Road To Success Vol 1

3/28/2015 THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol.
1 & 2 - Road to Success - IPLOCA WIKI Collaboration Platform
THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1

Created by Guy Henley, last modified by Henning Dresp on Nov 06, 2013
Onshore Pipelines THE ROAD

TO SUCCESS
An IPLOCA document – 3rd edition September 2013
Copyright IPLOCA 2011
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Table of contents
Expand al l Col l apse al l
0. Iploca Objectives • Executive Summary • Preface
1. Intr oduction
2. Development Phases of a Pipeline Project
2.1 Front-End Loading (FEL) Phases
2.2 Key points to address during FEL
3. The Baseline of a Constr uction Contr act
3.1 Defining the Scope of Work
3.2 Programming the Work
3.3 Contr act Price Information to Facilitate

Evaluation of Changes
3.4 Considerations in Developing the Conditions of
Contr act
Appendix 3.2.1 Recommendations for Establishing
Project Execution Plan Constr uction Phase
Appendix 3.2.2 A Primer to March Charts
Appendix 3.4.4 Contr actual Topics that have a

Particular Importance for Onshore Pipeline Projects
Appendix 3.4.5 Project Cost Estimate and
Contingency
4. Dealing with Risks in Pipeline Projects
4.1 Analysis, Allocation and Mitigation of Risks

During all Phases of a Pipeline Project
4.2 Management of Constr uction Risks on Pipeline
Projects
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Appendix 4.2.1 Examples of Evaluation of Time

and Cost Impacts of Full Stoppages or of
Slowdowns
5. Planning and Design
5.1 Right of Way & Constr uctability Guidelines
5.2 Minimum Data Requirements and Activities for

the Five Typical Project Stages
Appendix 5.1.1 Pipeline Route Selection Process
Appendix 5.1.2 Google Earth in Pipeline Design

and Route Selection
6. Earthworks
6.1 Typical ROW Cross Sections for Large

Diameter Pipeline
6.2 Earthworks Design Trenching
6.3 Environment
6.4 Health and Safety
6.5 Onshore Pipeline Survey Requirements by

Project Phase
6.6 Site Investigation Process
6.7 Non-Intr usive Survey Techniques
6.8 Buoyancy Contr ol
Appendix 6.2 Pipeline Trench Design
Appendix 6.3 Environment Contr ol Measures
Appendix 6.4 Health and Safety Contr ol Measures
7. Crossings
7.1 Trenchless Crossings
8. Logistics
8.1 Pipe Logistics Operations
8.2 Fuel logistics
9. Welding
9.1 Intr oduction
9.2 Governance over pipeline welding activities
9.3 Stakeholders in pipeline projects
9.4 Cross-countr y pipeline welding activities
9.5 Welding methods and processes
9.6 Typical weld imperfections and pipe mill defects
9.7 Field constr uction equipment
9.8 Welding safety hazards

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9.9 Engineering stages for pipeline welding
9.10 Mainline constr uction stages
9.11 New welding technologies
10. Non-Destr uctive Tests (NDT)
10.1 The background of inspection – public safety
10.2 Stakeholders in the pipeline project
10.3 The NDT toolbox
10.4 NDT during the FEL stage
10.5 NDT at the Material Supplier and Vendor

Inspection
10.6 NDT in the Field – Weld Inspection
10.7 Future developments
10.8 Concluding remarks
11. Pipeline Protection Systems
11.1 Review of Key Mainline External Anti-

Corrosion Coatings
11.2 Field Joint Anti-Corrosion Coatings Selection
Guide
11.3 Bends and Fitti ngs
11.4 Mechanical Protection Selection Guide
11.5 Internal Coating
11.6 Insulation
11.7 Buoyancy Contr ol Systems
11.8 Cathodic Protection
Appendix 11.1.1 Comparison of Mainline External

Anti-Corrosion Coatings
Appendix 11.1.2 Field Joint Coating Selection
Table
Appendix 11.1.4 Supplementary Mechanical
Protection Systems Selection Table
12. Pipelines & the Environment
12.1 Intr oduction
12.2 Environmental and Socio-economic Screening

and Scoping
12.3 Description Of The Project
12.4 Applicable Laws And Regulations
12.5 Description Of Alternatives
12.6 Description Of Baseline

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12.7 Consultation
12.8 Characteristics of potential Impacts and their
Extent
12.9 Environmental and Social Magagement and
Monitoring Plans
12.10 Transboundary Effe cts
12.11 Land easements and way leaves
12.12 Hazard And Risk Assessment
12.13 Consent Process
12.14 Preconstr uction
12.15 Constr uction
12.16 Hydro Testing And Reinstatement
12.17 Pipeline Operation
12.18 Decommissioning
Case Studies Constr uction Mitigation Measures
References
13. New Trends and Innovation
13.1 Functional Specifications for a Near-Real-Time

Constr uction Monitoring Tool
13.2 Conceptual Specifications for Building a
Pipeline Constr uction Simulation Tool
13.3 Equipment Tracking System
13.4 Google Earth in Constr uction Monitoring
13.5 Skidless Methodology
13.6 Machine Development
13.7 Near real time automatic data acquisition
13.8 Innovations in CO2 Pipeline Constr uction
Appendix 13.1.1 Conceptual Functional

Specifications for a GIS-based Near-Real-Time
Constr uction Monitoring Tool
Bibliography & Acknowledgements -
Glossary -
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3/28/2015 0. Iploca Objectives • Executive Summary • Preface - Road to Success - IPLOCA WIKI Collaboration Platform
0. Iploca Objectives • Executive Summary • Preface

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IPLOCA OBJECTIVES IPLOCA OBJECTIVES

Executive Summary
Objective 1 Preface
To promote, foster and develop the science and Joint Development of “THE ROAD TO SUCCESS”
practice of constructing onshore and offshore To whom this document is addressed
pipelines, and associated works. Objectives
Collaboration with Research Entities
Objective 2
To make membership of the Association a
reasonable assurance of the skill, integrity, performance, and good faith of its Members, and more generally to promote
good faith and professional ethics in industry.
Objective 3
To maintain the standards of the contracting business for onshore and offshore pipelines and associated works at the
highest professional level.
Objective 4
To promote safety and develop methods for the reduction and elimination of accidents and injuries to contractor’s
employees in the industry, and all those engaged in, or affected by, operations and work.
Objective 5
To promote protection of the environment and contribute to social, cultural and environmental development programs,
both in Switzerland and worldwide.
Objective 6
To promote good and co-operative relationships amongst membership of the Association as well as between
contractors, owners, operators, statutory and other organisations and the general public.
Objective 7
To encourage efficiency amongst the Members, Associate Members and their employees.
Objective 8
To seek correction of injurious, discriminatory or unfair business methods practised by or against the industry
contractors as a whole.
Objective 9
To follow the established Codes of Conduct set out by the industry and others with respect to working within a free and
competitive market, and in doing so, to promote competition in the interests of a market economy based on liberal
principle, both in Switzerland and worldwide.
Objective 10
To maintain and develop good relations with our Sister Associations as well as Associations allied to our industry and
play a leading role in the World Federation of Pipeline Industry Associations.
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Disclaimer
In the preparation of THE ROAD TO SUCCESS, every effort has been made to present current, correct and clearly
expressed information. However, the information in the text is intended to offer general information only and has neither
been conceived as nor drafted as information upon which any person, whether corporate or physical, is entitled to rely,
notably in connection with legally binding commitments. Neither its authors nor the persons mentioned herein nor the
companies mentioned herein nor IPLOCA accept any liability whatsoever in relation to the use of this publication in
whatsoever manner, including the information contained or otherwise referred to herein, nor for any errors or omissions
contained herein. Readers are directed to consult systematically with their professional advisors for advice concerning
specific matters before making any decision or undertaking any action.
Executive Summary
“ Onshore Pipelines: THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” was produced under the patronage of IPLOCA to describe state-of-
the-art project development and execution practices for onshore pipeline projects. It is the collaborative result from six
different working groups with the goal of covering all stages in the development of a pipeline project.
Section 1 Introduction
Pipeline issues and challenges.
Section 2 Development Phases of a Pipeline Project

Section 2 describes the key points to be addressed during the FEL (Front End Loading) phases in
order to properly prepare for the project execution phase.
Much of FEL is done well before a project is sanctioned and begins construction to ensure a
complete project assessment so as to fully understand the challenges and risks associated with a
proposed pipeline project. During this period, project investors and their design contractors typically
have due diligence obligation to themselves and their shareholders to achieve good FEL and
therefore control the work process and make the key project decisions. A detailed review of the
data requirements and activities during those phases is included.
Section 3 The Baseline of a Construction Contract

The next steps take place at the point of project sanction, where construction soon begins. A
baseline understanding of the project scope and its risks must be established when investors and
contractors enter into mutual agreement underlying a construction contract.
This section offers recommendations for establishing the baseline for the Project Execution phases
with four chapters: the Scope of Works, the Programme, the Cost and the Contract.
Section 4 Dealing with Risks in Pipeline Projects

After project sanction, irrespective of all the efforts to reduce challenges and risks through the FEL
phases, there will inevitably be other challenges and risks that arise. These may represent
disruptions and changes to the established project baseline, so any pipeline construction contract
must document how these residual risks will be addressed and managed.
Section 5 Best Practices in Planning and Design

Best practices are developed in this updated section for planning and design, with the process
leading to the definition of the ROW and the information to be gathered during the different phases
of a project.
The routing and design of a pipeline requires a disciplined and organised sequence of actions to
ensure that the most acceptable and optimised route avoiding as many hazards as possible has
been selected and that the system has been designed under acceptable standards to satisfy
fitness for purpose, environmental constraints and safety.
The Minimum Data Requirements and Activities for the Five Typical Project Stages introduced in
section 2 are defined in this chapter.
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Section 6 Earthworks
The terrain, soil types, and geohazards traversed by the pipeline are key factors to consider in the
design, construction, operation and maintenance of a pipeline project. Firstly, the terrain typically
affects pipeline hydraulics, above ground stations and pipeline protection. Secondly, soil types will
affect heat transfer, pipeline restraint, and constructability. Finally, geohazards often require special
design and construction considerations.
The Earthworks section offers guidelines on how to prepare the right of way (ROW) in different
types of terrain, on the earthworks design, on the recommended measures to reduce the impact on
the environment, and on the approach to health and safety.
Section 7 Crossings
This new section, to be further developed, is initiated with a description and comparison of the
different methods to execute major trenchless crossings.
Section 8 Logistics
The risks associated with the logistics of pipe such as handling, transport, coating and storage
begin this new section.
Section 9 Welding
Section 10 Non Destructive Testing

The section starts with a review of the main concerns of the different stakeholders of the pipeline
for completing the project. The second subject will be the role of codes and standards in the design
and building of pipelines. Finally the issues involved with NDT at the various stages of the project
are addressed:
The role of NDT in the FEL/FEED stages.
Vendor inspection and NDT at the material suppliers
Girth weld inspection during the construction stage
NDT during the use of the pipeline; considerations during the construction stage for future
maintenance
Section 11 Pipeline Protection Systems

Most of the installed and currently planned onshore transmission pipelines around the world are
steel pipelines and their integrity during all the manufacturing, handling, storage, installation and
service life stages is an important aspect of any pipeline project. As the external corrosion and the
mechanical impacts have been identified as the most common causes of pipe damage and failure
in onshore pipelines, industry’s efforts have been focused on addressing these issues in order to
avoid potential economic, environmental and human costs from pipeline failures. Therefore, this
document reviews the passive external anti-corrosion systems as well as the active cathodic
protection approach.
However, onshore pipeline projects can have other specific requirements. Supplementary
mechanical protection systems that protect the steel pipes and their coatings against damage from
external impacts are reviewed, along with internal coating systems and thermal insulation. The
floatability phenomenon has to be mitigated on onshore pipelines crossing wet environments, such
as lakes, rivers, or swampy areas and the industry has developed specialized buoyancy control
systems which are being presented here.
Section 12 Pipelines and the Environment
Section 13 Future Trends and Innovation

The onshore pipeline industry involves collaborative efforts between multiple stakeholders, each of
them having a key role to play at one stage or more during the project life cycle. Understanding the
involvement of each of these players is a vital step towards enhancing the operations on the
pipeline project in the areas of efficiency, quality, safety, and the environment.
The GIS-based construction monitoring tool, the pipeline simulation tool, the Equipment Tracking
System and the use of Google Earth in pipeline construction monitoring are presented as
components of a well-rounded Integrated Pipeline Construction Management (IPCM) System.
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Preface
"Onshore Pipelines – THE ROAD TO SUCCESS" has been prepared and written under the patronage of IPLOCA,
the International Pipeline and Offshore Contractors Association.
IPLOCA is a non profit association with the key objective of fostering and developing the science and practice of
constructing onshore and offshore pipelines and associated works.
IPLOCA also promotes co-operative relationships between contractors, oil & gas investors & owners and other
stakeholders in the pipeline industry and has established fruitful relations with some of the major oil & gas companies
since its inception in 1966.
This document relates to onshore pipeline projects only.
Joint Development of “T HE ROAD TO SUCCESS”

In 2003 a joint project started on a concept of industrialising the laying of large-diameter pipelines for better, safer and
faster installation. The land train concept was studied and a number of working groups were formed to identify the main
bottlenecks and fields of potential improvements. The land train concept, which only addressed the pipeline
construction aspects, was dropped in favour of a broader perspective that addresses all phases of the onshore pipeline
project from early development through design, construction and commissioning. The joint work continued and all
parties were very keen to develop the findings identified during the earlier phase; the result is summarised in the
present document “ Onshore Pipelines – THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” (herein after referred to as “ THE ROAD TO
SUCCESS” or ” THE ROAD” ).
The list of those companies and persons having participated in this joint effort is included in the Acknowledgements
section. It comprises persons coming from oil & gas investors & owners, design companies, construction contractors,
suppliers and specialised subcontractors. This joint approach aims at producing a document that can be used by all
stakeholders in the pipeline industry.
To whom this document is addressed

“ THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” has been prepared to assist all stakeholders who participate in the development and
construction of pipeline projects whether on a one-off or a regular basis, and in particular:
Investors/owners’ project managers, senior management and project engineers
Designers’ project managers, senior management and project engineers
Environmentalists who may be involved in pipeline projects
Construction contractors and subcontractors key construction personnel, Senior management and project
engineers -Students and teachers in the pipeline industry
It is IPLOCA’s sincere wish that THE ROAD TO SUCCESS will become a reference document for use in the training
of people coming to the pipeline industry.
Objectives
"THE ROAD TO SUCCESS" is prepared towards better identifying the key drivers in a pipeline project from
development to commissioning. This knowledge should in turn
Improve the preparation process of pipeline projects for mitigation of risks towards a more certain delivery date
and budget
Improve the relationship between investors/owners and construction contractors for the success of the projects
Improve the competitiveness of the pipeline industry through sound engineering & construction practices and
innovative solutions
"THE ROAD TO SUCCESS" is designed to focus on issues that concern specifically the onshore pipeline industry.
General contracting issues are dealt with in existing publications some of which are listed in the Bibliography section.
The intent is to provide the reader with the basic knowledge required to improve the delivery of a project,
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i.e. cost and schedule, whilst reducing the environmental footprint and achieving the desired safety objectives.
Collaboration with Research Entities

As referred to in the First Edition, IPLOCA has moved forward by signing a Memorandum of Understanding with APIA
(Australian Pipeline Industry Association), EPRG (European Pipeline Research Group) and PRCI (Pipeline Research
Council International) to jointly develop research projects related to our industry.
IPLOCA is proud of having served as a forum for such achievement and is committed to continue developing and
promoting this document and our pipeline industry.
This Second Edition is published in ring binder format to allow for more practical and environmentally friendly updating
of the book as the initiative progresses.
The Second Edition is also available on DVD.
IPLOCA is proud of having served as a forum for such achievement and is committed to continue developing and
promoting this document and our pipeline industry.
(c) September 2011 International Pipeline and Offshore Contractors Association [IPLOCA] All rights reserved.
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1. Introduction
Created by Henning Dresp, last modified by Mustafa Abusalah on Feb 17, 2015
Pipelines and IPLOCA Pipelines and IPLOCA

Pipeline Issues and Challenges
A pipeline is a facility through which liquids (crude oil and petroleum Key Principles
products), gases (natural gas, carbon dioxide, steam) or solids
THE ROAD TO SUCCESS
(slurries) are transported. Although other forms of transportation are
available (tanker, road, rail), pipelines are the safest and most efficient
means of transporting crude oil and natural gas from producing fields to
refineries and processing plants, and of distributing petroleum products and natural gas to the consumer.
Pipelines are the irreplaceable core of fluid product transportation across the world. They reach billions of consumers,
directly into households and cars. Pipelines are selected as the main mode of transportation due to economics and
safety. Road transportation costs escalate with distance, making road the most costly option. Rail is less dependent
on distance, but still costly. Ship tankers are comparable to pipelines in terms of cost, but are limited by geography.
Estimated percentages of volumes transported by each mode of transport are shown below.
Pipelines are not new. It is believed that pipelines were used from around 500 BC in China to transport gas. Since
then the design and construction development of pipelines has continued, and in recent years pipeline contractors and
investors from around the world have worked together within IPLOCA.
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IPLOCA was formed to share ideas, engage the industry and its stakeholders to facilitate business opportunities and
promote the highest standards in the pipeline industry. With members in more than 40 countries, IPLOCA represents
some 250 of the key players in the onshore and offshore pipeline construction industry worldwide.
Pipeline Issues and Challenges

International pipeline projects can be both challenging and rewarding. Challenges arise from the inherent interactions
between the land, the pipeline route, the communities which live and work nearby and the further complexities of
international languages, cultures, traditions, logistics, regulations, legal systems and business practices. The potential
for catastrophe is always lurking close at hand to catch the naïve or complacent investor and contractor off-guard.
However, when these challenges are successfully addressed, leaving a pipeline system with solid integrity and
performance as well as satisfied investors, contractors and communities, projects can be very rewarding, both in
financial terms as well as in the esteem accorded to all those involved.
It is not always clear to investors or contractors how to overcome the challenges to reap the rewards. They begin the
project journey together, often entering at different stages along the way, always with every intention of reaping the
rewards, but all too frequently without an awareness of the challenges they face. When a challenge is encountered,
temptation often overtakes the carefully-nurtured relationships and good intentions, leading either the investor or the
contractor to expect, even demand, that the other part take some action on behalf of the project to remove a challenge,
with little or no effort on their own part to address the very challenge they also face, being integrally involved in the very
same project. Unexpected challenges usually lead to misaligned expectations that damage the project and the intended
rewards for both parties.
This dynamic has not been lost on the industry, especially the contracting experts within it. Contracting legal and
commercial tools have developed to an ever-increasing sophistication, often attempting to commit one party or the
other to bear the full consequences of any challenge the project might encounter, invoking the inevitable defensive
reactions. Many explicit contract terms and conditions currently in use have been crafted in response to very specific
known challenges. But not all challenges can be predicted in advance so, as new challenges become more widely
understood within the industry, more and more terms and conditions are reactively developed to try to assign the
challenge to one party or the other.
Unfortunately, the projects which discover emerging challenges first, or are without benefit of prior experience, find
themselves contractually ill-equipped to address the issues that arise. Prevailing contracting law and practice
frequently falls back on obtuse and implied contractual obligations, leading to extended and often venomous disputes.
The relationship and interactions between investor and contractor quickly become almost entirely focused on the
dispute, leaving the project vulnerable to further challenges and disputes with the attendant loss of the rewards that
enticed both parties to enter the journey to begin with. A downward spiral of failure easily and frequently results. The
primary beneficiary is the litigation industry; everyone else loses. Various methods of conflict resolution or nearlitigation
have been developed and are sometimes employed, but they all share the fundamental flaw of dealing with conflicts
reactively.
Key Principles
There are three key principles that, if recognized and honoured, can prevent international pipeline projects from such a
sad fate:
1. Projects are only successful when they establish, nurture and protect close working relationships between
investors and contractors by jointly anticipating conflicts and preparing agreements and commercial terms that
enable predictable, effective and amicable resolution. Unresolved project conflicts during project execution
escalate and multiply rapidly as they damage the working relationships between investor and contractor and
distract the attention of the project team from other challenges to come.
2. It is far better to proactively avoid and reduce project challenges than to assign their resolution, even amicably,
to only one of the parties in a contract. Challenges add effort and cost, both of which inherently reduce the
rewards for all the parties involved. The earlier in the project cycle the challenges are recognized and addressed,
the more reward is preserved. Early data collection, design and planning during project development are
essential in this respect.
3. A contract is nothing more than a document recording an agreement between two or more parties. It is essential
to establish the mutual agreement before developing and executing the contract. Such an agreement for
international pipeline projects must include, inter alia, how each party will address the mutually identified project
challenges, both those known at the time and those as yet unknown. If an explicit and mutual agreement
between the parties does not exist in the first instance, any attempt by any party to use a contract document to
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force an action later is unrealistic, counterproductive, abusive, unprofessional, manipulative, aggressive and
rightfully interpreted as a prelude to (commercial) war.
THE ROAD TO SUCCESS

It is with these key principles in mind that working groups, drawn from IPLOCA member companies and a select group
of international oil companies, set out to create this guidance document called the THE ROAD TO SUCCESS. Our
combined experience has led us to recognize why we have struggled on some projects before, why many projects
have succeeded and what we need to do consistently to work together more effectively and succeed more often. It
describes how to anticipate and avoid challenges before beginning construction, how to conduct construction work to
minimize exposure to further challenges and, lastly, how to reach the mutual agreement necessary as the foundation
for a successful contract, addressing both known and as yet unknown challenges. It is our firm belief that the approach
outlined on THE ROAD TO SUCCESS will work anywhere in the world with any investor or contractor on any pipeline
project under any form of contract compensation.
THE ROAD TO SUCCESS is fairly simple in concept, but requires a degree of fair-minded and commercially mature
behaviours if travellers are to complete the journey. The junctions on THE ROAD simply are:
1. Properly develop the project before beginning construction with, inter alia, adequate engineering performed by a
multi-skilled team including construction and environmental input.
2. Establish a clear baseline for the project in the construction contracts, including the scope, the risks and the
plans for responding to those risks.
3. Plan for all the risks involved with international business, but especially for those that are unique to pipeline
projects but common within our industry.
4. Develop contract agreements, terms and conditions to predefine responses, responsibilities and commercial
adjustments, ready to respond to unanticipated project challenges or events.
5. Implement best practices in Planning and Construction Techniques and evaluate merits of future trends and
innovative solutions.
» Continue with 2. Development Phases of a Pipeline Project

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2. Development Phases of a Pipeline Project

Created by Guy Henley, last modified by Mustafa Abusalah on Feb 17, 2015
Pipeline projects are usually completed in five stages:

Three front-end loading (FEL) stages for business planning, facility planning and project planning
Project execution stage
Start-up and operations stage.
THE ROAD TO SUCCESS covers the three FEL phases and the project execution phase.
The diagram below highlights a staged-gated project system and should be reviewed in conjunction with the minimum
data requirements and activities for each FEL phase described in section 5.2.
It is imperative that the foundations of any project are sound: front-end loading (particularly FEL 1 and FEL 2) forms a
key part in providing the necessary framework and structure for a successful project.
Active Participants
Active participants through the lifecycle of the project have been highlighted above.
» Continue with 2.1 Front-End Loading (FEL) Phases

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2.1 FrontEnd Loading (FEL) Phases

Created by Henning Dresp, last modified by Mustafa Abusalah on Feb 17, 2015
Some of the key considerations that need to be defined during the three
FEL phases include: 2.1.1 Business Planning FEL 1
2.1.2 Facility Planning FEL 2
Product 2.1.3 Project Planning FEL 3
availability
Applicable codes Design Stations (compressor, pump)

and standards temperature
Above ground installations
Product quality Design capacity (valve stations, pigging
stations, metering stations, off
take stations)
Risk of natural Pipe OD SCADA/telecoms

hazards
and human
threats
Pipeline route Pipe wall Maintenance and

and its right thickness inspection requirements
of way corridor
Topographic and Inspection

geotechnical requirements
data
Materials Pigging
(linepipe, valves, devices/integrity
tees, flanges, assessment
traps)
Corrosion Protection Inspection philosophy

allowance requirements
(trench depth)
Corrosion Expansion Schedule

coating, field mitigation
joint coating
Cathodic Isolation valve

protection spacing
Insulation Crossings Cost estimates

design
Operational Overpressure Construction methodology

philosophy protection
(hydrates, (surge Camps
waxing, protection, Clearing and grading
asphaltenes) linepack) Material logistics
Ditching
Welding
Pipe bending
Field coating
Backfilling
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Hydrotesting
Final grading
Design life Leak detection Pipeline operations
Design pressure Metering

requirements
2.1.1 Business Planning FEL 1

Before starting a project, the pipeline owner/investor (the body funding the project) must prove the economic viability
and need for the project i.e. will the project produce the required revenues and profit? This phase captures the
reasoning behind initiating the project and can take considerable time to prepare.
FEL 1 includes:
Business case
Strategic objectives
Economic analysis
Project expectations
Market analysis
Competitors review
Environmental constraints
2.1.2 Facility Planning FEL 2

The purpose of FEL 2 facility planning (sometimes referred to as feasibility, preliminary, or pre-FEED), is to ensure the
selection of an optimum solution and put some details behind the project. Here we can confirm the physical viability
and anticipated cost of a project before any unnecessary time and energy is wasted. This stage of the plan can take
from 2-6 months depending on project complexity.
FEL 2 facility planning includes the review of:
Environmental and social issues
Routing
Pipeline dimensions (OD, WT, length)
In-line facilities (pumps/compressor stations)
Regulatory and governmental requirements
Preliminary schedules
Led by the owner, developer or an appointed and experienced engineering contractor, these issues are performed by a
joint team and should include a range of technical, engineering, environmental, social and legal specialists. The level of
cost estimate at this point is typically +/-30%.
2.1.3 Project Planning FEL 3

Project planning or the FEED phase looks to develop the approved selected solution by narrowing the cost estimate to
+/-15% and achieving a higher level of development schedule. At this point any project showstoppers would have been
identified as part of the environmental and social impact assessment process and suitable mitigation measures agreed
with the relevant stakeholders (as part of the project consent). It is only when consent has been granted that project
sanction takes place and particularly since it is then possible to place material orders for long lead items (LLIs) at this
stage so as to meet the development schedule. Project planning could take from 6-12 months depending on the
complexity of project and the environment through which it is routed. If the pipeline has not managed to avoid sensitive
environments, timescales for the FEL process can be extended by many months whilst detailed ecological or cultural
studies are performed
In comparison with plant projects, the cost of FEL developments for a pipeline project are typically lower, except for
possibly international cross-border pipelines or complex systems such as high temperature pipelines (design
temperature > 70ºC), high pressure pipelines (design pressure > 200 bars), or fast track projects.
However, whilst the cost of the development activity is lower, it is still significant and often underestimated. Pipeline
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project facility planning (FEL 2) for example can range from one third to three quarters of the activity associated with
plant developments. However, the time taken can in certain circumstances be longer.
» Continue with 2.2 Key points to address during FEL

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2.2 Key points to address during FEL

Created by Henning Dresp, last modified by Mustafa Abusalah on Nov 20, 2014
For many project teams the development of a pipeline may

be a once-in-a-career event so experience brought to the Contingency Progression Per Project Phase
development may be limited. This often results in the Conclusion
required technology and development processes for pipelines
being underestimated by the new developer with the design
and plan far exceeding that expected, especially considering the management and approval processes which take time
and effort to put into place.
Directed by the inexperienced, a new development can be guided down the wrong path, which can lead to
disappointing results, such as extended schedules, increased costs and an unfit-for-design installation.
In order to limit disappointing results the following key points should be addressed:
Hire fully-qualified multi-skilled engineering resources with relevant experience
Design basis, operational and HSES philosophies are in place to fully define the safety, performance and
operation requirements of the completed installation
Ensure adequate data is available for engineering (design conditions data, social and environmental data,
geotechnical and topographical data)
Provision of pipeline technical designs to ensure clear and concise installation and that construction
specifications and drawings can be produced
The key issues to be addressed will depend on the project type, size, length, location, terrain and whether it is inter-
country. This will include a review of land-take, biodiversity, heritage, pollution control, agricultural disruption, traffic
management, loss of remoteness, communicable diseases, employment and trade opportunities.
Besides, no matter the type and size of the project, it is essential for investors/owners to develop their project
execution planning from the early phases of the front-end loading. Too often this task is left to the construction
contractor at the beginning of the project execution phase or during FEL 3 in case of EPC projects. Whilst the
establishment of a very exhaustive and detailed project execution planning by the contractor is essential at that time
(refer to section 3.2 and Appendix 3.2.1), the investors/owners should initiate it to control in a disciplined manner the
progress of the project development. This should include contracting strategy; team participants and roles; integrated
programmes with critical path activities and items; plans for health and safety; environment and quality; controls; costs
and schedules.
It is also important to remember that a pipeline project is a multi-discipline (joint team) effort involving pipeline
engineers, metallurgy, process, control systems, electrical, piping, civil, mechanical as well as social, cultural and
environmental specialists. Besides the pipeline design, other activities include SCADA and Telecoms, power supply,
inline facilities such as valve stations, metering stations, scraper trap station design, rotating equipment selection and
specifications.
All the activities in FEL phases 1, 2 and 3 are key to attain a good foundation for the project. It will nothelp the
schedule if a better development option has been found in FEL 3, because it will include retracing back to FEL 2. This
is not an unusual occurrence resulting from a poor study/feasibility phase. A good study phase needs an open forum for
ideas where all ideas are equally considered, however outlandish.
All areas in business planning are key. It is important that an engineer with broad experience is involved in this phase,
who could highlight key driver issues, such as environmental, social, pipe parameters (OD, length), in-line facilities and
cost metrics.
For the facility planning phase, there should be some joint environmental and construction expertise input, particularly
in developing the construction schedules. Environmental restrictions can play a major part on the length of the
schedule, or the number of construction spreads required to meet a particular schedule. This is also the phase when
health and safety requirements to achieve the “zero accident and no harm to persons” will be taken on board and further
developed in the project planning phase to be fully in place for the construction and operation phases.
For project planning, a whole range of issues and experts will need to be consulted, so as to address the potential key
issues described above and also detailed in section 5.2.
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The diagrams hereafter illustrate the fact that the front-end loading phases of the project are where the
owners/investors have the most influence and impact on the project with the least cost and expenditures. Key
decisions left to later in project lifecycle come with a penalty of high cost, with little influence to change the outcome.
Fig. 1 – Influence and expenditure profiles over tim

Fig. 1 indicates that at the early phases of the FEL process whilst expenditure is low, big decisions are made. “Where
will the pipeline go? Will we build a pipeline or use ships?” The ability to influence the form of the project is high. It is
thus essential at this stage that the investor and the engineer work closely and consider the value added outcomes of
all potential solutions. For this to be effective, experience is essential.
As the project moves to the next FEL stage the major project decisions have been made but critical parameters are yet
to be fully addressed. The ability to influence the project is still high. It is therefore fundamental at this stage to gain
more understanding of the route and of the system design. The system design will define the pressures, flows, pipe
diameters and pump or compressor station requirements. However the main drive is to gain more knowledge of the
route options and to remove uncertainty. Key factors for review are generally the pipeline profile, soil conditions and
potential environmental and social constraints. As the expenditures are still low constraints such as unstable terrain or
environmentallysensitive areas can be coped with by major re-routeing without disruption.
The influence and expenditure graph shows how progression through the project phases results in a lower ability to
influence the design. On a pipeline this is truer than with a plant development. The influence line drops off faster
through FEL 3. However the expenditure on a pipeline even at this stage is low in comparison with plant developments.
It is therefore essential to ensure experience and knowledge is used effectively at these early stages of the work.
During FEL 3 it is likely that commitments will be made to authorities and land owners, the form of the project is almost
fixed.
Contingency Progression Per Project Phase
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Fig. 2 The balance of contingency and estimated cost changes through the 5 project stages
As with most standard estimating methods, the early stages of the project are called “screening estimates” or
“conceptual estimates”. In these early stages of the project things remain undefined and a large contingency is required
to cover the expected but unknown aspects of the design.
In pipeline terms the knowledge of soils and land issues as well as an optimised system design has not been
completed. The routeing is based on maps or images and the sizing based on norms and simplistic assessments. The
project estimate “baseline” at this stage is therefore made up of the estimated price and an almost equal level of
contingency. At this stage of the project this is not a real problem for the investor as he is looking to provide data that
provides him with comparisons with other potential developments and to see if his expected returns can be realised. It
should be realised that contingency is part of the estimate and is not discretionary or padding: it will be spent. Addition
of arbitrary contingency to cover the estimate shortfalls is thus not a tenable solution. What remains a problem at the
early stages of development is the project risk and how this will impact planning and quality or certainty of the baseline.
Contingency should not be confused with design allowances or development or with management reserves (see
Appendix 3.4.5 “Cost estimate of a pipeline project/contingencies”).
As the project leaves FEL2 the feasibility has been tested the routeing information has been improved and the sizing of
the system has been scoped and understood. The level of unknowns is lower and the contingency can be reduced.
Throughout the stages of the project the knowledge and certainty improve until the developer is confident enough to
sanction the full expenditure.
It can be seen that if the work is performed well the out-turn cost or “baseline cost” of the project remains the same and
contingency and unknowns are exchanged for certainty and knowledge. We are reducing project risk and becoming
more confident of the baseline estimate.
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Fig. 3 Reduction of project risks during the FEL and execution phases
Figure 3 illustrates that during the FEL phases the reduction of project risks is the most effective. It also shows how
the total process of FEL and execution fits together. Of course even at project handoversome operational residual risk
still exists although if the process has been followed correctly this should be minimised.
Conclusion
This section has stressed the importance of properly planning and executing the FEL 1, FEL 2 and FEL 3 phases
towards safely executing a quality construction works within the optimum cost and schedule. It requires the early
involvement of all experts under an integrated team during these phases covering the following topics:
Safety
Environment
Construction
Public relations
Operations
Pipeline design
Socio-economic factors
Security
Further information on the minimum data requirements and activities for each FEL phase is included in section 5.2.
At a certain point of the FEL 3 a baseline will be established for the purpose of agreeing the construction contract. This
is the subject of section 3.
» Continue with 3. The Baseline of a Construction Contract

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« Back to 2. Development Phases of a Pipeline Project
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3/28/2015 3. The Baseline of a Construction Contract - Road to Success - IPLOCA WIKI Collaboration Platform
3. The Baseline of a Construction Contract

Created by Guy Henley, last modified by Mustafa Abusalah on Nov 20, 2014
The recommendations below can be classified in four categories:

Detailed definition of the scope of works, of the physical conditions of the site of the environment and of the
socioeconomic and local constraints. This will define the baseline of the contract to be entered by the parties.
Establishment of a detailed project execution plan, including a fully resourced programme of the works described
in the baseline to monitor progress and promptly assess the time impact of changes to the project or to its
environment.
Recommended extent of the cost information to include in all the contracts may vary from just one of:
Cost plus
Bill of quantities
Activity schedule
Lump sum
or a combination of the above, to enable a prompt evaluation of the cost impacts of:
Changes to the project or to the environment of the project
Mitigation measures elaborated to reduce the adverse consequences of the above changes
The conditions of contract
In this section and the following section 4 , the owner/investor will be called the “client” being party to a contract
entered into with the “contractor”, the other party.
» Continue with 3.1 Defining the Scope of Work

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3.1 Defining the Scope of Work

The scope of works also

includes the physical 3.1.1 Scope and Physical Conditions
conditions of the site, of 3.1.2 Health and Safety, Environment, Socioeconomic and Local Constraints
the environment and of
the socioeconomic and
local constraints.
3.1.1 Scope and Physical Conditions

Definition of the pipeline route/right of way… (see also section 5.1.1)
The pipeline route and its impact on the environment will need to be considered, justified and approved by regulators,
the general public and land owners.
Hence, consultation is a key part of routeing. Key environmental and regulatory steps are illustrated overleaf.
The development of a pipeline route commences with the known start and end points, for example a gas field and a
LNG terminal. Sometimes the integration of the terminal location with the route which a pipeline can take will also be a
variable to consider.
Once the end points are determined, the routeing becomes an iterative process starting with the consideration of a wide
area of interest and several potential corridors. As major constraints and cost drivers are considered the investor/owner
and the engineering team begin the process of refinement. The chosen corridor which emerges is progressively
narrowed as the FEL process continues and as more data is available. At the end of FEL 3 the route is defined as the
final right of way (ROW).
Typically the route alignment steps are:
Multiple 10 km wide corridors between the two end points of the pipeline
10 km-wide corridor of interest
• Desktop routeing/satellite imagery
500 m-wide ‘preferred route corridor (large scale maps)
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Route using route maps with scale 1:50,000

100 m-wide ‘ specified corridor’ (more detailed maps)
Large/scale routeing: detailed routeing using 1:5,000 to 1:10,000 maps
20 to 40 m-wide ‘construction corridor’ (detailed routeing/preliminary surveys)
• Site reconnaissance; surveys; soils data; initial consultations with statutory authorities; preliminary alignment
sheets
8 m-wide ‘permanent corridor’ (ROW) (final surveys)
Special attention is to be paid to ROW sections which may not be fully available at the commencement of the works
due to land availability or environmental constraints. They should be clearly identified and become a programme
constraint similar to sections where flooding or snow prevents access part of the year. Anticipation of such situations
is more productive than facing the problems once the full spread(s) is in progress and suddenly stopped or disrupted.
Other land areas beyond the linear construction corridor of the pipeline are required for:
• Access routes to the right of way
• Designated areas for camp sites
• Waste disposal locations
• Pipe storage area
• Borrow pits
• Benching (on side slope)
• Additional working space adjacent to road, rail, water and special crossings (such as archaeological areas or
environmental constraints)
• Temporary nursery sites/translocation areas for storing turves, plant material or temporary removal of protected
species
• Compensation or accommodation works (agreed as part of the consent/easement)
• Temporary airstrips and helipads
• Temporary right of way for laying pipelines to water sources for the provision of water tests
These areas should be established and detailed as part of the FEL process.
Description of the geological assumptions together with an allowance for variations to be part of the baseline
Seismic and volcanic constraint
Crossing assumptions
Other special physical constraints resulting from environmentally sensitive areas, archaeological surveys etc.
Specific quality requirements for pipe and pipe protection such as:
• Land pipe requirements (metallurgy for steel pipes etc.)
• External mainline pipe coating, field joint coating and supplementary mechanical protection system (see
section 11)
Description of the extent of early works which are being carried out by others to provide, for instance, additional
accesses to the site, drainage works, ROW clearance, crop removal and of their expected completion dates
Description of additional site investigation or product testing (by whom) to conduct at the commencement of
works and to include in the baseline
Detailed description of the standards of reinstatement required
3.1.2 Health and Safety, Environment, Socioeconomic and Local Constraints

The HSES requirements are essential aspects of a project development. Historically, whilst pipelines provide a very
safe and environmentally friendly form of transportation, lost time incidents and other issues are still evident during
construction. HSES costs time and money to implement effectively and must be planned for in depth from the outset of
the development. Commercial pressures may develop to scale down costs at all levels of a project. Clients must
prevent any scope or cost reduction in the field of HSES and define clearly from the onset the detailed requirements as
described overleaf.
The environment and the socio-economic and local constraints should be clearly defined in the contract documents and
are generally contained in the social and environmental impact
Page 24 assessment. A summary of the commitments made as
part of the pipeline routeing and FEL stages 1, 2 and 3 should be included in the scope of works as part of the
construction contract and identified on the alignment sheets.
Detailed Health and Safety requirements in terms of organisation (detailed list of qualified personnel), provision
of facilities (training schools, hospitals, infirmaries etc.), training requirements and expected targets to achieve
plus allowance for additional resources to be part of the Baseline
Health provisions including working in contaminated land, dust inhalation, extremes of temperature and working
time restrictions
Transmission of pests, diseases and alien species (plant material), particularly when working in intensive
agricultural regions, or animal husbandry areas
Detailed environmental requirements (limitations on emissions, surface discharge, effluents, noise, waste
selection and treatment; special treatment fauna and flora; special measures near living areas etc.) and
allowance for potential additional requirements to be part of the baseline
Precise description of the weather assumptions to be part of the baseline together with the assumptions for
flooding, snow and storms, all of which have a significant influence on the programme of works and on the way
resources are mobilised
Detailed security measures envisaged in the context of the country where works will be carried out
Special attention to the socioeconomic environment including the extent of the required actions to be undertaken
by all parties (i.e. public meetings, brochures, media publications, TV programmes etc.) in this respect should be
well defined in a plan and part of the baseline with whatever allowance necessary to include. They should
include inter alia the requirements of the laws of the country, of any special agreement made at government
level or possibly of the financial institutions
Where applicable, description of the specific local constraints negotiated with the local governments or
administrations: they may cover employment conditions of labour and staff, working hours, restrictions on
employment of foreign labour and staff, procedures for permits and licences, custom procedures and
restrictions, definition of the laws and regulations to apply to the project, accommodation works agreed with the
local landowners or local administration organisations
Archaeology and protection of cultural sites of significance should be dealt with sensitively and in accordance
with the consent conditions and local laws and customs
It is the responsibility of the client and its technical advisors (engineers, land agents and environmental advisors) to
provide the contractor with a clear summary of the restrictions identified along the route of the pipeline and of the
commitments which have been agreed during FEL phases 1, 2 and 3.
» Continue with 3.2 Programming the Work

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3.2 Programming the Work

The detailed project execution plan established for the construction phase (see Appendix 3.2.1 for detailed
recommendations) of the works defined in the baseline will result in a fully resourced programme of works (manpower,
plant, material, facilities) as defined below.
A detailed March chart for all the linear activities combined with standard critical path method (CPM) programmes for
fixed installations (such as pump/compressor stations or valve stations) should constitute this resourced programme.
The March chart should incorporate all the details of the terrain (roads, railways, waterways, electrical power lines,
underground utilities), expected ground conditions, anticipated weather in relation to the seasons and geography
(mountains, low lands, arid zones, deserts, swamp areas), environmental constraints, local community constraints and
political constraints as defined in the baseline.
It is the recommended tool to assess correctly the complexities of a pipeline project, to evaluate the criticalities of the
programme of works, to follow up progress and promptly assess the impacts of disruptions, changed conditions and
stoppages as compared with the baseline (see Appendix 3.2.2 - A Primer to March Charts).
A typical sample is presented overleaf:
Extract from the March chart above:
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In order to arrive at an acceptable construction programme, the following should be established in detail:
The minimum mobilisation time necessary for the contractor and the client (the engineering team where
applicable) to assemble their teams, who will have to familiarise themselves with the project as a first step, then
plan in detail and mobilise resources. Considering the pressure to get the project in operation as early as
possible this preparation time can often be reduced to nearly nothing: this is certainly detrimental to achieving a
proper “kick-off” to the project. Indeed the teams who tendered a contract on the contractor’s side and the teams
who prepared and evaluated those tenders on the client’s side are not always the teams who will execute the
project. Therefore a minimum preparation period varying from a few weeks to a few months, depending on the
size and complexity of the project, in addition to the proposed construction programme, would certainly lead to a
smoother development of the operations (unless that preparation period has been included in the tendering
process as a step in the finalisation of the contract with the preferred tenderer)
The average rates of progress for the different activities I, II, III,…which are dependent on the terrain, the
ground conditions, the weather at the considered period of the year, the environmental constraints, the local
constraints and obviously the resources allocated
The minimum time lag between two activities, A0 (between activity I and II), B0, C0,… shown in the March
chart extract above, should also be clearly established taking into consideration:
• The contractor’s own constraints (learning curves, changing the teams of local labour when crossing different
regions, maintenance of equipment, breakdowns)
• The expected weather conditions at a given period of the year which may affect progress of one activity more
than one of the following activities (e.g. rain at PK 100, good weather at PK 80)
• The client’s constraints: the client may demand that allowances for minor stoppages should be incorporated
(and priced) in the base programme (e.g. 2 days per month to cater for design considerations, local disturbances,
shortage of some supplies etc.) or that there should be a limit to the distance of the various phases of the works
With such a tool the most critical sequences of works will always be highlighted and the effects of changes or
disruptions to the project on the programme of works can be promptly assessed.
Any areas where the contractor considers the information is incomplete or alternative routeing/construction/mitigation
measures should be considered should be clearly identified early in the construction programme to allow for
consultation with the client, their advisors, local landowners and stakeholders.
» Continue with 3.3 Contract Price Information to Facilitate Evaluation of Changes

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Appendix 3.2.1 Recommendations for Establishing

Project Execution Plan Construction Phase
3.2.1.1. Introduction
The project execution plan (PEP) is a

substantial portion of a pipeline project 3.2.1.1. Introduction
development. In this document the selected 3.2.1.2. Project Background or Baseline
contractor has to explain the way he plans to 3.2.1.3. Project Execution Organisation
execute the project describing in detail the 3.2.1.4. Key Personnel
assumptions and all the considerations taken 3.2.1.5. Indicative Content of the Project Execution Plan:
into account. 3.2.1.5.1 Engineering Execution Plan
A PEP is a tool that will help identify, during
3.2.1.5.2 Procurement Execution Plan
project development, all the strengths and 3.2.1.5.3 Administration and Finance Plan
weaknesses of the Plan which in the end will 3.2.1.5.4 Construction Execution Plan
serve to define risk mitigation actions. 3.2.1.5.5 Health & Safety Plan
3.2.1.5.6 Environmental Impact Plan
Through this document, the clients get a very 3.2.1.5.7 Project Planning and Control Plan
clear understanding of the extent of knowledge 3.2.1.5.8 Risk Analysis management plan
and evaluation done by the contractor, who 3.2.1.5.9 Quality Plan
shows his level of familiarity with all the 3.2.1.5.10 Community Relations Plan
characteristics of the project and the site.
3.2.1.5.11 Systems
3.2.1.2. Project Background or Baseline
This is a description of the findings that determine the baseline which will serve as a basis to define the project
execution strategy. In order to have a detailed baseline the PEP has to describe:
The applicable legislations of the country where the project is to be executed
The labour legislation and manpower availability
The evaluation made of suppliers and countries of origin for long lead items
The owner organisation for the project including evaluation of the financial capacity
The applicable and required technologies including others to be considered
The basic terms of contract and its deadlines
The project site including evaluation of historic weather conditions, registers and soil characteristics
The existing access facilities and transportation means in the area
The existing facilities to supply materials, tools and spare parts
The existing sources of food and available number of lodging facilities
The capacity of the existing fuel and grease facilities in the area
Customs import and export conditions for equipment and materials
Immigration conditions and language requirements to bring professionals and skilled HHRR
Health and safety requirements
Existing communication facilities
3.2.1.3. Project Execution Organisation
In this section the contractor project management team will define the organisation chart that will be used to execute
the project. It is very important to identify the name of the key personnel early on and make sure of their availability and
commitment to remain in the project from the beginning of the project needs until the end of their assignment.
Special attention should also be given to the organisation chart that the client intends to set up for project follow-up and
their location in the area. This is essential to maintain good communication at all project levels.
The organisation chart should also depict the interface with the headquarters and define the contractor’s
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representatives assigned to the project in case of joint ventures.

