same
department as Blake. Exclude Blake.
2. Create a query to display the employee number and name for all employees who earn more
than the average salary.
3. Write a query to display the employee number and name for all employees who work in a
department with any employee whose name contains a T.
4. Display the employee name, department number, and job title for all employees whose
department location is Dallas.
5. Display the employee name and salary of all employees who report to King.
6. Write a query to display the employee name, salary, deptno and job for all employees in
the same job as empno 7369.
7. Display the employee number, name and salary for all employees who earn more than
the average salary and who work in department with any employee with a T in their name.

Lab #09
Retrieving Data from Multiple Tables, Mapping of shared data SQL:
Cartesian product.
A Cartesian Product results when all rows in the first table are joined to all rows in the
second table. A Cartesian product is formed under following conditions:-
i. When a join condition is omitted
ii. When a join condition is invalid
Consider the following

example:-
SELECT * FROM EMP, DEPT;
In the above example, if EMP table has 14 rows and DEPT table has 4 rows, then their
Cartesian product would generate 14 x 4 = 56 rows.
In fact, the ISO standard provides a special format of the SELECT statement for the
Cartesian product:-
SELECT * FROM EMP CROSS JOIN DEPT;
A Cartesian product tends to generate a large number of rows and its result is rarely
useful. It is always necessary to include a valid join condition in a WHERE clause.
Hence a join is always a subset of a Cartesian product.
Types of Joins
There are various forms of join operation, each with subtle differences, some more useful
than others. The Oracle 9i database offers join syntax that is SQL 1999 compliant. Prior
to release 9i, the join syntax was different from the ANSI standard. However, the new
syntax does not offer any performance benefits over the Oracle proprietary join syntax
that existed in prior releases.
Inner-Join/Equi-Join
If the join contains an equality condition, it is called equi-join.
Examples
To retrieve the employee name, their job and department name, we need to extract data from
two tables, EMP and DEPT. This type of join is called equijoin-that is, values in the DEPTNO
column on both tables must be equal. Equijoin is also called simple join or inner join.

SELECT E.ENAME, E.JOB, D.DNAME

FROM EMP E, DEPT D
WHERE E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO;
The SQL-1999 standard provides the following alternative ways to specify this join:-
SELECT ENAME, JOB, DNAME
FROM EMP NATURAL JOIN DEPT;
Outer-Join
A join between two tables that returns the results of the inner join as well as unmatched
rows in the left or right tables is a left or right outer join respectively. A full outer join is
a join between two tables that returns the results of a left and right join.
Left Outer Join

SELECT E.ENAME, D.DEPTNO, D.DNAME
FROM EMP E, DEPT D
WHERE E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO(+);
NOTE: The outer join operator appears on only that side that has information missing.
The SQL-1999 standard provides the following alternative way to specify this join:-

FROM EMP E LEFT OUTER JOIN DEPT D
ON (E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO);
Right Outer Join

FROM EMP E, DEPT D
WHERE E.DEPTNO(+) = D.DEPTNO;
The SQL-1999 standard provides the following alternative way to specify this join:-
FROM EMP E RIGHT OUTER JOIN DEPT D
NOTE: In the equi-join condition of EMP and DEPT tables, department OPERATIONS
does not appear because no one works in that department. In the outer join condition,
the OPERATIONS department also appears.

Full Outer Join

The SQL-1999 standard provides the following way to specify this join:-
FROM EMP E FULL OUTER JOIN DEPT D
Non-Equijoin
If the join contains inequality condition, it is called non-equijoin. E.g. to retrieve
employee name, salary and their grades using non-equijoins, we need to extract data
from two tables, EMP and SALGRADE.
SELECT E.ENAME, E.SAL, S.GRADE

FROM EMP E, SALGRADE S
WHERE E.SAL
BETWEEN S.LOSAL AND S.HISAL;
Self Join
To find the name of each employee’s manager, we need to join the EMP table to itself, or
perform a self join.
SELECT WORKER.ENAME || ‘ works for ‘ ||
MANAGER.ENAME FROM EMP WORKER, EMP
MANAGER
WHERE WORKER.MGR = MANAGER.EMPNO;
TASK:
• To display the employee name, department name, and location of all employees who earn a
commission.
• To display all the employee’s name (including KING who has no manager) and their
manager name
• To display the name of all employees whose manager is KING.
• Create a unique listing of all jobs that in department 30. Include the location of department
30 in the Output.
• Write a query to display the name, job, department number and department name for all
employees who work in New York
• Display the employee name and employee number along with their manager’s name
Manager Number. Label the columns Employee, Emp#, Manager, and Manager#,
respectively.

