Chapter 2 - Data Transmission

Methods of error detection
Saturday, November 25, 2023 11:20 AM
i. The needs to check for errors
Errors can occur during data transmission due to:
 interference (e.g electrical interference in cables, which can cause data to be corrupted or even lost)
 problems during packet switching (this can lead to data loss - or even gaining data)
 skewing of data (occurs during parallel data transmission n can cause data corruption if the bits arrive out
of synchronisation)
There are a number of ways data can be checked for errors following transmission:
 parity checks
 checksum
 echo check
ii. Parity checks, checksum and echo checks
Parity checks
Parity checking is based on the number of 1-bits in a byte of data.
The parity can either be called EVEN (an even number of 1-bits in the byte) or ODD (an odd number of 1-
bits in the byte). One of the bits in the byte (usually the most significant bit or left-most bit) is reserved for
a parity bit. The parity bit is set according to whether the parity being used is even or odd. Before data is
transferred, an agreement is made between sender n receiver regarding which type of parity is being used.
1 1 0 1 1 0 0
In this example, if the byte is using even parity, then the parity bit needs to be 0, since there is already an
even number of 1-bits.
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
In this example, if the byte is using odd parity, then the parity bit needs to be 1, since we need to have an
odd number of 1-bits.
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
In some cases, the byte will become corrupted, but the bytes have retained the correct parity. Therefore,
C2 - Data transmission Page 1

In some cases, the byte will become corrupted, but the bytes have retained the correct parity. Therefore,
no errors will be flagged in spite of the obvious errors in transmission.
In another case, any of the bits could have been changed where there was a transmission error. Therefore,
even though an error has been flagged, it is impossible to know exactly which bit is in error.
One of the ways around this problem is to use parity blocks. In this method, a block of data is sent and the
number of 1-bits are totalled horizontally and vertically (a parity check is done in both horizontal and
vertical directions).
In this example, nine bytes of data have been transmitted. Agreement has been made that even parity will
be used.
Parity Bit 2 Bit 3 Bit 4 Bit 5 Bit 6 Bit 7 Bit 8

bit
Byte 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
Byte 2 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
Byte 3 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
Byte 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Byte 5 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Byte 6 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Byte 7 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
Byte 8 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
Byte 9 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
Parity 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
byte
The parity block shows that:
 byte 8 now has an incorrect parity (there are three 1-bits)

 bit 5 also now has an incorrect parity (there are five 1-bits).
The position of the incorrect bit value can be found at the intersection of row 8 and column 5. The 1-bit
should have been a 0-bit; this means that byte 8 should have been:
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
Checksum
Data is sent in blocks, and an additional value, called the checksum, is sent at the end of the block of data.
The checksum process is as follows:
 when a block of data is about to be transmitted, the checksum is calculated from the block of data
 the calculation is done using an agreed algorithm
 the checksum is then transmitted with the block of data
 at the receiving end, the checksum is recalculated by the computer using the block of data
 the re-calculated checksum is then compared to the checksum sent with the data block
 if the two checksums are the same, then no transmission errors have occurred; otherwise a request is
made to re-send the block of data.
Echo check

Echo check
When data is sent to another device, this data is sent back again to the sender. The sender’s computer
compares the two sets of data to check if any errors occurred during the transmission process. This isn’t a
very reliable method. If two sets of data are different, it isn’t known whether the error occurred when
sending the data in the first place or when sending the data back for checking.
In summary:
 a copy of the data is sent back to the sender
 the returned data is compared with the original data by the sender’s computer
 if there are no differences, then the data was sent without error
 if the two sets of data are different, then an error occurred at some stage during the data transmission.
iii. Check digits
A check digit is the final digit included in a code; it is calculated from all the other digits in the code. Check
digits are used for barcodes on products such as International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN) and Vehicle
Identification Numbers (VIN). Check digits are used to identify errors in data entry caused by mis-typing or
mis-scanning a barcode. They can usually detect the following types of errors:
 an incorrect digit entered (e.g 5327 entered instead of 5307)

 transposition errors where two numbers have changed order (e.g 5037 instead of 5307)
 omitted or extra digits (e.g 537 instead of 5307, 53 107 instead of 5307)
 phonetic errors (e.g 13 [thirteen] instead of 30 [thirty])
iv. Automatic Repeat Requests
 ARQ uses positive and negative acknowledgements (messages sent to the receiver indicating that the data
has/has not been received correctly) and timeout (the time interval allowed to elapse before an
acknowledgement is received)
 the receiving device receives an error detection code as part of the data transmission; this is used to detect
whether the received data contains any transmission errors
 if no error is detected, a positive acknowledgement is sent back to the sending device
 However, if an error is detected, the receiving device now sends a negative acknowledgement to the
sending device and requests re-transmission of the data
 a time-out is used by the sending device by waiting a pre-determined amount of time…
 …and if no acknowledgement of any type has been received by the sending device within this time limit, it
automatically re-sends the data until a positive acknowledgement is received…
 …or until a predetermined number of re-transmissions has taken place
 ARQ is often used by mobile phone networks to guarantee data integrity

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Methods of error detection

Saturday, November 25, 2023 11:20 AM

i. The needs to check for errors

Errors can occur during data transmission due to:

ii. Parity checks, checksum and echo checks

Parity checking is based on the number of 1-bits in a byte of data.

C2 - Data transmission Page 1

Parity Bit 2 Bit 3 Bit 4 Bit 5 Bit 6 Bit 7 Bit 8

The parity block shows that:

 byte 8 now has an incorrect parity (there are three 1-bits)

C2 - Data transmission Page 2

iii. Check digits

 an incorrect digit entered (e.g 5327 entered instead of 5307)

iv. Automatic Repeat Requests

C2 - Data transmission Page 3

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