Each of the following activities should be covered:
a) Engineering:
with clear definition of the group leaders, consultants and subcontractors.
b) Main Supplies and Subcontract:
special attention should be given to include the group which will execute the following activities:
Procurement of long lead items
Lease or purchase of construction equipment
Supplied materials
Consumables
Inspections at the supplier’s facilities
Follow up and handling
Import/export of all needed elements
Customs clearance
Transportation logistics
Material management
c) Construction
The construction organisation should define the structure - up to supervisory level - for all phases of the project. It
should identify the number of crews being planned for all the different segments of the project (i.e. pump stations,
pipeline, terminals, tank farms, SCADA etc.).
e) Project Administration and Finance
A list of the accountants, treasurers, human resources people and other related tasks required should be detailed in this
area.
f) Logistics
This area includes camps, transports, supplies, fuel distribution, warehouses and communication systems amongst
others. In many remote pipeline projects this is a very critical activity that should be very well planned and detailed
g) Project Control
This group is in charge of the cost reports and progress payment reports. Many projects also include progress control
and planning in this group
h) Equipment administration and maintenance
The planned resources for line maintenance, repair shops, crew assistance etc. should be listed here based on the
construction equipment to be used and the weather conditions.
i ) QA/QC
A brief description of the quality assurance and control (QA/QC) programme and the resources to be deployed should
be given in the section.
j ) HSE
A brief description of the HSE program and the resources to be deployed should be given in the section where the
requirements of the environmental impact study and the environmental management plan should be taken into account.
k) Technical Support
This is an office set up to act as an interface between the engineering group and the construction people. It prepares
work procedures to execute the activities in full compliance with the technical requirements, the HSE and QA/QC
provisions of the contract. This group of people also produces sketches and detailed as-built surveys during
construction.
l) Contract Administration
This group includes all needed resources to keep contractual communication with the client’s representatives, evaluate
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contract interferences, estimate scope changes

m) Communications and systems
A group of technicians to assist the systems needs of the project should be considered and detailed in the chart.
3.2.1.4. Key Personnel
The curriculum vitae of this group of people should be part of the PEP so as to provide a detailed qualification of the
proposed leaders of the project execution.
3.2.1.5. Indicative Content of the Project Execution Plan:
3.2.1.5.1 Engineering Execution Plan
The engineering manager will define here his plans to:

Execute this task describing the subcontractors, consultants and advisors he is planning to use.
Set up the software and hardware tools needed for his group.
Identify the critical aspects and his plans to keep them under control.
Interface with other actors of the project like suppliers, owner representatives, construction people and the
community.
Control the progress made in his area including the list of data sheets, drawings and specifications.
Execute his activities under a CPM program depicting all the interfaces of his area with others.
Assist the procurement group to place supply agreements for long lead items in full alignment with the warranty
and design conditions of the contract.
Test and commission all the facilities of the installation including HAZOP activities and design SCADA.
3.2.1.5.2 Procurement Execution Plan
The procurement manager defines here the methodology he plans to follow to supply the project with all materials and
equipment.
His plan should consider,
Procurement of long lead items (defining also the warranty period)
Lease or purchase of construction equipment
Special tools and materials
Supplied materials and spare parts
Spare parts for construction equipment
Consumables
Inspections at the supplier’s facilities
Follow up and handling
Import/export of all required elements
Customs clearance
Transportation logistics
Temporary housing
Food and lodging subcontracts
Pipeyards and warehouses
Material management system definition and set up
Follow up information to be given to the client
3.2.1.5.3 Administr ation and Finance Plan
Here the administration and finance manager defines how he plans to keep a register of all the costs and revenues of
the project, the accounting system and the information that he will be able to produce. In joint ventures it is very
important to also define the agreement that will govern the parties. The location of the bank accounts and advisors
needed to carry out the activities in full compliance with the local law should be detailed as well. The financing lines,
the cash flow and the insurance coverage for the project should be detailed in this paragraph. Type of guaranties to be
issued for contract purposes should also be clearly defined to avoid last-minute inconveniences.
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3.2.1.5.4 Constr uction Execution Plan
The construction manager describes here the most important aspects of the project and the construction techniques he
is planning to put in place. A split of activities is recommended in order to better describe each crew scope and
required resources with an indication of the production expected for each one. It is extremely important to issue a
velocity chart, also called a March chart as described in section 3.2 and in Appendix 3.2.2. This chart allows the client
to better understand the position planned for each crew at each moment with details of the expected progress. The
access plans and transportation requirements should be considered for each portion of the project. The camps’ strategy
and food preparation and distribution must be detailed including the subcontractors’ and owner’s representatives’ needs.
For each crew, it is recommended to prepare:
List of personnel
List of equipment
Services and subcontracts needed
Scope of their work
List of challenges and plans to control them
Timing
Special methods or requirements
Procedures needed.
3.2.1.5.5 Health & Safety Plan
The health and safety manager for the project in coordination with the corporate HSE manager will adapt the corporate
health and safety plan to the project needs and will describe his execution plan to induce all the HHRR involved in the
project to a unified and leveled project plan. The target statistic figures for the project should be established here.
Special attention has to be given to the existence of epidemics and generally to the health conditions of the site. The
existence and location of first aid and hospital facilities should be carefully planned in order to give full coverage to all
the project workers and also protect the community. It is very important to identify the number of H&S specialists that
will act on each section of the project as well as the first aid facilities. Special attention should be given to all specific
procedures needed, such as emergency evacuation, as described in the contract.
3.2.1.5.6 Environmental Impact Plan
The management plan to mitigate the environment impact of the project has to be described here by the environment
manager in coordination with the corporate HSE manager. The environment impact study (EIS) for the project should
be approved by the financial entities and/or the client before the project site construction activities get started. These
entities have to make sure that the EIS has been duly discussed at all stages with the government and that the most
important NGOs of the area have been consulted with so that everybody knows what is being planned in order to
reduce the risk of last-minute disagreements and misunderstandings, detrimental to the project. The execution plan
needs to define here all the mitigation plans to be used in the construction procedures to install the facilities and the
restoration works, indicating also which are part of the contract and those other that should be instructed by the owner.
This part of the PEP is essential in order to give clear definition of the scope of work and the construction methods that
have been planned to execute the project. All last-minute requirements for environmental protection measures demand
a lot of resources that may challenge the smooth execution of the project if not planned in advance.
3.2.1.5.7 Project Planning and Contr ol Plan
This is another substantial part of the PEP since it defines the way resources have been planned to get the progress of
all phases of the project needed to reach the milestone dates. The project resourced programme should cover the entire
project scope and also include sufficient detail to reflect the PEP. It is a document that ties together all elements of the
PEP and provides the key basis to accurately evaluate the cost estimate. Additionally, all bill of quantities are shown
here in order to give a clear idea of the amount of work that has been considered for each portion of the work. This
information will be essential to provide the baseline to discuss impact of scope changes, interferences, weather
restrictions and influence along with other disruptions like stoppages or suspensions of the project activities.
The main tools to control the project execution are the March chart and CPM resourced programmes combined with the
near-real-time project control system, as described in detail in section 13.1. This plan has to list all the information that
will be produced to track the project progress and costs to be reported on a regular basis as required by the contract.
Milestones should be defined in order to provide a tool that will help to track completion of certain activities that
otherwise could be 99% complete and would remain there since
Page 32 the last 1% generally takes tremendous time and effort
to get completed. This is essential to give some warning signs to the project team. Therefore, it is extremely important
to chose project milestones that identify completion of key activities. One important element to control progress is the
weighted “S” curve which is developed giving the percentage participation in the cost of the activity as estimated in the
cost estimate to weight the percentage of physical progress.
3.2.1.5.8 Risk Analysis management plan
The project team should get together to list and evaluate all project risks identified during the project study. The entire
life cycle and scope of the project including the social aspects should be analyzed to identify the potential risks of the
project. These risks have to be classified as operational, financial, legal, contractual, climatic, community, inland
security risks, etc. It is also important to identify which are associated with internal factors which could be under the
project team’s control and those due to external factors that are out of the project team’s control.
A probability level has to be given to each risk and also the gravity of it occurrence should also be valued in order to
set up a matrix (probability/gravity) that will allow the project team to properly weight the risks in order to develop a
mitigation plan for each risk.
3.2.1.5.9 Quality Plan
The QA/QC manager has to develop a quality plan for the PEP, based on the corporate quality Plan and the contractual
conditions under the supervision of the corporate QA/QC manager. This plan has to identify the practices and the
sequence of activities linked to the specific quality of the project. The plan has to define which processes are going to
be controlled and also include the applicable procedures to be used as part of the quality plan. It very important to
define the content and format of the information that will be included in the regular report to be issued by the QA/QC
Manager to track the progress of the non-compliance reports (NCR) and the actions taken to fix these NCR, which
otherwise could turn out to be an important barrier for project completion if not followed properly.
3.2.1.5.10 Community Relations Plan
Many pipeline projects face severe difficulties, delays and costs overruns due to disruptions created by the approach
taken towards the communities. Many pipeline projects are executed in remote areas where the local people are
unfamiliar with large machinery. When they are suddenly exposed to much new equipment and people in their territory,
uneasiness and opposition to the newcomers may build up quickly. In order to prevent difficulties it is extremely
important to develop a community relations plan in coordination with the local authorities, the client and the contractor.
The client regularly takes this risky item in his hands but this plan has to be followed up and supported by the
contractor’s own forces.
Participation in all open meetings with the communities to explain the way the project will be executed is essential, as
is the appointment of community relations team to keep a close contact with the local people. Both need to be clearly
described in the PEP. The local regulations and common practices followed by other projects in the area are also
extremely important to define the community relations plan. In this regard the PEP should also establish the rules for
hiring local labour and the expectations regarding the involvement of local suppliers and subcontractors.
3.2.1.5.11 Systems
The systems manager has to define the strategy to link all the project camps with the project offices and the
headquarters, including also the owner’s representative offices. He will also identify (in coordination with the leaders of
each project activities) the type of software that will be used for engineering, material, procurement, accounting and
control. The technical support will also be identified in order to give a clear understanding of the systems plan that is
being considered to execute the project. It is extremely important to make sure that all systems to be used in the
project will be able to interact with systems used by the client, the suppliers, the subcontractors and the consultants
that are being part of the process. This seems to be simple but, if it is not well defined at the beginning it could trigger a
lot of delays in the project execution. Should the operational organisation of the client (other than the construction
organisation) require all the project build to be done in a certain software that has not been used to do all the
engineering, the risk of errors and loss of information and data would be very high. Therefore, it is essential to analyze
all the project scope, the contractual requirements and the full life cycle to define systems.
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» Continue with Appendix 3.2.2 - A Primer to March Charts

« Back to 3.4 Considerations in Developing the Conditions of Contract
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Appendix 3.2.2 A Primer to March Charts

Introduction
Traditional scheduling software for the construction industry is
dominated by Primavera, Microsoft Project, Power Project and others. Introduction
All of these solutions provide opportunities to develop a series of 3.2.2.1 The Basics
activities that are logically connected in a sequence from project start to 3.2.2.2 Constructability Issues
finish. While these tools are very powerful, they are better designed for 3.2.2.3 Other Features
the construction of buildings and other facilities (power generating
stations, refineries, etc.) and are not adequate for the constructability
issues and demands of building linear project such as pipelines, rail
systems or roadways. A linear project is defined as a series of crews moving in sequence along a ROW (right-of-way)
during construction.
March charts (also known as Time-Distance charts) have been widely used in linear projects, particularly in Europe and
the U.K. This methodology is newer to the Americas, but is rapidly gaining widespread acceptance. March charts are
often hand drawn, prepared in Microsoft Excel or in a drawing program such as AutoCAD. Linear planning and
scheduling software that automates development of the plan and progressing is relatively recent (approximately the last
15 years). Key advantages of March charts are that the schedule is connected to the ROW geography and any
constructability issues that are important to the project. The intent of this “Primer to March Charts” is to provide an
overview of how to interpret and use March charts with an emphasis on using a selection of the linear planning
software tools that are currently available. A list of software is provided at the end of this appendix.
3.2.2.1 The Basics
Differences between Gantt and March charts

Gantt charts are familiar to anyone who has planned and scheduled a project. The planner creates a series of activities
based on the project execution plan and then logically connects these activities (Finish-Start, Start-Start, Finish-Finish
and Start-Finish). Resources can be added to each activity schedule and resource loading can be easily displayed. In
order to maintain crew sequencing in a pipeline project, the planner ensures that each activity is connected to its
successor by a Start-Start and a Finish-Finish relationship. A typical Gantt chart for a pipeline job is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Traditional Gantt Chart

This Gantt charts clearly shows each activity with its start and end date. Any progress is shown on the Gantt chart as
the percent completed for each task. The problem with a traditional Gantt chart is that reporting that a bending crew is
45 % complete is quite meaningless because these traditional tools assume that progress is from start to finish and no
connection exists between progress and the geography of the ROW. The ability to include crew moves, permitting
delays, environmental restrictions and other construction issues is simply not possible.
A March chart on the other hand displays the same crews as a series of lines moving along the ROW. Each crew is
logically connected to its successor with Start-Start and/or Finish-Finish relationships. Completed sections are easily
identified with crew moves, crossings and environmental windows visible on the March chart. Using the same
example, a March chart will clearly display which 45% of the ROW has been completed by the bending crew and how
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any moves or ROW access issues have impacted the progress.

A typical March chart (Fig. 2) in its most basic form shows each crew represented by a different line type. Usually
distance along the ROW is horizontal and increases from the left to the right. Time is typically represented vertically,
increasing from bottom to top (although it can just as easily be shown increasing top to bottom). It should be noted that
the orientation of the time and distance axes is a matter of personal preference and can easily be switched in the
software. The advantage of March charts is immediately obvious as you can determine the location of each crew at
any particular point in time. Any issues associated with crew productivity rates are also readily apparent. For example,
the red arrow in Fig. 3 indicates that based on the productivity of each crew, the lower-in crew will overtake the ditching
crew between KP 25+000 and 30+000, which was not obvious in the Gantt chart view (Fig. 1).
Furthermore, in March charts the slope of the activity indicates the relative productivity rate for the crew. The steeper
the slope, the slower the crew is moving (because more time is spent and less distance is completed).
Fig. 2 Simple March Chart

Non-work periods such as scheduled days off or work stoppages appear as vertical segments on the crew line. A
vertical line indicates that time is passing but the crew is not moving. Fig. 3 shows an example where the grade crew
is moving slower (468 m/day) than the haul and string crew (600m/day) with each crew working a 6 day 10h shift
rotation. The green bars across the March chart and the short vertical jumps in each crew indicate the day off each
week. This March chart shows that grading has to start 18 days ahead of hauling and stringing in order to keep these
crews from overlapping. The productivity rates that are displayed are calculated automatically by the March chart
software based on duration and length of each task.
For clarity and ease of explanation, all of the following examples in this guide will show only a few representative
pipeline crews. Typically, each crew is assigned to a different layer of the March chart so that the planner can display
one or many crews simultaneously, by activating the corresponding layers.
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Fig. 3 Productivity Rates and Slope
3.2.2.2 Constructability Issues
With a basic understanding of these March chart elements, a March chart can be further enhanced to display any other
critical element of your project. These can include the ROW profile, crossings, environmental restrictions and land
acquisitions. Other elements such as vegetation type, soil type and rainfall data can also be included on the March
chart. The amount and type of information shown on a March chart is determined by the project team.
ROW Profile
The ROW profile is important in developing the hydro-test plan and to determine productivity rate changes based on
elevation (discussed later in the speed profiles section). Most profile data (LIDAR or survey) is available in a
spreadsheet format and can be easily imported into a profile diagram using the import function of the march chart
software to generate the ROW profile as seen below in Fig. 4.
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Fig. 4 Elevation Profile and Restricted ROW Access

Restricted ROW access
Construction of pipelines may be hampered by periods when certain parts of the ROW are not accessible. This would
include environmental windows for wildlife and rare plants, permitting issues or ROW acquisition delays.
Restricted access periods are easily represented graphically on March charts by rectangular shapes as shown in Fig.
5. Once the impact of a restriction has been evaluated, it may be necessary to modify the work plan to avoid working
in restricted areas. This can be done by splitting the crews so that work which is impacted by restricted areas will be
completed at a later date once the restriction period is over. Fig. 5 illustrates a move for both the grade and string crew
to avoid a restricted area. In this example, both crews skip the restricted area (a 1 day lag is included to allow for
move) and continue to the end of the ROW at 30+000. Once this work is finished, and the environmental restriction has
expired, both crews move back to the restricted area and complete it in a reverse lay. The red dashed lines indicate the
logical links between each crew segment.
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Fig. 5 Restricted Access Showing Move Around

Crossings
Once the environmental or land restrictions have been established on a March chart, the next step is to identify
crossings. Crossing types can include foreign utilities, roads, rail or water and are important features to locate on
March chart. The method of crossing will be dependent upon the type of crossing. Water crossings usually require an
open cut (if permissible under the environmental guidelines) or will use a HDD (Horizontal Directional Drill). Most roads
and rail crossings use some type of bore method while foreign utilities are exposed using a hydrovac. Each type of
crossing can be colour-coded on the March chart for quick and easy identification.
Fig. 6 shows a highway (at KP 1+793) shown in grey and a blue river crossing (KP 29+690) on the March chart.
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Fig. 6 Road and River Crossings

Stockpile locations and Valve Sites
Virtually any information that is considered important can be inserted into the March chart. The following example (Fig.
7) shows the stockpile location (KP 26+102) and the supply zone for this pipe (KP 0+000 to KP 29+655). It is
interesting to note that non-linear structured tasks (such as mainline block valves) can also be shown on a March
chart. The two valves shown in Fig. 7 are represented by a series of rectangular shapes indicating different stages of
installation from civil to mechanical to instrumentation and telemetry. Other non-linear features that can be added to a
March chart would include hot bends (with delivery dates) and detailed HDD activities. Pump stations can also be
represented as rectangular activities that can be progressed as well. In this regard, a March chart is able to represent
both linear and non-linear components, providing an overview of the entire project.
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Fig. 7 Stockpile Sites and Valve Locations

Weather Risk
Risk related to weather events such as precipitation levels or temperature, are easily evaluated by overlaying
meteorological data on the March chart. In Fig. 8, the different shades of blue represent average monthly rainfall
amounts. The heaviest rainfalls occur in the lower right of the March chart, represented by a darker blue. In this
example, the planner has avoided working in this area during high rainfall thus reducing the risk of heavy rain impacting
construction.
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Fig. 8 March chart showing monthly average rainfall data.
3.2.2.3 Other Features
Spend Profiles and resource histograms

Spend profiles and resource histograms are simple to create once costs are added to the labour, equipment and
materials used in the March chart.
Fig. 9 illustrates an example where the weekly cost per crew and the total cumulative cost are presented in a
histogram and table. It is also possible to display the resource histogram per week (month or day) to determine camp
requirements. Spend profiles are a function of time and are therefore displayed parallel to the time axis of the March
chart. It is also possible to create a spend profile parallel to the distance axis showing the cost per section of the
pipeline. Any changes to the March chart (such as crew moves) automatically create a change to the spend profile.
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Fig. 9 Weekly Spend Profile (per crew with weekly and cumulative totals)
Applying work and speed Profiles to crews
Most estimates, schedules and March charts assume a consistent productivity (or work) rate for each pipeline crew
along the ROW. This productivity factor is then applied for the entire length of the spread to determine the duration of
each crew. Applying a constant productivity rate to a crew does not account for changes in profile, soil, terrain (muskeg
versus mineral soil conditions) or vegetation types. For example, a logging crew that has a productivity rate of 2000
m/day would require 15 days to complete a 30 km ROW. While this provides a rough estimate it doesn’t account for
productivity rates based on changes in vegetation types or whether there is logging required in certain areas (for
example an old burn area that does not have salvageable timber).
The following examples shown in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11, illustrate the difference when a vegetation classification system
is used to define the productivity rates for logging and clearing crews in a Northern pipeline spread. In this example the
vegetation data and productivity rates for both crews in a particular location were imported directly into the March chart
from an Excel data file supplied by a survey.
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Fig. 10 Logging and Clearing Crews with constant productivity

In Fig. 10, we can see that both crews have very similar productivity rates with a duration of 25 and 26 days
respectively for the logging and clearing crews.
The vegetation index in this example defines the amount of work (area in Ha) and work rate for each vegetation type
along the ROW. Once this data is known and available in a spreadsheet format, it is easy to apply this index to each
crew as shown in Fig. 11.
The first noticeable change is that the crews are not consistently progressing along the ROW. Each crew line now
reflects a different productivity rate with each change in vegetation type. More importantly we can see that the duration
for each crew has changed significantly.
Specifically, logging has decreased from 25 days to 16 days while the duration for clearing has increased from 26 days
to 40 days!
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Fig. 11 Logging and Clearing optimized by vegetation index

This approach could easily be used in any other geographic location where a known variable impacts on the work rate
of crews along a ROW. The ability to define productivity in terms of the ROW conditions will enable the creation of a
more accurate project plan and spend profile when compared to simply applying an uniform rate to each crew. Progress
can now be applied against the adjusted crew profiles.
Applying a speed profile to a crew, based on known changes in productivity, creates a more accurate picture of how
the crew is moving along the pipeline ROW as seen in Fig. 12.
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Fig. 12 Crew Speed profile
» Continue with Appendix 3.4.4 - Contractual Topics that have a Particular Importance for Onshore Pipeline
Projects
« Back to Appendix 3.2.1 - Recommendations for Establishing Project Execution Plan - Construction Phase
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Appendix 3.4.4 Contractual Topics that have a

Particular Importance for Onshore Pipeline Projects
Weather
The contract should identify the baseline weather conditions that the contractor
can expect to encounter along the route. This is usually obtained from publically Weather
available sources. The contractor should be required to allow sufficient time and Environment/Archaeology
resources to deal with the anticipated weather conditions. The contract may Site and Access
require the contractor to allow for slightly worse conditions than those Programme
anticipated by the weather data. The contract should also require the contractor Third Parties
to monitor actual weather conditions at identified locations along the pipeline Materials
route. Ground Conditions
Should the weather conditions be worse than those indicated in the contract Design
then the contract should provide a mechanism for identifying and valuing the
effect on programme and resources. The contract should then identify how and
to what extent financial compensation and time extensions should be established.
Environment/Archaeology
Prior to the commencement of pipeline construction, environmental and archaeological surveys from publicly-available
sources will have been carried out as part of the FEL. This information will have identified a series of constraints that
should be included within the contract documentation and which the contractor should allow for dealing with within the
contract price. During the course of construction unanticipated environmental/archaeological issues are bound to arise.
The contract should clearly identify responsibility for dealing with and mitigating the effect of these issues and a
mechanism for valuing the effect on programme and resources.
Site and Access

The site and access to it needs clear definition within the contract. The easement width available to the contractor for
overland pipeline construction should be clearly stated-particularly if this varies throughout the route as a result of
constraints. Additional land take required at each crossing should also be clearly identified together with land
associated with valve stations/AGIs etc. It is usual practice for the client to obtain all permissions associated with
securing pipeline route and installations.
Pipeline construction contracts should also clarify who is providing land for pipe dumps, construction yards,
mobilization/demobilization yards, parking areas along the spread, office compounds, and accommodation compounds.
The document should indicate the location and area of each piece of land to be provided by the client and the general
characteristics of the land i.e. is it virgin ground? Is it built on? Have any soils investigations been done? Are there
services available? How long is it available for etc.
It should be clearly stated in the contract if the contractor is to provide these facilities.
As part of FEL the client should have determined suitable access routes to the site which should be identified in the
environmental impact study. These can vary from negotiating with the highway authorities which roads can be used for
heavy/light traffic to constructing major temporary roads and bridges to access the easement. Responsibility for
obtaining permissions to construct off-easement accesses should be clearly set out in the contract. It is recommended
to have the same party dealing with ROW easements and accesses at the same time.
The contract should also state when each portion of land is available to be used by the contractor, whether for pipeline
construction, support facilities or off-easement accesses.
Programme
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The contract should contain the programme of works for the completion of the pipeline including the activities and
milestone dates agreed by the contractor and the client. For pipeline construction this is generally in the form of a fully
resourced March chart supplemented by CPM of special sections and crossings. These clearly identify the anticipated
resources.
The impact of any changes, stoppage or slow-down of production can be monitored via the contract programme and
measures put in place to mitigate the effect of delays. The contract will contain provisions as to the financial
responsibility for specific types of stoppage/delay (for example it is usually the client’s responsibility to pay for delays
caused by lack of access and the contractor would bear his own costs if the delays were due to inadequate
resourcing). Once the delay has been monitored and mitigation measures put in place the consequences in terms of
resourcing can be valued at a predetermined set of rates and allowances.
Third Parties
Pipelines by their very nature pass through diverse geographical and political areas and touch on many people’s lives
and environmentally sensitive areas along the way. Many of these people will have an interest in and impact upon
pipeline construction. They may include:
Farmers
Land owners
Local inhabitants
Local businesses
Local authorities/municipalities
Police
Army
Insurgents
Protestors
Port/railway/highway authorities
Other utilities
Customs authorities
Environmental agencies
Environmental pressure groups (NGOs)
State/national governments
Planning authorities
The responsibility for dealing with third parties, although best served by a joint client/contractor’s approach, should be
under the leadership of the client since it has to be initiated at a very early stage of FEL. It is extremely important to
appoint people who understand the culture and the social aspects of the project’s environment. These people should
preferably remain throughout the duration of the FEL phases and the construction of the project in order to maintain
communication and commitments with the third parties. Many projects have encountered major problems when lacking
a well-planned thirdparty programme. When appointed the contractor should jointly participate in this programme in
order to provide a unified response to all the third-party issues and the contract should be clear how time and cost
impact of any third-party action should be addressed.
Materials
Where materials are to be supplied by the client the quantity and specification of the material should be included within
the contract document. The delivery date(s) should also be included together with the location of the handover. The
contractor usually has the duty to physically inspect the material to identify any obvious damage. Responsibility for any
latent defect would remain with the client. Any change in the delivery date or the handover location is usually the
client’s responsibility; they should carry the financial impact.
Ground Conditions
» Please also refer to section 6 Earthworks
As in most civil engineering contracts understanding the nature of the ground and what the contractor is required to
construct in/on it is fundamental to the success of the project. During the FEL ground condition surveys/boreholes will
have been taken along the proposed route with particular attention being paid to crossings. This information will have
been used to select the optimum route. Particular attention will have been paid to crossings. The extent of survey
information available can be extremely sparse and this creates huge risks for the project. This data will have been
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made available to the contractor during the tender/negotiation process and should form part of the contract. The
contractor will have used this information to determine resource levels and construction methods for both the trench
and the crossings. If there is insufficient reliable data available the client may be advised to instruct the contractor to
base his tender assessment on a set of assumptions. If during the construction process it is found that the actual
ground conditions are at variance to those indicated in the surveys/boreholes or with the set of assumptions and that
those differences have caused either stoppage/delay or increased resource levels then the responsibility for financial
consequences should be addressed in the contract. The contractor should normally be expected to accommodate
minor changes in ground conditions but anything that affects production beyond a minor amount should generally be
borne by the client.
Design
The contact should clearly state who is responsible for which elements of the design.
When the client is responsible for the design then any delay in issuing design information which causes additional
costs should be the client’s responsibility.
It is recommended that the client always remains responsible for the accuracy and correctness of the information and
data supplied at the time of tender or at any time thereafter.
When the contractor is expected to endorse certain elements of the FEED, sufficient time (to be agreed) should be
allowed to either identify errors or omissions or to request changes.
Fit-for-purpose clauses should be qualified as being in accordance with the contract with a clear definition of the
purpose.
» Continue with Appendix 3.4.5 - Project Cost Estimate and Contingency

« Back to Appendix 3.2.2 - A Primer to March Charts
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3.3 Contract Price Information to Facilitate Evaluation of

Changes
Experience shows that the major cost impact of changes on projects is the additional cost of teams and resources
related to the additional time they spend on site either working with full running costs or in standby with reduced
running costs.
Changes to the baseline/disruptions/stoppages have in general two consequences for a project:
The duration of certain activities will be extended
There might be a need for mobilising additional resources to mitigate an overall extension of project duration
In this section and in section 4 the word “cost” is understood from a client’s point of view: it means the price paid by
the client to the contractor which includes the contractor’s direct and indirect costs, its overheads and profit.
Therefore, in order to allow both client and contractor project management teams to promptly evaluate the cost impacts
of changes and/or disruptions to a project, the contract price should include the breakdown of the weekly costs of the
main working crews in operation (including energy, spare parts and consumables for the equipment and machines used
as well as labour and staff costs including food, lodging and transport) and the weekly costs of the site overheads
(offices, stores, yards etc.), as well as that of the management overheads, combined with a schedule of the costs of
the same workin crews in standby (when no energy and consumables for major equipment is used), and of the costs of
potential mitigation measures (such as cost of moving different crews in relation with distance). All weekly costs would
exclude the cost of incorporated materials since their cost impact is quantity-related instead of time-related.
Examples of time-related costs (weekly costs) for a pipeline contract together with examples of evaluation of time and
cost impacts of stoppages are attached in Appendix 4.2.1 - Examples of Evaluation of Time and Cost Impacts of Full
Stoppages or of Slowdowns.
In the case of cost plus type contracts, the actual costs plus fees are compared at given intervals to a bill of quantities
or an activity schedule, which should include such time related cost information as described above.
In the case of bill of quantities or activity schedule type contracts, these time-related costs should be incorporated as
bill items or activity items in the pricing document.
In the case of lump sum contracts, a breakdown of these time related costs should be in an appendix attached to the
tender.
This time related cost information, together with the fixed costs for mobilisation of teams, equipment and facilities
(which generally form part of most contracts but should also be included in the lump sum tenders), are essential
management tools to assess changes.
» Continue with 3.4 Considerations in Developing the Conditions of Contract

« Back to 3.2 Programming the Work
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3.4 Considerations in Developing the Conditions of

Contract
Traditionally, contracts terms tend to be issued by clients,

and market forces and/or financial institutions tend to drive in 3.4.1 Pipeline Project Specifics
their favour. Too often risk allocation continues to be pushed 3.4.2 Clarifying Risk Responsibilities
from one party to another depending on prevailing 3.4.3 Probability of Risk and Cost Outcome
environmental or market conditions, with little consideration to 3.4.4 Conclusion
the loss of potential value and earnings incurred due to
inattention to reducing the risk to begin with.
However, as a general principle, the conditions of contract (general conditions and particular conditions) should not be
overly favourable to one contracting party vis-à-vis the other(s). Indeed, experience shows that construction and
operational risks are best allocated where they can most appropriately be managed and borne. A fair contract helps to
significantly reduce the risks of conflicts, delays and disruptions when difficulties occur in the performance of a project
by clearly identifying the agreed risk allocation and providing fair compensation for bearing them.
Several (unsuccessful) attempts have been made in the past to develop standard balanced contract conditions,
applicable to all types of major onshore pipeline projects. The failure of these attempts was largely due to the fact that
national clients are bound to abide by the local contracting practices and global clients have, over the years, developed
their own contract conditions which, they feel, can adapt to the varying context of their projects.
3.4.1 Pipeline Project Specifics

Whatever the conditions of contract used, the recommendations above acknowledge the specificities of onshore
pipeline projects as well as the uniqueness of their sites. Unlike the relatively small concentrated areas of other
construction projects (such as terminals, pump/compressors stations etc.), onshore pipeline projects often extend over
several hundred kilometres, crossing state and/or international boundaries.
The likelihood, therefore, of encountering conditions different to those upon which the initial design and construction
programme were predicated is higher than in other construction projects, hence the requirement for a good FEL as the
likelihood of changes is inherent to pipeline projects. This requires that the parties analyse potential risks at an early
stage (during the bid phase) and that the contractual baseline is set accordingly to ensure that anticipated risks are
fairly allocated. Both parties can benefit from prudent front-end loading (see section 2).
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3.4.2 Clarifying Risk Responsibilities

As demonstrated here, the baseline of a good pipeline construction contract must include a clear definition of inclusions
and limitations for key risks. The scope of works provides the basis for an agreement between contractor and client.
Under ideal circumstances this would be sufficient for an onshore pipeline contract.
However, in reality, risk events, when they occur, lead to contractual disputes unless the contract addresses these
issues. Contracts should therefore include terms which allow sufficient commercial flexibility to address these
inevitable variances while still preserving the performance incentives inherent in the commercial terms for the baseline
portion of the scope.
This requires the recommended “spirit of trust and mutual co-operation between the parties” and the situation where
lack of clear and concise scope and engineering definition leads one party to consider exploitation at the cost of the
other should be avoided. The client may see under-priced lump sum bids as a benefit, whilst the contractor may see
the opportunity for change and scope increase during the execution of the work. In actual fact the result is disputes,
delays and additional costs seldom to any party’s benefit.
Exemplary preferred conditions of contract have been achieved in international onshore pipeline projects. Clauses of
general interest for all construction contracts such as exchange risk, country risk, indemnities, insurance, payment
terms etc. are not further developed herein as they may be found in general contract literature. There are certain
contractual topics that have a particular importance for onshore pipeline projects. The guidelines included in Appendix
3.4.4 address the following:
The weather conditions/inclement weather
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The environment and archaeology

The definition of (and access to) the site
The programme (and adjustment thereto, including compensation)
The relations with third parties (pipeline projects involve an unusually large number of third parties)
The supply of materials
The ground conditions
The responsibility for design and constructability
3.4.3 Probability of Risk and Cost Outcome

Many a contractor has fallen into a trap associated with risk pricing when clients insist in having the contractor to bear
some of the risk impacts. The desire to achieve commercial advantage sometimes tempts a contractor to bid a lump
sum contract based on a calculation of the estimated costs of inherent risks.
The baseline cost estimate is normally based on the expected cost of the project. This cost includes the required
contingency commensurate with the project definition at that stage of the work, where the contingency is added to the
base estimate to a level that is equivalent to the 50/50 (or P50 – see graphic below). Onto this a bidder will add reserve
that provides his company with the level of assurance that the execution of the work with all normal risks will achieve
his goal of profitability. This level of bid is normally assessed at a level where the company can be 80-90% sure of the
outcome or in general terms the P80 estimate (this process is described further in Appendix 3.4.5 - Project Cost
Estimate and Contingency)
Whilst some bidders may be sufficiently confident in their ability to execute work to an estimated budget based on the
50/50 estimate, or with little-to-no reserve it does assume that the bidder has 100% definition of all risks and unknowns
and that his price is complete. This is an unlikely condition and normally results in the bidder placing a high reliance on
claims or changes to his advantage.
Some project risks occur in a continuous and incremental fashion, so that the differing price points considered by
different bidders will only vary from the actual cost outcome by degree, leaving the bidder a marginal profit or loss in
the end.
However, projects often have discrete risks which result in an “all or nothing” cost impact. While the probability of
these risks is still variable, their cost outcome is not. Competitive pressures often tempt contractors to bid such risks
at less than expected cost on the hope that the unconsumed contingency will become additional profit or can be
recovered through claims. When the risk does arrive and is not sufficiently supported with funds, the expected profit is
not only lost but profit is drawn from other aspects of the project to offset the risk cost impact. Contractors feel forced
to recover their incurred risk costs from their clients, often creating an uneasy relationship with their clients. This
inevitably leads to commercial stress and can work to unravel the contractual arrangements made between the parties.
The alternative advocated here is to be overt in the contract as to how much of the risk cost impact is included in the
baseline and how the excess or residual risk will be addressed commercially. Clients are especially urged to avoid
entering contracts where known risks have been aggressively priced at a point below the likely cost impact. The better
answer is to have the client bear the risk and avoid the commercial inefficiency of potentially paying for the risk twice –
once in the baseline and again in a claim!
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Contracts need to contain an appropriate contractual and commercial mechanism to deal with (unanticipated) risks that
eventuate during the course of the work – despite parties’ best efforts to counter, factor in, or eliminate these risks. For
risk not accounted for in the baseline, parties can agree, in advance, the form of compensation and the method of
calculation of the adjustment.
Therefore, the characteristics of onshore pipeline projects make it more important to attain a well defined allocation of
risks between the parties. Furthermore, parties need to determine early on how they are going to deal with residual
execution risk. This is fundamental to achieving optimum contractual co-operation between the parties and minimising
conflicts surrounding eventual contract adjustments.
3.4.4 Conclusion
The baseline of a construction contract needs to be clearly established including scope of work, the detailed execution
plan with a resourced March chart programme for all linear activities combined to CPM programmes for all fixed
installations, the cost elements and the conditions of contract.
There may be circumstances when the baseline has not been sufficiently developed at time of going to tender and
needs to be improved through early works to arrive at a better contract.
Section 4 will review the main risks of pipeline construction contracts and propose mitigation measures which can be
implemented at various stages of the development of the project.
» Continue with Appendix 3.2.1 - Recommendations for Establishing Project Execution Plan - Construction
Phase
« Back to 3.3 Contract Price Information to Facilitate Evaluation of Changes
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Appendix 3.4.5 Project Cost Estimate and

Contingency
Created by Guy Henley, last modified by Mustafa Abusalah on Feb 17, 2015
3.4.5.1 The Development of a 3.4.5.1 The Development of a Project Estimate

3.4.5.2 What Contingency is not meant to cover
Project Estimate 3.4.5.3 Development of Allowances, Escalation and Contingency
An estimate is developed by 3.4.5.4 What is the Estimate Range?
considering the scope of a given 3.4.5.5 Estimate Accuracy
project and estimating the quantities 3.4.5.6 How do we set Contingency?
of material and resources needed to
successfully complete the project
within a given schedule.
Any estimate carries risk. The allocation of allowances, escalation and contingency within an estimate and the
assignment of an accuracy range to that estimate is a means by which a bidder endeavours to identify and manage the
risks associated with any estimate.
Allowances
Allowances cover incremental resources (for example, hours and money) included in estimates to cover expected but
undefined requirements for individual accounts or sub-accounts. They cover design allowance for engineered
equipment, bulk material take-off allowance, overbuy allowances, unrecoverable shipping damage allowance,
provisional allowances for poorly defined items and freight allowance (equipment and materials). There are two main
types of allowances, assumed (based on the bidders’ perception of the project requirements) and validated or historical
(based on the bidders’ estimating database).
Escalation
Escalation is a provision in actual or estimated costs for an increase in the costs of equipment, material, and labour
from a set point in time and is due to a continuing price change over time until the completion of the project. Escalation
does not cover hyper-escalation, that is escalation which is outside what is expected from published indices, Hyper-
escalation should be covered by contingency and allocated based on the perceived risk.
Contingency
A bidder will typically include three main types of contingency in an estimate, estimate contingency, event contingency
and management Reserve.
Estimate contingency is defined as a special monetary provision in the project budget to cover uncertainties or
unforeseeable elements of time/cost in the estimate associated with the normal execution of a project, for example,
labour rates and design development. Estimate contingency is calculated using a risk model with input from a
knowledgeable team.
Event contingency is defined as a monetary provision in the project budget to cover the costs associated with the
occurrence of one or more specific risks, for example incurring liquidated damages or impacts from severe weather or
hyper-escalation.
Management reserve is a further contingency included based on the bidder’s management perception of the overall
likelihood of the project cost and associated risks.
3.4.5.2 What Contingency is not meant to cover
Contingency is not meant to replace the development of an accurate estimate commensurate with the stage of the
project and the associated definition at that stage.
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It is not meant to cover project scope change for example a change in pipeline throughput or terminal storage volume.
It does not cover for design allowance which should form part of the normal project estimate basis.
Contingency does not cover for management reserve or profit. These areas will also be discussed.
3.4.5.3 Development of Allowances, Escalation and Contingency
Pipeline Materials
Most of the material qualities can be relatively easily quantified following the FEL process, the number and size of
valves will be set, the location and specification of pig-traps will be defined. The associated allowances will be set
based on historical data and escalation will be set based on the appropriate published indices. These do not cover the
full estimate risks. The supply price that is the price at the time of purchase from the supplier is still likely to be subject
to change as this often cannot be fixed until some months after the bid has been made to the developer. The risks
associated with this will need to be assessed and appropriate contingency allocated.
Other Materials
Other materials are likely to be subject to more significant quantity variations. For example, the allowances for weight
coating will cover some repair and damage and additional usage as part of the overbuy allowance. However,
contingency may also be included in the estimate to allow for potential local rerouting which might be required to solve
problem and undefined ground issues.
Construction Labour
The construction manpower estimate has many more variables. It starts with an assessment of the volume of work to
perform, how many welds, how much ditch to dig etc.
Following assessing the volume of work the construction schedule is developed to meet the requirements of the bid, as
described in the March chart section of the “The Road”. Resourcing by activity is then developed to achieve the
required speed of production.
In generating the construction estimate many assumptions will have to be made for example how easy the soil is to
dig, how much of the soil can be reused in the ditch, whether the ditch stand up without batter or stepping, and how
well the ROW will stand up to multiple heavy traffic movements. All of these will be captured in the estimate basis.
An assumption is made of construction labour productivity and equipment availability rate. The weather in the
construction season is reviewed and the impact on progress evaluated. Many more risks are also inherent in this
estimate. (A review of the risk register will demonstrate the issues confronting the bidder.)
All elements of the buildup of the construction labour in the estimate will be reviewed and appropriate allowances,
escalation and contingency included and defined in the bidder’s estimate basis. The determination of these figures can
be complicated since, for example, the productivity/quality of the construction labour will not just influence the number
of hours and therefore the number of people required to execute a project, it will also influence the loss and damage of
materials due to poor installation or handling.
General
As the various areas of the estimate are developed the variability and risk in each is different. However the bidder’s
estimate cannot assume that all the potential problems associated with the construction will occur on the same job, his
bid price would not be competitive. Similarly it would be unwise to assume that no mishaps will occur either. A Monte
Carlo analysis, or similar statistical analyses, will determine the overall level of contingency that will be required to bid
a project at a level of risk that is acceptable to the bidder.
3.4.5.4 What is the Estimate Range?
The range of an estimate is defined as the difference between the lowest and highest probable values of the estimate.
In single-point estimating, the estimator assigns a single cost value to the estimate. But picking a single point is
equivalent to stating the project WILL cost this much and clearly does not take into account that this is an estimate
with surrounding uncertainty. The single point tends to be the most likely cost in the estimator’s view, the probability of
achieving this cost is not fully evaluated.
Three-point estimating allows for uncertainty around the estimated Page 57 cost. To help establish the most likely value of the
estimate many approaches can be used. One such approach is a risk based assessment using Monte Carlo
techniques. It is normal to represent each area of the estimate as a triangular distribution.
In the example above 20 individual costs could be found for the cost of a commodity. However the estimator can
idealize the cost by knowing just three points as follows
minimum = $2,000
likely = $5,000
maximum = $11,000
Using a simulation and allowing the cost to vary between the high and low values in a random way described by the
shape of the triangular distribution results in a total project cost distribution as shown in the diagram below. In this
example the most likely cost (mean) or the 50/50 estimate P50 is $74.5 million. This contrasts with the base case
estimate of $70.9 which was found by adding only the most likely figures together.
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The above graphic represents the output of a real estimate the distribution is slightly squewed. For the purposes of the
ongoing discussion this distribution will be represented by a smooth normal distribution as follows.
In a normal distribution without skew the mean, median and mode are aligned and have the same value, all equal the
50/50 or P50 probability.
A good estimate from a developer’s perspective should have equal probability of overrun and under-run (i.e., a 50%
probability). This is a risk neutral approach, the assumption being that some projects will overrun while others will
under-run and, in the long run, they will balance out.
The more conservative, risk-averse attitude used by companies that need to ensure each project returns a profit to their
company (true for contracting organisations) normally specifies a probability of 80% or higher that the project will not
overrun. This is a safer route but by specifying a high probability the required contingency (or contingency and
management reserve) will increase and with it the project cost to the developer.
This results in a sub-optimal use of funds. Large contingencies on projects in the developer organisation’s project
portfolio will sequester monies that could otherwise be put to productive use (e.g., funding additional projects, beefing
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up R&D, investing in product improvement, new equipment). This is a key reason why reduction of risk to the bidder by
the provision of a good FEL and by equitable allocation of risk, as discussed in “The Road “, is beneficial to the
developer. The excessive contingency is removed and the funds remain with the developer for his use. Contingency
added to the bid by a bidder, due to poor project scope definition, becomes part of his bid and is lost to the developer.
Contingency is released or consumed by the project team as each of the risks is passed. It must be noted that the
contingency which is determined in the development of the estimate is total required contingency. It does not reflect
what is sometimes called "management reserve", a discretionary amount which is added to the estimate for possible
scope changes or unknown future events which cannot be anticipated by the project team. Addition of this reserve
increases in proportion to the lack of project definition and to the history the bidder has of the way in which the client
manages change.
At the final management review of the estimate past project metrics are commonly used to gauge the result and to
provide a reality check.
Some special risks also impact the assessment of the final project contingency. These include commercial terms of
contract, for example, liquidated damages. Whilst these can play a part in a contract with well-developed conditions
and FEL they are often applied without full consideration of the impact on schedule and, as such, when the bidder
performs his risk analysis they are found to result in significant risk and a high probability of occurrence. In such cases
the bidder adds the risk-based impact of these items to his final estimate expecting that they will be paid in full or in
part. The developer has just unwittingly increased his cost for the project development.
3.4.5.5 Estimate Accuracy
What does a stated estimate accuracy of 15% mean?