LAB # 10
CREATING SEQUENCES AND INDEXES
SEQUENCE
Sequence is a set of integers 1, 2, 3, … that are generated and supported by some database
systems to produce unique values on demand.
● A sequence is a user defined schema bound object that generates a sequence of numeric
values.
● Sequences are frequently used in many databases because many applications require each
row in a table to contain a unique value and sequences provides an easy way to generate
them.
● The sequence of numeric values is generated in an ascending or descending order at
defined intervals and can be configured to restart when exceeds max_value.
● One can select the NEXTVAL and CURRVAL from a sequence. Selecting the NEXTVAL
will automatically increment the sequence.
Syntax:
CREATE SEQUENCE sequence_name
START WITH initial_value

INCREMENT BY increment_value
MINVALUE minimum value
MAXVALUE maximum value
CYCLE| NOCYCLE ;
sequence_name: Name of the sequence.

initial_value: starting value from where the sequence starts.
Initial_value should be greater than or equal
to minimum value and less than equal to maximum value. increment_value:
Value by which sequence will increment itself. Increment_value can be
positive or negative.
minimum_value: Minimum value of the sequence.
maximum_value: Maximum value of the sequence.
cycle: When sequence reaches its set_limit
it starts from the beginning.
nocycle: An exception will be thrown if
the sequence exceeds its max_value

Example:
CREATE SEQUENCE sequence_1
start with 1
increment by 1
minvalue 0
maxvalue 100
cycle;
CREATE SEQUENCE sequence_2

start with 100
increment by -1
minvalue 1
maxvalue 100
cycle;
Example to use sequence

create a table named students with columns as id and name.
CREATE TABLE students(

ID int,
NAME char(20)
);
Now insert values into table
INSERT into students VALUES (next value for sequence1,'ali');
INSERT into students VALUES (next value for sequence1,'salman');
Output:
ID NAME
1 ali
2 salman

Sequence vs. Identity columns
Sequences, different from the identity columns, are not associated with a table. The relationship
between the sequence and the table is controlled by applications. In addition, a sequence can be
shared across multiple tables.
The following table illustrates the main differences between sequences and identity columns:
Property/Feature Identity Sequence Object

Allow specifying minimum and/or maximum increment values No Yes
Allow resetting the increment value No Yes
Allow caching increment value generating No Yes

Allow specifying starting increment value Yes Yes
Allow specifying increment value Yes Yes
Allow using in multiple tables No Yes

When to use sequences
You use a sequence object instead of an identity column in the following cases:
● The application requires a number before inserting values into the table.
● The application requires sharing a sequence of numbers across multiple tables or multiple
columns within the same table.
● The application requires to restart the number when a specified value is reached.
● The application requires multiple numbers to be assigned at the same time. Note that you
can call the stored procedure sp_sequence_get_range to retrieve several numbers in a
sequence at once.
● The application needs to change the specification of the sequence like maximum value.

INDEXES
An index is a schema object that can speed up the retrieval of rows by using a pointer. Indexes
can be created explicitly or automatically. An index provides direct and fast access to rows in a
table. Its purpose is to reduce the necessity of disk I/O by using an indexed path to locate data
quickly. The index is used and maintained automatically by the Oracle Server. Once an index is
created, no direct activity is required by the user.
Indexes are logically and physically independent of the table they index. Therefore, they can be
created or dropped at any time and have no effect on the base tables or other indexes.
Types of indexes
Oracle maintains the indexes automatically: when new rows are added to the table, updated, or
deleted, Oracle updates the corresponding indexes. We can create the following indexes:-
Bitmap index
A bitmap index does not repeatedly store the index column values. Each value is treated as a key,
and for the corresponding ROWIDs a bit is set. Bitmap indexes are suitable for columns with low
cardinality, such as the GENDER column in the EMP table, where the possible values are M or F.
The cardinality is the number of distinct column values in a column. In the EMP table column, the
cardinality of the GENDER column is 2.
B-tree index
This is the default. The index is created using the b-tree algorithm. The b-tree includes nodes with
the index column values and the ROWID of the row. The ROWIDs are used to identify the rows
in the table.
The following are the types of b-tree indexes:-
▪ Unique Index: The Oracle server automatically creates this index when a column in a
table is defined to be a PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE key contraint.
▪ NonUnique Index: Users can create nonunique indexes on columns to speed up access
time to the rows. For example, we can create a FOREIGN KEY column index for a
join in a query to improve retrieval speed.
▪ Function-based index: The function-based index can be created on columns with
expressions. For example, creating an index on the SUBSTR(EMPID, 1, 2) can speed
up the queries using the SUBSTR(EMPID, 1, 2) in the WHERE clause.
Creating an Index
To create an index (b-tree) on ENAME column in the EMP table.

CREATE INDEX emp_ename_idx
ON emp(ename);
To create an index (b-tree) on first 5 characters of JOB column in the EMP table.

CREATE INDEX emp_job5_idx
ON emp(SUBSTR(JOB, 1, 5));
To create a bitmap index, we must specify the keyword BITMAP immediately after CREATE.
Bitmap indexes cannot be unique. For example:
CREATE BITMAP INDEX IND_PROJ_STAT ON PROJECT (STATUS);
Confirming Indexes
We can confirm the existence of indexes from the USER_INDEXES data dictionary view. It
contains the name of the index and its uniqueness.
SELECT INDEX_NAME, TABLE_NAME, TABLE_OWNER, UNIQUENESS FROM
USER_INDEXES;
Removing an Index
It is not possible to modify an index. To change it, we must drop it first and then re-create it.
Remove an index definition from the data dictionary by issuing the DROP INDEX statement. To
drop an index, one must be the owner of the index or have the DROP ANY INDEX privilege.
DROP INDEX index;
For example, remove the EMP_ENAME_IDX index from the data dictionary.
DROP INDEX emp_ename_idx;
When to create an index

The index should be created under following circumstances:-
▪ The column is used frequenctly in the WHERE clause or in a join condition.
▪ The column contains a wide range of values.
▪ The column contains a large number of null values
▪ Two or more columns are frequently used together in a WHERE clause or a join condition.
▪ The table is large and most queries are expected to retrieve less than 2-4% of the rows.
When not to create an index

The index should not be created under following circumstances:-
▪ The table is small
▪ The columns are not often used as a condition in the query.
▪ Most queries are expected to retrieve more than 2-4% of the rows.
▪ The table is updated frequently.

TASKS:
1. CREATE SEQUENCE my_sequence MINVALUE 1 MAXVALUE 1000 START WITH
1 INCREMENT BY 2;
2. Create a new table Person with my_sequence and insert at least 5 records.
3. Create a new table Customer with my_sequence and insert at least 5 records
4. Create B-Tree indexes on i) Name column of EMP table ii) Designation column of
EMP table iii) First 10 characters of Title in TRAININGtable
5. Create bitmapped indexes on i) Gender column of EMP table ii) Performance
column of EMP_PROJECT table

Lab # 11
CREATING TABLES & VIEWS
Tables can be created at any time, even while users are using the database.
We do not need to specify the size of any table. The size is ultimately defined by the
amount of space allocated to the database as a whole.
Table structure can be modified online.
• Table: Stores data

• View: Subset of data from one or more tables
• Sequence: Generates primary key values
• Index: Improves the performance of some queries
Naming Conventions
▪ Name database tables and columns according to the standard rules for naming
any database object.
▪ Table names and column names must begin with a letter and can be 1-30
characters long.
▪ Names must contain only the characters A-Z, a-z, 0-9, _(underscore), $, and
# (legal characters, but their use is discouraged).
▪ Names must not duplicate the name of another object owned by the same
Server user.
▪ Names must not be a Server reserved word.
Creating and Altering Tables
The CREATE TABLE statement

To create a table, a user must have the CREATE TABLE privilege and a storage area in which
to create objects. The database administrator uses data control language (DCL) statements,
covered in a later session, to grant privileges to users
The syntax is as follows:-
CREATE TABLE [schema .] table
(column datatype [DEFAULT expr] [, …]);
Referencing another user’s tables

A schema is a collection of objects. Schema objects are the logical structures that directly
refer to the data in a database. Schema objects include tables, views, synonyms,
sequences, stored procedures, indexes, clusters, and database links.
If a table does not belong to the user, the owner’s name must be prefixed to the table.

The DEFAULT option
A column can be given a default value by using the DEFAULT option. This option prevents
null values from entering the columns if a row is inserted without a value for the column.
The default value can be a literal, an expression, or a SQL function, such as SYSDATE
and USER, but the value cannot be the name of another column or a pseudocolumn, such
as NEXTVAL, or CURRVAL. The default expression must match the datatype of the
column.
For example,
… hiredate DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE, …
Example
The following example creates the DEPT table mentioned in the lab. session 01.
CREATE TABLE dept

(deptno NUMBER(2), dname
VARCHAR2(14), loc
VARCHAR2(13)
);
Since creating a table is a DDL statement, an automatic commit takes place when this
statement is executed.
SQL Data Types
Datatype Description
VARCHAR2(size) Variable-length character data (A maximum size must be
specified.
Default and minimum size is 1; maximum size is 4000)
CHAR(size) Fixed-length character data of length size bytes (Default and
minimum
size is 1; maximum size is 2000)
NUMBER(p, s) Number having precision p and scale s (The precision is the total
number of decimal digits and the scale is the number of digits to
the right of the decimal point. The precision can range from 1 to 38
and the
scale can range from -84 to 127.)
DATE Date and time values between January 1, 4712 B.C. and
December 31, 9999 A.D.
LONG Variable length character data up to 2 gigabytes

Datatype Description
CLOB Single-byte character data up to 2 gigabytes
RAW(size) Raw binary data of length size (A maximum size must be specified.
Maximum size is 2000.)
LONG RAW Raw binary data of variable length up to 2 gigabytes
BLOB Binary data up to 4 gigabytes
BFILE Binary data stored in an external file; up to 4 gigabytes
CLOB, BLOB and BFILE are the large object data types and can store blocks of
unstructured data (such as text, graphics images, video clips and sound wave forms up to
4 gigabytes in size.) LOBs also support random access to data.
Creating a table by using a Subquery