Any discussion of accuracy must be related to a specified confidence interval.
In the next figure the median/mean/mode cost is $200 million. The 80% confidence interval in this example (i.e., the
confidence that the actual cost will fall within this range 80 times out of 100) corresponds to costs between $170 and
$230 million. The difference between $200 million and $170 or $230 million is $30 million, which is 15% of $200 million.
Hence in this example the estimate of $200 million has a + or - 15% accuracy with 80 % confidence.
3.4.5.6 How do we set Contingency?
Contingency is only meant to cover the project development as it has been described in the scope and basis of design,
which at the current state of project definition cannot be accurately quantified, but which history and experience show
will be necessary to achieve the given project scope.
There is a tendency for those not involved or unfamiliar with estimate development to view contingency as evidence
that the estimator is inflating or "sand-bagging" the estimate to improve the chance of bringing in a successful project
i.e. one that achieves its budgetary goals. In an effort to reduce the projected cost of a project, clients and those
unfamiliar with the process often try to limit contingency Page
to a 60
fixed percentage of the base estimate or in some cases
delete it entirely.
However, contingency forms an important and integral part of the estimate; it is not potential profit and as we will
discuss later should be expected to be spent in the development of the project.
» Continue with 4. Dealing with Risks in Pipeline Projects

« Back to Appendix 3.4.4 - Contractual Topics that have a Particular Importance for Onshore Pipeline Projects
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4. Dealing with Risks in Pipeline Projects

» Continue with 4.1 Analysis, Allocation and Mitigation of Risks During all Phases of a Pipeline
ProjectAppendix 3.2.2 - A Primer to March Charts
« Back to Appendix 3.4.5 - Project Cost Estimate and Contingency
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4.1 Analysis, Allocation and Mitigation of Risks During

all Phases of a Pipeline Project
After project sanction, irrespective of all the efforts to reduce challenges and risks through the FEL phases, there will
always be previously unknown challenges and risk events that arise.
Risk events specific to pipeline construction projects retained in this section relate to events which lead to slowdowns,
hindrances and stoppages (all being called “stoppages” in this document) affecting some part(s) or the whole of the
construction activities.
The table in the following pages lists those residual risks events which are likely to be encountered during the
construction phase of a project.
Column 1
classifies the risks events in nine categories
• Weather (Category A)
• Archaeological and Man Made Artefacts (B)
• Geological (C)
• Flora and Fauna (D)
• Social and Security (E)
• Materials (F)
• Engineering (G)
• Permit Conditions (H)
• ROW Remediation (I)
Columns 2 & 3
describe the risk event considered
Column 4
indicates at which FEL period the risk event should start to be considered
Columns 5 & 6
define who should be the risk owner
Column 7
defines the extent of the baseline reference and the extent of the risk mitigation (if any) to include in the
baseline.
Columns 8 & 9
describe the respective duties and responsibilities of the contractor and of the client for each risk event
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4.2 Management of Construction Risks on Pipeline

Projects
Created by Guy Henley, last modified by Emma Hachfeld on Feb 17, 2015
4.2.1 List of the most common causes

4.2.1.1 Weather and climate (Category A)
4.2.1.2 Archaeology and other unforeseen events (Category B)
4.2.1.3 Geology/Ground conditions (Category C)
4.2.1.4 Fauna and Flora (Category D)
4.2.1.5 Access to the site, Social and Security matters (Category E)
4.2.1.6 Material supply (Category F)
4.2.1.7 Engineering, changes of scope/variation orders (Category G)
4.2.1.8 Permits or Licences (Category H)
4.2.2 Assessment of their impact on progress, possible mitigation measures and resulting cost
impact
4.2.2.1 Impact and Management of Stoppages
4.2.2.1.1 Stoppage affecting one activity
4.2.2.1.2 Stoppage affecting several but not all activities
4.2.2.1.3 Stoppage affecting all activities
4.2.2.1.4 The special case of repeated stoppages
4.2.2.1.5 The special case of repeated changes to the works
4.2.2.2 Mitigation Measures and Cost Impact
Proposed guidelines are given in this section to deal with specific risk events associated with the construction of on
shore pipelines which generally result in stoppages, slowdowns and hindrances (all three called “stoppages” below) to
the progress of the works.
It is understood that good design and works preparation at FEL phases can significantly reduce the occurrence and/or
extent of stoppages at the construction stage.
However, due to the very nature of pipeline construction numerous residual causes may trigger all types of stoppages.
Below is the list of the most common causes of stoppages, followed by guidelines to assess:
Their impact on progress
The possible mitigation measures
The cost impacts of stoppages and the cost of mitigation measures
4.2.1 List of the most common causes

The list of events which may lead to stoppages are developed in section 4 above under nine categories. Typical
examples are highlighted below.
4.2.1.1 Weather and climate (Category A)

The weather during certain periods of the construction may be worse than the limits defined in the baseline and taken
into account in the construction programme.
4.2.1.2 Archaeology and other unforeseen events (Category B)

Events affecting or stopping the progress of the works.
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4.2.1.3 Geology/Ground conditions (Category C)

When there is a significant change as compared with the baseline with a larger extent of ground conditions requiring
specific equipment for excavation and/or backfill and/or reinstatement (e.g. quality and/or extent of the rock, presence
of large boulders/cobbles, swamp areas etc.).
4.2.1.4 Fauna and Flora (Category D)

Discovery of unexpected species or protected wildlife along the pipeline route.
4.2.1.5 Access to the site, Social and Security matters (Category E)

The access to certain portions of the site – the pipeline route or certain working areas – may not be available or may be
restricted in some ways. There are many reasons which could create such a situation and the most common are listed
below:
Some land acquisition along the pipeline route might not be finalised or land owners may request to revisit the
conditions of transfer of ownership
Intervention by an action group using the publicity and/or the negative impact on the project schedule to promote
their cause and/or obtain that the authorities consider their demands
Security reasons: a portion of the pipeline crosses an area where security of the personnel involved in the
construction may not be correctly ensured
Access to the pipeline route is available to the construction team but, for instance:
access to the main supply points in the country (e.g. access to and from the harbour or airport or local
supply stores)
access to the site pipe yards and/or to the main stores
access to the borrow pits (when excavated material, even treated, are not suitable for backfill) are
temporarily unavailable due to external reasons or interferences (e.g. national strike or national shortage
of certain materials or consumables, intervention by action group, security reasons)
Preliminary works or adjacent works done by others interfering with the pipeline route or with main
access points to the ROW or to some of the main installations are not completed in an area at the time
when work on the pipeline should proceed
Seasonal restrictions including breeding periods for protected species, climatic conditions (flooding, rainy
seasons, snowfall etc.)
4.2.1.6 Material supply (Category F)

Late delivery of materials supplied by others (ordered directly by the client) and/or quality of such material (e.g.
main valves)
The client and the designer decide further in-situ testing for new material to be used on the project (e.g. new field
joint coating)
4.2.1.7 Engineering, changes of scope/variation orders (Category G)

There is a need to change the design of a certain portion of the work (e.g. unexpected ground conditions,
seismic fault or unstable ground in a zone where access was not fully available for investigations at an earlier
stage)
Similarly the client decides to proceed with some changes to the scope of the works as a result of the above or
for some other reason (e.g. new material/component to be used, procurement time impact, larger excavation
required for a seismic fault and special backfill material to be used, procurement time impact)
4.2.1.8 Permits or Licences (Category H)

Delays in the issuance by the authorities of permit for the works or permit to access some restricted areas (e.g.
military zones, border zones etc.) or licences to use certain products (e.g. explosives)
Delays in agreeing method statements for construction in sensitive areas (e.g. river crossings, designated sites)
Restrictions due to transmittable diseases
Consent for waste disposal facilities, water abstraction and discharge, camps and/or borrow pits have not been
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issued
4.2.2 Assessment of their impact on progress, possible mitigation measures and resulting
cost impact
4.2.2.1 Impact and Management of Stoppages
The impact of the above events on progress can only be correctly assessed if a detailed programme of works with
precise assumptions has been understood and agreed by all parties at the onset (refer to section 3.2 “Establishment of
a Detailed Resourced Programme” above). It is also essential that “Early Warning Procedures” be in place so that any
party identifying an event with potential impact on progress can promptly organise early warning meetings to jointly
establish the responses to the consequences of those events.
Then the management of stoppages can follow the sequences below:
4.2.2.1.1 Stoppage affecting one activity
The significant stoppage (meaning greater than the allowance made in the base programme) of one activity does not
affect other activities. This may be the case if:
a) the activity affected is well ahead of the base programme
b) the following later scheduled activities are significantly behind the base programme
c) a combination of a) and b) – in other words the actual time lag A1 or B1 etc. is greater than the minimum agreed time
lag A0 or B0 etc.
In the above three situations, the overall programme is not affected and unless further significant stoppages are
expected, there is no immediate need to mitigate the delay of the affected activity.
In terms of cost impact, only the cost of the crew (people, equipment and consumables with the crew environment,
transport, lodging and management) from the affected activity over the stoppage period is to be considered.
4.2.2.1.2 Stoppage affecting several but not all activities
The significant stoppage of one activity affects some but not all the subsequent activities. For instance the stoppage of
activity I impacts on II and III but not on IV and on the others.
As in 2.1.1 above, the overall programme is not affected and unless further significant stoppages are expected, there is
no immediate need to mitigate the delay of the affected activities.
In terms of cost impact, only the costs of the crews from the affected activities (I, II and III) over the stoppage period
are to be considered.
4.2.2.1.3 Stoppage affecting all activities
The significant stoppage of one activity does affect all the subsequent activities. This is often the case at the start of
works when the stoppage of the ROW or the stringing, for instance, prevents the start of the activities which follow.
It is also the case when all activities (whether progressing as per base programme or not) follow each other at intervals
close to the agreed minimum time lag A0, B0, C0,..
Here in the absence of mitigation measures (such as strengthening certain crews to subsequently accelerate the works
or jumping over the problem zone, (refer to paragraph 2.2) all subsequent activities will be delayed and there may be a
risk for the completion date of the project.
In terms of cost impact, the cost of the first crew affected as well as the cost of all following crews over the stoppage
period should be considered but the effect of the stoppage may also induce the extra cost of an extension of the
completion time of the project.
Examples of evaluation of time and cost impacts of full stoppages or of slowdowns to certain activities intervening at
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various stages of the construction process are included in Appendix 4.2.1.1.
4.2.2.1.4 The special case of repeated stoppages
When repeated stoppages occur they may affect productivity of the working crews who have not had sufficient time to
get over repeated remobilisation phases and learning curves. The evaluation of this loss of productivity is not simple.
However should longer periods in the past without stoppages and better productivity exist, they should become the
reference to estimate the impact of repeated stoppages during subsequent periods. In the absence of such reference a
joint critical analysis of actual progress as compared with the planned progress is the only solution.
4.2.2.1.5 The special case of repeated changes to the works
This includes repeated re-routeing, changes of depth, changes of types of protection or backfilling material, when they
occur close to the time when works were planned to be performed may also have a disruptive effect to the progress
and to the productivity. They should be avoided as far as possible. The evaluation of the impact of those repeated
changes is also complex and the same recommendations as in 4.2.2.1.4 should apply.
4.2.2.2 Mitigation Measures and Cost Impact

When significant stoppage events occur, the different mitigation measures could consist of:
Jumping over the affected zone: if possible (existence of adequate alternative roads or tracks to the ROW)
solution prevailing when the duration of the stoppage is likely to last for much longer than the time needed to
move equipment and personnel of a given crew. However the logistics of such a move need to have been
prepared (or at least identified) in advance to obtain the full benefit (availability of sufficient transport equipment
such as low beds for heavy equipment, availability of lodging for personnel, camps, availability of storage and
materials etc.)
Revised sequence of work (restarting work in another location initially planned to be done at a later stage) when,
for instance a stoppage may prevent completion in an area where the weather is forecast to change soon (snow,
heavy rain etc.) making jumping impossible. Logistical problems similar to those associated with jumping should
be addressed
Strengthening some of the crews (for instance if more hard rock is encountered, this might need additional
specific equipment or more requirements for imported backfill material requiring more dumpers for transport of
appropriate material)
Mobilisation of additional equipment and personnel to implement an overall acceleration
Mobilisation of a full new spread
Similarly in the last three examples the logistics of such operations are fundamental to the successful implementation
of the measures.
It is therefore recommended to start some of the planning at the onset of the project:
Make provisions in the tender such as the main infrastructure of the camps to be built in advance of their actual
need in the base programme, provision of alternative access roads/tracks if feasible, provision of additional low
beds for transfers of heavy equipment
Prepare and mobilise the same at the start of the project and initiate the early identification of availability of
specific equipment and additional acceleration equipment as soon as the early signs of delays materialise
The cost impact of certain mitigation measures could be significant. The more costly those measures become, the
more difficult it is, for the project management, to make the required prompt decisions. In this respect, and under those
circumstances, a sponsor group is needed to provide the required support to the project management. This sponsor
group should associate senior executives from both the client’s and the contractor’s side, with no direct role in the
management of the contract but who will closely monitor the development of the project.
» Continue with Appendix 4.2.1 - Examples of Evaluation of Time and Cost Impacts of Full Stoppages or of
Slowdowns
« Back to 4.1 Analysis, Allocation and Mitigation of Risks During all Phases of a Pipeline Project
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Appendix 4.2.1 Examples of Evaluation of Time and

Cost Impacts of Full Stoppages or of Slowdowns
4.2.1.1. Examples of evaluation of the time impact of stoppages – full stoppages or

slowdowns
For
the 4.2.1.1. Examples of evaluation of the time impact of stoppages – full stoppages or slowdowns
4.2.1.1.1 Event stopping completely one or more activity
4.2.1.1.2 Event slowing down one or more activities
4.2.1.1.3 Activities running slower or faster than planned
4.2.1.2. Evaluation of the cost impact of Stoppages
purpose of this exercise we consider an extract of a project March chart ranging over a length of 60 km and over a
period of 100 days as shown below.
Extract of the Baseline Construction Programme
The six activities shown above follow each other with the minimum time lags a0 to e0 between activities, described in
section 3.2. It means that should two activities follow each other with this minimum time lag in the actual construction
progress, in the absence of any mitigation measures, any stoppage or slowdown of the preceding activity will sooner or
later have an equal effect on the following activities.
Different scenarios are presented below with the assumption that no mitigation measure is implemented.
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4.2.1.1.1 Event stopping completely one or more activity

4.2.1.1.1.1 If during the actual construction in that area, all activities progress with the minimum time lag between
them, a stoppage of D days of one activity will sooner or later induce the same delay of D days for all the subsequent
activities as shown on the simplified diagram 1.a. below. Note that the delay D may not occur exactly at km 20 for all
the subsequent activities but it will definitely happen at some stage for all of them.
1.a. – Progress of all activities with the minimum time lag between activities
All activities will be delayed by the same delay “D” even if the event having caused the delay disappears before all
activities have gone through.
4.2.1.1.1.2 Diagrams 1.b. and 1.c show the effect of stoppages if during the actual construction some activities are
ahead of the following activities by more than the minimum time lag a0 to e0. These diagrams assume that the ROW
and the stringing activities are ahead of the following activities by b0 + Δ.
If Δ < D : the delay impact on the following activities will be (D - Δ)
If Δ ≥ D : there will be no impact on the following activities
1.b. – With Δ < D
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1.c. – With Δ > D
4.2.1.1.2 Event slowing down one or more activities
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4.2.1.1.2.1 As described in section 1.1.1 above if all activities progress with the minimum time lag between them, a
slowdown lasting D days for one activity, will result in a delay of D1 = D (1-P1/P0) as shown in diagram 2.b. below,
where P0 and P1 represent the activity progress before and during the slowdown respectively. As shown on diagram
2.a, this will sooner or later induce a delay D1 for all subsequent activities, though this will not necessarily occur
between km 20 and 30.
2.a. – Progress of all activities with the minimum time lag between activities
2.b. – Comparison with full stoppages
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P0 = progress of the activity before stoppage/slow down

P1 = progress of the activity during slow down
D1 = D (1-P1/P0)
4.2.1.1.2.2 Should a similar slowdown occur in the situations illustrated by diagrams 1.b. and 1.c., whereby some
activities are ahead of the following activities by more than the minimum time lag, i.e. b + Δ, then:
If Δ < D1 : the delay impact on the following activities will be (D1-Δ)
If Δ ≥ D1 : there will be no delay to the following activities
4.2.1.1.3 Activities running slower or faster than planned

This is the most common situation in many phases of the projects.
a) Actual progress Pa (expressed in km/day) is slower than the planned progress P0 (refer to diagram 3.a.)
b) Actual progress Pb is faster than the planned progress P0 (refer to diagram 3.b.)
Delay impact for the case a) is D1 = D (1 – P1/Pa)
Delay impact for the case b) is D2 = D (1 – P1/Pb)
Since Pa < Pb D1 < D2
Therefore the March chart helps to quantify the obvious: a slowdown leading to the same progress rate during the
period of slowdown D affects more severely activities progressing faster than programmed than activities progressing
slower.
3.a. – Progress of the activity slower than programmed
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Pa = progress before slowdown but slower than the planned progress P0

3.b. – Progress of the activity faster than programmed
Pb = progress before slowdown but faster than the planned progress P0

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The previous evaluations of delays do not imply that compensation is due. This will depend on the causes of
stoppages/slowdowns and on how the agreement between the parties intend to deal with activities running slower or
faster than planned, which is the most common situation in real life.
4.2.1.2. Evaluation of the cost impact of Stoppages

Assuming that compensation is due as per the agreement between the parties, there are a number of methods in
contract literature to evaluate costs.
However experience show that in the case of lump sum contracts one cannot easily find the mechanisms to promptly
assess costs of delays D (stoppages) or D1 (slowdowns) calculated in chapter 1 above.
Hence the suggestion in section 3.3 of THE ROAD TO SUCCESS (Volume one) to break down the lump sum contract
price highlighting the time-related weekly costs of the main working crews in operation (here onwards, “weekly” costs
would also mean “weekly or daily” costs). In parallel the standby weekly costs of the same crews should be indicated.
The breakdown should also cover the weekly costs of the various site installations and of the site management. It
would however exclude costs of incorporated materials which are quantity-related and not time-related.
Those would represent some 10 to 15 items of weekly costs for the crews of each spread as well as for the weekly
costs of the installations and of the site management and any other type of agreed overheads. That would not exceed
50 items of time-related weekly costs for a major project with two spreads.
As an example the weekly costs of one of the crews shown on the diagrams of chapter 1, when in operation, would
comprise:
The all-in cost of all the personnel of the crew plus the cost of food, lodging and PPE as well as the cost of
transport to and from the site (the weekly cost of the camp management and of the security should be included
in the camp weekly costs as part of the installation’s time-related costs).
The cost of construction plant and equipment comprising depreciation and/or hiring costs, maintenance costs
(spare parts and consumables), the consumable tools (chains, bucket teeth etc.)and the fuel and lubricants
The weekly cost of the same crew in stand-by would comprise the same items except that there would be, among
other items:
a significant reduction of fuel and lubricant consumption for the construction plant
a reduction of the maintenance costs
a reduction of the personnel transport costs
When delays of the type D or D1 have been assessed, the application of the appropriate time-related weekly costs of
all the crews affected would promptly allow the evaluation of the overall cost impact.
» Continue with 5. Planning and Design

« Back to 4.2 Management of Construction Risks on Pipeline Projects
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3/28/2015 5. Planning and Design - Road to Success - IPLOCA WIKI Collaboration Platform
5. Planning and Design

This section develops the guidelines for planning and design of a pipeline project in order to provide the right data at the
right time in a project lifecycle to increase communication between all stakeholders, reduce project uncertainties, and
plan for success.
The objective is to prepare functional specifications and recommended guidelines to improve planning and design
processes, simulation and control of the construction activities, and communications during all phases of an onshore
pipeline project. The deliverables are to contribute improvements in safety, reduction of risks and uncertainties, better
integrity management of the asset and efficient project execution.
Current industry observations and findings reflect the following:
The pipeline route has a major influence on the success or failure of pipeline projects
Insufficient information along with disjointed or misaligned activities during the planning and design phases
results in uncertainties, risks, and potential delays – it is very difficult to recover from a poor design or plan
during construction
Data collection and data management standards are applied inconsistently across the industry and from project
to project
Communication and data flow between all stakeholders is fragmented and complex
To address some of the issues related to the above stated observations the following activities were identified:
ROW and constructability study & guidelines
Minimum data requirements and activities for the five project stages
The deliverables for these activities are addressed in detail in sections 5.1 and 5.2.
» Continue with 5.1 Right of Way & Constructability Guidelines

« Back to Appendix 4.2.1 - Examples of Evaluation of Time and Cost Impacts of Full Stoppages or of Slowdowns4.
Dealing with Risks in Pipeline Projects
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5.1 Right of Way & Constructability Guidelines

Constructability issues play a key part in the pipeline right of

way (ROW) route selection. Selecting a route without 5.1.1 Constructability Issues
considering constructability early in the selection process may 5.1.2 Overview of Constructability Issues
lead to additional cost and schedule impacts in the latter phases 5.1.2.1 Access
of the project. It is not uncommon for the most cost effective 5.1.2.2 Non-contiguous ROW
route to be chosen during the early project phases only to find 5.1.2.3 Working Space
later on that the original cost savings have been offset by 5.1.2.4 Restoration
increased construction costs, leading to much higher overall 5.1.2.5 Environmental Mitigation
higher project costs. In order to gain an appreciation of ROW 5.1.2.6 Permits
constructability issues in the pipeline industry, the key 5.1.2.7 Terrain
consequential constructability issues that may arise during the 5.1.2.8 Community Relations
route selection phase are discussed below.
Reference is also made to Appendix 5.1.1, which discusses the
pipeline route selection process.
5.1.1 Constructability Issues

ROW constructability issues can be broadly classified in the following eight categories:
Constructability General Description

Issues
Access This covers access to the ROW from existing roads including the requirement to construct
access roads from existing roads as well as access along the ROW i.e., the ease or difficulty
of travel along the ROW and the frequency of access points to the ROW. Access to the
pipeline and associated above ground installations (AGIs) is not only required during
construction, but will be required all year round (365 days) for pipeline maintenance and
emergency repairs.
Non-contiguous Also known as “skips”, this issue addresses sections of the ROW for which permission to
work is pending, forcing the contractor to move around the section, disrupting continuous
ROW lineal progress and requiring a return of equipment and labor to complete the ROW at a later
date.
Working Space This includes satisfactory minimum width requirements, boundary restrictions, e.g. the need
to remain within the strict confines of the ROW, constricted working space due to permit
requirements, existing structures or parallel existing pipelines. Working space requirements
will need to be of sufficient width, length and height to allow the use of equipment with sizes
up to the maximum expected footprint.
Restoration This covers the requirements to restore the ROW after construction to a near pre-construction
state including dealing with landowners to settle damage claims.
Environmental This includes the considerations necessary to meet environmental permit requirements both
Mitigation during construction—special construction techniques to minimize damage to sensitive areas,
flora and fauna—as well as for postconstruction mitigation requirements—strict restoration
requirements: revegetation, construction of retaining walls, etc.
Permits This includes the impacts resulting from permit compliance requirements and the issues
associated with permits that must be obtained by the contractor.
Terrain This covers the ROW preparation challenges posed by the physical conditions to be
encountered e.g., hills, mountains, desert, wetlands. Typically it also includes aspects such
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as topsoil segregation requirements and road, rail and river crossings.
as topsoil segregation requirements and road, rail and river crossings.
Community This includes issues more typically encountered on an international project in a developing
Relations country, such as local content requirements, community assistance programs during
construction e.g., building a road to a village, and nominated local subcontractors which the
contractor must utilize during construction.
Industry experience to date generally considers that terrain is the top constructability issue, followed by access and
working space. In developed countries, working space is a key issue, whereas in other countries access is often
important due to remote terrains. Depending upon the region of the world where the project is built, community relations
are sometimes also a priority. The issues can be ranked by order of importance as follows.
Relative importance of various activities:
5.1.2 Overview of Constructability Issues

The simple proposition to move hydrocarbons through a pipe from point A to B is quickly complicated by recognizing
that the ROW element affects all the project stakeholders: owners, landowners/users, environmentalists, agencies,
regulators, engineers, contractors and operators.
Developing countries may present more flexibility for pipeline ROW options due to their less developed permitting and
environmental guidelines, but these countries are fast adopting the approach of the developed countries, particularly
regarding environmental issues. In developed countries, environmental concerns tend to dominate other route selection
issues.
Because of the predominant nature of environmental concerns, existing pipeline corridors or other existing linear
corridors (such as roads or electrical lines) are preferred when a project looks to route a new line. A new scar on the
landscape will likely add time and cost to the project from both an environmental and permitting perspective.
The owner and engineer orient the pipeline route to comply with environmental and cultural limitations, permit
restrictions, landowner/land-use constraints, and engineering and construction considerations. Within the boundaries of
the available corridor and along with the regulatory confinements, attention is given to terrain, soil type and access to
the ROW for construction and operation.
The contractor has to manage multiple difficulties including limited access to the ROW during construction, and
constrictions and restrictions to the working space. While these obstacles can be daunting, time consuming and costly,
construction is a one-time event in the life cycle of a pipeline system.
The multiple and sometimes conflicting variables which determine pipeline route selection may combine to make
constructability issues appear to be a secondary consideration
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mistake.
In general, a pipeline route should be optimized to minimize the impact to habitations, environment and other valued
land areas while at the same time be as short and as constructible as possible. Shorter pipelines (not withstanding
those through inhabited areas and severe terrain) are typically less expensive to install and operate, offer less
maintenance needs, expose less land (and often less of the public) to pipeline operations, are safer, have less impact
on future development, and provide more efficient hydraulics.
Choosing a pipeline route that meets these criteria can be a challenging balancing act between the desires of the
landowners, the permitting authorities, and the pipeline owners whose functional and financial needs are the driving
force behind the project.
This process often includes a number of iterations of route selection, evaluation, negotiation, refinement before the final
route is selected.
Routeing preferences move toward terrains that are flat, open (unoccupied and unforested), dry, and have stable soils
and away from terrains that are occupied, hilly to mountainous, heavily eroded, wet, contain unstable soils, and have
numerous crossings (natural or manmade watercourses, roads etc.). An optimal route can be found by prioritizing and
weighing all the different features and terrains encountered in combination with conscientious, good faith negotiations
with the landowners and the permitting authorities and never losing sight of the owner’s goals and needs for the
pipeline’s functionality, cost, and safety. Appendix 5.1.2 discusses how to use Google Earth to aid in pipeline design
and route selection.
5.1.2.1 Access
Once a route has been selected, access to the route must be obtained first for engineering assessment and surveying,
for construction, and then permanent access for operations and maintenance. Construction access is important as it
involves the transport of heavy equipment and material to the ROW. Permanent access for operations and
maintenance is by far the most important as this will be required all year round (365 days) for any potential emergency
inspections and repairs. Access may be via public or private means. Public roads and highways are used to get
material and equipment into the general vicinity of (if not directly to) the area on the ROW where they are needed.
Otherwise, the contractor must rely on either access directly down the ROW or by private access, negotiated with
landowners, to get his equipment and material to the ROW. Contractors rely heavily on access down the ROW, but
this is frequently interrupted by the presence of natural features such as marshes and soft ground, streams, and
ravines. Long driving distances are often involved in circumventing these features by public roads. In such cases,
private access is often required, by means of a private road or temporary board or gravel road (built by the contractor)
on private property. Temporary access roads are most often removed after construction and pre-existing private roads
used must typically be left in as good or better condition than found.
5.1.2.2 Non-contiguous ROW
A non-contiguous ROW is primarily a planning and permitting issue, and is often encountered where landowner
negotiations for the ROW have been prolonged or face litigation or where permitting issues have not been fully resolved
in a given area at the time construction is scheduled to begin. Unresolved access to the ROW can force a contractor to
reload, move, and unload his equipment repeatedly and also complicates the logistics of moving material to the ROW.
Similarly, missing ROW sections can interfere with the efficient hydrostatic testing of the pipeline once installed and
can force the contractor to return to the area once the ROW is obtained. This interference with the normal pipeline
construction and testing process lowers construction efficiency, raises costs, and extends the construction schedule
thus delaying the pipeline in-service time. As a result, every effort should be made to minimise noncontiguous ROW
issues prior to start of construction.
5.1.2.3 Working Space
Working space constitutes the area in which the construction equipment will operate while installing the pipeline and
associated facilities. For the pipeline itself, this is a combination of the ROW and the temporary workspace outside the
ROW, which is negotiated with land owners, for use on a temporary basis during construction only. This temporary
workspace is often located parallel to and on both sides of the pipeline ROW. The full, running construction corridor
(ROW and temporary workspace) is typically broken into three, parallel strips. First, there is the pipe trench located in
the central portion of the corridor (and within the ROW), second, the spoil side workspace where the trench spoil is
placed, and third, the working side (opposite the spoil side of the trench) where the pipe is strung and welded together,
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the side booms operate, and typically a travel or passing lane is provided outside the pipe and side booms. The width
of the temporary workspace is largely dependent on the size of the pipe, the size of the equipment to handle it (side
booms etc.), the depth of the trench, and the degree to which soil segregation is required. Typically, additional
temporary workspace is provided at road, stream and other crossings where more or special construction equipment is
required, crossing pipe sections (drag sections) must be fabricated, and additional requirements for spoil storage must
be made. These additional temporary workspace requirements are essentially standard for road and stream crossings,
but can be much larger and more complex for special construction areas such as at horizontal directional drilled (HDD)
crossings.
The proper allowance of workspace on a pipeline project creates an efficient construction environment where high
levels of safety and productivity can be achieved and maintained, construction schedules are reduced, costs are
mitigated, and a better industry reputation maintained altogether. On the other hand, inadequate workspace creates an
inefficient and unsafe work environment where equipment and personnel must work too closely together, equipment is
restricted in its ability to move and pivot, material storage and fabrications must be done at remote locations then
transported to site, spoil must be transferred to multiple locations, access and passing lanes are nonexistent or
restricted, and project schedules are prolonged, safety and quality is sacrificed, and costs increased etc.
In general, adequate work space is a key component of a successful pipeline project. However, the availability of
space is dependent on the terrain being crossed. Construction at the peaks of mountainous terrain will have limited
working space, meaning that construction traffic will require more control moving up and down the right of way
compared to a flat right of way. This will affect construction rates, and hence overall schedules.
5.1.2.4 Restoration
Restoration is the return of the temporary construction workspace and the pipeline ROW to a condition similar prior to
the pipeline’s construction. Restoration plans are generally negotiated with the land owners, environmental engineers,
and permitting authorities prior to construction commencement. Plans are drawn up according to the agreements with
all involved. Typically the restoration of ROW and workspace involves the return of appropriate plant life to these areas
and updating ground drainage to work as before. In some cases it will also involve the replacement of road and parking
lot surfaces etc., or the stabilization of stream and river banks at crossings. In the latter cases, care should be taken to
prevent settlement or erosion of those surfaces in the years following construction. Regarding plant life restoration, the
workspace may be typically allowed to either return to its natural state on its own or be replanted with plant life,
including trees, similar to those in the surrounding area. Typically the ROW itself is not replanted with trees or heavy
brush as it must be passable by maintenance and emergency vehicles, and be able to be monitored by crews on foot
or by plane. There are exceptions to this such as along navigable and scenic rivers where tree screens are often
required by the permitting authorities. However, any trees or heavy brush planted near pipelines must have shallow
roots so as not to interfere with the pipeline and its coating. At a minimum, the disturbed ground is typically graded then
seed, lime, mulch, fertilizer etc. is spread to provide a temporary stabilization to the soil surface to mitigate erosion (in
accordance with the approved plans). At times, the soil must be broken or aerated to some degree if it has been
compacted too severely by construction equipment. Farmers will often take care of the restoration of their own cropland
in accordance with their own plans with expectations of compensation for their effort. In some cases the restoration
effort may extend over several years until a given percentage (specified in the permit) of the disturbed land has been
restored. Complicated restoration efforts (as might be required in national parks) are often subcontracted out by the
owner or prime contractor.
5.1.2.5 Environmental Mitigation
As an example, a large-diameter pipeline 100 miles long may traverse various terrain types and cross through or near
many farms, parks, forests, and/or prairies; and dozens of streams and/or rivers. Such a pipeline can potentially disturb
over 1200 acres of land and leave in its path a prominent scar across the countryside. In an effort to mitigate the
negative impact of a pipeline project on the environment it is important to first assess the types of environments
through which the pipeline is proposed to pass. Second, to develop a plan by which the impact of the pipeline’s
construction and operation in those environments is mitigated. This environmental mitigation plan for a pipeline project
is prepared in cooperation with the land owners and the permitting authorities. Optimized routeing of the pipeline is the
first and most important tool by which environmental impact is mitigated. By that means alone, very important or
sensitive land areas have the best opportunity to minimize or eliminate negative environmental impact. Additional
mitigation measures include:
Boring or HDD under or passed areas of concern
Reduced ROW and/or workspace width
Bridging over areas of concern Page 96
Increasing the depth of cover or insulating the pipe (where surface heating or cooling is a concern)
Rearranging mainline valves out of areas of concern
Sharing ROW with adjacent utilities
Using existing bridges
Installing interconnections with existing pipelines (where extra capacity is available) rather than building a new
pipeline
Using skid mounted equipment prefabricated elsewhere
Further ways may also exist to reduce or eliminate the impact of pipeline construction and operation to the
environment. As for land that is impacted by the pipeline, a plan must be developed in cooperation with the landowners
and permitting authorities, to restore the disturbed environment to its preconstruction state as much and as soon as
possible.
5.1.2.6 Permits
Any and all pipelines that are to leave the property of the pipeline owner and cross either public land or private land, not
owned by the pipeline owner, must be approved by the appropriate public authorities. It is the duty of the public
authorities to ensure that all laws of the land are obeyed, that the rights of private property owners are respected, and
that there is an overriding public good provided by the pipeline project. The approval of the project, by the public
authorities, is generally provided in the form of a permit, signed by the appropriate public representative and officially
issued.
This permit, often issued with stipulations, is the means by which the pipeline is approved to be designed, constructed
and operated. Different countries have differing regulatory and permit requirements. Such permits can typically be
broken into three types. These are typically federal, state, and local. Generally speaking, if a pipeline is classified as
having common carrier status (carrying the products of more than one company) then the owner company is given the
right of eminent domain, which in effect allows the pipeline owner company to condemn property owners in court to
obtain (at fair market value) the access, ROW, and/or workspace needed to construct and operate their pipeline.
Typical reasons that permits are issued include the following:
To confirm that a pipeline project is in the best public interest and that a fair increase in commodity or tariff rates
may be made, by the owner company, to offset the projects costs
To confirm that property owners, on whose property the pipeline is to be located, are not unduly burdened by it
To confirm that the environmental impact is acceptable and that appropriate mitigation and restoration will be
conducted
To confirm that the route and workspace has been searched for prehistoric and historic sites in the vicinity of the
project and that either the project’s impact to any such sites is nil or acceptable and that appropriate restoration
will be performed (as required)
To confirm that the route and workspace has been searched for endangered species and habitat in the vicinity of
the project and that either the project’s impact to any such sites is nil or acceptable and that appropriate
restoration will be performed (as required)
To confirm the acceptance of road, railroad, stream and other crossings
Numerous additional types of permits might also be required. These permits can take from a few days to prepare a
simple drawing and obtain a local road crossing permit to over a year to apply and obtain a federal permit for a large
multi-state project.
5.1.2.7 Terrain
This is the most important construction issue. In weighing the construction, material, and operational costs and needs
of a cross country pipeline, there will sometimes be decisions made during the routeing process to traverse a shorter
distance through a more difficult terrain rather than take a longer distance through a more favorable terrain (and vice-
versa). Generally, shorter pipelines make for lower construction, material, and operational costs. However, in some
cases, it may be preferable to take a longer route around an area, such as a dense city or a mountain range, rather than
take the shorter and more direct route through it. Complications can increase substantially in mountainous and other
regions affecting safety and extending the construction schedule resulting in increased costs.
In addition, product transportation and operation costs can significantly increase though mountainous regions (for liquid
lines). In such cases, for example, the increase in costs for a mountainous route, over the life of the pipeline, could
outweigh those for a longer route around a mountain range. These are issues that must be worked out in the overall
process of optimizing the pipelines function and lifetime cost (construction, material, and operations).
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Nevertheless, difficult terrains are often part of a chosen pipeline route, and must be dealt with by the construction
contractor. Such terrains might include mountains, marshes, permafrost, urban areas, unstable soils (moving sand
dunes etc.), rugged areas with much erosion and exposed rock, areas with poor access etc.
In all these cases, careful planning of the workspace, access, material storage yards, construction equipment to be
used, pipeline installation methods, and construction schedule (winter, summer etc.) in consideration of the terrain will
make vast improvements in the safety and productivity of the construction phase of the project.
5.1.2.8 Community Relations
Presenting a proposed pipeline project in a positive way to the communities it affects, and maintaining a good and
positive relationship with affected communities is key to minimizing many of the problems that can often hamper the
permitting, construction, operation, and maintenance of a pipeline. Project administrators should notify communities
early on about the plans for a proposed pipeline project by contacting community administrators, posting newspaper
notices, and conducting public meetings. Open public meetings provide an opportunity for local officials, landowners,
business leaders, and other affected parties to receive information about the pipeline(s) location(s), construction
schedule, and key project contacts. These meetings can also provide a means of providing information about the
benefits of a pipeline project (economic stimulus, jobs etc.), allow community members to have their questions
answered and concerns addressed, rectify misunderstandings that frequently alarm people unnecessarily about
pipeline projects, and avert negative media attention. Likewise, these meetings allow for dialogue with property owners
and community.
Overall, good relationships between pipeline owner companies and communities are invaluable toward improved
routeing and facility location options, ROW and workspace negotiations, assistance from the local contractors and
workforce, and opportunities for the use of community infrastructure and facilities among other things.
» Continue with 5.2 Minimum Data Requirements and Activities for the Five Typical Project Stages
« Back to 5. Planning and Design
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3/28/2015 Appendix 5.1.1 - Pipeline Route Selection Process - Road to Success - IPLOCA WIKI Collaboration Platform
Appendix 5.1.1 Pipeline Route Selection Process

5.1.1.1 General
The route
selection 5.1.1.1 General
process 5.1.1.2 Basis for Engineering
described 5.1.1.3 Primary Selection Factors
below is a 5.1.1.4 Corridor Selection in Project Key Stages
typical 5.1.1.5 Routing Activities within Project Phases
approach of 5.1.1.5.1 Route Corridor options [FEL 1, Appraise]
routing a 5.1.1.5.2 Route selection [FEL 2, Select]
pipeline 5.1.1.5.3 Route investigation and consultation [FEL 3, Define, FEED]
between 5.1.1.5.4 Design and approval of final route [Project Execution phase, detailed design]
the known 5.1.1.6 Key Routing Principles and Influencing Factors
start and
5.1.1.7 Public safety, content of the pipeline, operating conditions and location class
end points
and any
5.1.1.8 Pipeline Above Ground Installations (AGIs)
5.1.1.9 Environmental and Regulatory Steps
5.1.1.10 Terrain, subterranean conditions, geotechnical and hydrographical conditions
5.1.1.11 Geohazards
5.1.1.11.1 Types of Geo-hazards
5.1.1.11.2 Geotechnical Investigations
5.1.1.11.3 Geo-Hazard Pipeline Routing
5.1.1.12 Selection Criteria
5.1.1.13 Existing and future land use
5.1.1.14 Permanent access
5.1.1.15 Transport facilities and utility services
5.1.1.16 Construction, hydrotesting, operation and maintenance
5.1.1.17 Security
5.1.1.18 Risk/Threat Assessment
5.1.1.19 Data Collection and Management
5.1.1.20 Graphical Information System
5.1.1.20.1 General
5.1.1.20.2 GIS Routing Optimization Methodology
5.1.1.20.3 Identification of Factors Affecting the Route
5.1.1.20.4 GIS Data and Data Sources
5.1.1.20.5 GIS Data Processing and Analysis
5.1.1.20.6 GIS Suitability Map Generation
5.1.1.21 Light Detection and Ranging - LiDAR
intermediate offtake points. A description covering all potential eventualities would be impossible since no one pipeline
routing selection process is similar to any other because of differences in location, land use, terrain, infrastructure, local
permits and regulations, environment, and archeology. Furthermore, each route selection phase will depend on the
project schedule. Each terrain will have its own issues. It is entirely conceivable to complete and approve the final
route in the project planning (FEED, define) phase, whilst other projects may not do so until the project execution
(detailed design) phase.
Pipelines are routed to connect between a start point, intermediate take off points and an end point.
The final route selected must be:
Safe
Environmentally acceptable
Economical Page 99
http://wiki.iploca.com/display/rtswiki/Appendix+5.1.1+-+Pipeline+Route+Selection+Process 1/23
Practical
No one routing process can be applied for all pipelines. This is because different factors, such as product to be
transported, pipeline size, pipeline material, location, land use, crossings required, land ownership, terrain,
infrastructure, local permits and regulations, environmental and archeology, have to be considered for different
pipelines.
Such factors will be key to defining when the route will be finalized and approved. For some projects the route can be
finalized and approved in the project planning (FEED, define) phase, whilst other projects may not do so until the
project execution (detailed design) phase.
5.1.1.2 Basis for Engineering
A pipeline route is a pivotal piece of information upon which the pipeline engineering depends. The route will define the
pipeline size, terrain, soils, and engineering analysis requirements. Engineering assessment based upon an agreed
alignment selection criteria is an important part of a linear project. To be able to reach the best construction line and
optimize its components, the phases namely — corridor, route, alignment, and construction line selection — should be
studied in the given order.
5.1.1.3 Primary Selection Factors
The detailed pipeline route selection is preceded by defining a broad area of search between the two fixed start and end
points. That is, possible pipeline corridors. The route can then be filtered with consideration of public safety, pipeline
integrity, environmental impact, consequences of escape of fluid, and based on social, economic, technical
environmental grounds, constructability, land ownership, access, regulatory requirements and cost.
Economic, technical, environmental and safety considerations should be the primary factors governing the choice of
pipeline routes. The shortest route might not be the most suitable, and physical obstacles, environmental constraints
and other factors, such as locations of intermediate offtake points to end users along the pipeline route should be
considered. Offtake points may dictate mainline routing so as to minimise the need or impact of the offtake lines or
spurs.
Many route constraints will have technical solutions (e.g. routing through flood plains), and each will have an
associated cost.
5.1.1.4 Corridor Selection in Project Key Stages
Pipeline routing is an iterative process, which starts with a wide ‘corridor of interest’ and then narrows down to a more
defined route at each design stage as more data is acquired, to a final ‘right of way’ (ROW). Initially, a number of
alternative corridors with widths up to 10 km wide are reviewed.
Typically the route alignment steps can be described as shown below (Fig. 1 and Table 1). Each project will have its
own specific corridor-narrowing process depending on project size and location.
Pipeline corridors should initially be selected to avoid key constraints. The route can then be further refined through an
iterative process, involving consultation with stakeholders and landowners and a review of the EIA criteria, to avoid
additional identified constraints. The ultimate aim is to achieve an economically and environmentally-feasible route for
construction.
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Fig. 1 - Narrowing Down Of Pipeline Corridor During Project Stages
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Table 1 - Narrowing Down Of Pipeline Corridor During Project Stages: Key Descriptions
5.1.1.5 Routing Activities within Project Phases
5.1.1.5.1 Route Corridor options [FEL 1, Appraise]
This phase involves the initial desk-top studies to identify route corridor options taking into account known key
environmental and cultural sensitivities. It is to develop key pipeline routing information from available topographical
and geological maps, aerial photography and/or satellite imagery, and the literature available in the public domain, such
as town planning data. The information is used to identify corridor options, key routing constraints visible from the
maps and publications, and key engineering data such as length and profile for use in costing and scheduling.
5.1.1.5.2 Route selection [FEL 2, Select]
A corridor should be selected by performing a key issues study, whilst ensuring as far as possible that the corridor
selected is suitable and is not likely to create significant problems at a later stage. The desk study and visual
appraisal, making use of all information available within the public domain, should precede the adoption of a provisional
route within the selected route corridor. Information regarding geological, archaeological and environmental features
should, in the first instance, be obtained from published sources to establish the route prior to discussions with the
relevant institutions.
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The geographic limits within which pipeline route selection is to take place should be defined by identification of the
starting point of the pipeline and any intermediate fixed points. These points should be marked on suitably scaled plans
covering the area.
The route of interest should then be straddled across these points so that key issues and constraints affecting the
selection of the route can be plotted and assessed. The width of the corridor will depend upon the nature of the terrain
traversed, current and likely future population and degree of complexity expected with regard to environmental,
constructability and archaeological aspects. Where practicable, this corridor should be selected to avoid urban areas,
major road, rail and water crossings and environmentally sensitive areas.
Existing and planned constraints to route selection occurring within the area of interest should be identified to assist the
selection of route options. The constraints identified should take into account the complexity of terrain and information
gathered. Key constraints and obstructions should be avoided as much as possible.
A preferred route should then be selected, taking into account all the technical, environmental and safety-related factors
that might be significant during installation and operation of the pipeline system. The selection should follow a
comparative study.
Consideration should be given to setting up and using a geographical information system (GIS), as described below, to
record and manage the data collected, at this phase of the project. Delaying such a decision to a later phase will
require extensive data catch-up.
5.1.1.5.3 Route investigation and consultation [FEL 3, Define, FEED]
This stage involves gathering more detailed information, highlighting and mapping constraints within the route corridor
so as to assist in the selection of a preferred final route. This allows the project to proceed onto the next stage of
negotiations. All the constraints and potential planning problems that could affect the pipeline (e.g. timing or method of
construction) should now be addressed and recorded. A traffic management plan should be produced.
A QRA, risk or threat assessment exercise allows for the comparison of pipeline routing alternatives based on the
likelihood of occurrence of hazardous event and the associated consequences of the events along each route.
A detailed investigation of the route and the environment in which the pipeline is to be constructed should be made.
Topographical, geotechnical, and soil resistivity field surveys should be carried out, comprising a pipeline engineer,
geotechnical engineers, environmental scientists, archaeologists, anthropologists, with appropriate approvals from
landowners. Access roads, construction camps, facility sites, cathodic protection sites and main line valve sites
should also be surveyed during this stage.
The data collected is also fed into the design and engineering of the pipeline.
Refinements to the pipeline corridor and locations for above-ground facilities should be made while in the field to avoid
environmentally and culturally sensitive areas.
The appropriate authorities and any third parties should be contacted to obtain details of any known or expected
development or encroachment along the route, the location of underground obstructions, pipelines, services and
structures and all other pertinent data.
Consultations should be held as early as possible during route finalisation with the planning and statutory authorities
(including local planning authorities, and government safety departments) and any other appropriate organisations,
landowners, third parties, etc.
Reviews of the preferred route should be carried out in the field. These should initially be based on the desktop study.
Accompanied by the relevant landowner/occupier and the land agent, the proposed route should be examined in more
detail, in particular those areas that might have been difficult to determine from maps and public rights of way during
desk studies.
Consideration should be given to negotiations for use of access roads for construction or maintenance purposes.
Land and environmental surveys should be made that cover sufficient width and depth around the provisional route and
have sufficient accuracy to identify all features that could adversely influence installation and operation of the pipeline.
This should be accompanied by further detailed consultation with all affected third parties. Third-party activities along
the pipeline route and related safety aspects should be investigated.
Stakeholder, local jurisdiction and national government approval should be obtained in accordance with statutory
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requirements.
A complete set of data relevant to design, construction and the safe and reliable operation of the pipeline should be
compiled from records, maps and physical surveys.
The selected route should be recorded on alignment sheets of an appropriate scale. The coordinates of all significant
points, such as target points, crossings points, bend starting and end points, should be indicated. Contour lines should
be recorded at intervals sufficient for design purposes, particularly with regard to the installation and operational
phases, and consideration should be given to the need for a vertical profile of the route.
5.1.1.5.4 Design and approval of final route [Pr oject Execution phase, detailed design]
This is the final phase to define the best line and its components. Local planning authority and statutory approvals, and
landowner/tenant agreements, should now be finalized.
The route of the pipeline should be identified by a locating system such as markers placed along the route.
Valve locations, AGI locations, river crossings, and geo-hazardous area crossings should be investigated in detail, and
readied for construction.
The physical building and commissioning of the pipeline should now be able to commence in accordance with the
design criteria.
5.1.1.6 Key Routing Principles and Influencing Factors
The key principles to take into account when performing route selection are
1. Safety of the public and personnel - the route must provide a safe and secure environment for the pipeline during
construction and over its operational life and ideally be routed away from populated areas
2. Economic – the route should meet the project’s economic objectives, without compromising safety and
environment and minimizing local economy impact on communities that the pipeline passes through, and have
the smallest footprint feasible (ideally the shortest distance between pipeline start and end points).
3. Land ownership related factors e.g. the number of landowners, anticipated ease and cost to obtain/purchase
consents
4. Easement width
5. Contents of the pipeline and operating conditions, e.g. consideration of leakage of a high vapour pressure
liquids.
6. Environmental impact – the route must have a minimum negative impact on the environment and minimum land
use
7. Terrain and subterranean conditions, including geotechnical, hydrographical, and meteorological conditions. This
includes ground stability, including other land uses which may create instability (e.g. mine subsidence, land
development/excavation)
8. Cultural heritage sites
9. Existing and future land plan usage. This can be determined by research of public records and consultation with
land planning agencies which should identify:
third-party activities
agricultural practice
existing facilities and services
future developments
10. Existing and planned transport facilities and buried/above ground utility services
11. Construction, testing, operation and maintenance - the pipeline must be installable along the route
12. Permanent access – the pipeline must ideally be accessible for inspection and maintenance all year round over
its operational life
13. Security – The pipeline system should be routed to minimise security concerns, particularly due to trespass and
sabotage, during both construction and operation.
14. Other hazards
15. Follow existing linear disturbances where possible (roads). Use of existing linear routes (e.g. roads or power-
lines) may avoid or reduce impact to sensitive areas. Although using routes occupied by other infrastructure may
affect safety and corrosion potential from for example electrical interference.
5.1.1.7 Public safety, content of the pipeline, operating conditions and location class
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The main operating conditions in pipelines that can affect route selection are:
The internal fluid
Operational envelope
Location
Pipeline material, diameter and thickness
Various codes categorise fluid as to their hazard potential, and the most hazardous flammable and toxic fluid should,
where practicable, avoid built-up areas or areas with frequent human activity. Consideration should be given to routing
that minimises the possibility of external damage in these areas.
The pipeline route should be an appropriate distance from buildings in accordance with the codes being used. Codes
also use a system of area or location classification based on population densities or number of buildings. Design
factors are stipulated relevant to the classification levels.
Pipeline material, diameter and content, affect the probability of failure and associated consequences:
Pipe fracture
Maximum rate of release of contents
Change of state of the fluid under atmospheric conditions
Total volume that can escape under emergency conditions
The consequential impact of the above should be considered in the routing process, and ensuing QRA and risk and
pipeline threat assessments .
5.1.1.8 Pipeline Above Ground Installations (AGIs)
Similar to the pipeline route, the location of above ground installations (AGIs) installed on the pipeline in-line must also
be selected with care and attention. The selection of these locations involve consideration and balancing of a number
of factors, including pipeline hydraulics, safety and environmental risk, site conditions, site access, existing power
infrastructure, proximity to residences/population.
5.1.1.9 Environmental and Regulatory Steps
The pipeline route, and its impact on the environment, will need to be considered, justified and approved by regulators,
the general public and land owners. Hence, consultation is a key part of routing.
Key environmental and regulatory steps are illustrated below.
Detailed assessments should be undertaken to ascertain the impact of the pipeline on environmentally sensitive areas.
When selecting the route and in-line station locations, care should be taken to identify and minimise any possible
effects on typically the following : Page 106
1. Ramsar sites (These are wetlands of international importance, designated under the Ramsar Convention)
2. Sites of special scientific interest (SSSIs)
3. National parks and country parks
4. Nature reserves
5. Flora and fauna
6. Forests/tree preservation orders
7. Heritage sites/coasts
8. Special areas of conservation
9. Special protection areas
10. Areas of outstanding natural beauty (AONBs)
11. Ancient monuments, archaeological and ornamental sites
12. Natural resources, such as catchment areas and forests
13. Mineral resources
14. Indigenous population sites
15. Groundwater protection areas
The following should be attained, as far as practicable:
1. Location of AGIs (valve stations, metering stations, scraper trap stations) are such so as not to be a noise
nuisance to the local population, particularly during relief operations, valve operation, blow-offs
2. Avoid contamination of ground water and watercourses
3. Minimise the volume of traffic
4. Minimise the number of trees to be removed
An environmental noise survey should be carried out where pipeline construction and permanent facilities may give rise
to noise complaints before the pipeline route is established, so that prior noise assessment can be made and the route
or the construction method changed if necessary to minimise disruption.
Relevant planning and approval authorities should be contacted at an early stage to determine the requirements and the
extent/coverage of an environmental impact assessment (EIA), required for a pipeline and its associated above-ground
installations. If required, an EIA should cover the effect of pipeline works on local amenities and take recognition of
future developments.
Regulatory requirements will normally dictate that an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is prepared.
The EIS will normally address:
Flora
Specially protected (threatened) fauna
Surface water and groundwater
Soil and geology erosion
Rehabilitation
Construction pollution issues
Risk and hazards
Culture and heritage
Archaeology
Ecology (terrestrial and marine)
Landscape and visual impact
Land use and agriculture
Hydrology
Hydrogeology
Traffic/access
Noise/vibration
Air quality
Site stability
Site contamination
Lighting
Tourism and leisure
Socio-economic factors
Safety
The output from the EIS should be used within the route selection process against the criteria outlined below.
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5.1.1.10 Terrain, subterranean conditions, geotechnical and hydrographical conditions
The geography of the terrain traversed can generally be divided into surface topography and subterranean geology. Both
natural and man-made geographical features can be considered under these two headings.
The principal geographical features which are likely to be encountered and should be taken into account include:
Surface Subterranean
Crops, livestock, woodlands Earthquake zone