The following example creates a table, DEPT30, that contains details of all employees
working in department 30
CREATE TABLE dept30
AS SELECT empno, ename, sal * 12 ANNSAL, hiredate
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 30;
Altering table structure

The ALTER TABLE statement is used to
▪ Add a new column
▪ Modify an existing column
▪ Define a default value for the new column
The following example adds a new column to the DEPT30 table:-

ALTER TABLE dept30
ADD (job VARCHAR2(9));
To modify an existing column, use

ALTER TABLE dept30
MODIFY (ename VARCHAR2(15));
Dropping a Table
The DROP TABLE statement removes the definition of an Oracle table. The database
loses all the data in the table and all the indexes associated with it.
The DROP TABLE statement, once executed, is irreversible. The Oracle Server does not
question the action when the statement is issued and the table is immediately dropped. All
DDL statements issue a commit, therefore, making the transaction permanent.
To drop the table DEPT30,
DROP TABLE DEPT30;

Changing the name of an object
To change the name of a table, view, sequence, or synonym, execute the
RENAME statement:-
RENAME dept TO department;
What are constraints?

The Oracle Server uses constraints to prevent invalid data entry into tables.
Constraints are used for the following purposes:-
▪ Enforce rules at the table level whenever a row is inserted, updated, or deleted from
that table. The constraint must be satisfied for the operation to succeed.
▪ Prevent the deletion of a table if there are dependencies from other tables.
Constraint Description
NOT NULL Specifies that this column may not contain a null value
UNIQUE Specifies a column or combination of columns whose values must be
unique for all rows in the table
PRIMARY KEY Uniquely identifies each row of the table
FOREIGN KEY Establishes and enforces a foreign key relationship between the
column
and a column of the referenced table
CHECK Specifies a condition that must be true
The EMP table is being created specifying various constraints:-
CREATE TABLE DEPT (

DEPTNONUMBER(2) constraint DEPT_DEPTNO_PK PRIMARY KEY,
DNAME VARCHAR2(14),
LOC VARCHAR2(13),
CONSTRAINT DEPT_DNAME_UK UNIQUE(DNAME));
CREATE TABLE EMP (

EMPNO NUMBER(4) CONSTRAINT EMP_EMPNO_PK PRIMARY KEY,
ENAME VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
JOB VARCHAR2(9),
MGR NUMBER(4),
HIREDATE DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE,
SAL NUMBER(7, 2),
COMM NUMBER(7, 2),
DEPTNO NUMBER(7, 2) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT EMP_DEPTNO_CK CHECK (DEPTNO BETWEEN 1 AND 50),
CONSTRAINT EMP_DEPTNO_FK FOREIGN KEY (DEPTNO)
REFERENCESDEPT(DEPTNO));
Composite primary keys are defined at the table leve

SQL CREATE VIEW STATEMENT:
In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or
more real tables in the database.
You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as if the
data were coming from one single table.
What is a View?
A view is a logical table based on other tables or another view. A view contains no data of its own
but is like a window through which data from tables can be viewed or changed. The tables in which
a view is based are called base tables. The view is stored as a SELECT statement in the data
dictionary.
Why Use Views?

Views are used for following reasons:-
▪ To restrict database access because the view can display a selective portion of the
database.
▪ To make complex queries easy. For example, views allow users to query information
from multiple tables without knowing how to write a join statement.
▪ To allow data independence for ad hoc users and application programs. One view can
be used to retrieve data from several tables.
▪ To present different views of the same data to different users.
Simple and Complex Views

There are two classifications for views: simple and complex. The basic difference is related to the
DML (insert, update and delete) operations.
Feature Simple Views Complex Views

Number of tables One One or more
Contain functions No Yes
Contain groups of data No Yes
DML through view Yes Not always

CREATE VIEW SYNTAX:
CREATE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column1, column2,...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the data, using the
view's SQL statement, every time a user queries a view.
CREATE VIEW EXAMPLE 1:
The following SQL creates a view that shows all customers from Brazil:
CREATE VIEW [Brazil Customers] AS

SELECT CustomerName , ContactName
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Brazil';
We can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Brazil Customers];
CREATE VIEW EXAMPLE 2:
CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS

SELECT ProductName, Price
FROM Products
WHERE Price > (SELECT AVG (Price) FROM Products);
We can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price];
SQL Updating a View

A view can be updated with the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW command.
SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column1, column2,...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology 10 | P a g

(Department of Computer Science and Information Technology) e
The following SQL adds the "City" column to the "Brazil Customers" view:
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW [BrazilCustomers] AS

SELECT CustomerName,ContactName,City
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Brazil';
SQL Dropping a View
A view is deleted with the DROP VIEW command.
SQL DROP VIEW Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name;
The following SQL drops the "Brazil Customers" view:
DROP VIEW [Brazil Customers];
TASKS
• Consider the following schema, in the form of normalized relations, to represent

information about employees, grades, training and projects in anorganization.
EMPLOYEE
Empno (eg 6712) Name
Designation (e.g. Database Developer) Qualification
Joindate PROJECT PID (eg P812)
Title Client
Duration (in weeks)
Status (New, In Progress, Complete) EMP_PROJECT
Empno PID
Performance (Excellent, Good, Fair, Bad, Poor)
GRADE
Designation Grade (1-20) TotalPosts
PostsAvailable (<= TotalPosts)
TRAINING
Tcode (eg T902) Title
StartDate EndDate
EMP_TRAINING
Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology 11 | P a g e
Empno Tcode
Attendance (%)
1. Develop a script file EMPLOYEE.SQL to create tables for the above schema. Implement all
necessary integrity constraints including primary and foreign keys. (NOTE: All check constraints
should be at table level)
2. Write SQL statements to add

• Gender column to EMP table. The only possible values are Male and Female.
• Instructor_Name column to TRAINING table.
• Salary column to GRADE table.
3. Write down a transaction to insert data in EMP_TRAINING table. The data should be finally
saved in the database.
• Employee 3400 gets Developer 6i training and his attendance is 87%
• Employee 3300 gets Typing/shorthand training and her attendance

Lab # 12
Managing profiles and controlling user access
Controlling database access and resource limits are important aspects of the DBA’s function. Profiles
are used to manage the database and system resources and to manage database passwords and
password verification. Database access is controlled using privileges.
Roles are created to manage the privileges.
PROFILES
In Oracle, a profile is a named set of password and resource limits. In essence, they are
used for two major purposes:-
i. Profiles are used to control the database and system resource usage. They restrict users from
performing some operations that require heavy use of resources. Resource management limits can
be enforced at the session level, the call level or both. Oracle provides a set of predefined
resource parameters that can be used to monitor and control database resource usage. The DBA
can define limits for each resource by using a database profile.
ii. Profiles are also used for password management to provide greater control over database
security. e.g. to force a user to change password after a specified time.
It is possible to create various profiles for different user communities and assign a profile
to each user. When the database is created, Oracle creates a profile named DEFAULT, and
if we do not specify a profile for the user, the DEFAULT profile is assigned.
Oracle lets us control the following types of resource usage (both at session level and call
level) through profiles:-
▪ Concurrent sessions per user
▪ Elapsed and idle time connected to the database
▪ CPU time used (per session and per call)
▪ Logical reads performed (per session and per call)
Oracle lets us control the following password management features through profiles:-
▪ Password aging and expiration
▪ Password history
▪ Password complexity verification
▪ Account Locking

Enforcing resource limits
Resource limits are enforced only when the parameter RESOURCE_LIMIT is set to
TRUE. Even if the profiles are defined and assigned to users, Oracle enforces them only
when this parameter is set to TRUE. This parameter can be set in the initialization
parameter file so that every time the database starts, the resource usage is controlled for
each user using the assigned profile. Resource limits can also be enabled or disabled using
the ALTER SYSTEM command. The default value of RESOURCE_LIMIT is FALSE.
ALTER SYSTEM
SET RESOURCE_LIMIT = TRUE;
Most resource limits are set at the session level; a session is created when a user connects
to the database. Certain limits can be controlled at the statement level (but not at the
transaction level).
If a user exceeds a resource limit, Oracle aborts the current operation, rolls back the
changes made by the statement, and returns an error. The user has the option of
committing or rolling back the transaction, because the statements issued earlier in the
transaction are not aborted. No other operation is permitted when a session level limit is
reached. The user can disconnect, in which case the transaction is committed. In contrast to
resource limits, password limits are always enforced.
Some of the parameters that are used to control resources are as follows:-
▪ SESSIONS_PER_USER
▪ CPU_PER_SESSION
▪ CPU_PER_CALL
▪ LOGICAL_READS_PER_SESSION
▪ LOGICAL_READS_PER_CALL
▪ CONNECT_TIME
▪ IDLE_TIME
Some of the parameters that are used for password management are as follows:-
▪ FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS
▪ PASSWORD_LOCK_TIME
▪ PASSWORD_LIFE_TIME
▪ PASSWORD_GRACE_TIME
▪ PASSWORD_REUSE_TIME
▪ PASSWORD_REUSE_MAX
Creating Profiles
Let’s create a profile to manage passwords and resources for the accounting department
users. The users are required to change their password every 60 days and they cannot reuse
a given password for 90 days. However a given password can be reused any number of
times throughout life. The grace period for password change is 5 days. They are allowed to

make a typo in the password only four consecutive times while connecting to the
database; if the login fails for a fifth time, their account will be locked forever (until the
DBA or security department unlocks the account). The accounting department users are
allowed to have a maximum of six database connections; they can stay connected to the
database for 24 hours, but an inactivity of half-an-hour will terminate theirsession.
CREATE PROFILE ACCOUNTING_USER LIMIT