Natural beauty, archaeological, Geological features
Ornamental rivers, mountains
Infill land and waste disposal sites, including those contaminated by
Water catchment areas, forestry disease, radioactivity or chemicals
Population, communications, The proximity of past, present and future mineral extractions, including
services uncharted workings, pipelines and underground services
Contouring, soil or rock type, water, Areas of geological instability, including faults, fissuring and earthquake
soil corrosivity zones
Designated areas, protected Existing or potential areas of land slippage, subsidence and differential
habitats, flora and fauna settlement
Tunnels
Ground water hydrology, including flood plains
Adverse geotechnical, hydrographic, and meteorological conditions should be identified and mitigating measures
defined.
Authorities, geological institutions and mining experts should be consulted on general geological conditions, slippage
areas, tunnelling and other possible adverse ground conditions. Where there is a possibility that any of these conditions
might arise during the lifetime of a pipeline, monitoring of the conditions should be incorporated in the regular inspection
and maintenance procedures adopted. This can include measurement of local ground movements, fluctuation in water
table levels and indicative changes in pipeline stresses.
Each terrain, such as desert, mountain, forest, arctic, will have its own routing consideration requirements and
constraints.
5.1.1.11 Geohazards
A geo-hazard is identified as a geological, hydro-geological or geomorphological event or process that poses an

immediate or potential risk that may lead to damage or uncontrolled risk. The type, nature, magnitude, extent and rate
of geological processes and hazards directly influence pipeline route selection. Therefore, the process of early-stage
terrain evaluation and the identification and assessment of geo-hazards and ground conditions are important as they
can lead to extensive cost and time savings in the design and construction of a pipeline. The process enables the
routing of the pipeline through the most suitable terrain, problem areas are identified, serious geo-hazards are avoided,
where possible, and risks are minimised and mitigated. In addition, terrain evaluation is undertaken so that the need for
expensive remedial measures or site restoration works is limited or prevented and the operability of the pipeline is
safeguarded through a proper appreciation of the terrain conditions. By minimizing the risk of damage to the pipeline the
risk to the human safety is reduced.
Terrain evaluation along the pipeline corridor can be achieved using a variety of low-cost techniques and include
satellite imagery and aerial photography interpretation, surface mapping and various other remote sensing techniques
(i.e. LiDAR surveys – see below). This data can be incorporated, together with historical data on seismic events,
geological features, meteorological processes and hydrological data, within a geographic information system (GIS –
see below) and detailed terrain and hazard models developed.
Terrain evaluation supports the anticipation, identification and assessment of the physical hazards and constraints
within and outside of the pipeline corridor. It is essential that features outside the corridor be evaluated, as hazardous
events outside of the corridor may be triggered by construction activity within the corridor and the resultant event may
impact upon the pipeline. Page 108
The risks associated with geo-hazards or the likelihood of an event occurring and its consequences can be qualitatively
and quantitatively assessed using a scoring system or by a quantitative risk assessment (QRA).
Safety of the pipeline is paramount in the routing selection. The extreme effect of a geological hazard on the pipeline is
a rupture and it is this event that terrain evaluation and risk analysis and seeks to avoid by improving the decision-
making progress used in selecting the most appropriate route for the pipeline.
5.1.1.11.1 Types of Geo-hazards
Geo-hazards are widespread phenomena that are influenced by geological and environmental conditions and which
involve both long-term and short-term processes. They range in size, magnitude and effect. Many geo-hazards are
naturally occurring features and processes but there are also many geo-hazards that are caused by anthropogenic
processes and these too need to be taken into account during the pipeline routing exercise. See table 2 for some
examples of geo-hazards.
Table 2 – Types of Geo-Hazards
5.1.1.11.2 Geotechnical Investigations
Geotechnical investigations and site-specific surveys aim to undercover the ‘good’ ground in which to install the
pipeline. The definition of ‘good’ ground can be considered to be ground with low gradients that is devoid of landslides,
cliffs, hard ground, rock outcrops, aggressive soils, difficult river crossings, deep gullies, scour, meta-stable materials
and spanning.
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Conventional geotechnical site surveys used for civil engineering projects are not always appropriate for major pipelines
that may span hundreds or even thousands of kilometers. The terrain may vary significantly along the narrow pipeline
corridor and this variance needs to be identified so that potential and existing geo-hazards are avoided.
Pipeline corridor selection, route definition and refinement procedures will seek to ensure that the majority of the
pipeline is installed in ground that, as far as is possible, avoids locations of identified and/or predicted geo-hazards.
Focused geotechnical investigations are required where unavoidable hazards are identified so that appropriate
geotechnical mitigation strategies may be planned.
Predicting the probability of a hazardous event occurring is a science that draws on a number of approaches to derive
an informed probability estimate. In particular, historical records of the frequency of the particular event, an
understanding of the events and the causes of the events, expert judgement and probability stability analysis is used.
However, the estimates are by no means a guarantee of the occurrence or non-occurrence of a particular event. For
this reason the estimates are termed “fit for purpose” and support the need for an extensive risk assessment in the
pipeline routing process.
5.1.1.11.3 Geo-Hazard Pipeline Routing
As far as is possible all geo-hazards should be avoided by a pipeline route. This is rarely possible, therefore the
following guidelines are applicable with respect to geo-hazards (to be avoided where practical):
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Table 3 – Pipeline Geohazards
5.1.1.12 Selection Criteria
Selection criteria should be developed following local codes and standards, national regulatory and local regulation
requirements and detailed consultation with, and input from, the local community.
Typical pipeline codes and standards include:
ASME B31.8 – Gas Transmission And Distribution Piping Systems (US/International Standard)
ASME B31.4 – Pipeline Transportation Systems For Liquid Hydrocarbon Pipelines (US/International Standard)
CSA Z662 – Oil And Gas Pipeline Systems (Canadian Standards Association)
NEN 3650 – Requirements For Pipeline Systems (Dutch Standard)
AS 2885.1 – Pipelines—Gas And Liquid Petroleum Part 1: Design And Construction (Australian Standard)
SNiP 2.05.06-85* Trunk Pipelines (Russia, Developed By Vniist)
VSN 51-3-85 Design Of Steel Field Pipelines (Russia, Developed By Vniigaz)
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Bs En 1594 - Gas Supply Systems _ Pipelines For Maximum Operating Pressure Over 16bar - Functional
Requirements
IGE-TD/1 Edition 4 - Recommendation On Transmission And Distribution Practice – Steel Pipelines For High
Pressure Gas Transmission, May 2001
BSI PD 8010 - Code Of Practice For Pipelines
ISO 13623/En 14161 - Petroleum And Natural Gas Industries — Pipeline Transportation Systems
Each country will have their own regulatory, permitting, and safety requirements and local constraints and
environmental issues meeting the indigenous population and local environment for routing pipelines. The routing
engineer should be fully conversant with the local requirements, as any lack of understanding could alienate
populations or authorities the route passes, meaning that approvals and permits will require extensive and detailed and
protracted negotiations leading to schedule delays, and may even be denied. Local issues should be clearly understood
before any routes are selected and before any external discussions take place. It is not uncommon that a permit
rejection of just a small section of the route through a local region can hold up the whole pipeline routing and
construction.
Corridor, route, alignment and construction line selection phases have vital importance in linear engineering structure
projects such as pipelines. Each possible route should be assessed at every stage with against selection criteria.
Large-scale geo-hazardous areas have to be avoided during the first two phases.
Technical assessment of the alternatives at each stage is crucial. Assessment at every phase provides significant
contribution in terms of timing, environment, safety, and cost. As evidenced in several international projects, precaution
is much better than remedial work. Failing to apply adequate route assessment criteria, and the basic phases to select
the best construction line, can lead to increased costs, sometimes up to 500%. In some cases, it is possible to have
environmental destruction beyond the acceptable limits, e.g. pipeline located through farm fields and major active
faults.
Table 4 below lists possible selection criteria. Such criteria should be ordered, reviewed for relevance, ranked and then
applied within routing evaluation. These criteria are also in line with best practice for infrastructural and pipeline
projects.
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Table 4 - Key Route Selection Criteria
5.1.1.13 Existing and future land use
The possibility of future development works should be taken into account to minimise the need for diversions or
alternative works at a later date. Information on future developments should be obtained from local authorities that the
route traverses through. Existing areas of development should be avoided as far as possible. Where this is
unavoidable, the safe distance of pipelines to buildings and structures should be related to design parameters for the
particular fluid transported as stated in the appropriate codes, which categorise fluid as to their hazard potential, and
the most hazardous flammable and toxic fluid should, where practicable, avoid built-up areas or areas with frequent
human activity.
Permanent above-ground equipment, located on or adjacent to the line of pipelines, should be sited with the agreement
of the landowners and occupiers concerned to minimise future obstruction, noise, vibration, interference, and security.
Pipelines containing substances that could cause contamination of underground water supplies, rivers, streams should,
where possible, avoid crossing exposed aquifers or land immediately upstream of waterwork intakes or reservoirs.
Where avoidance is not possible, statutory water suppliers and private groundwater extractors can require additional
precautions to be taken. This is particularly important in countries where the local population relies on ground water
extraction as the sole source water for daily use in drinking and cooking.
Water authorities should be consulted about all watercourse crossings, particularly in relation to future widening and
deepening. The larger watercourses are classed as “main rivers” and are likely to be directly controlled by water
authorities; lesser watercourses draining low-level areas might come within the control of local authorities, landowners,
and farmers. In other cases owners and occupiers should be consulted. The jurisdiction of water authorities includes
river embankments, sea and tidal defences and secondary works to reduce the spread of floodwater. Where pipelines
cross or are laid adjacent to any such embankments, the relevant water authority should be consulted.
Pipelines should be located to produce minimum disturbance to established agricultural practice. Any potential third-
party activities along the route should be identified and should be evaluated in consultation with these parties. A control
zone should be established to control all third-party activities in order to safeguard and secure the pipeline against
external interference as well as to protect the safety of the parties involved.
The probability of third-party interference to the pipeline will decrease as the depth of cover is increased. Pipeline
protection analysis will need to consider the cost of protection against the threats posed, safety and reputation.
5.1.1.14 Permanent access
The selected pipeline route should permit year-round 24-hr unhindered and adequate access to the pipeline, and
associated above-ground installations, from the public highways for the equipment and materials necessary to carry out
planned inspections, maintenance and emergency repairs. This may require the building of new roads, and ongoing
maintenance of access tracks.
Permanent access requirements should be taken into account at the time pipeline routing is being negotiated with
landowners and occupiers. Access rights may also have to be negotiated with parties other than those through whose
land pipelines will be laid.
Access facilities should be determined by the frequency of use, the testing and repair equipment likely to be required,
and the anticipated urgency of repairs.
5.1.1.15 Transport facilities and utility services
Particular regard should be given to the layout and levels of existing transport facilities and utility services, and
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enquiries made regarding their foreseeable development. Local authorities that the pipeline passes through can impose
special conditions for pipeline routes. All relevant authorities should be approached in good time, requesting details of
their facilities and services.
Ideally pipelines should be routed to minimise disruption to existing facilities and services. The number and lengths of
crossings under or over transport facilities should be minimised, and the recommendations of the relevant transport
authorities should be taken into account.
5.1.1.16 Construction, hydrotesting, operation and maintenance
The route should permit the necessary access and working width for the construction, testing, operation and
maintenance (including any replacement) of the pipeline. The availability of utilities necessary for construction,
operation and maintenance should be analysed. Areas will be required to store materials, and set up construction
camps, all requiring highly-demanding area re-instatement to the original found condition when the work finishes. All
these will affect local populations and environments, and unless adequately thought out and thoroughly planned could
lead to local area route rejection, and jeopardize the whole project.
For remote locations issues such as material logistics, material storage, labour camps and associated environmental
issues (sewage, drainage) need careful consideration and detailed planning.
Availability and suitability of water for hydrostatic test purposes and its subsequent discharge will need early
consideration. Trucking water in and out will be expensive. Water authorities may not allow water to be used from
nearby rivers, nor its disposal back into streams due to internal pipe debris and chemicals that may have been used to
treat the water prior to hydrotesting.
5.1.1.17 Security
The pipeline system should be routed to minimise security concerns, particularly due to trespass and sabotage, during
both construction and operation. Typical issues that should be taken into account include :
Construction site access restriction (pipeline and facilities)
Personnel and equipment security during construction
Associated pipeline facilities during operation access restriction
Sabotage to buried operating pipeline, and associated above-ground pipework and facilities
Mitigation to reduce likelihood of interference from third-party activity
5.1.1.18 Risk/Threat Assessment
A QRA, risk or threat assessment exercise allows for identifying the likelihood of occurrence of hazardous event and
the associated consequences of the events along the route.
A risk assessment considers:
The hazard – what can go wrong?
The probability of the hazardous event
The consequences of the event
The relative importance of the event
The mitigating activities that are required to manage the ris
Risk assessment methods are by no means guaranteed to provide a reliable estimate of the probability of hazardous
event occurring but they do provide estimates that guide the route selection process and allow a pipeline route to be
declared “fit for purpose”. Risk evaluation and risk management are an essential input into the route selection process
as they provide judgments on the significance of the identified risks and they help to determine the most appropriate
course for the pipeline at a risk level that is deemed to be as low as is reasonably practical (the ALARP principle).
5.1.1.19 Data Collection and Management
Table 5 below summarises typical key data required for each route selection phase.
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Table 5 - Typical Data Requirements
5.1.1.20 Graphical Information System
5.1.1.20.1 General
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are scientific and technological tools that enable the integration of data from
different sources into a centralised database from which the data is modelled and analysed based on its spatial
component. GIS-based tools and processes have been extensively used to address the challenges of optimizing
pipeline route selection and route networks based on the collection, processing and analysis of spatial data such as
topography, vegetation, soil type, land use, geology and landslide areas.
Traditional manual pipeline routing uses available paper maps, drawings, aerial photographs, surveys and engineer
experience. GIS techniques combine all of these sources of data in a convenient computer-based information system.
The key to the GIS is that it has advantages in terms of speed of data processing and analytical capability.
Fig. 2 is a simplified representation of how data is combined and processed in a GIS to produce models
and required outputs. Data, such as well locations, surface topography, land use activities, soil
conditions and infrastructure features, are combined based on their spatial component. This enables the
engineer to test real-world scenarios within the spatial models.
Fig. 2: Process To Optimize Pipeline Routes
GIS represents an innovative approach to pipeline routing that is both systematic and effective. Optimizing a pipeline
route is essentially an optimization between costs of the material and the costs of the construction. Natural and man-
made terrain obstructions cause spatial variations in construction cost due to changing features like types of soils,
intervals of slope. GIS allows the engineer to use dynamic spatial models to aid in selecting an optimized pipeline
route. The GIS software and data enables the processing of a large amount of location-based information to find a least
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cost path (LCP) between two locations by taking into account natural and manmade obstructions and features.
5.1.1.20.2 GIS Routing Optimization Methodology
The GIS approach to pipeline routing optimization is based on relative rankings and weights assigned to project specific
factors that may affect the potential route. The result of this process is a least cost path (LCP) which represents that
most economic path between the origin and the destination points of the pipeline.
Fig. 3 is a representation of the methodology flow used to determine the LCP
Fig. 3: Pipeline Optimization Methodology
5.1.1.20.3 Identification of Factors Affe cting the Route
As mentioned in the previous section on selection criteria the identification of project-specific factors that may
constrain or impact on the pipeline is an important step and a vital input to the GIS. Several factors such as geo-
hazards, social issues and construction costs impact on the route and need to be taken into account. At this stage a
set of rules are determined that will be used in the routing exercise. Input from experienced engineers is required to
ensure that the appropriate features are identified and the
correct rules established. The accuracy of the subsequent analysis is dependent on the factors being
correctly identified as the analysis is only as good as the inputted data. Examples of some factors and
rules include:
Factor/Feature Rule
Roads • Avoid road crossings

• Proximity to roads is important
Railway lines • Avoid railway line crossings

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Rivers • Avoid river crossings
Urban areas • Avoid built up/populated areas

• Avoid future development areas
Terrain/topography • Avoid steep slopes

• Use flat terrain where possible
Environmental areas • Avoid highly-sensitive areas
Wetlands • Avoid wetland crossings
Water bodies • Avoid water bodies
Surface geology • Avoid surface/sub-surface rock

• Stable soils are important
5.1.1.20.4 GIS Data and Data Sources
Satellite imagery, maps, aerial photography, existing GIS data, LiDAR surveys and traditional geotechnical and
topographical surveys are all sources of data that should be gathered and incorporated into the project GIS. The maps,
satellite imagery and remote sensed data are scanned and geo-referenced and are then used to derive spatial features
such as roads, rivers, urban areas and geological boundaries which form the GIS data to be used in the routing
process.
5.1.1.20.5 GIS Data Processing and Analysis
Once the data has been captured it needs to be processed and converted into raster data. The raster data is used to
calculate the feature distance cost for each feature – the weighted cost as one moves away from a feature. For
example rivers are given a high cost and the further you move away from the river the lower the feature distance cost
becomes.
The significance of the effect of a single feature on the pipeline route varies for each feature. For example, it is more
important to avoid a deep valley crossing than it is to avoid a road crossing. The analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is
one of the structured methods that can be employed to quantitatively rank each of the identified factors. Each factor is
assigned a cost value which is benchmarked with typical constructions costs. The input from experienced engineers is
vital when it comes to ranking and assigning weights to each layer.
5.1.1.20.6 GIS Suitability Map Generation
After the feature layers have been ranked the data layers are combined together into one single layer based on the
numerical value factor derived from the weighting process. The resultant layer is referred to as the suitability layer and
this layer forms the basis for the GIS analytical work.
The suitability map is used to create cost maps which related to relative construction costs. The highest costs are in
steep mountainous terrain, urban areas, roads and large bodies of water. Moderate costs are associated with wetlands,
forests and high slope areas. The lowest costs are to be found in areas of relatively flat bare ground, agricultural land or
less dense native vegetation. See Fig. 4 for an example of a cost map.
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Fig. 4: Discrete Cost Map

The least cost path is the product of the GIS analysis and represents the path of least resistance from the origin of the
pipeline along a surface to the destination point.
The strength of the GIS is that re-routes can quickly be incorporated into the system and the implications of the
reroutes or alternative routes can be quickly assessed.
The combination of the data layers allows the engineer to test multiple pipeline network design and selection scenarios
easily and efficiently. The GIS automatically calculates the lengths of new pipelines or pipeline networks. This allows
for rapid total cost calculations and the running of multiple ‘what if’ scenarios to see the effect of changes to the
pipeline design.
A GIS can produce a number of outputs quickly and efficiently in relation to pipeline routing:
Survey request area delimination drawings
Land allocation/permitting drawings
Pipeline routing drawings
Alignment sheets (see Fig. 5)
Tabular outputs (i.e. MTOs)
Pipeline coordinates
5.1.1.21 Light Detection and Ranging - LiDAR
LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) can measure the height of the ground surface and other features during an
airborne survey. It can provide models of the land surface at meter and sub-meter resolution, depending on ground
cover conditions, e.g. in forested and woodland areas.
The system comprises a scanning and ranging laser to produce topographic maps. Implementation involves flight
planning, data acquisition, and the generation of digital terrain models.
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The basic components are a laser scanner, a global positioning system (GPS), and an inertial navigation system. The
laser scanner is mounted within an aircraft and emits infrared laser beams at a high frequency. The scanner records the
difference in time between the emission of the laser signal and the reception of the reflection. A mirror that is mounted
in front of the laser rotates and causes the laser pulses to sweep at an angle, back and forth along a line. The position
and orientation of the aircraft is determined using GPS. GPS systems are located in the aircraft and at several ground
stations within the survey area.
The round trip travel time of the laser signals from the aircraft to the ground are measured and recorded, along with the
position and orientation of the aircraft at the time of the transmission of each pulse. After the flight, the data from the
aircraft to the ground are combined with the aircraft position at the time of each measurement and the three
dimensional XYZ coordinates of each ground point are computed and combined.
Post-flight processing integration of the data points produces a horizontal position and vertical elevation for each laser
signal. Each data point can be identified by type, i.e. ground, vegetation, building, power line or other object. Once
correlated, it is simple to manipulate data, remove layers of data points and create digital terrain models (DTM) for GIS.
» Continue with Appendix 5.1.2 - Google Earth in Pipeline Design and Route Selection
« Back to 5.2 Minimum Data Requirements and Activities for the Five Typical Project Stages
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Appendix 5.1.2 Google Earth in Pipeline Design and

Route Selection
Introduction
Google Earth is a virtual globe, map and geographical information program. It maps the
Earth by the superimposition of images obtained from satellite imagery, aerial Introduction
photography and GIS 3D globe. Pipeline Routing
Routing
Google Earth is client-based software that is installed on individual PCs and also can Profile
be viewed using web browsers through a Google Earth plug-in. It is available in two
versions:
1) Free license that uses public satellite photos and maps from Google servers
2) Licensed Google Earth Professional that can be used by advanced users and also can be connected to local
licensed Google Earth servers with private satellite images and maps.
Google Earth is widely used by different industries to design, monitor and maintain earthwork and construction projects.
Municipalities and governments, for example, use Google Earth to design and track the installation of water pipelines,
cities and urban design, roads construction, earthworks etc. Google Earth can be used in pipeline projects for initial
pipeline routing, and to conduct preliminary hydraulic profiles at desktop level. It can also be used for pipeline
construction monitoring – see section 13.4.
As an initial pipeline routing tool, Google Earth enables plan and profile data to be extracted to begin pipeline
engineering design activities. Google Earth contains relatively up-to-date satellite imagery, allowing the reasonably
confident routing of pipelines during the design stage, and reducing the time and effort spent in studying the landscape
and elevation changes along pipelines. Several route options can be evaluated in a relatively short time, allowing the
economics of each option to be analyzed. The satellite imagery is updated on a regular basis but the ability to display
older satellite data enables detailed analysis to be conducted on the legacy of land use or terrain changes (for example
river meander or changes in the built environment) where the pipeline route is being planned. The ability to easily add
facilities data such as plot plans into the system helps confirm that the most suitable location has been chosen.
The following sections will focus on the use of Google Earth during initial pipeline routing.
Pipeline Routing
Routing
The pipeline routing exercise starts with the client-identified start and end points of the proposed pipeline. These points
are identified within Google Earth and the desktop routing process begins using the network tool from the drop-down
menus. Nodes are added to the network at each change of direction until the start and end points are joined. Typically,
several route options would be identified during the routing process, due to various factors such as topography,
vegetation, habitation, environmental constraints, crossings of roads, rivers & railways etc. Each option would receive
an economic evaluation to select the best solution. All of these features are identified from the satellite imagery and
coverage can be located accurately (depending on the imagery scale). Once the initial route has been established this
can then be published with ease via e-mail to the design team and client and transferred into the project geodatabase to
be read by the GIS software. Google Earth Pro can also read shape file data created within the GIS, enabling the route
to be adjusted according to the geodatabase data. Typically the Google Earth KML file extension is used to transfer the
data.
Keyhole markup language (KML) will be used to represent the pipeline route in Google Earth. KML is an XML notation,
developed for use with Google Earth, for expressing geographic annotation and visualization within Internet-based, two-
dimensional maps and three-dimensional Earth browsers. An example KML file is shown in the KML module section.
KML data are often distributed as zipped (compressed) KMZ files. The contents of a KMZ file are a single root KML
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document (notionally "doc.kml") and optionally any overlays, images, icons, and COLLADA 3D models referenced in
the KML, including network-linked KML files.
Plan and profile output example
Profile
The profile of the route can be displayed in Google Earth by using the menu functions associated with the network tool.
By right clicking on the route itself a menu appears, and the profile is displayed when the ‘display profile’ option is
chosen. The elevation datum is based on the World Geodetic System (1984) (WGS84) projection parameters, the
system used by most GPS systems worldwide. The hydraulics analysis software can then use this profile to start the
preliminary analysis of the pipeline, and if required, the route can be changed to give a smoother profile dependent upon
the behaviour of the inventory being transported. If the project intends to adopt a project-specific projection then the
elevation values can be replaced, however the shape of the profile remains constant i.e. the differential in height
between highs and lows remains the same.
Route Optimisation
The initial route is refined through an iterative process of route optimising where the aim is to deliver a pipeline route
that has the shortest length possible and where environmental issues, construction complexities and excessive profile
changes have been mimimised wherever possible. Using a combination of GIS-based tools and Google Earth imagery
the routing engineer is able to address the challenges of optimising pipeline route selections. The approach is based on
the concept of least cost path (LCP), where the choosen route represent the route that will “cost” the least relative to
the cost to transverse an area based on discrete cost maps. These cost maps consider factors such as environmental
constraints, geology, geomorphology, terrain topography, construction and socioeconomic and political conditions. The
aim is to determine areas that are to be avoided and areas that are more favourable for pipeline activities.
Discrete cost map example
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After the discrete cost maps are determined, the initial route is modified so as to provide the optimum route through the
area. In conjunction with this the route is further analysed to determine if the chosen route transverses any side slopes.
Freely available digital elevation data are used in the GIS to create a digital elevation model (DEM) for the area through
which the pipeline is routed. From this DEM, gradient slope models are produced and used to identify any potential side
slope areas along the pipeline route, see example overleaf.
Side slope avoidance example
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Once the route has been refined the optimised route and slope analysis can be published to Google Earth and shown
as KML features (the route) and images (the slope analysis).
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Flythroughs
A flythrough along the proposed pipeline route is a very useful feature of Google Earth as the client and design team
can obtain an immediate appreciation of the terrain the pipeline is passing through. Various attributes salient to the
pipeline route can be displayed during the flythrough. The flythrough is started via the tools menu or the play tour button
in the left hand side console, and can be saved as a KML file for exporting into other applications.
Example of a flythrough in Google Earth
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GIS interface
An important functionality of Google Earth is the ability to seamlessly transfer data into and out of the project GIS.
Typically, the Google Earth Pro version of the software enables more functionality than the free version. GIS data, as
shapefiles, are easily displayed in Google Earth, enabling the display of environmental and constraint data. This can be
saved as a KMZ file and then distributed to the client and design team for further analysis and comment.
Benefits:
Google Earth allows the pipeline routing to be carried out with a high degree of confidence, the Google Earth elevation
data also enabling the initial hydraulic analysis to be carried out. As a desktop-based application the need for field
surveyscan be delayed until the front end engineering design (FEED) stage. The campaigns to collect additional survey
data can also be refined to those specific areas identified during the desktop routing exercise. Time is also saved
during the initial stages of a pipeline project by the ability to seamlessly transfer the data into project GIS geodatabases
and publish the routing and elevation data to the client and design team.
The work done in this section used the free Google Earth client and Google Earth Web browser plugin. For advanced
usage with proprietary satellite photos the Google Earth Enterprise server (which requires licensing) can be used.
» Continue with 6. Earthworks

« Back to Appendix 5.1.1 - Pipeline Route Selection Process
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5.2 Minimum Data Requirements and Activities for the

Five Typical Project Stages
The diagram below shows the typical project cycle time and the project
phases in relation with the Construction Contract duration. 5.2.1 FEL 1 Business Planning
5.2.2 FEL 2 Alternative Selection
It is also important to bear in mind that a pipeline project is a multi- 5.2.3 FEL 3 Project Definition
discipline effort involving coordination between pipeline engineers, 5.2.4 Project Execution
metallurgy, process, control systems, electrical, piping, civil and 5.2.5 Start-up and Operations
mechanical works as well as social, cultural and environmental
specialists.
5.2.1 FEL 1 Business Planning

Business planning is of utmost importance as it sets the foundation stone for the project, ie why the project is required,
that project expenditure is necessary, and the purpose of the project.
Defining the purpose of the project is key, as the purpose of the project phases following this phase FEL 1 will be to
provide the optimum solution to comply with the project purpose / statement of requirements (SOR). It basically sets
the ground rules / constraints around which the design will be performed.
The key activities normally involve the following:
Business Case
Strategic Objectives
Economic Analysis
Project Expectations
Market Analysis
Competitors Review/Competing projects
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Environmental Constraints
Desk Top Routing Study to identify a Regional Corridor (typically 15 – 25 km wide)
Cost estimates (+/- 50%) and schedules are key drivers in the business planning phase and are determined by a
multidiscipline effort. Major cost / schedule input items such as pipeline size determination and pump or compressor
requirements are determined by pipeline and process/mechanical engineers. SCADA / telecoms, pipeline security,
environmental issues, terrain, and regulations are also considered by a multidiscipline effort inclusive of electrical and
instrumentation, piping, civil, environmental, social and safety engineers. For business planning of long distance
pipelines crossing country borders, both legal and commercial inputs are also required to advise on international / cross
border conditions, tariffs, and international negotiations.
As stated above, a pipeline projects is a multi-discipline effort. A composite team of pipeline, process, controls, piping,
civil, environmental, social and safety engineers is required. For business planning of long distance pipelines crossing
country borders, both legal and commercial inputs are also required to advise on international / cross border conditions
and tariffs, international negotiations.
The costing analysis will need to offset revenue costs against:
Material and construction (pipe, valves, SCADA, rotating equipment,fiscal metering)
OPEX (fuel usage, security, maintenance and inspection, CO2 offset)
Tariffs (domestic and international)
A high level pipeline schedule showing the start and end date to commissioning the line is important.
Key overview activities include:
EIA (Environmental Impact Studies)
Regulatory permits and approvals
Design
Long lead items (pumps, compressors, linepipe, SCADA / telecoms)
Construction
The minimum data requirements for business planning are typically:
Existing infrastructure information
o Land use (agriculture, woodland, wetland, open water, residential, commercial)
o Designated areas (existing or planned parks, public areas, developments)
o Rights-of-way (roads, railroads, utility corridors to be crossed or paralleled)
o Identify physical obstacles (swamps, mountains, lakes, and rivers) on maps
o Identify geotechnical constraints including Seismic activity, karst areas, landslides,
o Energy grid (alternative energy sources, competitor pipelines, existing company lines)
o Origin and termination points of pipeline identified
o Potential customers (taps) and potential partners (tie-ins) along route identified
o Demographics, area growth potential
o Need for new pipeline (U.S. proof of “convenience and necessity”)
Political situations
o Unrest and extremism
o Regulatory atmosphere and pending legislation
o Future tariffs, energy tax credits, infrastructure inducements
Expectations
o Customers
o Partners
o Regulatory approval provisions
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o Landowners
Market information
o Long term availability of oil or gas supply for pipeline
o Long term demand by customers
o Open season offering to gauge potential pipeline customers
o Oil and gas price projections
Financing
o Lending environment
o Cost of borrowing
o Potential investors and partners
Competitor data
o Public information
o Consultant information
o Other in-house projects pending
Key environmental constraints
o Water bodies
o Protected species
o Archaeological sites
o Air quality and noise
o Hazardous waste areas
Field Investigation
o Regional pipeline corridor pinch points identified
o Discussion with local agencies and business groups
o Right-of-way research at courthouse
o Assess landowner resistance
o Estimate land cost
The key deliverables from the business planning phase are typically:
Business case justification document
Project statement of requirements
Framework / Scope / Project Objectives
Regulatory plan
Decision Review Packages
Cost Estimate – (+/- 50%, or order of magnitude OOM)
Schedule Timeline
Project Execution Plan
Project Risk Assessment (commercial / technical / environmental)
At least one feasible corridor identified
It is important that the above deliverables have been thoroughly studied, as any changes later on could introduce flaws
for the whole philosophy leading to the effort having to be re-done. This would result in redundant work, and
consequential impacts on cost and schedule.
A Regulatory Plan is also of paramount importance to plan the submission of the key approval documents during the
alternative selection phase. It is also needed to ensure that the schedule takes into account public consultation
meetings, local area / local jurisdiction approvals and governmental approvals.
Project Teams shall begin to organize their data collection around a Geographical Information System (GIS) structure to
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facilitate the management of this data throughout the life cycle of the project.
Any problems in these areas can jeopardize the project viability.
5.2.2 FEL 2 Alternative Selection

The alternative selection phase is where the pipeline system design is further progressed to confirm viability and to
review and select the optimum solution. This phase improve accuracy of the cost estimate and to the schedule. The
cost estimate for this phase is expected to achieve a +/-30% accuracy.
The schedule for this phase of a project will become more detailed by adding more activities and confirming durations
for more specific selections.
The selection phase will utilize the project statement of requirements (SOR), framework, scope, and project objectives
to develop viable options meeting the project requirements. These options will be driven by safety, environmental and
social constraints and cost, and can include:
Routing options
Pipeline configurations (single line / multiple lines)
Pipeline diameter vs design pressure options
Pipeline diameter vs number of pump / compression stations
Locations of stations
It is important that all the viable options are considered in detail and that there is agreement on the optimum solution
selected. It is important that solution selection criteria is prepared, is agreed, and is robust enough to ensure that the
correct criteria is used for the selection analysis. The key requirements need to be prioritized in a list as appropriate.
It is not uncommon that a number of selection phase studies are done to ensure that the correct solution for further
engineering development is selected. In some cases, design competitions are held with this intention.
The key engineering activities involved during this phase are generally:
Establish Regulatory / Permitting requirements / schedule
More detailed Route selection to identify alternative routes (100 to 500 meter wide) within the Regional Corridor
(15 to 25 km wide)Generally performed on a desk top basis.
Perform Hydraulic Study to ascertain pipeline sizes and station locations of alternative routes
Determine pipeline operating / batching philosophy
Preliminary SCADA / telecommunications design
Class Location and Main Line Valve study
Determination of road, RR, water body crossing methods
Detailed Field reconnaissance of route alternatives and aboveground facilities locations
By end of FEL 2, alternatives are trimmed to one primary route, and perhaps one or two alternatives, on the
basis of cost, constructability and project SOR for purpose of environmental assessment and permitting to carry
forward into the FEL 3 Stage. (Certain regulatory frameworks may dictate the number of alternatives required to
carry forward for permitting/certification).
Preparation of preliminary route maps
HSE Plan
Involvement of critical equipment / material providers (long lead items, coatings, etc)
Minimum data requirements for the FEL 2 Alternative Selection phase:
FEL 1 Business Planning Report
Project Statement of Requirements
Applicable regulations and codes
Pipeline owner / operator Design Specifications
Satellite imagery and/or aerial photography and elevation data
Identification of wetlands; i.e. geologic maps
Preliminary survey of aboveground facilities
Other data required for the work is collected as required
Continued development and enhancement of the GIS system
Environmental impact assessment
The key deliverable is a study report generally comprised of the following:
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Pipeline Route
o Routing plan drawing
o Route Maps
o Number of and Station locations (valve, pigging, pump, compression, metering)
o Terrain (topographical / geotechnical) description
o Crossings
Process description
Pipeline system parameters:
o Design code
o Outside diameter
o Wall thickness / material grade
o Length
o Pressure / Temperature profile
o Corrosion protection (CP, coatings, etc.)
SCADA / telecoms requirements
AGI’s / Station layouts / plot plans (valve, pigging, pump, compression, metering)
Plant layouts (equipment upstream and downstream of the pipeline system)
Pipeline delivery and/or supply tie-in locations
Preliminary Equipment list / MTO’s
Regulatory
o Permitting and regulatory plans
o Authorizations and approvals plan
o Crossings approval plan
Construction methodology
HSE
o Safety Plan
o Preliminary Environmental Impact Assessment
o Environmental constraints (plant, pipeline and stations)
o Health Plan
o Community Awareness Plan
o Public Relations Plan
o Environmental Risk Register
Cost estimate
Schedule
Topographical and geotechnical surveys should be scoped, specified and awarded at the start of Alternative Selection
to enable critical areas to be evaluated with the results to be used during the selection process
It is recommended that an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report be commissioned after this phase using the
pipeline route maps and station location / layouts as the basis. The purpose of this will be to highlight any major issues
preventing project realization before committing to any further funding.
5.2.3 FEL 3 Project Definition

The project definition phase is where the engineering of pipeline system is enhanced to a level providing a +/-15%
estimate, and the schedule activities are now shown to a more detailed level.
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Key processes for this phase include:

Project Management
Contracts Plan
Regulatory
Material Selection
Hydraulic Study
Detailed Route Selection of primary route is narrowed down to a fixed 50m to 100m wide right of way (ROW)
Detailed Engineering of pipeline and associated facilities
ROW design completed and drawings finalized
Alignment sheets are completed and marked for construction
Procurement Plan
Construction Plan
HSE Plan
Minimum data requirements for this phase include:
Alternative Selection Phase report
Field surveys with full access to route
Detailed Topographical and Geotechnical Surveys
Environmental Assessment
Inputs from specialists (eg river / flood plain crossings)
Regulations and codes
Pipeline owner / operator Design Specifications
In this phase the route is finalized, the GIS system (geographic information system) and PODS database should be
fully implemented, and constructability and construction planning becomes a key issue together with engineering.
The Pipeline Open Data Standard (PODS) is one industry standard for pipeline data storage and interchange. The
PODS Data Model provides the structure to associate pipeline data records, such as inspection results, with each
specific pipe segment and geographic location. These data records may include (partial list): centerline location,
pipeline materials and coatings, MAOP, valves and pipeline components, cathodic protection facilities and inspection
results, hydrotesting, operating conditions, physical inspection results, leak detection surveys, repairs, foreign line
crossings, inline inspection (ILI) results, close-interval survey results, pump and compression equipment specifications,
geographic boundaries, external records, risk analysis methods and results, regulatory reports, and pipeline and ROW
maintenance activities, among others.
The PODS Data Model is used by many pipeline operators to manage pipeline, integrity, inspection, regulatory
compliance, and operational data in a Geographic Information System (GIS). The early implementation of a PODS Data
Model integrated with GIS during the project phase enables the project to record pertinent information obtained during
the project execution in a standardized format and provides a more seamless transition of the handover to operations at
the completion of the project.
During the course of project definition, when the route maps have been better defined, a constructability session with
engineers and construction contractors present should be conducted to ensure that the design has not introduced
expensive and time consuming stipulations. Construction contractors maybe able to advise of more cost effective and
less time consuming options regards pipeline and stations layouts.
The Output of FEL 3 typically includes, but is not limited to, the following
Management
o Design Basis
o Economic Evaluation of Alternatives
o Decision Review Packages
o Org Charts
o Risk Register
o Staffing Plan
o Cost Estimate - Class 3
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o Detailed Project Schedule

o Project Execution Plan
o Freeze/Commit To Design
o Scope Of Works
o Construction Plan
o March Charts
o HSE Plan
o Environmental Impact Assessment
o Community Awareness Plan
o Public Relations Plan
o Environmental Risk Register
Procurement
o Contractor Pre-Qualification/Selection
o Contract Enquiry Packages
o Contractor Technical Bid Evaluations
o Contract Awards
o Vendor Pre-Qualification/Selection
o Material Enquiry Packages
o Material Technical Bid Evaluations
o Material Award Packages
o Vendor Print Reviews
o Procurement Support (typically long lead items)
1. Line Pipe
2. Corrosion Coatings
3. Pig Launchers/Receivers
o Material Logistics Plan
Detailed Design
o Permitting And Regulatory Plans
o Authorizations And Approvals Plan
o Crossings Approval Plan
o Materials And Corrosion
o System MAOP
o Flow Assurance
o Surge Analysis
o Station Spacing/Location
o Number Of Stations
o Metering Philosophy
o Horsepower Requirement/Station
o Facility Specs (Pump/Compressors, Metering, Traps,
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o Transient Analysis Results

o MTO/Long Lead Items
o Design Report
o System Sketch
o MTO Plan
o Crossings List
o Populate GIS
o Environmental Compliance Engineering
o Equipment Engineering
o Project Data Sheets
o Material Selection
o Survey Specifications
o Cathodic Protection Design
o Equipment Specifications
o Material Specifications
o SCADA Philosophy
o Operating Philosophy
o Construction Specifications
o Control Philosophy
o Pre-Commissioning/Commissioning
o Specifications
o Mechanical Design Analyses and Calculations:
1. Wall Thickness
2. Operational Stress Analysis
3. Upheaval Buckling Analysis
4. Bend Analysis
5. Expansion/Anchoring Analysis
6. Anchor Flange Calculations
7. Line Erosion Analysis
8. Buoyancy
9. Road Crossing
10. Rail Crossing
11. River Crossing
12. Blasting
13. Earthquake
o CP Plan
o Typical Drawings:
1. Pipeline Right-Of-Way Detail
2. Bored Road Crossing
3. Minor Water Crossing
4. Open Cut Road Crossing
5. Trench & Backfill Details
6. Pipe Crossing Through Wet Areas
7. Bored Crossing Trench Detail
8. Railway Crossing Bored (Single)
9. Railway Crossing Bored (Dual)
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10. Pipeline Concrete Coating

11. Pipeline Marker Sign
12. Pipeline Pig Launcher Arrangement
13. Pipeline Pig Receiver Arrangement
14. Valve Station Location Drawing
15. Pipeline Main Line Valve – Vented General Arrangement
16. Anchor Block Detail
17. Sketches
18. Plot Plans
19. Layouts
20. Tie-Ins
o Detailed Drawings:
1. Plot Plans
2. Alignment Sheets
3. Valve Stations Health Plan
4. Scraper Station General Arrangement
5. Pipeline Main Line Valve
6. Cross-Sectional Crossing Drawings (Plan And Profile) Showing Pipeline In Relation To All Existing
Facilities
In addition to the pipeline design itself, the other elements of the design include the upstream and downstream
facilities, pipeline safety and control, SCADA / telecoms, metering, station design, access roads / infrastructure,
buildings etc.
Pipeline design will include diameter and wall thickness confirmation and operability stress analysis, and will include
anchoring analysis.
Depending on the schedule, and market conditions it is not uncommon, to place some materials orders during this
phase for long lead items (LLI’s) such as linepipe, rotating equipment, and SCADA. Specific engineering actions to
define these long lead materials are then performed. Materials can be novated at a later stage to the contractor.
HSEIA (Health Safety and Environmental Impact Studies) activities such as QRA, HAZOP / SIL, HAZID, SIMOPS,
will be conducted. The findings from these studies will be included in the design.
QRA (Quantitative Risk Assessment) is a risk assessment activity, part of an integrity management program, to
understand the nature and location of risks along the pipeline and at the AGI’s / Stations. QRA (Quantitative Risk
Analysis) is often used to qualify the probabilistic risk approach in which not only the consequence of an adverse event
is calculated but also the likelihood is quantified.
SIL (Safety Integrity Level) study is a measure of Probability to Fail on Demand (PFD) of any Safety Instrumented
System (SIS) installed on the pipeline (eg surge protection equipment). SIL is a statistical representation of the integrity
of the SIS when a process demand occurs. A demand occurs whenever the process reaches the trip condition and
causes the SIS to take action. In simpler terms, SIL is a measurement of performance required for a Safety
Instrumented System (SIS).
Four SILs are defined, with SIL4 being the most dependable and SIL1 being the least. A SIL is determined based on a
number of quantitative factors in combination with qualitative factors such as development process and safety life
cycle management.
Hazard and operability studies are a methodology for identifying and dealing with potential problems in industrial
processes, particularly those which would create a hazardous situation or a severe impairment of the process. It is
commonly known as HAZOP. It is sometimes also called Hazard and Operability Analysis. It is said to be the most
widely used method of hazard analysis in the process industries, notably the chemical, petrochemical and nuclear
industries. HAZOPs are conducted by a team of people that are knowledgeable in the process, the team is led by a
trained facilitator that uses a list of guide words to lead the discussions.
SIMOPS (SIMultaneous OPerationS) is defined as performing two or more operations concurrently. When installing a
pipeline next t existing operating pipelines, a SIMOPs plan is required to ensure that the operation and safety of the
existing pipeline is not compromised.
A typical design chart is shown overleaf.
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Typical Design Chart
5.2.4 Project Execution

The project execution phase at this stage of the project development by Client is mainly characterised by material
procurement activities, construction planning and logistics. The engineering is completed to enable specification of all
materials required.
The main drivers for the project execution phase are characterised by:
Project Management
Contracts Plan
Regulatory
Material Selection
The key engineering activities involved during this phase are generally:
Support to permitting, land acquisition, field survey, and construction activities
Construction centerline staked and 25-50 m permanent ROW and temporary workspaces marked, down to 8 m
wide permanent ROW corridor)
Engineering Plan
Provide support to any minor re-routes that might be required to adjust to field conditions.
As-built survey data collected, Quality assurance, and incorporated into the project database.
Prepare all Project data for handover to Operations
Hydraulic/Flow Assurance confirmation
Detailed Routing (Minimum 22 m wide construction corridor
Procurement Plan support
Construction Plan support
HSE Plan support
Input:
Output from Project Definition, FEL 2 and FEL 3
Regulatory approvals
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Permit approvals
Crossing approvals
The key engineering activities will be to finalise the Scada and Telecoms design, the stations design, and prepare
construction specifications. A multi-discipline engineering team will complete the design.
Construction drawings are prepared for the crossings, and any special pipeline sections at route pinchpoints. Details on
the drawings need to sufficiently clear to enable the construction site team to understand the requirements and to build
to these requirements. Ambiguous information will result is site queries and loss of construction. Ambiguous
information can also lead to misinterpretation of instructions leading to construction not consistent with the design
philosophy. This is one of reasons to involve construction group in the design phase to ensure that handover from
office engineering to site team is clear and concise.
Construction engineering activities will include developing the material storage and logistic plans, construction spreads,
hydrotest water supply and disposal plans, hydrotest plans. The supply and environmentally safe disposal of hydrotest
water can sometimes be a key issue on remote location pipelines, particularly in hot countries.
The project deliverables are not just pipeline engineering, but across the whole board from process, piping, controls to
civil works and environment for access roads, infrastructure for maintenance and inspection to security fencing at the
AGI’s and stations.
Operating and commissioning manuals will need to be prepared in readiness for the pipeline start-up. The operating
manuals will need to be clear and concise instructions on how to operate the system (start up, shutdown and for safely
how long, turndown, turn-up rates, re-start, and pigging requirements and frequencies).
There will also need to be manuals for the plant, AGI’s / stations, and for the SCADA / telecoms.
A typical alignment sheet is shown below which shows the pipeline plan and topographical profile as well as data such
as:
Pipe outside diameter
Pipe wall thickness
Pipe material
Design factor / class location
Coating
Burial depth / soil cover depth, including special locations to mitigate against buckling (if required)
Intersection Points (IP’s) locations where pipeline changes direction
Chainage (KP) kilometre point
Location of horizontal and vertical bends
Water table
Existing services
Crossing location
Any other project specific salient features
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5.2.5 Start-up and Operations

The start-up and operations is the last phase where the pipeline is commissioned and formally handed over to the
operating company. This is the true test that the installed system will meet the design conditions originally stipulated.
The performance testing will involve introducing hydrocarbon into the pipeline, and ensuring that all the associated
systems are working properly. Personnel from the Operating company will be heavily involved in the development of
the commissioning plans and the introduction of hydrocarbons into the pipeline.
The project team will ready all pertinent information obtained during the project for handover to the Operating company.
The information will include all data necessary to provide the physical description of the pipeline and associated
facilities as well as to document the integrity of the pipeline and construction related activities. As a minimum this
would comprise the following:
Design basis
As-built survey information
Alignment sheets
Crossing drawings
Material specifications
Vendor documents (for material and equipment)
Line pipe material certificates
Hydrotest data
Construction records (weld sheets, joint coating sheets)
Inspection records (NDT, etc.)
GIS/PODS database
Implementing GIS and PODS at the FEL 3 Definition phase will enable a cradle to grave information system that can
be updated across the design and operating life span of the pipeline. It can also be used to generate alignment sheets
and detailed drawings during design, track materials during the procurement and construction phase, record as-built
survey information and to record maintenance and inspection history during the operational phase.
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The benefits of using GIS and PODS is that the project and as-built data can be stored with the GIS and PODS
database system with the pertinent information tagged spatially to their exact locations. The data residing in the GIS
and PODS database should have undergone a quality assurance process by the project team prior to handover to
operations.
Minimum data requirements, key activities and outputs for this phase and required for handover to operations are:
Execution phase documents
Operating and Commissioning Manuals
Summary Data Book
Design Basis Data Book
Design Calculations
Quality Plans And Manuals
Special Procedures
Cost Summaries
Manufacturing Data Book
Tender Specifications
Equipment And Material Specifications
Purchase Orders
As-Built Vendor Drawings
Material And Testing Certificates
Vendor Inspection Reports
Special Manufacturing And Fabrication
Procedures
Heat Treatment Certificates
Special Procedures
Fabrication Data Book
Pipeline Installation Data Book
Contracts
Job Hazard Analyses
Monthly Progress Reports
Non-Destructive Testing Summary And
Radiographs
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Weld Procedures And Qualification Certificates

Pipeline Facilities Installation Book
Field Sketches, Survey Notes and Red-Line Mark-Up Data Book
Construction Inspection Reports
As-Built Drawings
As-Built Survey Data - Electronic Copy
Cathodic Protection Survey Data Book
Video Survey Data Book
Pressure Testing Data Book
Hydrotest Reports
Pre-Commissioning Data Book
Commissioning Reports
Populated GIS and PODS database
» Continue with Appendix 5.1.1 - Pipeline Route Selection Process

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6. Earthworks
The terrain, soil types, and geohazards traversed by the pipeline are key factors to consider in the design, the
construction and the operation and maintenance of a pipeline project. First, the terrain typically affects pipeline
hydraulics, above ground stations, and pipeline protection. Second, soils types will affect heat transfer, pipeline
restraint, and constructability. Finally, geohazards often require special design and construction considerations.
This earthworks section offers guidelines on how to prepare the ROW in different types of terrains, on the earthworks
design, on the measures recommended to reduce the impact on the environment, and finally on the approach to health
and safety.
Section 6.1 describes the typical cross sections of the ROW in 10 different types of terrains with a table indicating the
recommended dimensions for constructability. Indeed earthworks include preparing the right of way, digging the trench,
ensuring trench side stability, soil handling and storage, backfill and excess spoil disposal, and finally reinstatement.
Therefore the ROW configuration must allow smooth development of all those operations.
Section 6.2 deals with the earthworks design and in particular the pipeline trench design.
The recommendations to reduce impact of the earthworks operations on the environment are detailed in section 6.3.
Finally statistics have shown that pipeline trenches and earthworks operations are a major source of fatalities in the
pipeline industry. Therefore, health and safety is paramount, and all pipeline construction method statements and
procedures must be developed around safety. This is the subject of section 6.4.
» Continue with 6.1 Typical ROW Cross Sections for Large Diameter Pipeline
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6.1 Typical ROW Cross Sections for Large Diameter Pipeline

The following drawings show typical ROW cross-sections for large-

diameter pipelines in 10 different types of terrain. Cross Section n°1 - Base case
Cross Section n°2 - Rock ROW
Cross Section n°3 - Sand dunes area
Cross Section n°1 - Base case Cross Section n°4 - Wetland with dry construction
Cross Section n°5 - Shabka
Cross Section n°6 - Side slope
Cross Section n°7 - Wetland with underwater construction
Cross Section n°8 - Arctic conditions
Cross Section n°9 - Environmentally sensitive areas
Cross Section n°10 - Ridge
6.1.2 Table of the dimensions shown on the cross sections
Cross Section n°2 - Rock ROW
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Cross Section n°3 - Sand dunes area
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Cross Section n°4 - Wetland with dry construction
Cross Section n°5 - Shabka
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Cross Section n°6 - Side slope
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Cross Section n°7 - Wetland with underwater construction
Cross Section n°8 - Arctic conditions
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Cross Section n°9 - Environmentally sensitive areas
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Cross Section n°10 - Ridge
6.1.2 Table of the dimensions shown on the cross sections
(all distances 1: 2: 3: 4: Wetland 5: 6: 7: Wetland 8: Arctic 9: 10:

in meters) Base Rock Sand with dry Sabkha Side with conditions Environmentally Ridge
case ROW dunes construction slope underwater sensitive areas
area construction
A Angle (trench 15 N-A 30 45 45 15 30 N-A 15 15

top) (degree)
B Traffic lane 6 6 12 N-A 5 6 N-A 6 N-A N-A
C Recommended 40 40 80 42 40 40 40 40 12 30
ROW
D Depth (trench) 2.4 2.1 3.2 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4
(42” pipe)
E - 30 30 55 35 35 35 40 40 N-A N-A
G Angle (slope) N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A ≥15 N-A N-A N-A ≥30
(degree)
L - 11 11.5 13 16.5 13 11 15 14 7 8
M Material area N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A 17 16 N-A N-A
M1 Material area 1 10 10 25 13 10 17 N-A N-A N-A 8
M2 Material area 2 10 10 25 7 7 5 N-A N-A N-A 8
N Snow + ice N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A 1 N-A N-A
road
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R . 24 24 43 N-A 28 29 40 34 12 14
SM . 1.5 1.5 1 1.5 3 1.5 2 3 2 1
SW . 1.5 1.5 3 1.5 2.5 1.5 1 3 1 3
TB . 1.5 1.5 3 2.5 1.5 1.5 2 2 1.5 1.5
TT Trench top 2 1.5 8 8 4 2 10 2 2 2
V Cover 0.9 0.8 2 0.9 1.1 0.9 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.9
(Indicative -
check code)
W Working area 14 15.5 18 11 13.5 13 10 16 1.5 N-A
Y Top soil 0.3 0.1 N-A 0.3 N-A 0.3 N-A 0.3 0.3 0.3
Z Backfill N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A
EM Economic 13 12.5 30 18.5 15 19.5 25 20 3 6

ROW (material
area)
EW Economic 17 17.5 25 16.5 18 15.5 15 20 9 N-A

ROW (working
area)
» Continue with 6.2 Earthworks Design - Trenching

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6.2 Earthworks Design Trenching

6.2.1 Introduction
Trenching is the favoured pipeline installation method. In spite of its
apparent simplicity, thorough analysis is required at the design stage 6.2.1 Introduction
of the numerous interrelated factors. This chapter provides an insight 6.2.2 Why Are Pipelines Buried?
to the factors, issues and solutions for trenching which may be 6.2.2.1 General
present and required to achieve a successful, design code and legally 6.2.2.2 Community access
compliant pipeline trenching solution. 6.2.2.3 Wildlife
6.2.2.4 Third-party risk
6.2.2 Why Are Pipelines Buried? 6.2.2.5 Restraint
6.2.2.6 Insulation/heat retention
6.2.2.1 General 6.2.3 Pipeline Trench Design
Pipelines are buried for a number of reasons. These include:

To avoid the pipeline becoming a barrier to people, animals and vehicles
To minimise visual impact
To reduced the risks to the pipeline from third-party interference. This can be either voluntary (e.g. hot-tapping,
vandalism, terrorism) or involuntary (e.g. vehicle, machine or tool impact)
To improve protection of the over-ground environment from a catastrophic pipeline failure such as an explosion,
a high-pressure leak, or a toxic release
To use the soil as a part of the pipeline design. E.g. soil cover can provide restraint, and favour or hinder heat
transfer
Cost – in most cases burial will result in a lower overall capital and maintenance cost
These reasons, together with the pipe characteristics, the soil type, and the nature of the carried product, are
considered in the trench and the backfilling requirements. They are discussed in more detail below.
6.2.2.2 Community access
The most obvious reason for burying a pipeline is to make its presence virtually invisible to the above-ground
community. In populated areas, the need for roads and access ways make the burial of pipelines a necessity.
Moreover, pipelines often cross privately-owned land and it would not be acceptable to effectively divide properties into
two or more parcels. Even in areas devoid of activity, it is often advisable to bury pipelines to allow hiking, hunting, off-
road driving but also to preserve natural landscapes.
6.2.2.3 Wildlife
Direct loss of habitat

Pipeline construction results in changes in the habitat value of the land. Habitat discontinuities in forested landscapes
and may also serve as conduits facilitating the spread of undesirable plants and animals (Seabrook and Dettmann,
1996; Parendes and Jones, 2000), thus creating a loss of habitat for indigenous species.
Habitat fragmentation
Pipelines dissect continuous habitat patches resulting in smaller patch sizes and higher edgeto-interior ratios. The loss
of interior habitat is of concern for edge-sensitive species and smaller overall patch sizes may result in the loss of area-
sensitive wildlife.
Reduced access to vital habitats
As barriers to wildlife movement, pipelines reduce access to vital habitats for a variety of wildlife species. Wide-ranging
mammal species can lose access to important habitats when movements are restricted by pipelines. Critical habitats
required by wildlife species can be separated on either side
Pageof a pipeline, jeopardizing local populations (Fig. 1).
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Disruption of social structure

Decreased animal movement can undermine processes that help maintain regional populations over time. Barriers to
movement can block the exchange of individuals among populations, eliminating gene flow and disrupting the ability of
“source” populations to support declining populations nearby. Barriers to dispersing individuals also eliminate
opportunities to re-colonize vacant habitat after local extinction events.
Population fragmentation and isolation
Pipelines create barriers to movement that subdivide animal populations. Local population extinctions may occur due to
stochastic genetic and demographic events, environmental variability and natural catastrophes. Population extinction is
more likely to occur in smaller populations, such as those produced by habitat fragmentation.
Disruption of processes that maintain regional populations
The dispersal of individuals between populations has been shown to be important for the maintenance of genetic
viability within local populations, and for maintaining local and regional populations in the face of population extinctions.
Fig. 1 - Wildlife and pipelines
6.2.2.4 Third-party risk
The industry categorises “third-party” incidents as incidents caused by persons not involved with operating or
maintaining the pipeline – farmers, homeowners, construction crews and excavators – i.e. people who in the course of
their normal activities may cause pipeline damage. The root causes of third-party damage of pipelines are complex,
random, and difficult to forecast and control. Third-party damage is the most common cause of incidents to pipelines,
which can cause a hole or a complete rupture of the pipeline. Fig. 2 shows the third-party risk relative to other risks.
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Fig. 2 - Incidents by cause and size of leak (after Porter et al. 2004). Source: European gas pipeline incident data group
(EGIG)
In most situations, the ground directly over a buried pipeline will be used in the same way as adjoining land. This
means that third-party interference (whether intentional or not) can be encountered especially in rural areas where
people are more likely to perform earthworks without first getting clearance from the local administration who would
know about pipeline presence. In general, mechanical damage occurs after the pipeline is in service due to activities in
the pipeline right-of-way. Such damage may occur slowly (e.g. from rocks) or quickly (e.g. excavation equipment).
Activities associated with mechanical damage occurrences typically include:
Drainage and agricultural activity
Infrastructure construction (buildings, road-making, excavation, drilling, fencing, horizontal drilling and trenching)
Exposure to projectiles: rocks, shrapnel, bullets (exposed pipelines)
Unauthorized hot tapping and grinding
The risk of external interference can be mitigated by the following:
Increasing awareness of the pipeline, e.g. land owner liaison and over-ground markers
Monitoring of the right-of-way, e.g. flying, walking and or driving the ROW at regular intervals
Providing increased resistance to penetration in the pipe itself, e.g. increasing the wall thickness
Physically preventing contact with the pipe (see Fig. 3): when this cannot be achieved by exclusion (e.g. by
fencing each side of the right of way) or by the use of barriers (e.g. by placing a slab of concrete on top of the
pipe), separation from third-party activity can be achieved by increasing the burial depth
Legal and voluntary systems that require third parties to consult pipeline and other buried services operators
before commencing excavation. Some countries use ‘one-call’ systems to provide a central communication point
so that third parties can quickly and easily obtain from a single source detail of all relevant buried services.
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Fig. 3 - Concrete slab protecting the pipeline

Avoiding third party interference is essential to protect a pipeline’s integrity. A pipeline failure can have catastrophic
consequences both in unpopulated areas (e.g. a major oil release damaging the natural environment) and in populated
areas (e.g. an explosion). Fig. 4 shows the aftermath of a pipeline explosion in Ghislenghien, Belgium. Two factories
were destroyed, claiming the lives of 24 people and injuring 132. The pipeline was buried 6 m underground, carrying gas
at 70 bars. Damage to the pipeline probably occurred as a mechanical soil stabiliser, involved in the final stages of a
car park construction project, was driven into the ground causing damage to the wall of the pipeline. The damage took
the form of evenly-spaced gouges in the steel wall of the pipeline. Two weeks after the completion of the car park the
gas pressure was increased in the pipeline, which then ruptured at a 350 mm long gouge because of the high localised
stresses.
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Fig. 4 - Aftermath of the explosion at Ghislenghien, Belgium
6.2.2.5 Restraint
Applying soil cover on a pipeline provides restraint to movement of the pipe in all directions. The friction between the
pipe coating and the soil provides restraint against pipe expansion in the longitudinal direction and can be strong
enough to lock longitudinal movement of the pipeline due to thermal expansion caused by temperature changes.
Structures installed below the surface of the earth may support the weight of the materials above it, depending upon
certain characteristics of the fill and the structure’s design. The fill characteristics (principally internal soil friction) tend
to influence (positively or negatively) the gross weight of the material above the pipe structure. How much of the
vertical load is applied on the pipeline is dependent upon the relative compressibility (stiffness) of the pipe and the soil.
For a very rigid pipeline, the side fills may be very compressible in relation to the pipe and the pipe may carry
practically all the load. Trench loads on a pipe are often calculated with the widely-recognized and conservative
Marston equation which was developed at the Engineering Experiment Station of Iowa State College from a series of
experimental studies.
Underground temperatures throughout the year vary much less than over-ground temperatures as the soil acts as a
buffer to atmospheric temperature variations. Burying a pipeline can therefore be a means of insulating the pipe or the
product it contains from extreme temperatures or variations of temperature. This can be used to preserve the pipeline
temperature and prevent an energy loss/gain which would require reheating or cooling at the receiving end, or which
could simply lead to unacceptable problems such as freezing of the product.
6.2.3 Pipeline Trench Design

Please refer to Appendix 6.2 - Pipeline Trench Design and further design recommendations.
» Continue with 6.3 Environment

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Appendix 6.2 Pipeline Trench Design

Follow up from section 6.2 in volume 1:

Earthworks Design 6.2.3 Pipeline Trench Design
6.2.3.1 General
6.2.3.2 Trench Wall Stability
6.2.3 Pipeline Trench Design
6.2.3.3 Right of Way (ROW) Width
6.2.3.4 Trench Width
6.2.3.1 General
6.2.4 Trench Depth
Many types of trench exist, suited to different 6.2.4.1 General
purposes and soil conditions. Trench shape and 6.2.4.2 Ground use
width are discussed in this section. Trench depth 6.2.4.3 External loading
is studied in section 6.2.4 and modifications to the 6.2.4.4 Road and railroad crossings
trench shape to guarantee its integrity are detailed 6.2.4.5 Waterway Crossings
in section 6.2.5. 6.2.4.6 Third-party protection
6.2.4.7 Restraint/upheaval resistance
Geotechnical aspects of pipeline trench design
6.2.4.8 Geohazards
include:
Trench wall stability 6.2.5 Trench Integrity
Influence of spoil pile 6.2.5.1 General
Influence of equipment track pressure 6.2.5.2 Access/safety
Minimum required width of right of way 6.2.5.3 Use of shoring, sheeting and trench boxes
arising from trench depth, width and spoil 6.2.5.4 Trench bottom preparation
heap 6.2.6 Installation
Trench width 6.2.6.1 Right of way
Fig. 5 illustrates a typical V-shaped trench design 6.2.6.2 Spoil Management
suited for most soil types. Other trench shapes 6.2.6.3 Trafficability
can be better suited to specific soil types: 6.2.7 Dewatering
examples are illustrated for rocky, sandy and 6.2.7.1 General
cohesive grounds in Fig. 6 to Fig. 8. 6.2.7.2 Wellpointing
6.2.7.3 Water run-off control
6.2.7.4 Buoyancy
6.2.8 Backfilling
6.2.8.1 General
6.2.8.2 Backfill material
6.2.8.3 Coating interaction
6.2.8.4 Rock excavation
6.2.8.5 Types of bedding
6.2.8.6 Trench foundation
6.2.8.7 Initial backfill/coating damage
6.2.8.8 Final backfill
6.2.8.9 Geotextiles
6.2.8.10 Compaction
6.2.8.11 Water compaction
6.2.8.12 Compaction abuse
6.2.8.13 Compaction measurement
6.2.8.14 Berming
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Fig. 5 Typical trench cross-section (general soils).
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Fig. 6 Typical trench cross-section (rocky ground).
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Fig. 7 Typical trench cross-section (sand) with berm. The same trench design is used without a berm.
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Fig. 8 Typical cross-section (cohesive soil).

Asymmetric designs can be used to lock the pipeline in horizontal bends. In such case, the trench
extends on the outer side of the bend, as shown in Fig. 9.
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Fig. 9 Asymmetric trench designs. Dimensions in mm.
6.2.3.2 Trench Wall Stability
The main factors influencing trench side slope stability include:

1. Soil undrained shear strength, or soil angle of friction
2. Trench depth and side slope inclination
3. Distance between toe of the spoil pile to the top edge of the trench and the height (or surcharge) of the spoil
4. Equipment track pressure together with the distance from the track to the trench
5. Dynamic vibration impact from equipment
6. Season that work is being carried out in (wet, dry, frozen ground, summer, winter)
Based on clay soils as an example, for a clay soil with an average undrained shear strength of about 12 kPa, unstable
conditions may occur unless the trench has a slope inclination of greater than 45º, and if the spoil is located
approximately 1 m away from the edge of the trench. For clay with an average undrained shear strength greater than 20
kPa, stable trench conditions are likely for vertical trench walls and the spoil placed at the edge of the trench.
The angle of the spoil pile also needs to be adequately designed and specified to ensure that spoil does not collapse
towards the trench thus comprising the trench itself. The spoil/topsoil height should be limited to about 2 m, and the
inclination be about 40º or lower. These are just general guides, and will be affected by trench depth and soil properties.
Equipment track pressure will affect the trench stability. Based on two track pressures, 90 kPa and 140 kPa, typical
guidelines for a 2 m trench depth include trench slope to be 40º to 60º, and provision that the track set-back be at least
2 m from the edge of the trench. Unless adequately designed for, repeated passage of heavy equipment can lead to
remoulding and deep ruts in the soil, thus slowing down the construction, and potentially even equipment sliding into the
trench. Fig. 10 shows the typical interaction between clay soil strength, trench slope and equipment track pressure.
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Fig. 10 Soil Strength vs Trench Slope for Equipment Track Pressure
6.2.3.3 Right of Way (ROW) Width
The ROW width is of prime importance to ensure adequate working conditions whilst minimising cost and
environmental impact. The ROW is divided into two parts: the spoil side and the working side. The soil side width is
affected by trench design, spoil pile stability and spoil swelling factors (which could be up to 30%). The working side is
affected by trench inclination and set-back of the equipment from trench edge, together with construction considerations
such as pipe supports, side booms, traffic lane and storage.
6.2.3.4 Trench Width
The trench width is influenced by a number of factors, namely: safety, soil characteristics, outer pipe diameter, trench
depth, minimum available width of excavator bucket, type of crossings, and any special purpose requirements. In turn,
the trench width affects the loading on the pipe.
The width at the trench bottom is dependent on the overall pipe diameter, the coating, the number of pipes in the same
trench, and any other services placed in the same trench. The distance between the pipe end and the edge of trench
bottom can vary from 150 mm – 300 mm. The trench bottom width must be sufficient to allow for compaction of the soil
at the haunches and on the sides. The width at the trench top will depend on the soil that the trench has been cut into
and safety requirements. The side slope angle could be as shallow as 10º – 30º, leading to very wide top of trench
widths. Trench safety is of paramount importance to ensure that those working in the trench are safe and protected
from trench collapse and trench flooding. This is discussed in more detail in section 6.2.5.
Crossing of roads and tracks often requires minimum disruption and construction on a short schedule. Consequently,
the trench width design at road crossings needs careful consideration, with options of shoring the trench considered
(see section 6.2.5.3).
Together with the trench depth and characteristics of the fill over the pipe, the trench width will produce the load which
must be supported by the pipe and its bedding. Generally speaking, the wider the trench, the greater the load on the
pipe. Beyond a certain point this effect stops and widening the trench further does not impact the loading on the pipeline
anymore.
6.2.4 Trench Depth
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6.2.4.1 General
Pipelines are often buried under locations where human activity is intense. Vehicle crossing in particular can potentially
impose important concentrated loads to a buried pipe and damage it. In areas where vehicle crossing is likely or certain
(under a road or track, or under farm land), it can be necessary to bury the pipe at an increased depth. The typical depth
range is the following, depending on soil conditions and land use:
Main Roads and Light Roads: - 1.2 m to 8.0 m
Fields: - 0.6 m to 8.0 m
The crossing of other buried pipelines also sometimes makes it necessary to bury pipes at greater depth, if only on a
limited pipeline length.
6.2.4.2 Ground use
Depending on the land use, pipelines have to be buried at a minimal depth to avoid likely damage from third-parties. For
example, under farmland, pipelines may have to be buried deep in order to avoid damage from soil pressure caused by
heavy equipment and from earthwork required by cultivation (see Fig. 11). In cities, pipelines should avoid running under
private land where the landowner might conduct earthworks that could result in pipeline damage.
Fig. 11 Deep burial of pipelines is sometimes necessary under farmland.
a) Gravel mole plough. b) Plough shown out of the ground.
The American codes ASME B31.4 and ASME B31.8 provides a range of cover depths for various types of land and its
use. These are summarised in Fig. 12. These burial depth requirements can be overridden by local regulations,
sometimes by company codes, and sometimes by the landowner during negotiations.
Fig. 12 Burial depth Vs land use.
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Where required minimum cover depths cannot be met, the pipe can be encased, bridged, or designed to withstand any
anticipated external loads. The cover depths shown are minimum requirements for guidance only, and actual cover
depth requirements will need to take into account actual local conditions, deep ploughing, and any local erosion issues.
6.2.4.3 External loading
The load exerted on the pipeline by the soil cover can be beneficial for the pipeline system as it can be used to lock the
pipe into place and mitigate adverse pressure and temperature effects. The load on a buried pipe is created by the
weight of the soil lying above it as well as the above-ground loading. Increasing the trench depth increases the soil load
but reduces the traffic load, as illustrated in Fig. 13. An optimum cover depth can therefore be found to minimise the
pipeline loading. Road crossings are covered in more detail in the next section.
Fig. 13 Soil and traffic loading pressure Vs cover depth to Top of Pipe.
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6.2.4.4 Road and railroad crossings
Discussion and research on the cased/uncased approach to pipeline crossings of roads and railroad have been
underway since the late 1950s and 1960s. For example, American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) Bulletin
#738 provides an extensive review for pipeline crossings of railroads.
Where buried piping is subjected to frequent overhead traffic or occasional heavy loads, consideration shall be given to
providing the pipe with an external protective sleeve or casing, which is typically made of steel, concrete or plastic. In
the past, the use of casing was mandatory for constructing jointed pipelines under all obstacles that could not be
constructed by an open-cut method, particularly transportation arteries. Today it is generally considered that an
adequate design will provide structural integrity for either cased or uncased crossings. Fig. 14 shows typical cased and
uncased crossings for roads and railways.
The decision to case a pipeline crossing of a highway or railroad involves the following considerations.
Existing regulations by local, state, and federal agencies
Site conditions (soil, water table, traffic, population density, and potential future construction activities)
Economic considerations
Pipeline function and commodity transported
Carrier pipe material
In recent years, the increasing trend is to install crossings and to change existing regulations to permit such an option.
For adequately designed carrier pipe, alternatives to casing include concrete-coated pipe or concrete slabs over the
pipeline through the road or the railroad Right Of Way. Advantages of pipeline casings are listed below.
Mechanical protection for pipe from external live and dead loads
Easy and cheap future removal or replacement of pipe
Frost-line insulation from transported commodity in temperature sensitive soils.
Sub-base and crossing protection in the event of a pipe leak
Protection from third-party damage
However casings also have disadvantages, which are listed hereafter.
Higher cost to owner due to the following requirements: larger bore-hole for casing, two installations, insulators
and spacers between pipe and casing, end seals, and annular space grouting.
Potential shielding of the pipeline cathodic protection system
Potential shorting of the pipeline cathodic protection system
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Potential exposure of carrier pipe to corrosive condensation inside the casing

Fig. 14 Typical crossings.
6.2.4.5 Waterway Crossings
The installation of underwater crossings is a challenging undertaking. Revisions to the pipeline profile and joint design
may be required depending on the installation method. For pipelines pulled along the channel bottom, special pull heads,
lugs, sleds and flotation tanks are normally required on the leading end of the pipeline. It may even be necessary to
modify the original design if conditions change during construction.
Laying from a barge, or floating the pipe into position and sinking requires divers and expensive marine equipment, both
of which have limited operational hours. Design and installation of ballast weights, concrete jackets, and flotation
devices required for these methods also require special consideration.
Because of the difficulty associated with repairs, waterway crossings should be hydrotested immediately upon
installation completion and prior to connecting to adjacent sections of land piping. The line should then be backfilled by
dumping or chuting the backfill material. In certain cases, it is possible to allow natural backfill of the pipeline by water
course sediment.
River banks and river beds will change with time. Specialist studies should be conducted to determine the pipeline end-
of-life condition of the river banks and river bed to ensure that the pipe has sufficient cover to take into account bed
erosion, and that the pipe has sufficient burial depth across the width of the crossing to account for any river bank
meander (Fig. 15). Additionally, the use of the river should be taken into account for determining the design burial depth.
Fig. 15 Evolving meanders of a river
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6.2.4.6 Third-party protection
Generally speaking, increasing the depth of cover will lead to a decreased probability of third-party damage incident.
Fig. 16 shows the percentage of damage incidents as a function of the depth of cover.
Fig. 16 Probability of damage vs cover depth.
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6.2.4.7 Restraint/upheaval resistance
In operation, the pressure and temperature of the fluid induces stresses in the pipeline. On one hand the internal
pressure, which is normally higher than the atmospheric pressure, creates both “hoop” and longitudinal stress in the
pipeline. This will lead to a tendency for the pipe to straighten at bends (the Bourdon effect). This movement can be
compounded by the temperature of the fluid which will cause thermal expansion (or contraction) of the pipe. Should the
soil not provide enough longitudinal restraint by friction, the pipe will tend to move along its axis.
Comprehensive analysis of the restraint, movement and the resulting stresses within the pipeline is required to ensure
that pipeline stresses will be within acceptable limits. Analysis often shows high levels of movement at bends and at
the ends of a pipeline, where the pipeline comes above ground. Movement can be controlled by additional soil loads or
the incorporation of anchors. Alternatively, expansion loops or bends can be incorporated to allow movement without
unacceptable stresses.
Movement can also result in upheaval buckling. This can occur at an overbend or a vertical imperfection in the bottom
profile of a trench and can result in the pipeline coming out of the ground (see Fig. 17) and possibly pipeline buckling. If
the pipeline upstream and down stream of the overbend or imperfection is locked in position and expansion of the
pipeline occurs from these fixed points then the pipeline relies upon the soil overburden to keep it in place. If this
overburden is insufficient then the pipeline could move vertically. Furthermore, the more it moves vertically then the
lower the soil overburden becomes, hence allowing even greater movement.
Fig. 17 Pipeline upheaval buckling
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The greater the burial depth, the greater the restraint on a pipe will be both in the axial and radial directions. This is,
however, only true up to a point where the soil load does not increase anymore with soil cover. Fig. 18 illustrates the
evolution of soil resistance with the cover height and the pipe diameter.
Fig. 18 Soil resistance as a function of cover and of the outer pipe diameter.
In addition to burial depth, backfill resistance is also a function of several soil parameters, including soil density,
resistance to shearing, and specific cover geometry. Soil properties used to determine the backfill resistance should be
taken as lower bound values for the upheaval buckling analysis. The pipesoil resistance will depend on the nature of the
backfilling process (see section 6.2.8) and on all the uncertainties related to the backfill behaviour.
Ratcheting
Where below-ground pipeline movement occurs, at locations such as bends, the effects of ‘ratcheting’ have to be
considered. This is where a pipeline moves, eg due to thermal
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cooling and then expands from its revised cold location to a new point. That is, the pipeline moves on each pipeline
thermal cycle from a different start point. This movement can be caused or compounded or caused by soil falling in the
void left by the pipeline when it moves thus removing the space for the pipeline to contract into upon pipeline cooling.
Movement at horizontal bends
As previously mentioned, thermal expansion force tend to localise in bends, generating a lateral force on the soil which
could then fail. The pipe is restrained by the weight and shear strength of the soil as shown in Figure 19.
Fig. 19 Restraint on outside of bend to restrict horizontal movement.
6.2.4.8 Geohazards
Burying a pipeline is also a means of protecting it from geohazards such as adverse weather (lightning, heavy wind, ice
showers) but also floods, top-soil landslides, forest fires and erosion of the supporting soil. Burial also acts as a buffer
against steep over-ground temperature changes during the day-night cycle but also the seasonal cycles.
It is important to take into account the impact of fault lines and earthquakes in the design process. Trench depth,
design and backfill compaction can improve a pipeline’s response behaviour to fault line movement or an earthquake.
Pipeline burial provides thermal insulation of the pipeline and therefore allows the effects of aboveground ambient
temperatures to be reduced and allows heat loss or gain to the transported fluid to be reduced.
Fig. 20-a shows the evolution of temperatures over a year in Ottawa, Canada, at different depths. The temperature of
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the ground surface remains almost in phase with the air temperature. Below the surface, the soil temperature follows
the same trend, albeit with a delay as it takes time for heat to be conducted through the soil. The time lag increases
linearly with depth. At a depth of 5 to 6 m the maximum ground temperature occurs about 6 months later than the
average maximum temperature of the surface in summer.
Fig. 20-b shows the corresponding temperature variation amplitude change with depth (the “trumpet curve”). The
amplitude of a temperature variation at the soil surface is normally about equal to that of the corresponding one for air.
The amplitude decreases exponentially with distance from the surface at a rate dictated by the time necessary for one
complete cycle. For depths below 5 to 6 m, ground temperatures are essentially constant throughout the year. The
average annual ground temperature is practically constant with depth, increasing about 1ºC per 50 m depth due to
geothermal heat flow from the centre of the earth to the surface.
Fig. 20 Heat insulation from soil cover in Ottawa, Canada:
(a) Annual variation of soil temperatures.
(b) Depth dependence of the annual range of ground temperatures.
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In addition to an annual cycle, the ground temperature undergoes both a daily cycle and fluctuations associated with
changes in the weather. These variations are confined to the near surface region, daily cycles penetrating about 0.5 m
and weather cycles about 1 m below the surface. The "penetration depth" is defined as the depth at which the
amplitude of a temperature variation is reduced to 0.01 of its amplitude at the surface. In addition to the nature of the
soil, moisture has a significant impact on the penetration depth.
Almost every man-made change in terrain modifies both surface and sub-surface ground temperatures, although in most
cases such modifications are not made for the express purpose of changing the ground thermal regime. Situations can
arise, however, where it may be desirable to modify ground temperatures deliberately, for example to reduce the rate of
heat loss from a pipeline. It should be appreciated that these temperatures can be modified only to a limited extent
because man has no appreciable control over climate, which determines values on a regional basis. In general, ground
temperatures can be modified by changing either surface conditions or ground thermal properties. The most obvious
method of changing surface condition is to place an insulating layer near or at the surface to reduce frost penetration.
Increasing the snow cover by the use of snow fences is another example. The thermal capacity of the ground can best
be altered by changing its moisture content, for example, by flooding.
The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (OHTC) characterises the heat retention capacity of a pipe-soil system: the lower
the OHTC the better the insulation of the pipe. Looking at Fig. 21, increasing cover depth decreases the OHTC and can
provide insulation properties in the right soil conditions. However, below the water line heat transfer suddenly increases.
Fig. 21 Heat transfer coefficient Vs Depth of Cover
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6.2.5 Trench Integrity
6.2.5.1 General
Guaranteeing the trench integrity is essential for the safety of the workers in and around the trench as well as being
necessary for the completion of pipeline construction. Trench design is key to trench integrity and needs to be
considered early within pipeline construction projects, so that adequate costs and schedule are allowed for pipeline
construction.
Where ground conditions are such that trench walls will not remain vertical, the contractor may choose to use sloping
side walls or to use solid sheeting to support the trench walls. In all cases, the critical dimension is the trench width
measured at the top of the pipe. Fig. 22 shows the different factors affecting trench stability.
Fig. 22 Factors affecting trench stability.
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6.2.5.2 Access/safety
Like all construction activities, pipeline construction can potentially be dangerous to workers. However, very high safety
standards can prevent most accidents and result in a very safe working environment. Safety statistics from the
Australian Pipelines Industry Association are shown below in Table 1.
Table 1 Safety statistics of pipelines construction from the Australian Pipelines Industry Association.
Month Lost time injuries Medical Total man hours LTIF Rate
(inc fatalities) treatment injury in quarter
Sept 2006 2 4 461,097 2.17
Dec 2006 1 12 980,097 1.02
Mar 2007 0 4 480,342 0
Jun 2007 2 9 447,454 4.47
Sept 2007 1 11 327,654 3.05
Dec 2007 3 15 1,477.182 2.03
Mar 2008 1 4 555345 1.8
Jun 2008 2 11 1,279.358 1.56
Sloping and Stepping

Not all work is done outside of the trench: activities such as inspection, joint coating, and welding often require workers
to go down in the trench. Workers should not enter a trench with vertical walls over 1.2 m deep as the trench could
collapse and pose a safety threat. At greater depths, shoring, sloping, or stepping is required to improve the stability of
the trench (its “stand-up” time which is a function of the ratio between depth and width). T-shaped sloping and stepping
drastically increases the width of the trench at ground level as the depth of the trench increases, as shown in Fig. 23.
Fig. 23 Sloping and stepping.
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6.2.5.3 Use of shoring, sheeting and trench boxes
Different soil types behave differently, depending on the condition of the soil at the time of excavation. Typical
collapsing behaviours are shown in Fig. 24 for different types of soft soils. Sandy soil will tend to collapse straight
down, wet clays and loams tend to slab off the side of the lower trench. Firm, fairly dry clay tends to crack some
distance from the trench wall. Wet sands and gravels tend to slide into the excavation at about a 45-degree angle.
Fig. 24 Collapsing of trench walls in soft soil.
In excavations where the open ditch method (sloped walls) is not sufficient, trench walls likely to collapse must be
supported by proper shoring to mitigate the risk of cave-in. Shoring jacks, with or without sheeting, are a quick and
efficient shoring system because the excavator can work continuously (Fig. 25). For deep trenches and unstable
ground, the best shoring system is a trench box (Fig. 26), a large mobile box with enough strength to withstand the side
pressure of deep excavations. The primary concern is for safety, and all applicable regulations should be strictly
observed.
Fig. 25 Shoring methods
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Fig. 26 Typical trench box
6.2.5.4 Trench bottom preparation
Trench load design for all pipes is based upon stable bedding and firm foundations. It is essential, therefore, that the
trench bottom remains stable during backfilling and under all subsequent trench operations. Any departure from a stable
foundation can nullify the efforts of both the designer and contractor because it can result in localized pipe stress
concentrations which may cause structural failure.
When unstable or rocky trench bottoms are encountered, it will be necessary to over excavate and restore the trench
bottom to a stable uniform foundation with selected materials capable of properly supporting the pipe. Select native
materials, crushed stone, gravel, slag, coral or other granular materials are commonly used for this purpose. The
amount of granular material necessary to stabilize the trench bottom will vary according to the field conditions
encountered. Adequate compaction must be applied to guarantee a stable reformed pipe bed.
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Any material that might damage the pipe coating should be removed from the trench bottom, including rubbish left by
the construction workers. Organic materials (“biodegradable”) should also be removed as their decomposition could lead
to damage to the coating and pipe.
The pipe may be laid on a flat or shaped trench bottom of suitable undisturbed native material or, in the case of over-
excavating, on a restored flat bedding base. It is important to achieve a smooth trench bottom before laying the pipe to
ensure that the entire pipe barrel has a continuous and uniform line bearing support. The soil curvature should be
controlled to ensure that the pipe does not deform excessively under its own weight and the backfill load.
As stated above, upheaval bucking can be initiated by imperfections in trench bottoms, providing a further reason to
ensure correct trench bottom preparation. A trench bottom imperfection may cause the pipeline to form an overbend by
elastic bending when installed, and upheaval buckling could occur at such a point in operations, if the pipeline is locked
in position upstream and downstream of the imperfections. Pipeline expansion, coupled with insufficient local
overburden, can cause the pipeline to move upwards, potentially driving the pipeline locally out of the ground.
Expansion to cause upheaval buckling is normally associated with pipeline operating temperatures at least 50°C above
the pipeline temperature at backfilling.
6.2.6 Installation
6.2.6.1 Right of way
The Right Of Way (ROW) is the actual width of land, usually purchased as an “easement” rather than a fee, required to
safely maintain and operate the pipeline and protect it from future development.
In order to perform pipeline installation safely and efficiently, a corridor of 20-30 m is typically required (see Fig. 27) for
a single line. Once the pipeline has been installed, the permanent ROW is typically only 8-10 m wide. At river
crossings, the ROW during construction is typically significantly larger (usually 30-50 m). The installation of twin lines
would also require a larger ROW.
Fig. 27 Construction and permanent ROW.
Fig. 28 shows a typical ROW during pipeline installation in agricultural areas. Excavated material is separated in two
heaps: the topsoil one is obtained from scraping the area on top and on both sides of the trench (see “topsoil strip
width” in Fig. 28 ). The subsoil heap is made of material excavated exclusively from the trench. This separation is
important in non-desertic area to ensure future vegetation growth on the ROW after reinstatement. To prevent
decomposition of the organic material into compost, the topsoil heap should not exceed 2 m in height. Developing
nearby tree roots are a potential danger to pipelines, thus the felling of trees close to the ROW might be required, not
only during construction but also during the life of the pipeline.
Fig. 28 Typical ROW cross-section in agricultural areas.
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The ROW is often not owned by the pipeline operator and it is therefore necessary to have an agreement with the
landowners in place regarding the temporary use of their land; the potential degradation of the topsoil over the pipeline;
and future abandonment and re-instatement requirements.
Fig. 29 Typical ROW cross-section in desert areas.
Fig. 29 shows a typical ROW during pipeline installation in desert, and wasteland areas. Two spoil heaps
are not required in this instance.
Fig. 30 shows a typical ROW cut through a forest.
Fig. 30 Right of way through a forest
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6.2.6.2 Spoil Management
Construction operations produce large volumes of material to store and also surplus excavated materials that will be
disposed of or re-used elsewhere. The types of spoil generated will depend on location, depth, and method (e.g.
digging, horizontal directional drilling, boring etc.). It can comprise soil or rocks. The stored material needs to be
handled with care to allow re-use, with the subsoil stored separately from the topsoil. The handling and disposal of the
surplus subsoil also needs careful disposal, or re-use if possible. Spoil that cannot be managed on site will need to be
removed.
Increased costs on projects in recent years has led to increasing pressure and incentive to minimise the amount of
construction spoil sent to landfill sites, but to do so depends on being able to reduce, recycle and reuse more of it.
That, in turn, calls for reliable information about how construction sites handle wastes, and spoil from ground
engineering operations. Traffic generated by poor spoil management plans will lead to construction delays. Geotechnical
surveys will need to define areas of contamination and the type of contaminant early in the design to allow appropriate
management strategies to be developed. Contaminated spoils will require carefully-engineered management plans, not
to mention the health and safety risks for the site employees.
Reduction, reuse or recycling of spoil can be a viable option only if considered early in the design, operation and
management of the works taken as a whole and not as a separate activity at a discrete later stage, i.e. this needs to be
planned in detail at the design stage.
Some examples are given below for spoil management in rugged mountain terrain areas where the excess spoil is used
for site restoration or erosion control.
Erosion control can only be practiced once the bulk earthworks and major drainage work have been completed. In steep
terrain this is not routine, and the spoil management strategy is the key to providing a stable platform for erosion
control. It is convenient to review practices in four categories, these are illustrated in Fig. 31, and described more fully
in Table 2, in roughly historical sequence:
Traditional The traditional approach, as also used Page

on many
179
low-cost roads and railways, is simple downslope
disposal or side tipping. This has a high visual impact, plus risks of ensuing soil instability, loss of
natural vegetation, and sediment contaminating streams and rivers. This is now considered
environmentally unacceptable in most situations.
Stabilised This is a development of downslope disposal, with a supplementary stabilisation of the tipped spoil
Traditional by revegetation and erosion control techniques. This approach is difficult, and usually works out to
be an expensive option.
Full The full replacement of soil on steep mountain slopes is environmentally attractive, but very difficult
contour to achieve in practice.
restoration
Engineered Even in severe terrain there will often be stable embayment areas at intervals on or close to the
spoil tips ROW that can be used for engineered disposal, with appropriate compaction, drainage, erosion
control and revegetation. This leaves “smoothed” contours along the right of way. This approach
appears to be the best environmental option overall. Unexpectedly, from experience this appears to
be the minimum cost option in many situations.
A good modern alignment will minimise the extent of sidelong cuts and associated spoil volumes. The pipeline industry
has tended to look at terrain in two dimensions, but rugged terrain requires the three-dimensional approaches of the
roads industry, and careful planning of earthworks. The engineered spoil tip approach that we have come to favour
requires the advance location, sizing and licensing of stable engineered tip sites, as part of this planning.
Fig. 31 Earthworks management – examples of spoil management strategies
Extracts from “Performance management for site restoration in rugged terrain”, by M Sweeney, A Gasca, RPC Morgan
and J Clarke, in Int. Conf. on “Terrain and geohazard challenges facing onshore oil and gas pipelines”, London June
2004, pub Thomas Telford Ltd, p 687-700.
Table 2 Earthworks on mountain pipelines – spoil management strategies
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6.2.6.3 Trafficability
As part of the ROW design, it is necessary to consider the ability of construction vehicles to travel and operate on the
right of way. When the ground is soft, vehicle “trafficability” can be reduced or prevented completely. This problem is of
prime importance as it can affect dramatically the construction cost and schedule or even lead to a change of pipeline
route.
Special equipment might be needed (e.g. low ground pressure vehicles, mats) and special requirements (e.g. time of
construction, drainage of groundwater) might need to be considered. For example, in tropical countries, it might be
necessary to build the pipeline during the dry season when rainfall is lowest, and the soil is hardest. On the contrary, in
permafrost, it might be necessary to construct during the winter when the ground is frozen and has a higher bearing
capacity.
Construction vehicles can get immobilised on soft terrain in different ways. First, a vehicle can simply sink in the
ground at rest if the soil bearing capacity is too low, i.e. the soil simply does not provide sufficient vertical resistance
(Fig. 32-a). Once the wheels or tracks of a vehicle are sunk, the vehicle has to climb a very steep local slope and will
often be stuck since the soil often does not provide enough traction resistance. Second, insufficient horizontal
resistance leads to a reduced or nil mobility (Fig. 32- b). Enough traction resistance should be available to overcome the
combined resistance of the following.
soil
slope
vegetation
obstacles
Third, slipping of the wheels or tracks as the vehicle moves causes the so-called slip-sinkage effect which causes a
vehicle to sink gradually as it advances (Fig. 32-c). However tires running in an existing rut can benefit from the pre-
compaction of the soil which reduces the slip-sinkage. This is known as the multipass effect (Fig. 32-d).
Fig. 32 Tire-soil interaction. (a) Sinkage at rest. (b) Horizontal resistance. (c) Slip-sinkage. (d) Multipass effect
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Adhesion of soil between ruts can also lead to a dramatic decrease in traction resistance and should therefore be
assessed whenever the soil exhibits high cohesion.
The mobility of construction vehicles has to be assessed both on the original pristine ground but also after remoulding
by traffic which can dramatically reduce trafficability. Hence it might be possible for vehicles to cross a patch of terrain
a “few” times but not more. The sensitivity of the soil to remoulding is often expressed as the ratio of the undisturbed
and remoulded compressive strengths:
Besides the ability to perform earthworks for the pipeline construction at hand, care should be taken to minimise the
environmental impact and avoid damage to nearby buried pipelines which might not be able to bear the pressure of
construction vehicles. Notable methods for estimating trafficability are listed below.
Methods based on Bekker’s work rely on the plasticity theory and soil friction and cohesion factors. These are
complex but nevertheless empirical. They are proven to work well and are often used to develop new vehicles or
elaborate new soil models.
Newtonian methods are relatively new, hence not proven in the field. They are the subject of modern research
but are not yet used in practice.
WES methods were developed by the US Army waterways experiment station (WES) and are based on soil
penetration resistance and wheel numerics. They provide a simple “go” or “no-go” verdict using a single field
measurement: the cone index (CI). Like Bekker’s, the WES method is extensively field-proven.
The original WES method is exposed in the NATO Reference Mobility Model (NRMM) which was developed by the US
Army during World War II. The full model makes use of the following parameters to assess soil trafficability.
Cone index
Soil type
Stickiness, slipperiness
Vehicle characteristics
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The full model also allows to calculate an estimate of a vehicle “speed made good” and of its power efficiency. A
simplified version of the NRMM is often used to produce only a go/no-go verdict. It makes use of the cone index (CI),
the remoulding index (RI) which characterises the behaviour of the soil after remoulding by traffic, and the vehicle cone
index (VCI) which has to be determined for every type of vehicle. Reference documents listing the VCI of typical
construction vehicles are widespread.
Assessment of trafficability should make use of a proven technique but also of sensible engineering judgement
regarding parameters like slipperiness (snow, ice), slopes, obstacles, vegetation, etc. Other factors also have to be
taken into account, e.g. damage to the environment, damage to adjacent pipelines, building foundations, overhead
power lines etc.
The ROW trafficability conditions should be examined before the ROW route is finalised. Complex tiresoil interaction
(e.g. multipass effect, slip-sinkage) can sometimes determine whether vehicles will be operable or not on soft ground,
hence a detailed trafficability analysis is essential whenever conditions seem critical (Fig. 33).
Fig. 33 Soil trafficability
(a) Pipeline laying in wet soil
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(b) Excavators which sunk due to poor soil conditions.
6.2.7 Dewatering
6.2.7.1 General
Removal of ground water in the trench is required for different reasons. First dewatering is necessary to be able to
excavate a flat, smooth, and stable bottom to lay the pipe. Furthermore, a dry soil is needed during installation to
ensure a firm stable foundation. Groundwater movement can also cause material to run off from under the pipe, which
could then bend under its own weight as could be unevenly supported. Groundwater removal is also necessary to allow
safe and convenient access to the workers who will often perform various tasks in the trench such as inspecting,
welding, coating, or repairing. Pipeline buoyancy can also be a problem if water accumulates at the bottom of the trench
(Fig. 34).
Migration of fine materials (“fines”) in or out of the pipe zone can result in loss of pipe support and must be prevented.
This can be accomplished through the use of waterstops or geofabrics. Water should be removed from the trench
before final grading of the bedding. The trench should be kept dry during all phases of pipe installation. This can be
done in several ways:
Over-excavate the trench bottom and fill with crushed stone or other angular material to provide a French drain
under the pipe. This drain will carry the water to interceptor sumps where it can be pumped away
The groundwater table can also be lowered with well points wherever soil conditions permit. They should be
located at intervals dictated by soil properties and placed reasonably close to the trench walls. They should be
sunk to a depth below the elevation of the trench bottom. Several well points can be joined together to be
handled by one pump
In some cases the trench dewatering system may consist of a geotextile in addition to opengraded crushed rock.
Fine sands in a fluctuating water table environment are vulnerable to foundation problems and may require a
geotextile encapsulation of the drain
Depending on the nature of the soil, the water might contain a lot of silt. Special measures have to be taken in that
case such as the use of specialised pumps or filter sumps.
Removing the water from the trench is only half of the problem:
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the water has to be carried and disposed of. For this,
permits from authorities may have to be obtained. It is also necessary to perform an analysis of the extracted water to
ensure it will not contaminate its disposal area.
Fig. 34 Groundwater in pipeline trench (requiring buoyancy control)
6.2.7.2 Wellpointing
Sub-ground dewatering or wellpointing is a method of controlling or lowering the level of sub-ground water. When faced
with having to excavate below the existing sub-ground water level the simplest and most costeffective method would
be to deploy a wellpoint system. In modern practice wellpointing is considered most suitable for relatively shallow
excavations up to 6.5 metres deep in stratified soils, especially where the water table must be lowered very near to an
underlying bed of clay or impermeable rock.
Wellpoint systems typically consist of the following (Fig. 35):
A small diameter pipe (known as a riser pipe) fitted with a fine filter (wellpoint filter) this filter prevents fines
entering into the system and being removed from the ground in the pumped water
This riser pipe would be connected above ground to a flexible pipe via a control valve to the header pipe which in
turn connects to the suction connection of a specialist vacuum wellpoint pump
The discharge side of the wellpoint pump is connected via the discharge pipe to a settlement tank (which further
collects any fines) and then on through the discharge pipe to the discharge point
Once the pump is switched on it creates a vacuum and pulls water out of the ground thus lowering the sub-
ground water level and pumps the water to the designated discharge point
The wellpoints are jetted into the ground using a high-pressure water pump (jetting pump) delivering water down
a steel tube (jetting tube) to a maximum working depth of 6.5 metres
The wellpoint filter and riser pipe are installed, along with a granular filter pack to aid drainage, and then
connected to the system
Wellpoint systems are very effective in a wide range of soils from fine silty sand to coarse gravels. Single stage
wellpoint systems are used to a maximum depth of 6.5 metres. For deeper excavations twin stage wellpoint systems
can be deployed. Page 185
The equipment used falls into two categories the above-ground equipment which can be reused and is usually hired or
rented; and the equipment below ground (risers and filters) which are normally regarded as disposable items and as
such are sold to the customer. The pumps that are required for wellpointing duties are critical to the efficiency of the
system and must have excellent air handling and air separation capabilities. As such they are regarded as specialised
units.
If well pointing is implemented, a location to dispose of the water must be found and appropriate permits must be
obtained.
Fig. 35 Wellpointing
6.2.7.3 Water run-off control
Installing an interceptor drain (Fig. 36-left) allows water flow and prevents material from running off from under the pipe.
It is a gravel trench that is excavated into a relatively impermeable soil layer and installed to collect and remove
groundwater as it flows across the impermeable layer. The trench is typically placed across a contour of a slight to
moderate sloping area to intercept groundwater to prevent it influencing slope stability. Generally, trenches are
constructed 2-3 feet wide and are lined with a quality geotextile that does not clog. There is a 1-2 foot overlap of the
geotextile above the gravel and below the backfill in the trench. Alternatively, a French drain (Fig. 26 right) can be
installed. It is a ditch covered with gravel or rock that redirects surface and groundwater away from an area. In order to
prevent rainwater from running off in slopes during construction and create the same problems as groundwater (See
Section 6.2.2.7.1), some measures should be taken in regions where such problems could arise. Fig. 37 shows trench
breakers placed at regular intervals in a slope.
Fig. 36 Interceptor drain (left) and French drain (right).
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Fig. 37 Water run-off control with trench breakers.
6.2.7.4 Buoyancy
During construction, the pipe is filled with air. If the wall thickness to pipe diameter ratio is low (typically for large
diameters), the pipeline can be lighter than water and therefore float, making the pipe laying impossible. If dewatering is
not possible, buoyancy control is achieved by adding weight to the pipe (concrete, sandbags, slabs) or by anchoring the
pipe to the ground at regular intervals.
6.2.8 Backfilling
6.2.8.1 General
Once the trench has been excavated and water has been extracted, backfilling can commence as proper bedding needs
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to be put in place before the pipe can be laid. The terminology for various parts of a trench is shown in Fig. 38. Once
the bedding is in place, the pipeline is installed. The upper bedding and the sidefill can then be installed by workers.
Finally the main backfill can be applied in lifts with minimal direct intervention by workers. The layers can be made of
different materials and the main backfill itself can be composed of several layers of different materials. This would
allow, for example, using fine soil close to the pipe not to damage it, and coarser soil on top. It is crucial for all the
backfill layers close to the pipe to be carefully installed as the soil settlement caused by the load of the main backfill
could lead to excessive pressure on the pipe, which would then deform and become oval. Excavators often have to
observe a maximum soil drop height to avoid damaging the pipe.
Fig. 38 Pipe trench installation terminology
6.2.8.2 Backfill material
If the in-situ soil is not suited for the backfilling operation, it might be necessary to import soil. For this, permits have to
be obtained from the relevant authorities and a location has to be found to dispose of the excavated soil. In-situ material
can sometimes be crushed and screened to then be used as backfill.
The selection of a suitable backfill material is made according to the following criteria.
Nature of the soil (cohesion, permeability)
Granulometry (presence of rocks, clods, or boulders and abrasion properties)
Density
Suitability to compaction by normal methods
The financial, environmental, social and logistical problems associated with the importation of selective bedding and
backfill materials has contributed to the drive to introduce coatings which minimise the use of imported materials.
Examples of the problems associated with the importation of selective bedding and backfill materials are
The high material costs
The cost of removing excess spoil from site
Aggregate taxes
Damage to roads and the environment
Local disruption and adverse public relations
Inaccessibility
The alternative to importing backfill is to employ crushing and screening equipment to process indigenous spoils. This
alternative has become common on many construction projects and has overcome many of the problems associated
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with laying pipe in difficult ground conditions and the expense of removing excess spoil from site.
6.2.8.3 Coating interaction
In some cases, the type of pipe coating has to be matched to the selected type of backfill material to avoid damage to
the coating due to rock penetration or excessive abrasion. Additional protective measures can be used to protect the
pipe such as using geotextiles (see Section 6.2.8.9) to separate a layer of fine material around the pipe from a layer of
coarser material on top (generally denser and/or cheaper).
A conservative approach is often taken in the selection of bedding and backfill materials used to create the pipeline
habitat, particularly in a trench containing many rock outcrops or a high percentage of flint. A detailed assessment of
the interaction between the coating system and the backfill can lead to a relaxation of the bedding and backfilling
requirements, hence decreasing the costs.
On one hand, processing of spoils on site, or the importation of selective materials to create a suitable habitat around
the pipe is extremely expensive and can be impractical in more remote locations. On the other hand, multilayer (3-layer
polyethylene, 3LPE) coating systems that may limit the use of processed or imported materials are more expensive
than their thin film (fusion bonded epoxy, FBE) counterparts. Cost savings may accrue if the higher cost of the coating
system is counterbalanced by the savings associated with the following:
A reduction in the amount of coating damage sustained during transportation, handling and construction
A reduced requirement for imported or site-processed bedding and backfill to create the pipeline habitat
A reduction in the amount of indigenous material requiring removal from site due to importation of selective
material
Early consideration of geotechnical conditions in coating selection and backfill design can prove beneficial technically,
environmentally and economically as illustrated in the figures below. Fig. 39a compares the cost of importing bedding
and backfill (and removing spoil from site) for varying percentages of a 100 km, 610 mm diameter pipeline, and hence
the potential cost saving associated with reducing the amount of imported material employed. Fig. 39b shows the same
comparison but for processed bedding and padding in the case of the FBE coating. It has been assumed in this
assessment that an FBE coating would always require imported or processed material for bedding and backfilling in
adverse ground conditions, and that the 3LPE coating would be capable of being bedded and backfilled in indigenous
spoil.
Fig. 39 Cost associated with bedding and padding
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(a) Cost associated with using imported materials for bedding and padding for a 24” 100 km pipeline.
(b) Cost associated with using site-processed materials