SESSIONS_PER_USER 6
CONNECT_TIME 1440
IDLE_TIME 30
FAILED_LOGIN_ATTEMPTS 4
PASSWORD_LOCK_TIME UNLIMITED
PASSWORD_LIFE_TIME 60
PASSWORD_GRACE_TIME 5
PASSWORD_REUSE_TIME 90
PASSWORD_REUSE_MAX UNLIMITED;
Dropping profiles
Profiles are dropped using the DROP PROFILE command. If any user is assigned the
profile you wish to drop, Oracle returns an error. You can drop such profiles by
specifying CASCADE, in which case the users who have that profile will be assigned the
DEFAULT profile.
DROP PROFILE ACCOUNTING_USER CASCADE;
Assigning Profiles
Profiles can be assigned to users by using the CREATE USER or ALTER USER
command. Following example assigns the ACCOUNTING_USER profile to an existing
user named SCOTT:-
ALTER USER SCOTT
PROFILE ACCOUNTING_USER;
Querying Password and Resource Limits Information
Information about password and resource limits can be obtained by querying the
following data dictionary views:-
▪ DBA_USERS
▪ DBA_PROFILES
TABLESPACES AND DATAFILES
The database’s data is stored logically in tablespaces and physically in the data files
corresponding to the tablespaces. The logical storage management is independent of the
physical storage of the data files. A tablespace can have more than one data file associated
with it whereas one data file belongs to only one tablespace.
A database can have one or more tablespaces.
Figure 10.2 below shows the relationship between the database, tablespace, data files and

the objects in the database.
Any object (such as a table, an index, etc.) created in the database is stored in a single
table space. But the object’s physical storage can be on multiple data files belonging to
that table space.
The idea of table spaces allows managing space for users in an efficient way. We can
group application-related data (e.g. accounts) together so that when maintenance is
required for the application’s table space, only that table space need to be taken offline
and the rest of the database will be available for other users. Moreover, we can back up
the database one table space at a time as well as make part of the database read-only.
The size of the table space is the total size of all the data files belonging to the table space.
The size of the database is the total size of all table spaces in the database, which is the total
size of all data files in the database.
Changing the size of the data files belonging to a table space can change the size of that
table space. More space can be added to a table space by adding more data files to the
table space or increasing the size of the existing data files.
Database
Table space 1 Table space 2
Data file 1
Datafile 2 Data file 3
A Database can have multiple table spaces and a table space can have multiple data files

Objects
When a database is created, Oracle creates the SYSTEM table space. All data dictionary
objects are stored in it. The data files specified at the time of database creation are assigned
to the SYSTEM table space. The PL/SQL program units (such as procedures, functions,
packages, or triggers) created in the database are also stored in the SYSTEM table space.
It is recommended that SYSTEM table space should contain only the objects in the data
dictionary. Separating the data dictionary from other database objects reduces the
contention between dictionary objects and database objects for the same data file.
Creating Table space

The following statement creates a table space ACCOUNT_DATA having two data files
acct_data01.dbf and acct_data02.dbf,
CREATE TABLESPACE ACCOUNT_DATA
DATAFILE ‘d:\oradata\db01\acct_data01.dbf’ SIZE
100M AUTOEXTEND ON NEXT 5M MAXSIZE 200M,
‘d:\oradata\db01\acct_data02.dbf’ SIZE 100M;
AUTOEXTEND ON enables the automatic extension of the data file. NEXT specifies the
disk space to allocate to the data file when more space is needed. MAXSIZE specifies the
maximum disk space allowed for allocation to the data file. If MAXSIZE is specified
unlimited then this indicates that there is no limit on allocating disk space to the data file.
Altering Table space
We can add more space to a table space by adding more data files to it or by changing the
size of the existing data files.
To add more data files,

ALTER TABLESPACE ACCOUNT_DATA ADD DATAFILE
‘d:\oradata\db01\acct_data03.dbf’ SIZE 100M;
We can increase or decrease the size of a data file by using the RESIZE clause of the ALTER
DATABASE DATAFILE command.
ALTER DATABASE
DATAFILE ‘d:\oradata\db01\appl_data01.dbf’
RESIZE 200M;

Dropping Table space
The following statement drops the table space APPL_DATA,
DROP TABLESPACE APPL_DATA;
Undo Table space

An undo table space is used to store undo segments. It cannot contain any other objects.
Unlike other table spaces, the undo table space is limited to the DATAFILE. For example,
to create an undo table space undo1
CREATE UNDO TABLESPACE undo1
DATAFILE ‘d:\oradata\db01\undo01.dbf’ SIZE 40M;
Querying Table space Information