The economic viability of a more expensive coating depends on being able to recover the increased application costs
through a reduction in the amount of imported or site-processed bedding and backfill required to prepare the pipeline
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habitat. An early study is therefore essential to optimize the technical solution as well as minimise the costs.
6.2.8.4 Rock excavation
When it is necessary to dig a trench in rocky soil, two solutions exist: rock trenching using specialised equipment and
blasting with explosives (Fig. 40). Blasting is commonly used because of its cheap cost and speed of operation but the
excavated trench is irregularly sloped and requires greater excavation efforts. Furthermore, irregular trench walls resist
compaction. Specialised rock trencher machinery is available and produces high quality trenches albeit at a greater
cost.
Fig. 40 Rock blasting
6.2.8.5 Types of bedding
When an imported bedding material is used, the bottom of the trench should be over-excavated. The proper amount of
bedding material is then added to achieve the final grade. The bedding material may be crushed stone or other angular
material placed on the trench bottom or by using the natural material providing it is properly compacted. The depth of
the material should be at least one-eighth of the pipe diameter but in no case less than 4 inches. The bottom of the
excavated trench must be firm, even, and stable to provide uniform support.
6.2.8.6 Trench foundation
When the bottom of the trench is not sufficiently stable or firm to prevent vertical or lateral displacement of the pipe
after installation, the first step is to develop a non-yielding supplementary foundation for the pipe, irrespective of other
bedding requirements. Supplementary foundations may be of various types to provide an adequate and non-yielding
base (e.g. made of concrete).
6.2.8.7 Initial backfill/coating damage
Initial backfilling takes place after the pipe has been installed according to the engineering specifications. The initial
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backfill extends from the bedding material, up the sides of the pipe, to a level approximately 12 inches over the top of
the pipe. The initial backfill should be carefully placed as soon as possible to maintain proper pipe alignment and to
protect the pipe. This material should free from large stones or clods. The bedding or initial backfill should be sliced
under the "haunches" of the pipe to fill the voids and consolidate the material in this area. This assures uniform support
of the pipe. (Fig. 41). Backfilling in lifts should be done when the bedding material is no higher than about one quarter of
the pipe diameter if it is to be effective.
Multi-layer pipeline coatings such as dual powder systems and 3-layer HDPE have been shown to provide superior
resistance to damage, both accidental damage during handling and transportation and resistance to the increased loads
arising from the use of larger trench backfill.
Fig. 41 Pipe bedding
6.2.8.8 Final backfill
The final backfill extends from the initial backfill to the top of the trench. Final backfill shall be placed in lifts of typically
300 mm. No rocks or stones should be present in the final backfill within one meter of the top of the pipe. Selected
backfill material may be required for the top 300 mm or more as specified by the engineer. Usually a front end loader or
a bulldozer is used to push the spoil bank into the trench at an angle so that impact on the pipe zone is minimized. The
surplus material should be stored over the trench. After the compression (after approx. four weeks) the remaining
surplus material will either be spread out on the working strip or removed from the construction site to a material
disposal site.
6.2.8.9 Geotextiles
Crushed rock or other coarse aggregate is recommended and used as a bedding material to improve the load bearing
capacity of pipe. Deeper layers of these materials have been employed to stabilize the base of the trench. Loss of pipe
support can occur when open-graded materials are used on sites having fine to medium sands at the base of the trench
and a water table which fluctuates rapidly in the pipe zone. This is caused by water moving rapidly through the fine to
the coarse material and carrying the fine sands with it. To prevent movement of the fine sands into the voids of the
open-graded bedding material, the material can be encapsulated in a geotextile material. Geotextiles are also used to
prevent damage to the pipe from pebbles or rocks which might migrate from another layer of the backfill (Fig. 42).
Fig. 42 Controlling migration of bedding material with geofabric
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6.2.8.10 Compaction
Soil compaction can be required for different reasons. To prevent soil settlement due to over-ground traffic, a high level
of compaction is needed, especially at road crossings. Compaction also increases the pipeline restraint and is therefore
often necessary to avoid burying the pipeline too deep, especially in side-bends and over-bends where the restraint
needs to be highest.
When it is necessary to achieve a high degree of compaction, it may be advisable for the design engineer or contractor
to consult a geotechnical engineer. Success in the mechanical compaction of backfills is entirely dependent upon the
control exercised during this operation. The selection and use of suitable compaction equipment must be made with
care so that the pipe will not be disturbed or damaged. Pneumatic tampers, vibratory pads (hand-held and walk-behind)
and self-propelled trench compactors are specifically designed for this work. Extreme care should be taken when using
heavy mechanical equipment such as sheepsfoot rollers, dozers and loaders. Most soil materials may be compacted by
mechanical means in lifts. However, it is necessary to determine if the field moisture content is in the optimum
moisture range in order to obtain the desired compaction with normal compactive effort. If the soil permits, adequate
compaction may be obtained by careful water flooding as discussed in the following section.
Proctor tests provide curves like the one shown in Fig. 43. They allow the maximum density of a soil to be quantified
as a function of water content. Achieving a 100% Proctor compaction level would equate to being on the horizontal
dashed line shown in Fig. 43. It is not uncommon to require 90-95% Proctor density for sensitive pipelines prone to
upheaval, or when the design requires a fully-restrained system.
Fig. 43 Maximum compaction Vs. water content.
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Poor compaction and weight of soil on pipe can cause the pipe to ovalise over time due to poor side support, and
introduce ovalisation bending stresses in the pipe. A typical percentage pipe deflection over time for a range of
compaction densities is shown in Fig. 44.
Fig. 44 Deflection of pipe due to compaction
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6.2.8.11 Water compaction
The water method of compaction, known as flooding or jetting, when conducted in lifts, produces supersaturation of the
backfill material, which, for any given soil, will produce a degree of consolidation that can be predicted with reasonable
accuracy. The desired range of compaction can be obtained with water in native granular or sandy materials which
would include most sandy and silty soils and even those with some clay content. However, materials which are
predominantly clay cannot be satisfactorily compacted by supersaturation because of cohesion and low permeability of
the soil. Water jetting should not be allowed to disturb the initial backfill or the bedding which can result in pipe
displacement or damage.
6.2.8.12 Compaction abuse
The selection and use of suitable compaction equipment must be made with care so that the pipe will not be disturbed
or damaged. A falling weight "stomper" or drop hammer should never be used for compacting even with a substantial
cover over the pipe. These impact devices can damage the pipe and/or force it out of alignment.
6.2.8.13 Compaction measurement
Compaction is typically calculated by comparing the measured soil density to the maximum soil density for a given
level of moisture content. The most reliable method to measure density and water content is to extract a sample and
carry it to a laboratory. A nuclear density gauge (Fig. 45) provides an alternative which has the advantage of providing
immediate readings, albeit of a lower precision.
Fig. 45 Nuclear density gauge to measure soil density.
6.2.8.14 Berming
Two reasons motivate the building of a berm on a right of way. On one hand, it provides an easy way of locating the
exact pipeline location for maintenance and/or repair purposes, and helps reduce accidental third-party damage by
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providing a clear indication of the pipeline’s location. A typical bermed pipeline is shown in Fig. 46. On the other hand, a
berm can be used as additional cover to restrain the pipeline.
Fig. 46 Berm on a pipeline ROW
Fig. 47 Lateral pressure at bends
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Looking at Fig. 47, a berm can be placed on the outside of a bend to strengthen the soil in the direction of the slip
surface and increase lateral restraint. Capping (typically 300 mm thick) is normally applied to avoid erosion from wind
and rain.
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6.3 Environment
All pipeline construction projects will potentially have

impacts on the environment to one degree or other. The The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
degree of impact can depend on the sensitivity of the Typical Impacts
receiving environment, the construction techniques used, Typical Mitigation Measures
and the size of the project (pipeline length). Pipeline Construction in Different Environments
The degree of impact on the environment is initially
identified during the environmental impact assessment
(EIA) process. Impacts are given a detailed rating, which takes into account factors including the sensitivity of habitat,
proximity to other sensitive receptors, and how the pipeline will be constructed. As part of the EIA process mitigation
measures to actively reduce, or offset the environmental impact of the project are suggested, and these measures are
incorporated into the projects environmental management plan (EMP). The EMP defines the environmental objectives
for the construction project, and provides clear guidance for environmental best practice for all activities for the
personnel involved. The EMP can also be used as a basis for the training of site personnel in environmental best
practice.
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Process In order that environmental impacts can be reduced, negated, and/or offset as far as is practicably possible,
appropriate mitigation measures are agreed as part of the EIA process and incorporated into the overall plan for
construction works.
The EIA process follows recognised standards that are recognised by national governments, clients, trade
associations, World Bank and international finance organisations.
If undertaken properly an environmental assessment aids all those involved in the project and planning process
(including the project developer). It ensures that the developer has focussed on the environmental considerations of the
project at an early stage, rather than being forced to reconsider an alternative solution once construction is underway.
The first requirement for assessing the impact of a proposed activity is a survey. A thorough survey, including an
assessment of all available evidence, will enable any impacts to be accurately assessed and allow appropriate
mitigation to be developed and agreed.
Mitigation measures can take a number of forms. The most common forms are outlined in the following table:
Avoidance Where viable, the project or activity will be redesigned to avoid impacts
Reduction Reduction will be considered when all options for the avoidance of impacts have been exhausted
or deemed to be impractical (e.g. reduced working width, reduced construction hours/ numbers of
construction vehicles etc.).
Compensation Where the potential for avoidance of and reducing impacts has been exhausted, consideration
will be given to environmental compensation (e.g. the creation of alternative habitat to offset that
which has been disturbed/destroyed).
Remediation Where adverse effects are unavoidable, consideration will be given to limiting the level of impact
by undertaking remedial works.
Typical Impacts
Environmental impacts from pipeline projects depend on local conditions, and the techniques employed in construction.
However there are a number of potential impacts that are characteristic for terrestrial pipeline construction spreads:
Habitat disturbance – Can take the form of temporary or permanent disturbance/alteration to pre existing habitat
over the length of the pipeline spread
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Soil erosion – Wind or water erosion of the trench slope or stored soils during construction, or of the spread
during/following construction. Erosion can vary according to the terrain, soil type, and degree of vegetation
cover, construction methods, and weather conditions
The spread of weeds/alien/invasive species, and/or contaminated soils through soil tipping and excavation, and
by construction vehicles tracking along the pipeline spread
Potential impacts to statutory designated areas, protected/vulnerable species, or protected/vulnerable habitats
due to construction activities
Potential socio-economic impacts, such as construction noise, dust generation, access to public rights-of-way,
employment (positive and negative) supply chain, impacts on farming activities, in particular livestock and visual
impacts to locals and visitors to an area
Health impacts from construction activities, including introduction of new infectious diseases from workforce in
remote communities, camp conditions, security and pollution
Impacts on watercourses – River crossings and stream diversions have impacts on watercourses. Other
impacts could include increased siltation in rivers, and the risk of pollution by construction machinery (fuel/lubes
spills)
Impacts on known/unknown archaeological sites/artefacts may be damaged or disturbed by construction
activities
Impacts on wildlife – As well as habitat disturbance, pipeline projects can create direct disturbance to wild
animals by noise and dust creation, particularly during sensitive lifecycle periods (such as breeding). Open
construction spreads, as well as completely reinstated projects can create linear features in the landscape,
which can be a temporary barrier to migration pathways in the same way as roads and railways
Typical Mitigation Measures
Many of the following mitigation measures are considered as environmental best practice by the pipeline construction
industry. These measures typically apply to pipeline projects undertaken across all habitat types.
Habitat disturbance and soil erosion can be mitigated by appropriate soil handling techniques during
construction; limiting the amount of topsoil stripped to the absolute minimum required, and for as briefly as
possible. In addition regular watering of stripped topsoil areas can help reduce dust generation and surface wind
erosion, as can limiting traffic and speed of traffic on the pipeline spread. Appropriate storage of stripped and
excavated soil, and limiting the gradients of slopes/trench sides during construction and timing construction
works to avoid the wettest times of the year are also important considerations
The spread of invasive or alien species and contaminated soils along pipeline routes can be mitigated by
appropriate weed control measures, limiting vehicle movements, appropriate separate soil storage and
machinery washing points at regular intervals along pipeline routes
Impacts on statutory designated sites can be reduced at the pipeline routeing study stage by avoiding such
areas, wherever possible. Other measures include keeping the width of the construction spread to a minimum,
and timing works such that they avoid sensitive periods for protected/vulnerable species and/or habitats.
Construction techniques such as horizontal directional drilling (HDD) can also be used to avoid particularly
sensitive areas
Careful selection and maintenance of construction equipment helps to minimise noise and airborne emissions to
the local community
Sustainable use of resources, including fuel, water, fencing, skids and temporary road material (including
associated borrow pits) may have the additional benefit of reducing waste
Mitigating impacts to watercourses can be achieved by ensuring appropriate site drainage has silt settlement or
filtration prior to discharge. Ensuring that any open-cut river crossings are timed to coincide with periods of
lowest sensitivity (avoiding breeding/spawning periods, and periods of highest water flow, as well as undertaking
crossing works as quickly as possible); alternatively HDD construction techniques are used, particularly on
wider river crossings. Impacts to watercourses from accidental fuel or lube oil spills can be minimised by
ensuring that no refuelling of equipment takes place in close proximity to watercourses. The potential for
accidental releases of fuel and/or lube oils and grease to watercourses can be further reduced by using
machinery that is in a good state of repair (appropriately maintained) and new
Impacts to known/unknown archaeological, religious sites and artefacts can be mitigated at the routeing stage
by avoiding known areas. An archaeological watching brief can also be maintained during topsoil stripping and
trench excavation to prevent undue damage to any previously unknown areas
Minimising the extent of open trench allows the passage of wildlife and communities who need access across
the working width
Careful reinstatement of pipeline working width, following the completion of construction activities, reduces the
potential for pipeline projects to have a residual impact on habitats. Consideration of reinstatement should be
undertaken early in the construction process, andPage may199
entail seed collection, tree felling, specialist machinery
for topsoil stripping (such as turfing), the need to source local plant material, or the requirement for water to
establish plants. Where possible pipelines are often routed through agricultural land whereby, although there is a
temporary disturbance to habitat and farming land, typically due to the seasonality of the land use, complete
reinstatement occurs very quickly. Post construction monitoring should be undertaken (for a minimum period of
2 years) to ascertain the overall success of the reinstatement works and assess the recovery of the
environment. Monitoring is particularly important in those areas where habitat is of significance for conservation.
Careful consideration should be given to ensuring that the ground conditions are conserved, by storing and
replacing topsoil and soil layers in the correct order, and controlling decompaction and drainage
All the measures aimed at mitigating the impacts from construction activities can form part of a site environmental
management plan (EMP). The EMP transfers the commitments made during the routeing, financing and consents
identified in the EIA document into practical guidance, for the construction contractors to cost and implement as part of
the construction works. It can also form the basis for appropriate environmental training of personnel working on site.
Pipeline Constr uction in Diffe rent Environments
There are a number of environmental impacts that are more habitat-specific, and as such require differing approaches
to their mitigation strategies.
Soft soils – These are prone to compaction during construction works, and can often require the use off bog
mats to reduce soil damage. During very wet periods soft soil sections of the pipeline spread can be temporarily
closed off to prevent undue compaction. Reinstatement involves the removal of the bog mats and ripping up of
the soils, prior to re-profiling to alleviate the compaction
Sand dunes – Dune systems are particularly sensitive (particularly in the low-lying more stable areas) and are
often susceptible to flash flooding, and as such pipeline routeing should identify such areas and re-route if
necessary. Dust generation can be a problem, but this can reduced by keeping vehicle movements and speeds
to a minimum. Reinstatement is of particular importance and difficulty in sand dune areas as they are often
mobile in nature, and require some specialist reinstatement techniques. The dunes need to be recontoured as
close to their original state as possible, also reinstating the original drainage channels and watercourses
Peatland – As with other soft soil environments, measures to protect and mitigate compaction will be required.
Draining water from the excavation can lead to an imbalance in the peat, which can damage its integrity. As
such appropriate water quality and erosion control measures will need to be used, such as geotextiles, straw
bales, or rock riprap. There is also the potential for the pipeline trench to act as a drainage channel. To prevent
this inert plugs can be placed in the trench at intervals to prevent poor drainage
Side slopes – The potential for erosion of the trench on steep slopes can be mitigated by the placing of trench
plugs at regular intervals to prevent the free flow of water and silt through the trench. Slopes should be graded to
avoid soil creep, and the use of pre-existing planting or erosion control geotextile matting should be maximised
to aid slope stabilisation. Early establishment of vegetation is important on side slopes
Swampy areas – Similar measures should be taken as in peatland and soft soil environments to mitigate against
soil compaction. In addition pipes laid through swamps are susceptible to water build up in the excavated
trench; dewatering may be useful but care should be taken of the discharge location. In addition sediment traps
or filtration measures to reduce silt in the water should be taken prior to discharge of trench water
Forested areas – To minimise the degree of tree clearance required, the working width of the pipeline spread
should be reduced as much as possible. Machinery working in such environments should be able to work safely
in a reduced space. Where tree roots have been cut, but the trees not felled, the crown of the tree should be
reduced accordingly to reduce water stress, and protect the tree from any long-term damage. Measures should
also be taken to avoid disturbance to nesting birds, or species/habitats of conservation importance. Account
should be taken of tree canopy species that would typically travel across the working width, walkways or
access points may need to be provided
Ridge – Ridges are constrained, and as such will require that the working width be reduced. There is a lack of
available space for the storage of equipment and excavated material, so activities require careful advance
planning. Side casting can have large-scale visual impacts, and although reinstatement of the contours is
particularly difficult, it is important to restore the original contours as closely as possible. To stabilise soils and
minimise erosion early reinstatement of vegetation should be considered, as well as potentially re-contouring
land to minimise the overall visual impact
Tundra – Tundra habitats may include permafrost. The working season is first determined by borehole
investigations, which provide information about the depth and extent of the permafrost, and in turn help guide
appropriate construction and reinstatement techniques. Modelling may need to be undertaken to ascertain the
thermal effects of the permafrost on the pipeline and contents, and vice-versa. Insulation measures may be
required for the pipeline prior to operation. Accurate reinstatement of the strata profile is particularly crucial in
permafrost habitats, as it is important to appreciate how the ground may alter its physical properties seasonally
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The tables in Appendix 6.3 give an overview of the measures to reduce the impact of the works on the environment.
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Appendix 6.3 Environment Control Measures

Conditions Environmental Justification Mitigation

of Considerations
Excavation
All Habitats Erosion of stored Soil strata should Top and sub-soil must be stored separately to
soils by wind/water be kept separate to preserve the seed bank for reinstatement
must be minimised avoid purposes. If the soils are to be stored for a long
crosscontamination period of time, they must be re-seeded or
and loss of the protected by silt fencing or stock pile berms and
seed bank for geo-jute matting to aid reinstatement and
reinstatement prevent any soil erosion/loss.
purposes. Soils
stored for long The topsoil, normally stored on the right of the
periods of time running track, must not exceed 2m in height to
may also be prevent degradation of the soil structure. Subsoil
subject to erosion. comprising the excavated trench material are
stored separate from the topsoil to preserve the
integrity of the soil structures and ensure
successful reinstatement of the pipeline spread.
All Habitats Soil erosion within There is the Trench plugs or shuttering can be installed along
trench slope potential for certain intervals of the trench vulnerable to
erosion within the erosion to help support the sides of the open
trench leading to trench, allowing the free flow of people/traffic
trench collapse. along the adjacent running track. If soil erosion
is likely to lead to trench collapse during the
lower-and-lay exercise then trench boxes must
be installed at vulnerable locations to prevent
this happening. Installation of trench plugs and
in-trench drainage on slopes as erosion can
continue after backfilling if the trench becomes a
preferred path for groundwater or seepage
leading to tunnelling, cavitations and collapse of
backfill.
All Habitats Weeds/alien/invasive There is the Where there are known invasive species, they
species and potential for mixing should be dealt with according to industry best
contaminated soils and contamination practice and disposed of as set out in any
of alien/invasive statutory guidelines. Contaminated soils must
species through be stored separately from any uncontaminated
soil excavation and soil, and stored prior to disposal or treatment on
top-soil stripping. an impervious membrane to prevent mixing or
leaching in the host area. Minimise the time for
topsoil storage.
Weed control should be considered where alien
species are identified or weeds are likely to
create a problem in adjacent areas (to be used
in accordance with instructions). Separate and
store topsoil adjacent to spread for
reinstatement. Post construction monitoring to
ensure reinstatement is successful and control
excessive weed growth.
All Habitats Pests and diseases Potential for air, Particular attention should be given to the
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soil and other individual landowner biosphere. Soils from within
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soil and other individual landowner biosphere. Soils from within
vector-transmitted animal disease affected areas must be stored
pests and diseases separately from uncontaminated areas/fields and
being transmitted must not be moved from one area/field to
along the pipeline another.
route Advice should be sought from local agricultural
and vetinary specialists. Wheel washing and
protective clothing may be required in some
areas. Care to be taken with construction
workforce hygiene to avoid spread of plant and
animal diseases.
All Habitats Statutory designated Construction Contractors must ensure that they adhere to and
areas/protected activities have the comply with the legal requirements for the
species/ vulnerable potential to protection of wildlife and habitats. Particular
habitats impact/destroy attention must be made to those commitments
habitats and the detailed in the environmental statement/impact
associated flora & assessments and approved method statements,
fauna. Disturbance applicable planning conditions and/or licence
to nesting birds conditions.
and breeding A policy of no hunting/fishing/gathering to be
wildlife at certain implemented and rigorously enforced. New
times of the year or access roads may provide access to previously
impact of areas of inaccessible protected areas and precautions
ecological should be put in place to prevent unauthorised
importance. persons using the access roads (e.g. install
security posts or locked gates).
All Habitats Drainage Water may build up All relevant consents must be obtained from
in the trench in appropriate agencies before any trench de-
heavy rainfall or watering is carried out.
from ingress of The use of sediment traps or water
groundwater from treatment/filtering methodologies should be used
surrounding water to ensure that there is no pollution of water
table. bodies. Where practicable and with the consent
of the owners discharge to neighbouring fields
via silt buster and filtered through a series of
sediment traps. All severed land drains to be re-
connected across the pipeline spread.
All Habitats Noise Noise can be a Machinery should be checked to ensure it is

nuisance to local working efficiently and working hours agreed
populations and with local environmental health officers (or
cause disturbance equivalent) so as not to cause unnecessary
to wildlife. disturbance. Where there are statutory
guidelines for the control of noise on
construction sites these must be adhered to.
Ambient noise levels should be recorded at
noise sensitive locations prior to
commencement of the pipeline construction
works and again as various construction
activities likely to cause a problem take place.
All Habitats Storage of fuels/oil, Possible Fuel tanks and oils stored on site should be
refuelling of vehicles soil/watercourse bunded and stored away from sensitive areas.
and plant. contamination from Spill kits should be readily available throughout
fuel/oil leakages. the construction area carried by vehicles, and
particularly where a mobile plant is located and
employees trained in their use and application.
All Habitats Temporary Such as Page 203 Consultation should be held with relevant
All Habitats Temporary Such as Consultation should be held with relevant
obstruction of other neighbouring land, landowner, land users and local communities to
land users access tracks etc agree a diversions or alternative access points.
Fencing or suitable arrangements should be
made where animals are kept in adjacent land.
All Habitats Protection of Nearby Vehicles/machinery should not be re-fuelled

watercourses from watercourses have within specified distances of any watercourses,
pollution. the potential to be wells or source protection zones.
contaminated by Fuel and chemicals (such as bentonite or
fuel or chemical polymers) to be stored outside the specified
spills. distances of any watercourses, wells or source
Increased turbidity protection zones.
due to run-off from Route all right of way drainage away from
right of way can watercourses and ensure adequate means of
pollute rivers. sediment settling and filtration prior to discharge
near watercourses.
Schedule open cut crossings of rivers at time of
lowest sensitivity (i.e. outside of
breeding/spawning periods), impose time limits
on construction of sensitive river crossings and
maintain river flow across the construction area.
All Habitats Compaction Soil can become Bog mats (a series of connected wide sleepers,
compacted through sourced from sustainable hardwoods) temporary
machinery roads or trackway can be used on soft ground
tracking. e.g. areas of peat/tree roots.
Standard reinstatement procedures include sub-
soiling or ripping to remove the compaction of
the working width prior to reinstatement.
Minimise access along the spread (use muster
points and buses for moving staff to working
areas).
Prevent driving off the right of way by ensuring
an adequate number and suitable location of
access points and maintaining the right of way
access roads (including the road along the
ROW).
All Habitats Energy efficiency and Protection of local Policies relating to reuse, recycling and
protection of natural resources minimisation of the use of natural resources
resources should be implemented.
Consideration to be given to alternative use of
materials in locations to minimise waste,
transport and use of natural materials (such as
for skids, collection of stone for slope
stabilisation, translocation of vegetation,
crushing excavated material for pipeline padding
etc).
Local recycling programmes (i.e. timber).
Maintenance of machinery to ensure efficient
running.
Use of local supply chain/employment where
possible.
All Habitats Reinstatement Reinstatement Route surveys and preconstruction record of

should endeavour conditions should be undertaken.
to return the Reinstatement should endeavour to return the
pipeline working areas affected by pipeline construction to their
width to its original original condition.
condition Reinstatement of sensitive ecological areas
Page 204 should be in accordance with agreements with
should be in accordance with agreements with
relevant authorities, the environmental
statement. Conflicts with landowner’s requests
for ‘improvements’ in these areas should be
carefully controlled.
Post-construction monitoring should be
undertaken for a minimum of 2 years.
Operation of the pipeline should include land
liaison and remediation specialists.
Translocation, seed collection, use of locally-
sourced plant material, temporary plant
nurseries and seed suppliers to be in
accordance with EIA, landowner and regulatory
authorities requirements.
Replacement of subsoil and topsoil should
match adjacent contours.
Installation of erosion control measures where
required, such as geojute erosion control
matting, to enhance reinstatement on slopes or
highly erodible soils.
All Habitats Community liaison Engage in local Clear demarcation as to contractor and client
liaison during responsibilities.
construction to Provision of liaison personnel to ensure that
advise on local communities, landowners and land users
construction understand how the construction activities will
activity affect them.
Agreement of mitigation measures and methods
to be used for community liaison.
Engage local employees in the local community
liaison process where possible.
Conditions of Environmental Justification Mitigation

Excavation Considerations
Soft Soil Compaction Soil can become Bog mats (a series of connected wide sleepers,
compacted through sourced from sustainable hardwoods) can be
machinery, people, used on soft ground e.g. areas of peat/tree
natural processes, roots.
e.g. rain where Standard reinstatement procedures include
bare ground is left removal of the bog mats followed by sub-soiling
for long periods of or ripping to remove the compaction of the
time. working width.
In extreme wet conditions sections of the
pipeline spread can be temporarily closed to
prevent compaction by vehicle movements
along the running track, and re-opened once the
surface has dried out.
Prevent driving off the right of way by ensuring
an adequate number and suitable location of
access points and maintaining the right of way
access roads (including the road along the
ROW).

Sand Dune Separation of strata Depending on the If a definite separate strata has been identified
Area type of sand dune and logged this should be stored separately to
environment strata preserve the seed bank (if there is any present,
may need Pageto be205 particularly in stable dune valleys) for
may need to be particularly in stable dune valleys) for
kept separate to reinstatement purposes. Because of the
avoid cross- potential mobility of the excavated material it
contamination and should not be stockpiled for long periods, and
loss of the species the trench backfilled as soon as is practical after
mix for the lower and lay operation.
reinstatement Tie-in locations should always be guarded with
purposes. Stored trench boxes to prevent trench wall collapse.
material will be
subject to wind
erosion.
Sand Dune Flash flooding Flash floods can Pipeline routing should identify areas subject to
Area wash pipe, potential flash flooding.
personnel and Construction in areas identified should be
equipment away undertaken at times of low risk.
Equipment and pipe should not be stored in risk
areas for longer than absolutely necessary
Sand Dune Dust generation Dust from the sand Dust generation should be kept to a minimum by
Area dunes/desert has restricting the movements of all vehicles along
the potential to the running track and strict speed restrictions for
impact on through site traffic. That traffic engaged with the
construction direct construction activities such as spread
activities. preparation, excavation, lower-and-lay should
not generate too much dust in calm conditions.
Sand Dune Reinstatement Potentially sand is Recontour sand dune areas to as close as
Area highly mobile and original contours as practicable, reinstating
is difficult to original drainage and watercourses.
reinstate. Consider sand stabilisation techniques during
reinstatement such as erosion control materials.

Peat Area Dewatering of trench Potential to Appropriate water quality management plan and
unbalance the erosion control measures shall be adopted for
integrity of the peat discharge water. Erosion protection may include
area by dewatering water discharge flow dissipaters such as rock
isolated sections. riprap, geotextiles or straw bales.
Manage the discharge of silty water
appropriately and provide filtration methods.
Peat Area Drainage Potential for Inert plugs can be placed at specified intervals
pipeline to function along the trench to prevent poor drainage.
as a field drain and
alter bog ecology.
Peat Area Erosion Use of the ‘stone Pipeline is laid within a stone road, provide
road’ method. support and a stable platform from which the
machinery can excavate the trench. It also
reduces erosion and compaction.
Peat Area Reinstatement Removal and Removal of vegetation (which stabilises the
replacement of underlying peat) should be minimised (i.e. pipe
vegetation. trench only). Consideration should be given to
removal of turfs and laying temporary roads over
existing vegetation (timely removal of the road is
vital for successful reinstatement).
Turfs must be watered if they are being stored
Page 206 for considerable periods to avoid shrinkage, turfs
for considerable periods to avoid shrinkage, turfs
should not be stacked so as to avoid
compaction and destruction of the seed bank.
Reinstate subsoil layers in original order when
backfilling. Minimise amount of material
imported into the peat bog during backfilling or
reinstatement.
Peat Area Turfs stored in flood Turfs stored in a Turfs should not be stored above a maximum
plain flood plain have the height away from flooding areas and should
potential to re- have gaps in between them to allow the free
direct or block flow of water.
water flow during a
flood event.
Peat Area Compaction Turfs can become Bog mats (a series of connected wide sleepers,
compacted through sourced from sustainable hardwoods) can be
machinery used on soft ground e.g. areas of peat/tree
tracking. roots. Keep vehicle movement to a minimum
and use low pressure ground vehicles where
possible. Fencing can be put in place to prevent
encroachment and damage to bog outside
working width. Ensure an adequate number and
suitable locations of access points and maintain
the right of way access roads (including the road
along the ROW).

Side Slope Erosion/Soil creep There is the Trench plugs that prevent erosion can be
potential for installed along certain intervals of the trench,
erosion within the that allow the free flow of people/traffic and the
trench and on the exit of wildlife should it become trapped. The
slope. slope should be graded to avoid soil slip/creep
and maximise the use of existing planting to aid
slope stabilisation.
Ensure an adequate compaction of backfill
material during trench infilling.
Install in-trench drainage on slopes.

Swampy Drainage Water may build up All relevant consents must be obtained from
Areas in the trench in appropriate agencies before any trench de-
heavy rainfall watering is carried out.
events. The use of sediment traps or water
treatment/filtering methodologies will be used to
ensure that there is no pollution of water bodies.
Swampy Effect on ground Trenching may A relevant consent/licence must be sought in

Areas water sites affect previously order to continue works.
unknown ground
water locations.

Forested Reduced working Working width is A reduced working width to minimise damage to
Areas width reduced to surrounding trees/roots will be required.
Page 207on
minimise impact Machinery must be compact enough to work
minimise impact on Machinery must be compact enough to work
any trees, roots or within reduced spaces without being unsafe. A
overhang. general rule of thumb is that the roots extend to
the edge of the canopy.
Where roots are cut there should be equivalent
crown reduction to prevent water stress and
long term damage.
Consider additional space requirements for deep
trenches or crossings where additional
excavated material may need to be stored.
Forested Protected Construction Contractors should ensure that they adhere to

Areas species/woodland activities have the method statements outlined as part of the EIA
restrictions/ potential to disturb regarding work within designated areas.
requirements nesting or breeding Disposal of wood arising from vegetation
wildlife at certain clearance should be in accordance with land
times of the year or agreements.
impact of areas of Canopy bridges to be considered in forestry
ecological areas where animal communities may not be
importance. able to access feeding areas.
Forested Reinstatement Access for pipeline Woodland topsoil to be stored and replaced
Areas operations and following construction in accordance with
inspection often agreements and environmental requirements.
require easement Careful routing to avoid opening up permanent
to remain free of access routes through forests and minimise long
trees. term visual effects.
Forested Access Opening up cleared Restrictions to access to be implemented to

Areas routes through prevent unauthorised logging, hunting, diseases
forests creates etc being introduced to remote locations.
access.

Ridge Reduced working Narrow ridges Provision for storage and replacement of
width require reduced excavated material needs to be carefully
working width and planned, side casting can have large-scale
lack of space for visual effects.
effective storage of
excavated
material.
Ridge Reinstatement Reinstatement to Reinstate as close as practicable to original

original contours contours.
may not be Consider recontouring adjacent land on the
possible. ROW to minimise visual impact.
Install adequate drainage on cut side slopes to
minimise erosion due to run-off and surface
water.

Tundra Working in permafrost Seasonal Thorough borehole investigation of pipeline route

zones restrictions to and a full assessment of the depth and extent of
working. permafrost pior to construction to determine the
most effective construction period, construction
and reinstatement methods.
Page 208 Modelling of permafrost effect on pipeline route
Modelling of permafrost effect on pipeline route
and pipeline route on permafrost areas (e.g.
increased thaw as a result of heat generated
from pipeline).
Consider chilling of oil/gas to minimise thaw.
Carefully consider the location of pump and
compressor stations as they can alter the
temperature of the oil/gas being transported.
Reinstate subsoil layers in original order when
backfilling, especially in wetland areas.
Ensure sufficient trench padding around pipe
and consider the use of pipe supports within the
trench (i.e. sandbags).
Insulate areas/slopes that are unstable if thawed
quickly with woodchips or other suitable
materials.
Install geotechnical monitoring at locations that
become unstable when thawed.
Install monitoring for pipeline movement (i.e.
heave).
Consider weighting pipe in permafrost areas
where land heave may occur.
» Continue with Appendix 6.4 Health and Safety Control Measures

« Back to Appendix 6.2 - Pipeline Trench Design
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6.4 Health and Safety

Earthworks sites have the potential to be among the most dangerous due to the variety of work that is carried out in
and around the area of work. Without appropriate controls one of the greatest risks is the collapse of the sides of
excavations. Too often this has and will continue to result in fatalities and serious injuries. The following information
highlights the real dangers of earthworks past and present.
During the period 1990-2000 there were 771 fatalities involving excavations in the USA
USA reports that pipeline trenches are one of the major source of fatalities in the pipeline industry
38% of the fatalities that occur are in trenches less than 3 m deep
A large proportion of excavation accidents are avoidable if the correct control measures are put in place. Any
organisations and companies involved have a responsibility to protect the health and safety of all personnel (including
sub-contractors and visitors), to ensure the health and safety of everyone involved or impacted by the earthworks
operation. Although earthworks are carried out in a wide range of environments most of the hazards, and therefore the
control measures to reduce the impact of the hazards, are generic irrespective of the work location.
Examples of general hazards include:
• adverse weather • ground conditions • ambient temperatures

• heavy loads • lifting • pipe movement
• work equipment • working at height • emergency response
• confined spaces • hazardous materials • noise
• local community • vibration • illumination
• wildlife
During earthworks activities, one of the most significant risks to personnel is the collapse of the walls of excavations
or trenches. This can happen quickly, with very little warning, therefore appropriate controls must be put in place before
work begins in the area. Great care must be taken in the design of the work area taking into account the soil type and
environment. Consideration must also be given to using sloping walls to protect the integrity of the trench walls. In the
case of any trench over 1.2 m deep shoring, sloping or stepping must be used to improve the stability of the trench.
Once the trench has been dug it should be inspected daily or after any event which may alter its integrity.
Adverse weather can greatly increase the risk of earthworks in all environments. All types of soil are likely to become
more unstable if very wet or dry which can lead to the collapse of side walls. Shoring of the sides of the excavation or
trench boxes can be used to protect workers when they are in the trenches.
Heavy rainfall can also lead to the flooding of trenches. Pump systems may be required to remove water from the
ground and consideration should be given to the length of the trench dug out if heavy rain is expected. High winds can
also hamper lifting and pipe movement operations. These types of operations should be ceased if operators feel it is
unsafe to continue or an appropriate limit should be identified and put in place. Lift plans should be in place for all pipe
lifting operations. Weather can also affect the ability of machinery to operate so consideration of the best time of year
to carry out projects is essential. Extreme temperatures can also impact on the health and safety of personnel.
Reactive measures could also include providing appropriate heating, cooling and areas of shade.
Ground conditions, heavy loads and vibration can also have an effect on the integrity of the excavations. Unstable
ground conditions can lead to problems with the operation of plant and machinery.
Creating a track for plant to operate on may be the best option to avoid the risks of it sinking or becoming bogged
down. Heavy loads such as pipe and excavated material should be placed away from the edge of the excavations so
as to avoid exerting extra pressure on the walls which could increase the risk of collapse. Vibration caused by plant
movement or machine operation could also affect the ground conditions and the integrity of the excavation. By ensuring
appropriate preparations are taken when developing the ROW, acceptable ground conditions can be achieved. Limiting
and using the correct size of plant and machinery can also reduce the effects of vibration.
Working at height will also be a common hazard across a variety of working environments. This could be the dangers
associated with working at the top edge of the trench or access and egress from plant machinery. Suitable barriers can
be used to keep people back from the leading edge of the trench. All staff should be given and use appropriate PPE
which may include fall arrest equipment. For such equipment personnel must be trained and deemed competent before
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its use.
Specific training must be given to those performing work in confined spaces and it would be advisable to operate a
permit-to-work system in those situations due to the high risks associated with this type of work.
Another generic hazard is work equipment. Due to the nature of the job there will be a large variety of work equipment
in use during earthworks including heavy plant machinery, lifting equipment, generators, compressors, ladders and
hand tools. All equipment should be fit for purpose and be given a visual inspection prior to use. Electrical equipment
should be inspected on a regular basis and records should be kept. Lifting gear should be certified by a third party and
also inspected by operators prior to use. Where applicable guards must be available and in use at all times on
machinery. Operators should be trained and competent in the operation of all machinery that they will use. Faulty
equipment should not be used in any circumstance.
Illumination of the work area must be considered for earthworks as poor lighting can be a hazard in all types of
environment, leading to an increase in workplace accidents such as trips and falls. Assessment must be made based
on the amounts of natural light available in the area and the requirement for artificial lighting to maintain lighting levels.
At the planning stage of the project the requirement for night working should be assessed and suitable lighting plans put
in place if required.
Ensuring that the health and safety impact on the local community is reduced to as low as reasonably practicable is
important in all earthworks. Providing information to the local population regarding the work being undertaken can
highlight any potential risks. Another aspect is ensuring good site security is in place to reduce the risk of people
entering the work area without authorisation.
Risks associated with wildlife can vary widely throughout the different earthworks environments. Where there is a risk
to the workforce from disease-spreading or poisonous animals, emergency plans should be in place to control the risks.
Where animal attacks are likely fencing can be used to restrict access to the work area. Medication may be required to
prevent disease and information must be passed onto the workforce regarding these risks.
There is the potential for exposure to hazardous materials with the malfunction of work equipment i.e. oil spills or
contact with materials pre-existing on the site. A thorough analysis of the work area should take place before any work
is carried out to ensure the land is not contaminated. Monitoring should continue throughout the lifespan of the project.
Spill kits should be available to deal with any spillage that occurs on site and personnel should be provided with any
necessary RPE or PPE. While digging the trenches workers may also be exposed to excessive levels of dust. Dust
suppression through spraying water or use of appropriate RPE can be used if necessary to deal with this issue.
Due to the remote nature of many earthwork locations employers must develop and regularly test an emergency
response policy. This would include ensuring good communication channels, having good first aid/medical provisions
and trained first aid providers on site. Planning of the quickest, safest routes to hospitals and other local facilities must
also be undertaken. An important feature of this would be identifying and providing the best mode of transport to get to
these locations. Regular tests of evacuation and emergency procedures should be carried out to ensure the
effectiveness of these plans.
There are many other hazards that can arise in certain earthworks operations. The tables in Appendix 6.4 give an
overview of how we can employ systems to reduce the risks from the main hazards of the work and maintain the
health and safety of all personnel involved.
Health and safety relies upon three key elements to ensure safe working practices during earthworks:
ENGINEERING – Engineering controls/guarding/automation of systems/preventative maintenance
PROCEDURES – HSE policy/procedures/monitoring and measuring/audits/risk assessments
BEHAVIOURAL – Communication systems/health and safety as a personal value/leading by example
Although each element is important in its own right the system only works when all three elements work together to
ensure the health and safety of all involved in the projects.
» Continue with Appendix 6.2 - Pipeline Trench Design

« Back to 6.3 Environment
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Appendix 6.4 Health and Safety Control Measures

Soft Soil
Soft Soil
Sand Dune Area
Hazard Hazard description Control measures Peat Area
Side Slope
Adverse Personnel and Appropriate rest shelters to be in place
weather equipment coming with appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
Swampy Area
into direct contact Regular access to liquids and food as Forested Area
with extreme appropriate – warm water recommended Ridge
conditions e.g. very in extreme cold and non-iced water in high Tundra
hot or cold temperatures. Restricted areas or access
temperatures, high identified if the soil becomes unstable,
winds etc, and keep unnecessary personnel away from
protection from the leading edges or trench and
elements is limited. backfilling/soil stockpiles. Lifting
Soil becoming operations should cease when the gusting
unstable if very wet or wind strength reaches 20mph or when
or dry and the operator feels that it is too dangerous
people/equipment to continue.
being in direct
contact with this.
Cranes lifting during
high winds.
Ambient Extremes of Appropriate rest shelters to be in place

temperature temperature and the with appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
effect that it will Regular access to liquids and food as
have on personnel in appropriate – warm water recommended
the work area. in extreme cold and non-iced water in high
Additionally the temperatures. Restricted areas or access
effect that it may identified if the soil becomes unstable,
have on the soil keep unnecessary personnel away from
structure and leading edges or trench and
stockpiling and the backfilling/soil stockpiles.
likelihood of the soil
becoming unstable.
Ground Unstable conditions Restricted areas or access identified if

conditions if very dry or very the soil becomes unstable, keep
wet, which would unnecessary personnel away from leading
apply equally to edges or trench and backfilling/soil
people in the work stockpiles. Appropriate ground support to
area, crawler cranes, be put in place for crawler cranes and
pipe delivery trucks, trucks to safely access and egress the
particularly if working work area, especially when carrying
at the trench loads. Cranes to use outriggers during all
edges/surfaces. The lifting operations. Ground to be assessed
access/egress by a competent person prior to
routes to the specific equipment/machines accessing area and
work area also need being used for lifting heavy loads.
to be considered if Personnel to be provided with clear
the track is access and egress routes to their work
unsupported and areas to avoid any soil slippage areas.
likely to move. Appropriate compaction of trench walls or
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Potential for the shuttering to be put in place to prevent

trench walls to collapse of walls onto people in the area.
become dislodged or
erode.
Confined space The trench itself may Permit to work system may be used, only
be identified as a trained and competent personnel to enter
confined space, the trench, all other personnel to be kept
especially if away/out of the restricted area through
personnel are use of fencing/barriers. Have appropriate
required to work emergency response plan in place and
within or near to the trained first aiders available.
trench. Appropriate rescue equipment should also
be located near to the work area.
Heavy load Pipe being lifted from Remove all excess personnel from the
flatbed by crawler area and cordon off the lifting radius to
crane to the skids remove unnecessary personnel and
and then again into equipment. Only trained and competent
the trench. Potential personnel to operate equipment and to be
for the skids to allowed access to work area.
collapse or move Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-
unexpectedly, with ordinate and control all lifts. Ensure the
personnel and other ground at the leading edge of the trench is
equipment in the sufficiently compacted to withstand
area. additional weight. Never lift loads over
Contact between the anyone’s head or other
pipe-handling equipment/vehicles in the area. Ensure
equipment, the pipe that stockpiles of backfill materials and
and personnel and top soil are appropriate in size e.g. have a
other wide enough base and not be so high that
vehicles/machines in it would promote unnecessary slippage of
the area may be soil – ensure that personnel are prevented
made if uncontrolled. from climbing up stockpiled materials or
Top soil and walking/working too close to the base.
backfilling material
which is stockpiled
on either side of the
trench and work area
must be controlled
due to potential
contact with
machines, personnel,
equipment and
wildlife.
Illumination Poor illumination Ensure that adequate lighting is put in

from dawn, dusk and place if working in hours or dusk or
night-time activities darkness – use of generators and tower
may impact on lights as appropriate.
operational Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a
requirements; manner that will cause a hazard to
includes potential machine/crane operators by dazzling
impact between them. Remove any excess or
equipment/machines, unnecessary personnel from the work
contact with area. Ensure that all personnel wear
personnel, machine reflective stripes on coveralls, vests, hard
operators not able to hats etc.
see
signallers’/slingers’
instructions. Page 213
Lifting Includes all lifting All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to
activities from be regularly inspected by third party (as
trenching machines per country requirements) and have
removing excess appropriate certification available. Daily
soil, pipe movement visual inspection to be completed by
from flatbed to skids operator (including reporting any defects).
to trench, crane and Appropriate maintenance programme to
other machine be in place and used. Only use certified
operations. lifting equipment and tackle. Skids to be
The infilling process in place and constructed/positioned by
of the trench with trained and competent personnel prior to
backfill and topsoil lifting. Taglines to be used on pipe ends,
and the interface particularly when windy. All lifting
between people, activities to be co-ordinated by
materials and slinger/signaller. Appropriate
equipment. communications system to be in place
between slinger/signaller, machine
operators and any other relevant
personnel. Only lift with equipment that
has an appropriate lifting capacity for the
load – the SWL should be identified on
the equipment.
Noise Generated from the Use of hearing protection if operators are

machines and not contained within sound-proof
equipment on site. If booths/cabins.
personnel are Noise assessment to be completed in
working close to immediate work area to determine if
equipment their hearing protection is required to satisfy
hearing may be local legislative requirements or best
affected as a result. practice. Silencers to be installed on
Additionally any equipment where possible e.g.
machine/vehicle compressors/generators etc. All
operator may be equipment to be inspected and regularly
impacted depending maintained to ensure excessive noise is
on the cab’s not generated.
soundproofing.
Pipe movement Through lifting from Only limited personnel in the work area
trucks, positioning on and suitable barriers to be in place to
skids, transferring to prevent unauthorised access.
trench and then Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any
positioning within the lifting activities. Open communications
trench. See lifting between each group of personnel in the
and heavy load work area through appropriate means
details. Additionally (radio with separate channel).
personnel will be Suitable and stable grounding to position
working in and pipe in new location e.g. skids,
around the pipe joint compacted soil etc.
when positioning is Pre-determined access/egress routes and
taking place within appropriate communications on the details
the trench area, to all personnel.
becoming
susceptible to being
trapped or struck by
the pipe joint.
Working at Any drop from or to a Any soil at the top or edges of the trench
height different level may shall be compacted and free from loose
potentially cause areas/materials.
Page 214
harm e.g. working at Appropriate access/egress shall be made

the surface or to machine/crane cabs.
leading edge of the Soles of boots should be free from muck
trench, access or or be scraped prior to climbing access
egress to cranes, ladders.
trenching machines, Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being
positioning pipe etc. moved as its surface may be slippery and
the pipe may shift unexpectedly.
Use appropriate ladders/man basket to
access/egress pipeline as necessary.
Personnel not to be positioned inside
trench when there are activities at the
surface of the trench.
Fall arrest equipment to be used when
deemed necessary by risk assessment
and only to be used by trained, competent
personnel.
Work Lifting equipment, All work equipment shall be fit for purpose
equipment cranes, trenching and shall be visually inspected and tested
machines, trucks on a daily basis (normally by the
and trailers, all hand operator), and any defects should be
tools, ladders, reported.
generators, All machines and lifting equipment shall
compressors etc.: all be inspected by a third party at
must be considered appropriate intervals and have the right
for any potential certification in place and available.
defects such as oil Only certified lifting tackle to be used and
leaks, damaged to be inspected daily by operators, and
cables, missing periodically by third-party inspectors.
guards and contact Appropriate preventive maintenance
with moving parts; programme to be in place and records
be appropriate for the kept.
job/task and be used Spill kits to be available on site in case of
correctly. spillage, including any required additional
PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and
suits etc. to prevent contact with
chemicals.
Only trained and competent personnel to
operate any equipment whether
machines, cranes, grinders etc.
Only approved parts to be used when
replacing items and to be fitted by trained,
competent personnel.
Hazardous Contact with diesel Spill kits to be available on site in case of

materials – through refuelling spillage, including any required additional
personal process, hydraulic PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and
exposure and pneumatic oils suits etc. to prevent contact with
from refilling or chemicals.
leaks, contact with Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or
any degreasers or approved fuel containers.
cleaners used during Only trained, competent personnel to
the operations. dispense/refuel machines and equipment.
Exposure to dust Appropriate waste receptacles to be
when infilling the available for contaminated PPE or rags.
trench. Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill
mat in case of spillage.
If very dry and excessive dust on roads,
dust suppression to be in place e.g. water
Page 215
bowser.
RPE to be used if necessary.
Emergency The location of the Check all communication processes,

response work area may be radios between work groups, cell/satellite
detrimental due to phone coverage to ensure that
the time it may take communications remain available in the
to get medical event of an emergency situation.
assistance. Have trained first aiders and/or medics
with appropriate equipment available.
Check local facilities (hospitals) for
quickest/safest route and be aware of
time it takes to reach them.
Appropriate mode of transport for IP to
nearest medical facility to be available
and procedure in place at all times.
ERP drills to be regularly tested and
documented identifying shortfalls –
procedures to be updated to reflect
findings.
Appropriate personnel to be trained in
ERP functions and training to be kept up-
to-date.
Repatriation of IP to suitable location –
procedure to be in place and tested.
Impact with See noise above.

local Restricted access/egress points or safe
community/area walk routes etc. to be identified.
Consider agricultural works in area and
how pollution and contamination can
affect the local businesses.
Wildlife Possible contact If in area with known dangerous

between workers and animals/plants have appropriate warning
dangerous systems in place and ensure that the
animals/plants. ERPs are suitable and consider the
Being attacked, potential animal attacks.
bitten or affected
otherwise by wildlife
etc.
Sand Dune Area
Hazard Hazard description Control measures
Adverse Personnel and Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating
weather equipment coming into facilities.
direct contact with Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water
extreme conditions e.g. recommended in cold and non-iced water in high temperatures.
very hot/cold Restricted areas or access identified. Lifting operations should cease
temperatures, high when the gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or when the operator
winds etc. and feels that it is too dangerous to continue. Suitable PPE to be made
protection from the available for the weather type to protect the employee from the
elements is limited. elements e.g. sun umbrellas etc.
Sand becoming
unstable if very dry and
people/equipment being
in direct contact with
Page 216
this.
Cranes lifting during
high winds.
Ambient Extremes of Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating

temperature temperature and the facilities. Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm
effect that it will have water recommended in cold and non-iced water in high temperatures.
on personnel in work Restricted areas or access identified if the sand is likely to be unstable,
area. keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
Additionally the effect backfilling/sand dunes.
that it may have on the
sand structure and
stockpiling and the
likelihood of the sand
becoming unstable and
shifting.
Ground Unstable conditions if Restrict areas or access if the sand becomes unstable, keep
conditions very dry or very wet, unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
which would apply backfilling/sand stockpiles. Appropriate ground support to be put in
equally to people in the place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the
work area, crawler work area, especially when carrying loads. Cranes to use outriggers
cranes, pipe delivery with appropriate ground support underneath during all lifting operations.
trucks, particularly if Ground to be assessed by a competent person prior to
working at the trench equipment/machines accessing area and being used for lifting heavy
edges/surfaces. loads, and appropriate ground coverings to be put in place prior to
The access/egress accessing area. Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress
routes to the specific routes to their work areas to avoid any sand slippage areas or areas of
work area also need to potential encasement.
be considered if the
track is unsupported
and likely to move.
Confined The trench itself may be Permit to work system may be used, only trained and competent
space identified as a confined personnel to enter the trench, all other personnel to be kept away/out of
space, especially if the restricted area through use of fencing/barriers. Use appropriate CSE
personnel are required equipment as deemed necessary. Have appropriate emergency
to work within or near to response plan in place and trained first aiders available. Appropriate
the trench. rescue equipment should also be located near to the work area.
Heavy load Pipe being lifted from Remove all excess personnel from the area and cordon off the lifting
flatbed by crawler crane radius to remove unnecessary personnel and equipment. Only trained
to the skids and then and competent personnel to operate equipment and to be allowed
again into the trench. access to work area.
Potential for the skids to Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts.
collapse or move Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench is sufficiently
unexpectedly, with supported to withstand additional weight. Never lift loads over anyone’s
personnel and other head or other equipment/vehicles in the area. Have a “ready to lift”
equipment in the area. warning siren or similar in place. Ensure that stockpiles of backfill
Contact between the materials and sand are appropriate in size e.g. have a wide enough
pipe-handling base and not be so high that it would promote unnecessary slippage of
equipment, the pipe and sand – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiled
personnel and other materials or walking/working too close to the base. Cover if appropriate.
vehicles/machines in Also see “confined space” above.
the area may result if
uncontrolled.
Sand and backfilling
material which is
stockpiled on either side
of the trench and work
area must be controlled Page 217
due to potential contact

with machines,
personnel, equipment
and wildlife.
Illumination Poor illumination from Ensure that adequate lighting is put in place if working in hours or dusk
dawn, dusk and night- or darkness – use of generators and tower lights as appropriate.
time activities may Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a
impact on operational hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them. Ensure that
requirements; includes appropriate eye protection is worn in the event of excessive natural light
potential impact to prevent being dazzled and burning to the eye. Remove any excess or
between unnecessary personnel from the work area.
equipment/machines, Ensure that all personnel wear reflective stripes on coveralls, vests,
contact with personnel, hard hats etc.
machine operators not
able to see
signallers’/slingers’
instructions.
Not being able to see
due to the brightness of
natural light.
Lifting Includes all lifting All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be regularly inspected by third
activities from trenching party (as per country requirements) and have appropriate certification
machines removing available. Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (including
excess sand, pipe reporting any defects). Appropriate maintenance programme to be in
movement from flatbed place and used. Only use certified lifting equipment and tackle. Skids to
to skids to trench, crane be in place and constructed/positioned by trained and competent
and other machine personnel prior to lifting. Taglines to be used on pipe ends, particularly
operations. when windy. All lifting activities to be co-ordinated by slinger/signaller.
The infilling process of Appropriate communications system to be in place between
the trench with backfill slinger/signaller, machine operators and any other relevant personnel.
and sand and the Only lift with equipment that has an appropriate lifting capacity for the
interface between load – the SWL should be identified on the equipment.
people, materials and Always use appropriate lifting tackle for the task.
equipment.
Noise Generated from the Use of hearing protection if operators are not contained within sound-
machines and proof booths/cabins.
equipment on site. If Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to
personnel are working determine if hearing protection is required to satisfy local legislative
close to equipment their requirements or best practice. Silencers to be installed on equipment
hearing may be affected where possible e.g. compressors/generators etc. All equipment to be
as a result causing inspected and regularly maintained to ensure excessive noise is not
tinitus. Additionally any generated.
machine/vehicle
operator may be
impacted depending on
the cab’s soundproofing.
Pipe Through lifting from Only limited personnel in the work area and suitable barriers to be in
movement trucks, positioning on place to prevent unauthorised access.
skids, transferring to Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities. Open
trench and then communications between each group of personnel in the work area
positioning within the through appropriate means (e.g. radio with separate channel). Suitable
trench. See lifting and and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, sand
heavy load details. with appropriate ground supports etc. Pre-determined access/egress
Additionally personnel routes and appropriate communications on the details to all personnel.
will be working in and
around the pipe joint Page 218
when positioning is
taking place within the
trench area, becoming
susceptible to being
trapped or struck by the
pipe joint.
Working at Any drop from or to a Any sand at the top or edges of the trench shall be cordoned and
height different level may appropriate shuttering installed, and be free from loose areas/materials.
potentially cause harm Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs. Soles
e.g. working at the of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing
surface or leading edge access ladders. Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as its
of the trench, access or surface may be slippery and the pipe may shift unexpectedly. Use
egress to cranes, appropriate ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline as
trenching machines, necessary. Personnel not to be positioned inside trench when there are
positioning pipe etc. activities at the surface of the trench.
Fall arrest equipment to be used when deemed necessary by risk
assessment and only to be used by trained, competent personnel. Have
a suitable method of retrieving personnel from the trench in the event of
an incident or being engulfed in sand.
Work Lifting equipment, All work equipment shall be fit for purpose and shall be visually
equipment cranes, trenching inspected and tested on a daily basis (normally by the operator), and
machines, trucks and any defects should be reported. All machines and lifting equipment shall
trailers, all hand tools, be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right
ladders, generators, certification in place and available. Only certified lifting tackle to be
compressors etc.: all used and to be inspected daily by operators, and periodically by
must be considered for thirdparty inspectors. Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to
any potential defects be in place and records kept. Spill kits to be available on site in case of
such as oil leaks, spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious
damaged cables, gloves and suits etc. to prevent contact with chemicals.. Only trained
missing guards and and competent personnel to operate any equipment whether machines,
contact with moving cranes, grinders etc. Only approved parts to be used when replacing
parts; be appropriate for items and to be fitted by trained, competent personnel.
the job/task and be
used correctly.
Hazardous Contact with diesel Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any
materials – through refuelling required additional PPE (safety glasses or goggles) and RPE e.g.
personal process, hydraulic and impervious gloves and suits etc. to prevent contact with chemicals.
exposure pneumatic oils from Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers.
refilling or leaks, contact Only trained, competent personnel to dispense/refuel machines and
with any degreasers or equipment.
cleaners used during the Appropriate waste receptacles to be available for contaminated PPE or
operations. rags. Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill mat in case of spillage. If
Exposure to sand being very dry and excessive dust on roads, dust suppression to be in place
blown, potential for eye e.g. water bowser.
damage. RPE to be used if necessary.
Emergency The location of the work Check all communication processes, radios between work groups,
response area may be detrimental cell/satellite phone coverage to ensure that communications remain
due to the time it may available in the event of an emergency situation.
take to get medical Have trained first aiders and/or medics with appropriate equipment
assistance. available.
Check local facilities (hospitals) for quickest/safest route and be aware
of time it takes to reach them.
Appropriate mode of transport for IP to nearest medical facility to be
available and procedure in place at all times.
ERP drills to be regularly tested and documented identifying shortfalls –
procedures to be updated to reflect findings.
AppropriatePage
personnel
219 to be trained in ERP functions and training to be
kept up-to-date.
Repatriation of IP to suitable location/country – procedure to be in place
and tested.
Wildlife Possible contact If in area with known dangerous animals/plants have appropriate
between workers and warning systems in place and ensure that the ERPs are suitable and
dangerous consider the potential animal attacks.
animals/plants.
Being attacked, bitten or
affected otherwise by
wildlife etc.
Peat Area
Adverse Personnel and equipment coming into direct Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with
weather contact with extreme conditions e.g. high winds, appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
heavy rain etc. and protection from the elements Regular access to liquids and food as
is limited. appropriate – warm water recommended in
Soil becoming unstable if very wet and extreme cold and non-iced water in high
people/equipment being in direct contact with temperatures.
this. Restricted areas or access identified if the
Cranes lifting during high winds. soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary
Trenches being waterlogged and personnel away from leading edges or
machine/personnel access to this. trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles.
Lifting operations should cease when the
gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or
when the operator feels that it is too
dangerous to continue.
Trenches to be drained of excess water.
Earth to have appropriate erosion protection
in place to prevent unplanned movement of
trench walls.
Ground Unstable conditions if very dry or very wet, Restricted areas or access identified if the
conditions which would apply equally to people in the work soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary
area, crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, personnel away from leading edges or
particularly if working at the trench trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles.
edges/surfaces. Appropriate ground support to be put in
The access/egress routes to the specific work place for crawler cranes and trucks to
area also need to be considered if the track is safely access and egress the work area,
unsupported and likely to move. especially when carrying loads. Cranes to
use outriggers during all lifting operations.
Ground to be assessed by a competent
person prior to equipment/machines
accessing area and being used for lifting
heavy loads.
Personnel to be provided with clear access
and egress routes to their work areas to
avoid any soil slippage areas.
Confined space The trench itself may be identified as a confined Permit to work system may be used, only
space, especially if personnel are required to trained and competent personnel to enter
work within or near to the trench. the trench, all other personnel to be kept
away/out of the restricted area through use
of fencing/barriers.
Have appropriate emergency response plan
Page 220
in place and trained first aiders available.
Appropriate rescue equipment should also

Heavy load Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to Remove all excess personnel from the area
the skids and then again into the trench. and cordon off the lifting radius to remove
Potential for the skids to collapse or move unnecessary personnel and equipment.
unexpectedly, with personnel and other Only trained and competent personnel to
equipment in the area. operate equipment and to be allowed
Contact between the pipe-handling equipment, access to work area.
the pipe and personnel and other Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-
vehicles/machines in the area may be made if ordinate and control all lifts.
uncontrolled. Ensure the ground at the leading edge of
Peat/turf stacks may be stacked too high, the trench is sufficiently compacted to
increasing the likelihood of the stack falling, thus withstand additional weight.
coming into contact with personnel and/or Bog mats to be used for access/egress to
equipment. the work area by all vehicles to improve
work area must be controlled due to potential stability of vehicles/machines and to help
contact with machines, personnel, equipment prevent tipping.
and wildlife. Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other
equipment/vehicles in the area.
Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials
and top soil are appropriate in size e.g.
have a wide enough base and not be so
high that it would promote unnecessary
slippage of soil – ensure that personnel are
prevented from climbing up stockpiled
materials or walking/working too close to
the base.
Illumination Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night-time Ensure that adequate lighting is put in
activities may impact on operational place if working in hours or dust or
requirements; includes potential impact between darkness – use of generators and tower
equipment/machines, contact with personnel, lights as appropriate.
machine operators not able to see Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a
signallers’/slingers’ instructions. manner that will cause a hazard to
machine/crane operators by dazzling them.
Remove any excess or unnecessary
personnel from the work area.
Ensure that all personnel wear reflective
stripes on coveralls, vests, hard hats etc.
Ensure that any excessively boggy areas
are marked appropriately to avoid contact
in dull or dark conditions.
Lifting Includes all lifting activities from trenching All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be
machines removing excess turfs, pipe regularly inspected by third party (as per
movement from flatbed to skids to trench, crane country requirements) and have appropriate
and other machine operations. certification available.
The infilling process of the trench with peat turfs Daily visual inspection to be completed by
and the interface between people, materials and operator (including reporting any defects).
equipment. Appropriate maintenance programme to be
Additionally the potential for the in place and used.
machines/cranes to become unbalanced, and Only use certified lifting equipment and
their loads dislodging due to soft ground tackle.
conditions. Skids to be in place and
constructed/positioned by trained and
competent personnel prior to lifting.
Taglines to be used on pipe ends,
particularly when windy.
Page 221
All lifting activities to be co-ordinated by
slinger/signaller.
Appropriate communications system to be
in place between slinger/signaller, machine
operators, and any other relevant
personnel.
Only lift with equipment that has an
appropriate lifting capacity for the load –
the SWL should be identified on the
equipment.
“stone road” or other suitable platform to be
in place to provide suitable ground support
for machines/vehicles.
Noise Generated from the machines and equipment on Use of hearing protection if operators are
site. If personnel are working close to equipment not contained within sound-proof
their hearing may be affected as a result. booths/cabins.
Additionally any machine/vehicle operator may Noise assessment to be completed in
be impacted depending on the cab’s immediate work area to determine if
soundproofing. hearing protection is required to satisfy
local legislative requirements or best
practice.
Silencers to be installed on equipment
where possible e.g.
compressors/generators etc.
All equipment to be inspected and regularly
maintained to ensure excessive noise is
not generated.
Pipe movement Through lifting from trucks, positioning on skids, Only limited personnel in the work area and
transferring to trench and then positioning within suitable barriers to be in place to prevent
the trench. See lifting and heavy load details. unauthorised access.
Additionally personnel will be working in and Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting
around the pipe joint when positioning is taking activities.
place within the trench area, becoming Open communications between each group
susceptible to being trapped or struck by the of personnel in the work area through
pipe joint. appropriate means (radio with separate
Mud on road affecting trucks delivering pipe – channel).
may slide/slip if excess mud on road surface. Suitable and stable grounding to position
pipe in new location e.g. skids, compacted
soil etc.
Pre-determined access/egress routes and
appropriate communications on the details
to all personnel.
Put in place appropriate wheel wash
stations for all vehicles to use prior to
accessing public roads.
Working at Any drop from or to a different level may The edges of the trench shall be free from
height potentially cause harm e.g. working at the loose areas/materials and appropriate
surface or leading edge of the trench, access or “stone road” or similar be in place to aid
egress to cranes, trenching machines, stability and prevent unnecessary erosion.
positioning pipe etc. Appropriate access/egress shall be made
to machine/crane cabs.
Soles of boots should be free from muck or
be scraped prior to climbing access
ladders.
Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being
moved as its surface may be slippery and
Page 222

deemed necessary by risk assessment and
only to be used by trained, competent
personnel.
Work Lifting equipment, cranes, trenching machines, All work equipment shall be fit for purpose
equipment trucks and trailers, all hand tools, ladders, and shall be visually inspected and tested
generators, compressors etc.: all must be on a daily basis (normally by the operator),
considered for any potential defects such as oil and any defects should be reported.
leaks, damaged cables, missing guards and All machines and lifting equipment shall be
contact with moving parts; be appropriate for the inspected by a third party at appropriate
job/task and be used correctly. intervals and have the right certification in
place and available.
Only certified lifting tackle to be used and
to be inspected daily by operators, and
periodically by third-party inspectors.
Appropriate preventive maintenance
programme to be in place and records kept.
Spill kits to be available on site in case of
spillage, including any required additional
chemicals.
operate any equipment whether machines,
cranes, grinders etc.
Hazardous Contact with diesel through refuelling process, Spill kits to be available on site in case of
materials – hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or spillage, including any required additional
personal leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and
exposure used during the operations. suits etc. to prevent contact with
chemicals.
Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or
approved fuel containers.
Only trained, competent personnel to
dispense/refuel machines and equipment.
Appropriate waste receptacles to be
available for contaminated PPE or rags.
Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill
Emergency The location of the work area may be Check all communication processes,
response detrimental due to the time it may take to get radios between work groups, cell/satellite
medical assistance. phone coverage to ensure that
communications remain available in the
event of an emergency situation.
Have trained first aiders and/or medics with
appropriate equipment available.
quickest/safest route and be aware of time
it takes to reach them.
nearest medical facility to be available and
Page 223 procedure in place at all times.

findings.
Appropriate personnel to be trained in ERP
functions and training to be kept up-to-date.
Impact with See noise above. See noise above.

local Unauthorised access to working area by local Restricted access/egress points or safe
community/area community. walk routes etc. to be identified.
Potential pollution and contamination of Consider agricultural works in area and
agricultural crops which may enter the food how pollution and contamination can affect
chain. the local businesses.
Wildlife Possible contact between workers and If in area with known dangerous
dangerous animals/plants. animals/plants have appropriate warning
Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by systems in place and ensure that the
wildlife etc. ERPs are suitable and consider the
potential animal attacks.
Side Slope
weather contact with extreme conditions e.g. dry, high appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
winds or excessive rain etc. and protection from Regular access to liquids and food as
the elements is limited. appropriate – warm water recommended in
Soil becoming unstable if very wet or very dry extreme cold and non-iced water in high
and people/equipment being in direct contact temperatures.
with this. May cause landslides. Restricted areas or access identified if the
personnel away from leading edges or
trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles.
Ambient Extremes of temperature and the effect that it Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with
temperature will have on personnel in the work area. appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
Additionally the effect that it may have on the Regular access to liquids and food as
soil structure and stockpiling and the likelihood appropriate – warm water recommended in
of the soil becoming unstable. extreme cold and non-iced water in high
temperatures.
Restricted areas or access identified if the
soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary
Ground Unstable conditions if very dry or very wet, Restricted areas or access identified if the
conditions which would apply equally to people in the work soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary
area, crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, personnel away from leading edges or
particularly if working at the trench trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles.
edges/surfaces. Appropriate ground support (bog mats) to
The access/egress routes to the specific work be put in place for crawler cranes and
area also need to be considered if the track is trucks to safely access and egress the
Page 224
unsupported and likely to move. work area, especially when carrying loads.
Dust likely to be generated in dry conditions Cranes to use outriggers during all lifting
causing slip hazards for machines and potential operations.
damage to health. Ground to be assessed by a competent
There may also be the remnants of tree roots person prior to equipment/machines
etc. which could be a trip hazard to personnel or accessing area and being used for lifting
a collision point for vehicles/machines. heavy loads.
Appropriate use of PPE/RPE (respirators,
goggles/glasses).
All tree roots above the surface should be
clearly identified through hazard
tape/barriers etc. or removed where
possible.
equipment in the area. operate equipment and to be allowed
Contact between the pipe-handling equipment, access to work area.
the pipe and personnel and other Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-
vehicles/machines in the area may be made if ordinate and control all lifts.
uncontrolled. Ensure the ground at the leading edge of
Top soil and backfilling material which is the trench is sufficiently compacted to
stockpiled must be controlled due to potential withstand additional weight.
contact with machines, personnel, equipment Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other
and wildlife, it may slip from its stored position. equipment/vehicles in the area.
Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials
and top soil are appropriate in size e.g.
the base.
Page 225
machines removing excess soil, pipe movement regularly inspected by third party (as per
from flatbed to skids to trench, crane and other country requirements) and have appropriate
machine operations. certification available.
The infilling process of the trench with backfill Daily visual inspection to be completed by
and topsoil and the interface between people, operator (including reporting any defects).
materials and equipment. Appropriate maintenance programme to be
in place and used.
Only use certified lifting equipment and
tackle.
Skids to be in place and
slinger/signaller.
operators and any other relevant personnel.
equipment.
practice.
where possible e.g.
not generated.
channel).
Suitable and stable grounding to position
soil etc.
to all personnel.
Working at Any drop from or to a different level may Any soil at the top or edges of the trench
height potentially cause harm e.g. working at the shall be compacted and free from loose
surface or leading edge of the trench, access or areas/materials.
Page 226
egress to cranes, trenching machines, Appropriate access/egress shall be made

positioning pipe etc. This will also include to machine/crane cabs.
personnel working towards the top of the work Soles of boots should be free from muck or
area and the potential for slipping/sliding to lower be scraped prior to climbing access
level. ladders.
personnel.
considered for any potential defects such as oil and any
leaks, damaged cables, missing guards and defects should be reported.
contact with moving parts; be appropriate for the All machines and lifting equipment shall be
job/task and be used correctly. inspected by a third party at appropriate
intervals and have the right certification in
chemicals.
personal leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and
exposure used during the operations. suits etc. to prevent contact with
Exposure to dust when infilling the trench. chemicals.
bowser.
Page 227 RPE to be used if necessary.
Emergency The location of the work area may be Check all communication processes,
response detrimental due to the time it may take to get radios between work groups, cell/satellite
medical assistance. phone coverage to ensure that
procedure in place at all times.
findings.
Impact with See noise on previous table. See noise on previous table.
Swampy Area
weather contact with extreme conditions e.g. very hot or appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
cold temperatures, high winds, humidity etc. Regular access to liquids and food as
and protection from the elements is limited. appropriate – warm water recommended in
Land becoming unstable if very wet/flooded and extreme cold and non-iced water in high
people/equipment being in direct contact with temperatures.
this. Restricted areas or access identified if the
Ambient Extremes of temperature and the effect that it Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with
temperature will have on personnel in the work area. appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
Additionally the effect that it may have on the Regular access to liquids and food as
soil structure and stockpiling and the likelihood
Page 228
appropriate – warm water recommended in
of the soil becoming unstable. extreme cold and non-iced water in high
Higher risk of biting, disease-ridden insects. temperatures.
Appropriate insect-based information,
instruction and training to be given on
appropriate behaviour, repellent, clothing
colour, vaccinations, treatment etc.
Ground Unstable conditions if very wet, which would Restricted areas or access identified if the
conditions apply equally to people in the work area, crawler soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary
cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if personnel away from leading edges or
working at the trench edges/surfaces. trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles.
The access/egress routes to the specific work Appropriate ground support (bog mats) to be
area also need to be considered if the track is put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to
unsupported and likely to move/equipment able safely access and egress the work area,
to sink. especially when carrying loads. Cranes to
Excess water build-up in trench area causing use outriggers during all lifting operations.
access concerns and emergency concerns Ground to be assessed by a competent
should anyone fall in. person prior to equipment/machines
heavy loads.
Suitable drainage system/water removal
system to be put in place to remove or
control excess water within trench area.
Personnel may benefit from wearing life
vests if working in close contact with deep
or fast-running water.
equipment in the area. Contact between the operate equipment and to be allowed
pipe-handling equipment, the pipe and personnel access to work area.
and other vehicles/machines in the area may be Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-
made if uncontrolled. ordinate and control all lifts.
Top soil and backfilling material which is Ensure the ground at the leading edge of
stockpiled on either side of the trench and work the trench is sufficiently compacted to
area must be controlled due to potential contact withstand additional weight.
with machines, personnel, equipment and Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other
wildlife. equipment/vehicles in the area.
Large capacity of water being removed from the Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials
trench is also a heavy load which may impact or and top soil are appropriate in size e.g.
affect personnel in work area or area of have a wide enough base and not be so
Page 229
discharge. high that it would promote unnecessary

slippage of soil/materials – ensure that
personnel are prevented from climbing up
stockpiled materials or walking/working too
close to the base.
Ensure that personnel are kept away from
excess water levels through barriers and
acceptable process of waste water removal
and storage.
Illumination Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night- Ensure that adequate lighting is put in place
time activities may impact on operational if working in hours or dust or darkness –
requirements; includes potential impact between use of generators and tower lights as
equipment/machines, contact with personnel, appropriate.
The infilling process of the trench with materials Daily visual inspection to be completed by
and the interface between people, materials and operator (including reporting any defects).
equipment. Appropriate maintenance programme to be
in place and used.
tackle.
slinger/signaller.
appropriate lifting capacity for the load – the
SWL should be identified on the equipment.
site. If personnel are working close to not contained within sound-proof
equipment their hearing may be affected as a booths/cabins.
result. Additionally any machine/vehicle operator Noise assessment to be completed in
may be impacted depending on the cab’s immediate work area to determine if hearing
soundproofing. protection is required to satisfy local
legislative requirements or best practice.
where possible e.g.
maintained to ensure excessive noise is not
generated.
Page 230
channel).
soil etc.
to all personnel.
egress to cranes, trenching machines, Appropriate access/egress shall be made to
positioning pipe etc. machine/crane cabs.
ladders.
Personnel not to be positioned inside trench
when there are activities at the surface of
the trench.
personnel.
chemicals.
Page 231 competent personnel.
Appropriate tracks must be in place that

can manoeuvre across swampy terrain
without getting stuck.
leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and
personal used during the operations. suits etc. to prevent contact with
exposure Exposure to dust when infilling the trench. chemicals.
bowser.
RPE to be used if necessary.
Emergency The location of the work area may be Check all communication processes, radios
response detrimental due to the time it may take to get between work groups, cell/satellite phone
medical assistance. coverage to ensure that communications
remain available in the event of an
emergency situation.
functions and training to be kept up to date
– particular attention should be paid to
waterborne diseases, insect bites and
water based injuries e.g. drowning.

Potential pollution and contamination of Consider agricultural works in area and how
agricultural crops which may enter the food pollution and contamination can affect the
chain. local businesses.
Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by systems in place and ensure that the ERPs
wildlife etc. are suitable and consider the potential
animal attacks.
Page 232
Forested Area
Adverse Personnel and equipment coming into direct Appropriate rest shelters to be in place
weather contact with extreme conditions e.g. high winds with appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
etc. and protection from the elements is limited. Regular access to liquids and food as
Cranes lifting during high winds. appropriate – warm water recommended in
extreme cold and non-iced water in high
temperatures.
trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles,
damaged trees.
Ground Unstable conditions if very dry, very wet, and Restricted areas or access identified if the
conditions potentially not be free from obstruction e.g. tree soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary
roots which would apply equally to people in the personnel away from leading edges or
work area, crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles.
particularly if working at the trench Removal of any surplus tree roots which
edges/surfaces. will not further damage the forest area.
The access/egress routes to the specific work Appropriate ground support to be put in
area also need to be considered if the track is place for crawler cranes and trucks to
unsupported and likely to move. safely access and egress the work area,
Excess mud being transferred to the public especially when carrying loads. Cranes to
highway and causing slip hazards for work use outriggers during all lifting operations.
vehicles and general public. Ground to be assessed by a competent
heavy loads.
Suitable wheel wash station to be put in
place to remove any excess mud/materials
from wheels or area or appropriate
diversion to be put in place.
Also relates to the available work area being away/out of the restricted area through use
restricted in order to limit the impact on the of fencing/barriers.
forest. Have appropriate emergency response
plan in place and trained first aiders
available.
Machines to be of an appropriate size
(compact) so as not to cause further or
unnecessary damage to the forest or
adversely impact personnel sharing the
work area.
Heavy load Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to Remove all excess personnel from the
Page 233
the skids and then again into the trench. area and cordon off the lifting radius to
Potential for the skids to collapse or move remove unnecessary personnel and
unexpectedly, with personnel and other equipment.
equipment in the area. Contact between the Only trained and competent personnel to
pipe-handling equipment, the pipe and personnel operate equipment and to be allowed
and other vehicles/machines in the area may be access to work area.
made if uncontrolled. Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-
Top soil and backfilling material which is ordinate and control all lifts.
stockpiled on either side of the trench and work Ensure the ground at the leading edge of
area must be controlled due to potential contact the trench is sufficiently compacted to
with machines, personnel, equipment and withstand additional weight.
wildlife. Never lift loads over anyone’s head or
Potential of trees to fall if dislodged during work other equipment/vehicles in the area.
activities or weakened coming into contact with Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials
people, plant, equipment etc. and top soil are appropriate in size e.g.
the base.
All trees in the surrounding work area to be
monitored and checked to ensure they are
of strong standing and rule out the
likelihood of falling unexpectedly.
The infilling process of the trench with backfill Daily visual inspection to be completed by
and topsoil and the interface between people, operator (including reporting any defects).
materials and equipment. Appropriate maintenance programme to be
in place and used.
tackle.
slinger/signaller.
Page 234

equipment.
practice.
where possible e.g.
not generated.
channel).
soil etc.
to all personnel.
egress to cranes, trenching machines, Appropriate access/egress shall be made
positioning pipe etc. to machine/crane cabs.
Tree felling at the preparation stage. Soles of boots should be free from muck or
ladders.
deemed necessary by risk assessment
and only to be used by trained, competent
personnel.
leaks, damaged cables, missing guards and
Page 235
All machines and lifting equipment shall be
Confined work area which will increase the place and available.
potential of impact between machines/personnel Only certified lifting tackle to be used and
and trench works. to be inspected daily by operators, and
programme to be in place and records
kept.
chemicals.
Appropriate equipment to be selected to
suite the size of the work area but also the
scope of activities.
leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and
personal used during the operations. suits etc. to prevent contact with
exposure Exposure to dust when infilling the trench. chemicals.
dust suppression to be in place e.g. RPE
to be used if necessary.
Emergency The location of the work area may be detrimental Check all communication processes,
response due to the time it may take to get medical radios between work groups, cell/satellite
assistance. phone coverage to ensure that
Have trained first aiders and/or medics
with appropriate equipment available.
findings.
functions and training to be kept up-to-
Page 236 date.


Ridge
weather contact with extreme conditions due to the open appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
nature of the surroundings with limited protection Regular access to liquids and food as
e.g. high winds, torrential rain etc. and protection appropriate – warm water recommended in
from the elements is limited. extreme cold and non-iced water in high
Soil becoming unstable if very wet or very dry and temperatures.
people/equipment being in direct contact with this. Restricted areas or access identified if the
personnel away from leading edges or trench
and backfilling/soil stockpiles.
gusting or wind strength reach 20mph or
Ground Unstable conditions if very dry or very wet resulting Restricted areas or access identified if the
conditions is potential landslide situation, which applies soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary
equally to people in the work area, crawler cranes, personnel away from leading edges or trench
pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the and backfilling/soil stockpiles.
trench edges/surfaces. Appropriate ground support to be put in place
The access/egress routes to the specific work area for crawler cranes and trucks to safely
also need to be considered if the access track is access and egress the work area, especially
narrow, has little space for vehicle manoeuvring. when carrying loads. Cranes to use
Tree roots and other items may cause uneven outriggers during all lifting operations.
ground conditions for people and vehicles. Ground to be assessed by a competent
heavy loads.
avoid any soil slippage areas. Any tree
roots/trunks to be removed where possible or
clearly identified if no alternative.
Appropriate support mechanisms to be in
place prior to any vehicular or personnel
access to support the ridge sides and reduce
slide potential and ground to be suitably
compacted – this also applies to backfill
Page 237
material and having appropriate barriers in

place to prevent slippage of materials.
Confined The trench itself may be identified as a confined Permit to work system may be used, only
space space, especially if personnel are required to work trained and competent personnel to enter the
within trench, all other personnel to be kept
or near to the trench. of fencing/barriers.
Appropriate rescue equipment should also be
located near to the work area.
the skids and then again into the trench. Potential and cordon off the lifting radius to remove
for the skids to collapse or move unexpectedly, unnecessary personnel and equipment.
with personnel and other equipment in the area. Only trained and competent personnel to
Contact between the pipe-handling equipment, the operate equipment and to be allowed access
pipe and personnel and other vehicles/machines in to work area.
the area may be made if uncontrolled. Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-
Top soil and backfilling material which is stockpiled ordinate and control all lifts.
on either side of the trench and work area must be Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the
controlled due to potential contact with machines, trench is sufficiently compacted to withstand
personnel, equipment and wildlife. additional weight.
Potential impact on neighbours, other vehicles and Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other
personnel in work area if for example, a pipe is equipment/vehicles in the area.
dropped from the ridge area. Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials
and top soil are appropriate in size e.g. have
a wide enough base and not be so high that
it would promote unnecessary slippage of
soil – ensure that personnel are prevented
from climbing up stockpiled materials or
walking/working too close to the base.
Work area to be restricted access in order to
minimise impact should any materials or
equipment go over the edge of the ridge.
Illumination Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night-time Ensure that adequate lighting is put in place
activities may impact on operational requirements; if working in hours or dust or darkness – use
includes potential impact between of generators and tower lights as appropriate.
equipment/machines, contact with personnel, Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a
machine operators not able to see manner that will cause a hazard to
signallers’/slingers’ instructions. machine/crane operators by dazzling them.
The infilling process of the trench with backfill and Daily visual inspection to be completed by
topsoil and the interface between people, materials operator (including reporting any defects).
and equipment. Appropriate maintenance programme to be in
place and used.
tackle.
Page 238 competent personnel prior to lifting.
Taglines to be used on pipe ends, particularly

when windy.
slinger/signaller.
Appropriate communications system to be in
place between slinger/signaller, machine
appropriate lifting capacity for the load – the
SWL should be identified on the equipment.
Noise Generated from the machines and equipment on Use of hearing protection if operators are not
site. If personnel are working close to equipment contained within sound-proof booths/cabins.
their hearing may be affected as a result. Noise assessment to be completed in
Additionally any machine/vehicle operator may be immediate work area to determine if hearing
impacted depending on the cab’s soundproofing. protection is required to satisfy local
legislative requirements or best practice.
Silencers to be installed on equipment where
possible e.g. compressors/generators etc.
maintained to ensure excessive noise is not
generated.
Pipe Through lifting from trucks, positioning on skids, Only limited personnel in the work area and
movement transferring to trench and then positioning within the suitable barriers to be in place to prevent
trench. See lifting and heavy load details. unauthorised access.
Additionally personnel will be working in and around Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting
the pipe joint when positioning is taking place activities.
within the trench area, becoming susceptible to Open communications between each group
being trapped or struck by the pipe joint. of personnel in the work area through
appropriate means (radio with separate
channel).
Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe
in new location e.g. skids, compacted soil
etc.
appropriate communications on the details to
all personnel.
Working at Any drop from or to a different level may potentially Any soil at the top or edges of the trench and
height cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading ridge shall be compacted and free from loose
edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, areas/materials.
trenching machines, working at the edge of the Appropriate access/egress shall be made to
ridge etc, positioning pipe etc. machine/crane cabs.
be scraped prior to climbing access ladders.
Personnel not to be positioned inside trench
when there are activities at the surface of the
trench.
personnel.
Page 239
equipment trucks and trailers, all hand tools, ladders, and shall be visually inspected and tested on
generators, compressors etc.: all must be a daily basis (normally by the operator), and
considered for any potential defects such as oil any defects should be reported.
Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to
be inspected daily by operators, and
suits etc. to prevent contact with chemicals.
materials – hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, spillage, including any required additional
contact with any degreasers or cleaners used PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and
personal during the operations. suits etc. to prevent contact with chemicals.
exposure Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or
Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill mat
in case of spillage.
Emergency The location of the work area may be detrimental Check all communication processes, radios
response due to the time it may take to get medical between work groups, cell/satellite phone
assistance. coverage to ensure that communications
remain available in the event of an
emergency situation.
quickest/safest route and be aware of time it
takes to reach them.
Wildlife Possible contact between workers and dangerous If in area with known dangerous
animals/plants. animals/plants have appropriate warning
Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by systems in place and ensure that the ERPs
Page 240
wildlife etc. are suitable and consider the potential animal

attacks.
Tundra
weather contact with extreme conditions e.g. very appropriate heating facilities.
cold (-50C), high winds etc. and protection Regular access to liquids and food as
from the elements is limited. appropriate – warm water recommended in
Winter sees permafrost on ground so solid extreme cold temperatures.
underfoot, summer top layer of permafrost Restricted areas or access identified if the soil
melts which can make the ground becomes unstable during Summer time, keep
soggy/slippery and people/equipment being unnecessary personnel away from leading
in direct contact with this. edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles.
Cranes lifting during high winds Lifting operations should cease when the
gusting or wind strength reach 20mph or when
the operator feels that it is too dangerous to
continue.
Noise Generated from the machines and Use of hearing protection if operators are not
equipment on site. If personnel are working contained within sound-proof booths/cabins.
close to equipment their hearing may be Noise assessment to be completed in
affected as a result. Additionally any immediate work area to determine if hearing
machine/vehicle operator may be impacted protection is required to satisfy local legislative
depending on the cab’s soundproofing. requirements or best practice. Silencers to be
installed on equipment where possible e.g.
compressors/ generators etc. All equipment to
be
inspected and regularly maintained to ensure
excessive noise is not generated.
Pipe movement Through lifting from trucks, positioning on Only limited personnel in the work area and
skids, transferring to trench and then suitable barriers to be in place to prevent
positioning within the trench. See lifting and unauthorised access.
heavy load details. Additionally personnel Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting
will be working in and around the pipe joint activities. Open communications between each
when positioning is taking place within the group of personnel in the work area through
trench area, becoming susceptible to appropriate means (radio with separate
beingtrapped or struck by the pipe joint. channel). Suitable and stable grounding to
position pipe in new location e.g. skids,
compacted soil etc.
Working at Any drop from or to a different level may Pre-determined access/egress routes and
height potentially cause harm e.g. working at the appropriate communications on the details to all
surface personnel. Any soil at the top or edges of the
or leading edge of the trench, access or trench shall be compacted and free from loose
egress to cranes, trenching machines, areas/materials. Appropriate access/egress
positioning pipe etc. shall be made to machine/crane cabs. Soles of
boots should be free from muck or be scraped
prior to climbing access ladders.
Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved
as its surface may be slippery and the pipe may
shift unexpectedly. Use appropriate
ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline
as necessary. Personnel not to be positioned
inside trench when there are activities at the
surface of the trench. Fall arrest equipment to
Page 241
be used when deemed necessary by risk

assessment and only to be used by trained,
Work Lifting equipment, cranes, trenching All work equipment shall be fit for purpose and
equipment machines, trucks and trailers, all hand tools, shall be visually inspected and tested on a daily
ladders, generators, compressors etc.: all basis (normally by the operator), and any
must be considered for any potential defects should be reported. All machines and
defects such as oil leaks, damaged lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third
cables,missing guards and contact with party at appropriate intervals and have the right
moving parts; be appropriate for the job/task certification in place and available. Only
and be used correctly. certified lifting tackle to be used and to be
inspected daily by operators, and periodically by
third-party inspectors. Appropriate preventive
maintenance programme to be in place and
records kept. Spill kits to be available on site in
case of
spillage, including any required additional PPE
and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc.
to prevent contact with chemicals. Only trained
and competent personnel to operate any
equipment whether machines, cranes, grinders
etc. Only approved parts to be used when
replacing
items and to be fitted by trained, competent
personnel.
Hazardous Contact with diesel through refuelling Spill kits to be available on site in case of
materials – process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from spillage, including any required additional PPE
personal refilling or leaks, contact with any and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc.
exposure degreasers or cleaners used during the to
operations. prevent contact with chemicals. Refuelling to
Exposure to dust when infilling the trench. be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel
Increased levels of carbon dioxide being containers. Only trained, competent personnel
released into the atmosphere is common in to
the dispense/refuel machines and equipment.
arctic tundra, during the summer months, Appropriate waste receptacles to be available
when permafrost melts – the levels would for contaminated PPE or rags. Chemicals to be
not be expected to be a hazard to used
personnel. with drip tray/spill mat in case of spillage. If
very dry and excessive dust on roads, dust
suppression to be in place e.g. water bowser.
RPE to
be used if necessary. Atmospheric testing to be
completed periodically to test CO2 levels –
appropriate RPE to be put in place as deemed
necessary.
Emergency The location of the work area may be Check all communication processes, radios
response detrimental due to the time it may take to between work groups, cell/satellite phone
get medical assistance. coverage to ensure that communications remain
available in the event of an emergency
situation. Have trained first aiders and/or
medics with appropriate equipment available.
Check local
facilities (hospitals) for quickest/safest route
and be aware of time it takes to reach there.
Appropriate mode of transport for IP to nearest
medical facility to be available and procedure in
place at all times. ERP drills to be regularly
Page 242
tested and documented identifying shortfalls –


local Restricted access/egress points or safe walk
community/area Unauthorised access to working area by routes etc. to be identified.
local community. Consider agricultural works in area and how
Potential pollution and contamination of pollution and contamination can affect the local
agricultural crops which may enter the food businesses.
chain.
Wildlife Possible contact between workers and If in area with known dangerous animals/plants
dangerous animals/plants. have appropriate warning systems in place and
ensure that the ERPs are suitable and
Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise
by wildlife etc. consider the potential animal attacks.
See noise above.