Information about tablespaces can be obtained by querying the following data dictionary
views:-
• DBA_TABLESPACES
• V$TABLESPACE
MANAGING USERS
The following statement will create a user AHMED identified by password GREEN,
having profile ACCOUNTING_USER. All the user’s objects will be created in the
USERS table space in which the user AHMED will have a quota of 2MB. The user’s
account will be initially locked.
CREATE USER AHMED

IDENTIFIED BY GREEN DEFAULT
TABLESPACE USERS QUOTA 2M
ON USERS
PROFILE ACCOUNTING_USER
ACCOUNT LOCK;
The DBA can later lock or unlock a user’s account as follows:-

ALTER USER AHMED
ACOUNT UNLOCK;
The DBA can also expire the user’s password:

ALTER USER AHMED PASSWORD EXPIRE;
Users must change the password the next time they log in, or the DBA must change the
password. If the password is expired, SQL*Plus prompts for a new password at login
time.

The following example shows how to drop the user AHMED, with all the owned objects:-
DROP USER AHMED CASCADE;
CONTROLLING USER ACCESS
PRIVILEGES
Privileges in the Oracle database control access to the data and restrict the actions users
can perform. Through proper privileges, users can create, drop, or modify objects in their
own schema or in another user’s schema. Privileges also determine what data a user
should have access to.
Privileges can be granted to a user via two methods:
▪ Assign privileges directly to the user

▪ Assign privileges to a role, and then assign the role to the user
▪
A role is a named set of privileges, which eases the management of privileges. For example,
if there are 10 users needing access to the data in the accounting tables, we can grant the
privileges required to a role and grant the role to the 10 users.
There are two types of privileges:
Object privileges are granted on a specific object. The owner of the object has all the
privileges on the object. The privileges can be on data (to read, modify, delete, add, or
reference), on a program (to execute), or to modify an object (to change the structure).
System privileges are the privileges that enable the user to perform an action on any
schema in the database. They do not specify an object, but are granted at the database
level. Like object privileges, system privileges also can be granted to a user. They are
usually granted by DBA. Both system privileges and object privileges can be granted to a
role.
PUBLIC is a user group defined in the database; it is not a database user or a role. Every
user in the database belongs to this group. So if privileges are granted to PUBLIC, they
are available to all users of the database.
Granting Object Privileges
Suppose user AHMED owns tables CUSTOMER (Customer_ID, Name, Address) and
ORDER (Order_ID, Date, Customer_ID). AHMED wants to grant read and update
privileges on CUSTOMER table to user YASIR. When multiple privileges are specified,
they are separated by comma.
GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON CUSTOMER

TO YASIR;

The INSERT and UPDATE privileges can be granted on columns also.
GRANT INSERT(Customer_id, Name), DELETE ON CUSTOMER
TO YASIR WITH GRANT OPTION;
The WITH GRANT OPTION clause allows YASIR to grant the privileges to others.
Granting System Privileges
Like object privileges, system privileges also can be granted to a user, role, or PUBLIC.
There are many system privileges in Oracle. The CREATE, ALTER, and DROP privileges
provide the ability to create, modify, and drop the object specified in the user’s schema.
When a privilege is specified with ANY, it authorizes the user to perform the action on any
schema in the database.
For example, to grant create session, create table and create index privilege to
AHMED:- GRANT CREATE SESSION, CREATE TABLE,
CREATE INDEX TO AHMED WITH ADMIN OPTION;

The WITH ADMIN OPTION clause allows AHMED to grant the privileges to others.
The following statement allows AHMED to create and select a table in any schema as
well as selecting any sequence,
GRANT CREATE ANY TABLE, SELECT ANY
TABLE, SELECT ANY SEQUENCE TO AHMED;
Revoking privileges
Object privileges and system privileges can be revoked from a user by using the
REVOKE statement. To revoke the UPDATE privilege granted to YASIR from AHMED
on AHMED’s CUSTOMER table:-
REVOKE UPDATE
ON CUSTOMER
FROM YASIR;
ROLES
A role is a named group of related privileges that can be granted to the user. This
method makes it easier to revoke and maintain privileges.
A user can have access to several roles and several users can be assigned the same role.
Roles are typically created for a database application.
e.g. to create a role manager

CREATE ROLE manager
To grant privileges to the manager role

GRANT CREATE TABLE, CREATE VIEW
TO manager;
To grant role to users,

GRANT manager TO AHMED, YASIR;

Lab # 13
Implementation Of Stored Procedures
A stored procedure is a prepared SQL code that you can save, so the code can be reused over and over again.
So if you have an SQL query that you write over and over again, save it as a stored procedure, and then just
call it to execute it.
You can also pass parameters to a stored procedure, so that the stored procedure can act based on the
parameter value(s) that is passed.
Stored Procedure Syntax
CREATE PROCEDURE procedure_name

AS
sql_statement
GO;
Execute a Stored Procedure
EXEC procedure_name;
Stored Procedure Example:
The following SQL statement creates a stored procedure named "SelectAllCustomers" that selects all records from
the "Customers" table:
CREATE PROCEDURE SelectAllCustomers

AS
SELECT * FROM Customers
GO;
EXEC SelectAllCustomers;
Stored Procedure With One Parameter
The following SQL statement creates a stored procedure that selects Customers from a particular City from the
"Customers" table:
CREATE PROCEDURE SelectAllCustomers @City nvarchar(30)

AS
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City = @City
GO;
Execute the stored procedure above as follows:
EXEC SelectAllCustomers @City = 'London';

Stored Procedure With Multiple Parameters
Setting up multiple parameters is very easy. Just list each parameter and the data type separated by a comma as
shown below.
The following SQL statement creates a stored procedure that selects Customers from a particular City with a
particular PostalCode from the "Customers" table:
CREATE PROCEDURE SelectAllCustomers @City nvarchar(30), @PostalCode nvarchar(10)

AS
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City = @City AND PostalCode = @PostalCode
GO;
Execute the stored procedure above as follows:
EXEC SelectAllCustomers @City = 'London', @PostalCode = 'WA1 1DP';

Lab # 14
Database Recovery Techniques
Theory:
A transaction is a logical unit of work. All changes made to the database can be referred to as a transaction.
Transaction changes can be made permanent to the database only if they are committed a transaction begins with an
executable SQL statement & ends explicitly with either rollback or commit statement.
COMMIT: This command is used to end a transaction only with the help of the commit command transaction
changes can be made permanent to the database.
Syntax: SQL> COMMIT;
Example: SQL> COMMIT;
SAVE POINT:
Save points are like marks to divide a very lengthy transaction to smaller once. They are used to identify a point in
a transaction to which we can latter role back. Thus, save point is used in conjunction with role back.
Syntax: SQL> SAVE POINT ID;
Example: SQL> SAVE POINT xy
ROLLBACK:
A role back command is used to undo the current transactions. We can role back the entire transaction so that all
changes made by SQL statements are undo (or) role 38 back a transaction to a save point so that the SQL
statements after the save point are role back.
Syntax: ROLLBACK (current transaction can be role back) ROLLBACK to save point ID;
Example: SQL> ROLLBACK; SQL> ROLLBACK TO SAVE POINT xyz;
TASK:
1. Write a query to implement the save point.
2. Write a query to implement the rollback.
3. Write a query to implement the commit.
Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology 24 |

P a g e (Department of Computer Science and Information Technology)
Lab # 15
SQL vs No SQL
Open Discussion
Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology 25 |

P a g e (Department of Computer Science and Information Technology)

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Lab #01

Introduction to Database and Microsoft SQL Server

There are five types of SQL statements.

• Data definition language (DDL)

1. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL): The Data Definition Language (DDL)

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Difference between Truncate & Delete:-

2. DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML): The Data Manipulation

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4. TRANSACTIONAL CONTROL LANGUAGE (TCL): A transaction is a logical

5. DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE (DCL): DCL provides uses with privilege

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Data Definition Operations and to become familiar with data

DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL): The Data Definition Language (DDL) is

CREATE: This is used to create a new table.

ALTER: This is used to add and modify table. Example:

1. Alter table emp add phone_no char (20);

2. Alter table emp alter column phone_ no int;

Example: Truncate table customer;

NOT NULL - Indicates that a column cannot store NULL value

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• Create a new table Person and insert at least 5 records.

• Create a new table Customer and insert at least 5 records.

• Create a new table Order and insert at least 5 records

• Add a new field in the Person table.

• Modify any field in the Person table.

• Use some constraints in your queries.

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Introduction to Data Manipulation Language with Insert ,Update

1. INSERT 2. UPDATE 3. DELETE

Encloses character and date values with in single quotation marks.

SYNTAX: Insert into table [(column [, column....])] Values (value [, value...])]

Examples Insert into dept(deptno,dnmae,loc) values (50, 'production', 'san francisco’);

SYNTAX: Update table Set column= value [, column=value] [Where condition]);

Examples Update emp set comm = null where job = ‘CLERK’;

3. DELETE Removes existing rows by using the delete command.

SYNTAX: Delete [from] table [Where condition];

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● Use insert, update & delete commands in 10 different scenarios.

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Queries with Distinction

Examples: The following example eliminates duplicate job from EMP.

Select distinct job from EMP;

The following example eliminates duplicate deptno from EMP.

Select distinct deptno from EMP;

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Select * from EMP where deptno = 40;

♦ Arithmetic operators ♦ Logical operators ♦ Comparison operators ♦ SQL operators

● Select empno, ename, sal + 2000 from emp;

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> Greater than

>= Greater than or equal to

< Less than

<= Less than or equal to

BETWEEN AND Between two values(inclusive)

IN(list) Match any of a list of values

LIKE Match a character pattern

IS NULL Is a null value