Restricted access/egress points or safe walk routes etc. to be identified.
Consider agricultural works in area and how pollution and contamination can affect the local businesses.
» Continue with 7. Crossings

« Back to Appendix 6.3 - Environment Control Measures
Page 243
3/28/2015 6.5 Onshore Pipeline Survey Requirements by Project Phase - Road to Success - IPLOCA WIKI Collaboration Platform
6.5 Onshore Pipeline Survey Requirements by Project

Phase
Created by Henning Dresp, last modified on Nov 04, 2013
6.5.1 Introduction
It
6.5.1 Introduction
6.5.2 Planning and Scope of Work
6.5.3 Desktop study
6.5.4 Pre-FEED
6.5.5 FEED
6.5.6 Topographical Survey
6.5.7 Geotechnical Investigation
6.5.8 Geohazard Investigation
6.5.9 Reference Documents
TABLE 1 - Topographical and geotechnical information required for onshore pipeline design
TABLE 2 - Geohazard survey information required for onshore pipeline design
should be noted that a major contrast between topographical surveying and geo-technical/geohazard investigations is
that of precision & accuracy versus. judgement. The characteristics and behaviour of the ground are inherently more
difficult to evaluate than the location of topographical survey features. As a consequence, an important part of geo-
technical and geohazard investigations is the exercising of judgement, which must be documented in the investigation
reports and taken into account when compiling risk registers and bases of design.
It is imperative experienced engineers are used to assist in design or construction, especially where the ground is
unknown or contains Hazards that require a detailed understanding. The contractor, however, should understand that
the investigations, bore holes, trial pits etc, represent the factual data available at a specific location whereas
interpretive results cannot be as definitive and will require some additional judgement in their application.
In this section we have tried to adopt the following terminology:
o Geo-technical engineering
o Geohazard assessment
o The term Geo-technical survey is not used but Geo-technical investigation is preferred
o The term ground is used to mean soil or rock, soil is used to mean a particulate material potentially containing
water and air whereas rock is used to explain the solid
This document has been produced to provide guidance for the collection of topographical, geotechnical engineering and
geohazard data for the purposes of design, construction and operation of onshore pipelines. The document has been
produced as an aide memoire to the engineer and provides recommendations for the geotechnical engineering and
geohazard investigation testing requirements throughout the various project phases from pre-FEED to operation. Due to
the varying nature of pipeline design and geographical locations / terrains, the recommendations cannot be exhaustive,
but should provide a starting point. The document covers:
The topographical survey requirements and how topographical survey information can be obtained
The investigation of the ground for geotechnical engineering and geohazard mitigation design and construction
Guidance on which geotechnical (soil and rock) properties are of importance for particular aspects of design
Guidance on what geotechnical (soil and rock) properties are useful for the selection of construction equipment
and methods
Guidance on the geotechnical investigation and topographical survey requirements for restoration
Guidance on the requirements for operation
6.5.2 Planning and Scope of Work

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http://wiki.iploca.com/display/rtswiki/6.5+Onshore+Pipeline+Survey+Requirements+by+Project+Phase 1/9
Objectives
The objective of the site survey and investigation for an onshore pipeline is to obtain sufficient reliable information to
permit the selection of an appropriate route and enable a safe and economic design and construction of the facility.
The site survey and investigations should be designed to verify and expand desktop studies and satellite imagery
information collected or assumed in earlier phases of the project as well as provide sufficient additional detail to enable
the construction of the facility.
The data collected should also provide a sound basis upon which the installation contractor can base their cost and
schedule estimate without undue contingency. As the project progresses, the level of detail required increases and
additional costs are incurred in acquiring this information. It is important to appreciate that at all times expenditure on
the survey activities should be commensurate with the level of detail required. Whilst the data collection primariliy takes
place pre-FEED it may be necessary to conduct further studies in the case of unforeseen or additional circumstances
arising.
6.5.3 Desktop study

The desk study should incorporate a review of all appropriate sources of information and the collection and evaluation of
all relevant available types of data for the area of interest. The various types of information that should be gathered and
evaluated include, but are not limited to:
Geological maps and databases;
Published and unpublished reports and technical papers on the geology, geotechnical engineering and geohazard
characteristics of the project area;
Topographical information (maps);
Land use information;
Potential constraints (as seen on maps and identified from other sources of published and unpublished literature.
6.5.4 Pre-FEED
At the initial stages of a project development, it is necessary to assess the topographical, geotechnical and geohazard
aspects (constraints and opportunities) in sufficient detail to demonstrate the feasibility and suitability of the preferred
pipeline route and the associated design and construction concepts. This level of detail can often be achieved by a
desk study which collates the available published and unpublished data, including information from previous surveys
and investigations. The various types of information that should be gathered and evaluated include, but are not limited
to:
Geological maps and databases, such as databases of landslides, quarry materials, karstic (collapsible) ground
Topographical information (Satellite images and terrain models)
Meteorological data
Geophysical data; Geotechnical data
Geohazard data, for example: seismicity (vibrations, ground liquefaction, active faults); landsliding, erosion,
collapsible ground (soils and rocks), aggressive ground chemistry, high water table, rivers
Performance of existing pipelines
Human activities
Land use and potential environmental constraints and opportunities, such as villages, infrastructure, wooded
areas, town planning restrictions, national parks, and future planning
The initial routing is best chosen by the use of an integrated team comprising:
Pipeline engineers
Construction engineers
Environmental specialists
Geotechnical engineering and geohazard specialists
6.5.5 FEED
FEED is the phase of the project development following which the investor makes the decision to proceed based on
technical feasibility, costs and schedule. During FEED all the key decisions are taken which define the pipeline routing,
EIA impact, construction methods and the requirements for restoration.
It is in this phase that the main topographical, geotechnical, Page resistivity,
245 and geohazard site surveys and investigations
are performed. These surveys must be sufficient to enable the project to proceed to detailed design whilst minimizing
uncertainty
The survey should also be conducted at the start of FEED so that the data is available during FEED for inclusion into
the completion of the FEED, and detailed design
The obtained survey and investigation data are included in the construction contract such that the installation contractor
can utilize the data for the construction engineering, e.g. trench slopes, compaction, spoil heap design
6.5.6 Topographical Survey

The topographic survey provides data on the topography along the route of the pipeline and also surface features along
the route to be used for the design and construction of the pipeline, including land use, buried and above ground
infrastructure, and features of the natural landscape.
Surveying is undertaken by work on the ground using theodolites and GPS equipment, (for example) and airborne and/or
satellite methods, including photogrammetry and LiDAR (radar) methods.
The topographic survey is carried out on the basis of a network, suitable to represent the nature of the site. Normally,
the distance between adjacent survey lines is set according to the complexity of the terrain. All features of the ground
are surveyed to define the actual ground topography.
The orientation and positioning of the surveys in the concerned area is linked to the the national geodetic system.
For each road, building, overhead and buried network, watercourse, boundary, etc. included in the area, the following
particular characteristics shall be surveyed, in order to highlight all significant natural and manmade features within the
limits of mapping:
1. Existing buildings
a. Above ground and underground dimensions
b. Population density
c. Distance from the ROW
2. Roads / Rails in general
a. Dimensions of the roadway;
b. Typical sections;
c. Dimensions of road works, if any (e.g. bridges, culverts, etc.);
d. Elevations of the roadway centre lines.
3. Networks in general
a. Indication of the network type (overhead or buried);
b. Surveyable dimensions including pits;
c. Use (e.g. water, gas and oil pipeline, low or high voltage electric lines, telephone lines, lighting, etc.).
4. Watercourses and sewer headers
a. Characteristic sections (at each change of wet section) including pits;
b. Level of the water surface at the surveying date;
c. Possible maximum level surveyable on the banks.
5. Slopes, walls, embankments, etc.
a. Elevations of the upper and lower edges.
6. Woods
a. Limits of woodIand areas or areas planted with trees.
7. Various
a. Walls, fences, etc.
b. Monuments
c. Areas of special interest
d. Environmentally sensitive areas
6.5.7 Geotechnical Investigation

The geotechnical investigation provides sub-surface data along the pipeline route, including the soil and rock
engineering data that is required for the pipeline design and construction. A geotechnical investigation comprises site
and laboratory operations that may include;
1. Exploratory holes (in addition to detailed description (logging) of samples, drill cores, and exposed soil and rock
faces)
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a. Boreholes
b. Cone penetration tests
c. Trial pits
d. Trial trenches
2. Geophysical investigations
a. Surface investigations using (for example) shallow seismic and resistivity methods
b. Borehole investigations using geophysical tools in boreholes
3. In situ geotechnical testing
a. In boreholes, for example standard penetration tests, pressuremeter tests, permeability and pumping tests
b. With cone penetration tests, such as piezo-cone
c. In Trial pits and trenches, for example density tests and scan-line surveys of rock fractures
4. Geotechnical monitoring
a. Groundwater conditions, e.g. piezometers in boreholes
b. Ground movements, e.g. inclinometers in boreholes, surface movement markers
5. Laboratory testing (of samples and drill cores of the ground and of ground water)
a. Index tests, such as grain size, plasticity, moisture content, mineral composition
b. Shear strength of soils, tested in drained and undrained conditions, including tests to determine residual
shear strength
c. Compressive strength of rocks, including the point load index test and tests of residual shear strength
d. Compressibility
e. Compaction, including the use of soil and rock as fill materials
f. Durability of rocks for use as fill, aggregate and amour stone
g. Permeability
h. Geochemistry and groundwater chemistry, including aggressive and contaminated ground
i. Thermal and resistivity properties
Table 1 lists data collected during a geotechnical investigation, and the design aspect it is used for.
6.5.8 Geohazard Investigation

Geohazard investigations provide information on earth surface processes and geological hazards that might pose a
threat to pipelines and associated infrastructure. Hazards are usually considered as a series of groups, with each group
being investigated and assessed by a specialist team. A typical set of groups is as follows:
1. Earthquake (seismic) hazards:
a. Earthquake vibrations
b. Ground liquefaction, including lateral spreading
c. Fault rupture
d. Tsunami
2. Ground settlement and collapse:
a. Swelling, shrinking ground and collapsible soils
b. Ground solution and collapse (karst)
3. Landslides and erosion:
a. Pre-existing landslides and erosion areas
b. Landslide-prone and erosion-prone terrain
4. Rivers and coasts:
a. Coastal erosion and deposition
b. River behavior, including channel changes and bed erosion
c. High watertable and flooding
5. Contaminated land and ground geochemisty:
a. Naturally aggressive ground and groundwater
b. Former and current industrial uses
c. Contamination of soil and rock
d. Contamination of groundwater and surface water
Table 2 lists data collected during a geohazard survey, and the design aspect it is used for.
6.5.9 Reference Documents

The following ASTM standards listed below provide a description of the methods, equipments and tests for the
topographical, geotechnical, geohazards, and resistivity surveys. ASTM is the American society for testing and
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materials.
ASTM Title
D420 Standard guide to site characterization for engineering, design and construction purposes
D653 Standard terminology relating to soil, rock and contained fluids
D1195 Standard test method for repetitive static plate load test of soils and flexible pavement components, for
use in evaluation and design of airport and highway pavements
D1196 Standard test method for non repetitive static plate load tests of soils and flexible pavement
components, for use in evaluation and design of airport and highway pavements
D1452 Standard practice for soil investigation and sampling by auger borings
D1556 Standard test method for density and unit weight of soil in place by the sand-cone method
D1586 Standard test method for penetration and split-barrel sampling of soils
D1587 Standard practice for thin-walled tube sampling of soil for geotechnical purposes
D1883 Standard test method for CBR (California bearing ratio) of laboratory-compacted soils
D2113 Standard practice for rock core drilling and sampling of rock for site investigation
D2167 Standard test method for density and unit weight of soil in place by the rubber balloon method
D2487 Standard classification of soils for engineering purposes (unified soil classification system)
D2488 Standard practice for description and identification of soils (visual-manual procedure)
D2573 Standard test method for field vane shear test in cohesive soil
D3441 Standard test method for mechanical cone penetration tests of soil
D3550 Standard practice for thick wall, ring-lined, split barrel, drive sampling of soil
D3740 Standard practice for minimum requirements for agencies engaged in the testing and/or inspection of soil
and rock as used in engineering design and construction
D4043 Standard guide for selection of aquifer test method in determining hydraulic properties by well techniques
D4044 Standard test method (field procedure) for instantaneous change in head (slug) tests for determining
hydraulic properties of aquifers
D4050 Standard test method (field procedure) for withdrawal and injection well tests for determining hydraulic
properties of aquifer systems
D4083 Practice for description of frozen soils (visual – manual procedure)
D4220 Standard practice for preserving and transporting soil samples
D4394 Standard test method for determining the in situ modulus of deformation of rock mass using the rigid
plate loading method
D4395 Standard test method for determining the in situ modulus of deformation of rock mass using the flexible
plate loading method
D4403 Standard practice for extensometers used in rock

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D4428 Standard test method for crosshole seismic testing
D4429 Standard test method for CBR (california bearing ratio) of soils in place
D4506 Standard test method for determining the in situ modulus of deformation of rock mass using a radial
jacking test
D4553 Standard test method for determining in situ creep characteristics of rock
D4554 Standard test method for in situ determination of direct shear strength of rock discontinuities
D4555 Standard test method for determining deformability and strength of weak rock by an in situ uniaxial
compressive test
D4623 Standard test method for determination of in situ stress in rock mass by overcoring method-USBM (US
Bureau of Mines) borehole deformation gage
D4645 Standard test method for determination of the in-situ stress in rock using the hydraulic fracturing method
D4719 Standard test method for preboard pressuremeter testing in soils
D4750 Standard test method for determining subsurface liquid levels in a borehole or monitoring well
(observation well)
D4914 Standard test methods for density of soil and rock in place by the sand replacement method in a test pit
D4959 Standard test method for determination of water (moisture) content of soil by direct heating
D4971 Standard test method for determining the in situ modulus of deformation of rock using the diametrically
loaded 76-mm(3¬in.) borehole jack
D5030 Standard test method for density of soil and rock in place by the water replacement method in a test pit
D5079 Standard practices for preserving and transporting rock core samples
D5434 Standard guide for field logging of subsurface exploration of soil and rock
D5777 Standard guide for using the seismic refraction method for subsurface investigation
D5778 Standard test method for performing electronic friction cone and piezocone penetration testing of soils
D5876 Standard guide for use of direct rotary wireline casing advancement drilling methods for geoenviromental
exploration and installation of subsurface waterquality monitoring devices
D5878 Standard guide for using rock-mass classification systems for engineering purposes
D6026 Standard practice for using significant digits in geotechnical data
D6032 Standard test method for determining RQD (rock quality designation) of rock core
D6066 Standard practice for determining the normalized penetration resistence of sands for evaluation of
liquefaction potential
D6230 Standard test method for monitoring ground movement using probe-type inclinometers
D6429 Standard guide for selecting surface geophysical methods
D6431 Standard guide for using the direct current resistivity method for subsurface investigation
D6432 Standard guide for using the surface ground penetrating radar method for subsurface investigation
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D6519 Standard practice for sampling of soil using the hydraulically operated stationary piston sampler
D6635 Standard test method for performing the flat plate dilatometer
G57 Standard test method for field measurement of soil resistivity using the wenner four-electrode method
D7012 Standard test method for compressive strength and elastic moduli of intact rock core specimens under
varying states of stress and temperatures
TABLE 1 - Topographical and geotechnical information required for onshore pipeline design
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TABLE 2 - Geohazard survey information required for onshore pipeline design
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6.6 Site Investigation Process

6.6.1 General
6.6.1 General
The ideal pipeline route is a straight line between 6.6.2 Front End Loading Stage 1 – Business Planning
two endpoints. However, the installation of all 6.6.3 Front End Loading Stage 2 – Facility Planning
pipelines is subject to a variety of manmade and 6.6.4 Front End Loading Stage 3 – Project Planning
natural constraints. The challenge of geoscientists
and engineers (geomorphologists, geologists,
geotechnical engineers), pipeline engineers and
environmental specialists is to ensure that these constraints are identified and the shortest and most cost effective
pipeline route is defined. This is best achieved through the development of terrain models during the earlier phase of
pipeline routing. This analysis should identify significant geohazards that should be avoided and the mitigation of other
geohazards through engineering design and hence assessment in terms of cost. The aim is to reduce financial risk and
mitigate environmental impacts at an early stage in order to avoid costly rerouting during the construction phase or
(worse still) during operation of the pipeline. For any pipeline route investigation the more comprehensive the front end
studies are, the more effective and targeted are the field data acquisition programmes later on.
6.6.2 Front End Loading Stage 1 – Business Planning

The aim of this stage is to define the regional context of the pipeline route and identify a suitable 10km (or narrower)
pipeline corridor. Datasets should be gathered and presented in a preliminary Desk Top Study (DTS). This DTS is a
’dynamic’ document and should be updated regularly during the Front End Loading (FEL) stages.
Public domain data such as topographic, geological and soil maps and remote sensing images should be acquired to
generate regional terrain models and identify any geo-political, manmade or environmental constraints.
Remote Sensing images provide the following information:
Digital Elevation Models (DEM)
Land cover
Land usage
Geological interpretation (structural & lithological)
Drainage networks
Environmental risks Geohazards e.g. Landslides, subsidence, flooding, active faulting
This information can then be used to identify and characterise geological geohazard features (such as areas of erosion
and landsliding) and develop preliminary terrain maps from which initial terrain models can be produced.
In seismically active areas probabilistic seismic hazard analysis should be carried out to evaluate associated risk
posed to the pipeline.
At this stage a GIS (geographical information system) should be implemented. The advantage of GIS is that it allows
data to be stored and easily retrieved for future reference. The GIS is a useful tool to visualise the regional constraints
and develop a series of 10 km pipeline route corridor options. A more detailed terrain analysis, constraint map and
geohazard register can be drawn up for each route option to evaluate the best option from both financial and technical
(geoscience and geotechnical and pipeline engineering) points of view.
Once this process is complete, ideally a single 10km (or narrower) pipeline corridor of interest should have been
selected. At this stage the GIS can be used to provide visualisation packages for stakeholders and potential investors.
With access to detailed remote sensing techniques, it should be possible to gage a comprehensive overview which
should greatly aid and minimise the work load when deploying personnel to the field. Working with remote sensing
(images) does not completely remove the necessity for ground thruthing the potential routes before the final decisions
are made. Conceptual engineering designs for river crossings and facilities can be produced together with a preliminary
assessment of the installation costs and schedule can be drafted. Environmental impact assessments should be
planned together with the application of local and national permits.
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6.6.3 Front End Loading Stage 2 – Facility Planning

The aim of this stage is to further reduce the pipeline corridor width to 500m (or narrower), to identify the placement of
facilities along the route and develop the scope of work for a targeted site investigation. This is achieved by further
detailed investigation of the data acquired during the preliminary DTS stage and the acquisition of more local data and
verification of existing data through site visits.
The site visit should be carried out by a team of pecialists compromised of geoscientists and pipeline engineers. They
should walk/drive/fly the route to refine the terrain models, verify and screen the features on the geohazard register and
refine the constraint map. During this stage the accuracy of the remote sensing images can be improved by
establishing several Ground Control Positions (GCP’s) along the proposed corridor. These GCP’s are obtained by
utilisations of GPS or similar to ascertain the exact locations of features that can be established in the field for example
crossroads, bends in rivers etc. These images can then be warped to fit these locations and thus increase the accuracy
of the image. There may be a requirement to carry out some trial pitting to improve the understanding of features
identified in the terrain models and provide an initial quantitative assessment of some of the cost drivers such as
trenchability.
On completion of this stage, the desk top study (DTS) should be updated, the geohazard register refined and the
constraint map re-evaluated. River and infrastructure crossings and areas where the pipeline will cross potential
geohazards or landslips should be identified. Conceptual designs of the pipeline crossing these features and the
associated facilities should be refined. Geohazards not necessarily within the chosen corridor but which could have an
impact on the pipeline in the event of failure should be assessed. A preliminary zonation of the route in terms of
trenchability and layrate (access to plant) along the corridor should be carried out in order to further refine the installation
costs and schedule.
A targeted scope of work for the field data acquisition should be drawn up to allow the quantification of geohazards and
other features in the vicinity of the route through geotechnical analyses of samples and integration of the data. This
document should clearly identify the aim of the investigation at each facility (temporary or permanent), crossing and
geohazard feature. Based on the terrain models, recommendations for the most appropriate investigation technique(s) to
be used should be made and details of likely soil/rock conditions and geological / geomorphological features to be
encountered should be provided.
6.6.4 Front End Loading Stage 3 – Project Planning

The aim of this stage is to gather field data to allow the quantification of the terrain models, finalise the geohazard
register and constraint maps in order that a centre line within the ROW can be defined for pipeline installation.
Prior to any geotechnical or terrestrial geophysical campaign, an airborne survey and a ground thruthing visit may be
performed to assist in further characterisation. Surface mapping of the pipeline corridor can be carried out using fixed
wing aircraft or helicopters using LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging).
This technique maps the ground surface and other features to engineering accuracy, thus complementing, and
minimising labour intensive field surveys or photogrammetry. The survey data can be used to establish any Rights of
Way (ROW) for field teams, landownership, identify critical slopes and mapping of High Consequence Areas (HCA’s)
and progress the design of infrastructure crossings. Airborne techniques are a very effective tool for acquiring data for
large pipeline projects and routes traversing remote regions.
The airborne techniques will assist in the further refinement of the terrain models and scoping of the ground geophysics
and geotechnical investigations.
Soil and rock samples from the field are taken to the laboratory for further analysis and testing. The geophysical data is
processed and interpreted with the use of the geotechnical data. Geotechnical engineering parameters are derived from
the laboratory results. The geotechnical data provides essential information for engineering design of river and
infrastructure crossings and for the installation of temporary and permanent facilities. The terrain maps can be finalised
and the zonation of trafficablity and layrates can be refined to establish more detailed cost estimates and schedules.
The data is presented on alignment sheets with plan views, cross-sections and engineering data. This integrated
dataset and finalised terrain map is used to assist in the quantification of total project risk.
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6.7 NonIntrusive Survey Techniques

6.7.1
6.7.1 Introduction
Introduction 6.7.2. Airborne LiDAR
Pipelines are 6.7.2.1. Introduction
planned and built 6.7.2.2. Commentaries on LiDAR
in widely varying 6.7.2.3. Key benefits
terrains that pose 6.7.2.4. Main limitations
a variety of natural 6.7.2.5. Accuracy
and/or manmade 6.7.2.6. Typical Cost
constraints. The 6.7.2.7. Timing
challenge of 6.7.2.8. Future trends and innovation
geoscientists and 6.7.2.9. Example
pipeline engineers 6.7.2.10. Some examples produced using the FLI-MAP laser- and imagery data
is to ensure that 6.7.3. Land geophysics
these constraints 6.7.3.1. Introduction
are identified and 6.7.3.2. Commentaries on land geophysics
the shortest and
6.7.3.2.1. Rockhead depth
most cost
6.7.3.2.2. Rockhead rippability
effective pipeline
route is defined. 6.7.3.2.3. Rockhead stiffness
Non-intrusive 6.7.3.2.4. Voiding/low density ground
survey techniques 6.7.3.2.5. Statigraphic mapping
provide valuable 6.7.4. Satellite imagery and InSAR surveying
information about 6.7.4.1. Pipeline routing
surface terrain and 6.7.4.2. Pipeline monitoring
sub-surface 6.7.4.2.1. InSAR principles
ground (or 6.7.4.2.2. Data sources
utilities). When 6.7.4.2.3. InSAR techniques
properly planned, 6.7.4.2.4. Differential InSAR (DifSAR)
designed, and 6.7.4.2.5. Persistent scatterer interferometry (PSI)
usually combined 6.7.4.2.6. Corner reflectors and compact active transponders
with others 6.7.4.2.7. Concluding remark
(intrusive)
methods (drilling or
Cone Penetration
Testing for example), non-intrusive survey can help to address some of the challenges that planners and designers are
facing during the whole pipeline life cycle from routing of new pipelines to inspection, repair or maintenance of existing
ones. The term “non-intrusive” includes a wide range of techniques from remote sensing technologies using satellite
imagery to land based geophysics. Some of the techniques are relatively straightforward to practice; others are highly
sophisticated and require significant technical expertise both during field operations, data processing and interpretation.
This chapter will present some of these techniques, namely: airborne LiDAR, land geophysics, and satellite imagery
and InSAR surveying.
6.7.2. Airborne LiDAR
Airborne LiDAR is now an accepted and proven technology, used in a range of survey and mapping applications. The
laser scanner can be mounted in the fuselage of a fixed wing aircraft for the measurement of digital terrain models of
wide area subjects. In the late 1990s a number of commercial operators recognised the potential of mounting the laser
scanners on a rotary wing platform, which enabled data acquisition to be undertaken at a considerably lower altitude,
therefore improving accuracy and increasing point density. Since this time, the use of rotary wing LiDAR has grown
steadily and is now routinely used for pipeline routing projects and to a lesser extent for land use mapping in the
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inspection, repair and maintenance of pipelines. The much higher laser point density that can be achieved from lower
flying heights enable the extraction of large scale topographical mapping in addition to terrain data.
The principle of LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is that a sensor transmits and receives infrared light. By
accurately measuring the time between sending out and receiving the pulse of light the system is able to calculate the
distance to the object that generates the reflection.
To successfully coordinate each laser point, other critical components are required; an Inertial Measuring Unit (IMU)
detects the rotational elements of the aircraft whilst GPS receivers record the position of the sensor. By combining this
information with the time of flight distance from the LiDAR sensor, an X,Y,Z coordinate can be determined for each
laser point. Modern systems are able to capture up to 400,000 points per second and the IMU and GPS updates the
rotations and position many times per second. Deploying ground based GPS receivers / base stations into the project
area increases the accuracy achievable. By combining the GPS data from both the aircraft and the ground base
stations.
Figure 1: Optimal construction of pipelines requires detailed surveying.
6.7.2.2. Commentaries on LiDAR
The main application areas for airborne LiDAR are in pipeline routing, both selection and design. Within these
categories, airborne LiDAR is also the preferred solution for terrain and topographic mapping offering identification of
anthropological (roads, buildings, land cover, etc) and natural constraints (wetlands delineation, water bodies, rock
outcrops, etc).
6.7.2.3. Key benefits
Airborne LiDAR surveys operate with minor safety risks as no (or limited) personnel are required on the ground in
potentially dangerous situations such as inhospitable environments such as deserts, jungles or areas prone to civil
unrest or community resistance to infrastructure development.
Using this survey technique it is possible to capture relatively large amounts of terrain data per day meaning large
traces can be acquired in a relatively short period of time. Data processing is quick and thus turnaround times are short.
Modern systems are capable of capturing multiple returns; each outbound pulse of light diverges as it travels towards
the ground. When the light hits the top of a tree canopy a first reflection is generated and returned to the sensor.
However, although some energy is absorbed from the first reflection, some of the laser light is able to continue its path
the through the canopy with each object in turn generating a reflection which is received by the sensor. In this way,
even in the most densely vegetated areas it is possible to record the heights of bare earth terrain.
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Figure 2: LiDAR penetration in densely forested areas.

Downward and forward oblique imagery is usually acquired simultaneously with the laser data to provide value added
aerial photography that can be orthorectified and used in a desktop environment to view imagery of the area or as a
backdrop to GIS or CAD engineering data. Some LiDAR sensors are able to attribute RGB colour values to each laser
point enabling the production of easy to interpret colour laser point clouds that can be used to generate visualisation
tools and fly-throughs of the proposed pipeline development.
The laser point cloud data can be readily exported to a range of industry standard formats or delivered as simple ASCII
text files. Similarly, if mapping is required, the topographical survey data can be extracted from the point cloud and
delivered as 3D AutoCAD, Microstation or other proprietary CAD format and be represented exactly as a design
engineer would expect to receive from a land or aerial photogrammetric survey.
Modern computing enables easy management and manipulation of the large LiDAR datasets and the recent
proliferation of a number of free viewers and inexpensive processing software provide end users and design engineers
to use the data without the requirement to be a LiDAR data processing expert.
The LiDAR data will provide topographical information to be collected regarding roads, buildings, structures, boundaries,
vegetation, landforms and water features that are of critical importance to the routing of new pipelines. The resolution
achieved from helicopter based surveys will supply information relating to micro topographical detail including utility
poles, posts, street furniture and even service covers and manholes.
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Figure 3: Excerpt from a route plan drafted using LiDAR data, with integrated height contours
Unlike other forms of survey, LiDAR with its ability to penetrate vegetation will yield high accuracy terrain and surface
models from a single dataset. The terrain models can be of sufficient resolution to be used as source for 3D models
and virtual world visualisations, particularly when combined with aerial or terrestrial sourced imagery.
Figure 4: 3D visualisation of a pumping station based on laser and RGB colour-data
6.7.2.4. Main limitations
As this survey technique is light based, a clear line-of-sight is required to the ground. As such, poor weather conditions
such as low cloud and rain prohibit survey acquisition. Likewise, strong winds adversely affect the operation of the
aircraft and the sensor components in the aircraft resulting in potential accuracy loss during a survey mission.
A conventional airborne LiDAR will not have the capability to penetrate bodies of water. Therefore, it is not possible to
determine the bed levels of rivers, lakes and canals and if the survey is conducted in flood conditions there is the
potential to have large areas of void in the data. Similarly, the system cannot be used when snow is lying on the
ground.
When operating in very remote locations such as deserts, it is not always feasible to achieve a high accuracy due to
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restrictions and practical constraints associated with placement and manning of GPS base stations.
Whilst it is possible to transit fixed wing aircraft for international projects over very large distances, for helicopter
projects the system components are sent by air freight to a local airport and a locally leased helicopter used to
complete the project. In both scenarios, the system that includes military grade hardware will need to be cleared for
export and import by the relevant authorities. Some countries are unsuitable for import of the sensor components and in
others the logistics associated with customs and state clearances can result in delays.
Additionally for helicopter projects, although systems are cleared for a number of helicopter types, a suitable aircraft
will need to be available locally in order to proceed with the project.
6.7.2.5. Accuracy
The accuracy achieved during a survey depends on several factors of which survey altitude and GPS base station
deployment has the biggest influence. Lower survey altitudes deliver higher accuracy; a typical survey at 200 metres
above ground level results in a vertical point accuracy of approximately +/- 0.035 m (1 sigma) whereas a higher survey
altitude of above 750 metres would result in a vertical accuracy of +/-0.1 m (1 sigma). Horizontal accuracies range from
0.05 m (1 sigma) to 0.2 m (1 sigma). These accuracies are based on a GPS base station deployment with the aircraft
or helicopter being no further than 30 km from a base station.
6.7.2.6. Typical Cost
Typical acquisition and pre-processing costs for a pipeline will depend on project location, size and local operational
factors. However, in Continental Europe costs for a suitable task will range from €150 to €500 per km2 for a fixed wing
project and €150 to €700 per linear km for a high resolution/accuracy helicopter project.
Post processing and mapping costs vary greatly according to the complexity of the survey/mapping that is required to
be extracted from the laser point cloud.
6.7.2.7. Timing
The complexity and width of the chosen route, terrain, accuracy and resolution requirements as well as local climate all
affect the daily acquisition rate. Typical helicopter surveys are able to acquire 120 km per day and typical fixed wing
surveys about 350 km.
6.7.2.8. Future trends and innovation
Continuous improvements are being made to improve the accuracy, resolution and quality of the LiDAR data through
improving the effective frequency and ranging accuracy of the laser and introducing a multiple return capability whilst
also upgrading the integrated imaging and video systems.
Future trends in acquisition are increased resolution and accuracy at higher altitudes (covering larger areas per day) as
well as improved GPS processing techniques requiring no personnel on the ground to man GPS base stations. Other
trends and innovations are the processing of LiDAR data containing full waveform information, which effectively allow
an unlimited amount of returns for each beam emitted (majority of current systems allow up to four returns).
In data processing improved algorithms allow for increased automatic classification and mapping meaning reduced
costs and an improved turnaround time on data deliveries. Other advances are an increase in 3D vectorisation for
visualisation purposes. Data handling applications are also always being improved allowing for greater amounts of data
to be displayed and modelled simultaneously.
6.7.2.9. Example
A recent project in In Salah region of Algeria combined aerial imagery, airborne LiDAR and photogrammetry to carry out
the task of mapping a remote, inaccessible area in the Algerian desert. The project required a lot of preparation as it
was quite inaccessible and a detailed safety risk analysis was undertaken, which highlighted constraints such that the
work could only be undertaken during daylight hours and the location meant that the fuel supply for the aircraft needed
to be worked out carefully before operations began. After the acquisition of the LiDAR, the dataset was filtered to
distinguish between ground and non-ground points and final deliverables including bare-earth DTM, orthophotos and
mapping produced.
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Figure 5: Building of the pipeline network – survey aircraft fitted with LiDAR
6.7.2.10. Some examples produced using the FLI-MAP laser- and imagery data
Figure 6: Example of a new line visualization including third party lines/objects
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Figure 7: Example of visualization the construction area left and right of the pipeline route
Figure 8: Example of a real 3D visualization of a route by using laser data and RGB colour values
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Figure 9: Integration into a GIS where the data has been mapped in 3D
Figure 10: Example of forward and downward photo imagery
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Figure 11 Integration of laser and photo data
Figure 12 Determination of non-ground objects
Figure 13 Processing the FLI-MAP data
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Figure 14: 3D visualisation and interpretation
Figure 15 Final route plan with detailed topographic information
6.7.3. Land geophysics
Established geophysical investigation methods can provide valuable subsurface information throughout the life-cycle of
a pipeline. Information pertaining to ground conditions can add value and improve decision making during various
planning stages from preliminary corridor choice through to final route investigation and decommissioning.
Pipelines are planned and built in widely varying geological, geotechnical, hydrogeological, geomorphological and
topographical terrains. As such the challenges of pipeline applications form part of a broad family of generic applications
relevant to the very near surface. The geophysical challenges of pipeline applications are generally met in many other
engineering and developmental contexts.
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Pipelines investigations are generally characterised by long and relatively narrow surface survey areas, except where
targeting of specific features may be required. Depths of investigation are generally limited to the very near surface but
extend over long distances of several to hundreds of kilometres; information for trench-related engineering properties is
generally required within 8 m below ground level (bgl) whereas investigation of geohazards such as mine workings or
faulting as subsidence agents may extend to 50 m depth or more. Pipelines may cross different cultural areas but are
more likely to traverse remote and sometimes inaccessible areas rather than urban developments.
In general, geophysical methods can map variations in physical or chemical conditions along a pipeline corridor or route
as a function of lateral position and depth. Such variations can yield absolute values of quantifiable properties but in
most cases some form of ground truthing is required to calibrate and verify geophysical response as a robust diagnostic
tool and to provide an objective means of extrapolation or interpolation away from control locations.
A geophysical investigation is invariably more valuable to decision making when programmed prior to an optimised,
objectively targeted borehole program. Geophysical tools should be considered at the very early stages of a project
rather than an afterthought when ground conditions, during direct investigation or construction, are frequently found to
be at variance with planning expectation such as unexpected rockhead depth or strength.
6.7.3.2. Commentaries on land geophysics
6.7.3.2.1. Rockhead depth
The depth to the rockhead may be determined using geophysical methods both in absolute and relative terms.
Rockhead is commonly characterised by a boundary across which acoustic, mass and electrical properties change
rapidly. In general, seismic velocity, density and electrical resistivity will tend to increase in a downwards sense across
the rockhead boundary. Seismic refraction methods can effectively map relatively complex rockhead topography to an
accuracy of better than 15% from a metre or so below ground level to tens of metres by analysis of seismic energy that
has been critically refracted at the rockhead boundary. However, the technique will not be viable if a velocity increase
is not present.
Seismic reflection techniques can be used to map rockhead but are only suitable where rockhead has a minimum depth
of about 20 – 30 m. A minimum depth limitation arises because at shallow depths it is very difficult to separate
reflected energy from energy that has been refracted or has propagated through the ground surface using currently
available, finite bandwidth seismic sources. A further limitation for seismic methods is the presence of unsaturated,
compressible soils such as dry sands that afford poor source coupling - consideration should be made as to whether
surface or buried seismic sources should be used that will have a bearing on productivity. In addition, saturated soils
may have compressive seismic velocity characteristics similar to that of saturated, weathered bedrock; shear wave
refraction techniques can overcome this problem in that shear wave energy propagates only through the skeletal
components of geological media and not through fluids in pore spaces.
Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) yields profiles of resistivity against depth and lateral distance and can be
particularly effective where electrically conductive soils overly electrical resistive rockhead such as clays over
sandstone. Key limitations with ERT include weak resistivity contrasts, presence of saline groundwater masking
lithological contrasts, and the presence of very dry surface materials leading to high contact resistances when injecting
electrical current. High contact resistance may lead to noisy data at best and may prevent ERT investigation in arid and
semi-arid regions unless electrolyte is added at each injection point; this would again have a detrimental effect on
productivity. Seismic and ERT techniques are frequently used in combination to constrain rockhead interpretation and
afford productivity rates of about 500 linear m per day per field team to investigate rockhead to about 15 m bgl.
Other techniques for absolute rockhead depth determination include ground penetrating radar (GPR), which in highly
electrically resistive materials can penetrate to depths of 15 m or more. In the presence of saturated surface media or
weathered clays, penetration may be limited to less than a metre due to ohmic losses through conduction currents;
saline pore waters will prevent radar propagation below the saturated zone. Electromagnetic conductivity profiling
provides a rapid means to evaluate rockhead depth along a route or corridor; when used in conjunction with real-time
dGPS positioning, several linekilometres of conductivity mapping can be carried out in a single day. The technique
provides a bulk estimate of electrical conductivity down to a specific depth of 1 to about 20 m dependent upon the
instrumentation deployed. The technique can be highly effective where bedrock topography varies in the top 6 m bgl;
rockhead conductivity tends to be lower than that of overlying soils and a conductivity profile can give a rapid means of
visualising rockhead topography to target subsequent direct investigation. Where rockhead is expected to comprise
igneous or metamorphic strata, the presence of magnetite in certain lithologies can be exploited by magnetic surveying
to visualise relative rockhead depth in a similar manner to electrical conductivity profiling.
In areas of extreme subsurface topography such as in some karstic terrains, microgravity provides a means to
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determine rockhead variation with likelihood of success dependent upon adequate density contrasts in the sub surface
and the existence of an adequate digital elevation model to provide vital corrections. Gravity data acquisition is
relatively slow (about 100 stations per day per instrument) and is better suited to targeted investigations where profiling
methods indicate anomalous responses.
6.7.3.2.2. Rockhead rippability
The strength of geological materials at very high strains has been empirically related to compressive wave seismic
velocity. Studies have been performed relating rippability to bulldozer power (D6, D9 etc). For specific rock types,
thresholds are provided that indicate those seismic velocities at which ripping with particular plant is likely to be
effective and those velocity thresholds beyond which blasting may be required. The most effective means to determine
rock rippability is through the seismic refraction technique. Seismic refraction generally provides an indication of layer
geometry and the compressive (Pwave) seismic velocity of those layers. Seismic refraction may be difficult to conduct
in cases of extreme subsurface topography and provides rippability information only from the very upper parts of the
rockhead mass that will inevitably underestimate the rippability of deeper, less-weathered rock. Although requiring more
complex and therefore slower field procedures and processing, wave equation tomography (WET) uses more
components of the raw data and can determine velocity gradients within geological layers and therefore a better
indication of rippability. A field team would be expected to achieve about 500 linear metres per day of continuous
refraction profiling for rippability purposes.
6.7.3.2.3. Rockhead stiffn ess
Rockhead stiffness information may be required when ground behaviour due to surface loading needs to be assessed.
Surface wave seismic is a profiling technique similar to seismic refraction. Rather than record body wave information,
surface wave techniques such as multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW) record relatively low frequency
surface waves whose behaviour is related to the shear wave characteristics of the ground. Surface wave techniques
yield one-dimensional stiffness profiles to a depth of about 20 m bgl when using a sledgehammer seismic source. Many
1D depth profiles can be merged into a 2D profile to yield a shear wave velocity profile. Small strain stiffness values
(shear modulus) can then be derived based upon an estimate of density; shear wave velocity can be a sensitive
indicator of stiffness variation being proportional to the square root of the stiffness. Key limitations for surface wave
seismic techniques include the presence of very stiff near-surface layers such as caliche or fericrete; strong contrasts
in the elastic properties of near-surface media can effectively guide seismic source energy between layers greatly
reducing the depth of investigation. A field team would be expected to achieve about 500 linear metres per day of
continuous MASW profiling for ground stiffness investigations.
6.7.3.2.4. Voiding/low density ground
Voiding and low density ground can arise from natural and cultural processes. Voiding has a significant effect on the
physical properties of the subsurface that can be exploited by a number of geophysical techniques. Shallow voids
represent mass deficiency in the near surface. Gravity techniques can detect mass deficiency as anomalously weak
features in the gravitational field as measured at the Earth's surface. Resistivity techniques such as ERT can detect
changes in electrical properties that arise due to the presence of anomalous air above the saturated zone and
anomalous presence of liquids below the saturated zone; both arise as a function of increased porosity with extreme
cases represented by airand water-filled voids. Detecting and characterising voiding remains a key issue for near
surface geophysics. Microgravity and ERT are given ratings that reflect their common use worldwide for void and cavity
detection. Like many other techniques that are based upon potential fields, surface-based gravity and ERT methods
suffer significant loss of both vertical and lateral resolution with depth. Proper planning of an investigation to detect and
characterise voiding should involve forward modelling of the likely target to determine expectation levels as a function
of, inter alia, target depth, size, shape and fill characteristics. Seismic reflection has the potential for determination of
near surface voiding but few practitioners have the technical skills for void investigation in the near surface that may
require advanced processing and interpretational methods such as spectral decomposition. Significant shallow seismic
reflection pitfalls such as the separation of refracted and reflected arrivals from the top 20 m of the ground have been
previously described. In addition to mass and electrical contrasts, the presence of voiding may provide suitable targets
for GPR investigation. Radar energy is reflected from interfaces across which there is a contrast in dielectric properties.
Air-soil and air-rock interfaces provide very good radar-reflecting boundaries provided conditions are suitable to
propagate GPR energy to the boundary. Unfortunately, in many geological terrains, near-surface materials have
significant clay fractions and moisture saturation that may preclude the use of GPR for void investigation. GPR has
been successfully applied in dry conditions to depths in excess of 10 m. A field team would be expected to achieve 250
– 500 linear metres per day of continuous GPR profiling to investigate shallow voiding. Voiding is often associated with
weak ground due to a loss of stiffness of the rock/soil matrix. Variations in ground stiffness, for example microvoiding
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associated with gypsum dissolution within mudstones, can be investigated using seismic surface wave methods as
previously described.
6.7.3.2.5. Statigraphic mapping
Pipelines frequently traverse terrains where the physical and chemical characteristics of the ground change as a
function of lateral variations in lithology, particularly in areas with significant structural dip. For example, difficult
trenching conditions may change as a function of lateral position through a dipping coal measures sequence of
cyclothems comprising coal, mudstone, sandstone and limestone units. Reconnaissance mapping of near-surface
lithology can help predict ground characteristics and both optimise and add value to both further geophysical
investigation and / or direct investigations. Reconnaissance techniques that can be carried out with rapid ground
coverage by the use of real time dGPS positioning include electromagnetic ground conductivity (mapping water and
clay content), magnetic gradiometry (mapping magnetite distribution). Helicopter-towed airborne electromagnetic
systems using multiple frequencies from about 400 Hz to 100 kHz can provide very rapid coverage of pipeline corridors
and routes and can determine bulk conductivity to many tens of metres; for example to differentiate between mudstone
and sandstone strata. Airborne systems are particularly useful in steep topography (drape coverage) or where ground
access is problematic. Higher system frequencies can be used to rapidly map variation in the surface distribution of
recent deposits to differentiate sandprone from clay-prone strata. Ground productivity rates of reconnaissance
techniques with real time dGPS control between 1 and 5 line-km per day per instrument may be achievable assuming a
single profile subject to access and topography.
6.7.4. Satellite imagery and InSAR surveying

Earth observation techniques, using both optical and radar satellites, offer solutions in both pipeline route planning and
pipeline monitoring, particularly where integrity is under threat from a range of geohazards. These same monitoring
techniques can also be used as part of the route feasibility assessment. This section focuses more heavily on the
satellite radar monitoring techniques which are less easily replicated by airborne operations.
6.7.4.1. Pipeline routing
Geographic and geomorphological data derived from satellite imagery can greatly increase efficiencies in pipeline
construction both at initial planning and at more detailed engineering design stages. Relatively low cost mapping data
from has contributed significant cost-benefit in route selection by early identification of geomorphological factors.
Satellite imagery can provide reliable, up-to-date and low cost terrain visualisation and general infrastructure
assessment in the early project planning phases. Practitioners are able to source and digitise topographic maps from
around the world to provide a very inexpensive source of elevation data useful for assessment of general terrain altitude
and slopes that would be encountered by different route options or alternatively, where available maps do not meet
required specifications, produce elevation data from stereo satellite imagery.
Figure 16: Satellite imagery and elevation data, represented as gridded models or contours, for pipeline routes
Satellite imagery is able to facilitate an assessment of both geomorphological and geological considerations and
contribute data on the following: slopes, slope deposits, rock-fall and landslips; wetlands, water bodies, channels and
flood risk; sites and controls on erosion and deposition; subcrop and solid/drift geology; fault zones and historic/active
seismicity; volcanic activity and risk. Where needed satellite imagery is able to assist with the land cover classification
requirements as part of the route planning process.
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Figure 17: Geomorphological interpretation of satellite imagery
6.7.4.2. Pipeline monitoring
Monitoring ground movement with radar satellites has evolved in the last decade from conventional differential InSAR to
intensive InSAR processing techniques such as ‘persistent scatterer interferometry’. The following section gives a short
introduction to InSAR principles and techniques, respectively, and illustrates applications for monitoring pipeline.
6.7.4.2.1. InSAR principles
SAR interferometry (InSAR) is a technique in which the returning radar signals of two or more radar scenes of the same
location are processed to allow the detection of ground movements to millimetric accuracy.
Although satellites travel in very precise orbits there will be slight differences in the position of the satellites when two
images of the same location are acquired. These differences allow for angular measurements similar to the principle
used in optical photogrammetry, here with the angles not being measured directly, but inferred from distance
measurements using trigonometry. For InSAR, the phase rather than the amplitude information is used from the
returning signal to increase the accuracy of the measurement.
6.7.4.2.2. Data sources
There five SAR satellites sources namely ERS-1 and ERS-2, Envisat, Radarsat-1 and -2. TerraSAR-X, Cosmo
SkyMed and ALOS. ERS-2 and its precursor ERS-1 have built up a regularly updated archive of more than 1.5 million
scenes with the focus on Europe dating back to 1992 and the Envisat satellite enables continuity of SAR image
acquisitions world-wide. The Canadian Radarsat-1 and Radarsat-2 instruments work on an image request basis and as
a result archives are not as extensive.
With InSAR, measurements are generally limited to the characteristics of the sensor used to acquire the data. For
example, measurements are only possible in the line-of-sight of the sensor and scene updates depend on the repeat
cycle frequency of the satellite. For long-term historical measurements, the data archive of the sensor needs to be
checked for availability of sufficient SAR data. For the ground motion to be resolved unambiguously in the resulting
maps, ground movement should not exceed a quarter of the wavelength of the sensor. For example, for ERS with a
wavelength of 5.6 cm, subsidence rates should not be larger than 1.4 cm per shortest consecutive repeat image
acquisitions (35 days).
6.7.4.2.3. InSAR techniques
There are three core InSAR methods summarized as differential SAR interferometry (DifSAR), persistent scatterer
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interferometry (PSI) and corner reflector (CR) or compact active transponder (CAT) interferometry.
6.7.4.2.4. Diffe rential InSAR (DifSA R)
DifSAR maps wide-area relative ground deformation and can cover an area of 100 km by 100 km area in a single
process. The output is a map of ground deformation showing sub-centimetric displacements in the line-of-sight (LOS) of
the satellite.
DifSAR requires that during the two (or more) acquisitions the response characteristics of the area of interest have not
changed. Consequently, depending on the ground cover, only relatively short measurement periods from 24 days (rural
environment) to 8 years (urban or arid areas) can be processed to fulfil this requirement.
Figure 18: Differential interferometric displacement map showing impact of mining subsidence across a proposed
pipeline route. Image copyright Fugro NPA 1999. SAR data copyright ESA 1999.
Figure 19: Deformation map showing mining subsidence in Dorsten, Germany. The interferometric colour cycles are
overlain on IKONOS imagery. The colour range shows subsidence levels in mm over 35 days from purple 30mm to red
at 60mm. Image copyright Fugro NPA 2004. SAR data copyright ESA 1998. IKONOS data copyright European Space
Imaging 2003.
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6.7.4.2.5. Persistent scatte rer interferometr y (PSI)
The persistent scatterer interferometry (PSI) technique uses large numbers of co-registered SAR images (50 to 100) to
identify time persistent radar scatterer points and to derive an atmospheric phase screen for each scene. Derivation and
accounting of the atmospheric effects in the processing produces much finer measurements than the DifSAR
technique. Subject to data acquisition it is possible that a motion history from 1992 onwards can be derived.
PSI maps wide-area relative ground movements with sub-millimetric accuracy along the satellite’s LOS and its
precision is beyond that achievable with GPS. The absolute spatial accuracy is about 15m, while the relative spatial
accuracy is about +/- 5m in East-West and +/-2m in North-South direction. PSI therefore represents a cost and time
effective measure of ground motion over large areas.
PSI requires a large number of ERS SAR scenes (minimum 20) and for a small number of locations outside of Europe,
not enough data may be available to apply this technique. A feature of the technique is that the number and location of
persistent scatterers cannot be predicted before processing, and measurement success can only be guaranteed over
built-up (urban) areas or over dry and rocky regions. To complement the distribution of persistent scatterer points,
artificial radar reflectors may be installed at specific locations of interest, as described below.
6.7.4.2.6. Corner reflectors and compact active tr ansponders
Corner reflectors (CRs) are purpose built triangular reflecting metal plates angled upwards towards the satellite and
installed at specific locations of interest. The CR is about 1.2m in all three dimensions and attaches to a flat base-plate
which itself is anchored to the ground or structure of interest. Subcentimetric ground movements are detectable at each
CR location. The absolute spatial accuracy is about 20m or better, but can be precisely ascertained at the time of
installation by GPS surveying. To receive a clear CR response, CRs need to be sited away from other potential
scatterers such as buildings or metallic structures, or overhead obstructions.
An alternative to CRs are compact active transponders (CATs) which are smaller than CRs and do not suffer as much
from environmental impact such as strong winds or the accumulation of snow or debris. While the CRs can only be
oriented to suit either the ascending or descending viewing modes of the satellite CATs can be used for both modes,
thus potentially increasing temporal measurement sampling.
6.7.4.2.7. Concluding remark
Optical satellite imagery offers considerable insight into the route planning process particularly in classification and
assessment of geomorphological and geological factors. For pipeline monitoring satellite radar offers a range of
techniques to assess integrity and geohazard threat. Radar interferometry has matured to a widely used geodetic
technique for measuring the topography and deformation of the earth. Three ground motion measurement techniques are
available that complement each other for pipeline monitoring:
1. Conventional interferometry to map wide-area movements within a short time frame at low cost.
2. Persistent scatterer interferometry to provide a time series dating back to 1992 for each persistent radar reflector
found in the scene.
3. Corner reflector and compact active transponder interferometry to measure ground and structure motions at
specific locations and geohazard target areas.
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6.8 Buoyancy Control

6.8.1 Purpose
6.8.1 Purpose
The purpose of this specification is to 6.8.2 General
list methods for controlling pipeline 6.8.3 Development
buoyancy, with associated pros and 6.8.3.1 Free body diagram
cons for each method. 6.8.3.2 Deducing the free body formula
6.8.3.3 Common density values
6.8.2 General 6.8.4 Design by minimum buoyancy
6.8.5 Continuous concrete coating: design by minimum thickness
Pipelines will cross different areas 6.8.5.1 Results
along the project route in which the 6.8.5.2 Conclusions
presence of water may produce a 6.8.6 Ballast load design by minimum load
flotation medium for the pipeline. 6.8.7 Safety factor on medium density
Therefore, pipelines may be subject to 6.8.8 Back-filling
uplift forces and make them float 6.8.9 Span lengths and stresses for ballast loads
above their burial depth. 6.8.9.1 Common definition
According to Archimedes’ principle 6.8.9.2 Stress due to distributed load on beam
any body, fully or partially submerged, 6.8.9.3 Stress due to saddle
will be pushed with an upward force 6.8.9.4 Hoop stress
equivalent to the weight of the volume 6.8.9.5 Poisson stress
of the displaced medium. This force is 6.8.9.6 Thermal stress
also called hydrostatic uplift. 6.8.9.7 Combined stress
If this force is greater in magnitude
6.8.10 Continuous concrete coating
than the submerged pipe weight, there 6.8.11 Ballast weight
is a risk of the pipeline being vertically 6.8.11.1 Pipe sack
displaced, threatening its stability and 6.8.11.1.1 Installation
integrity. 6.8.11.2 Concrete saddle, set-on type
6.8.11.2.1 Installation
Therefore, there is a need to control 6.8.11.3 Concrete collar, bolt-on type
the pipeline sections that may be 6.8.11.3.1 Installation
subject to buoyancy forces in the 6.8.12 Anchor
different stages of design,
6.8.12.1 Screw anchor
construction and operation.
The next sections in this chapter 6.8.12.2 Bath anchor
introduce different buoyancy 6.8.12.2.1 Installation
calculation methodologies to assure 6.8.12.2.1 Installation
adequate stability of flooded pipes. It 6.8.13 Comparison
must be clearly understood that for
valid results, the calculations
methodologies shall not be mixed, for
example one should not select formulae from one method and safety factors from another.
6.8.3 Development
6.8.3.1 Free body diagram
The concrete-coated pipe section is a combination of concentric rings as shown in Figure 1. Assuming this
configuration and polar symmetry of the analysed body, all gravitational forces and hydrostatic uplift will pass through
the barycentre of the section. Furthermore, all the directions of these forces will be vertical.
This is seen in Figure 1, which shows a free body diagram of a concretecoated and submerged pipe, where the forces
shown are: Page 272
http://wiki.iploca.com/display/rtswiki/6.8+Buoyancy+Control 1/16
????: Linear concrete coating weight (perpendicular to the section) or ballast load
????: Linear anticorrosive coating weight (perpendicular to the section).
????: Linear pipe weight (perpendicular to the section).
??: Linear hydrostatic uplift upon submerged pipe, including coatings (perpendicular to the section).
??: Resulting hydrostatic thrust (perpendicular to the section), usually known as “negative buoyancy”. If the sum
of forces gives a downward result the value will be negative.
The worst scenario (the one requiring the greatest concrete coating thickness) will consist of an empty pipeline, without
transportation of internal fluid. Therefore, the force corresponding to the internal fluid weight is not indicated in the free
body diagram.
The negative buoyancy is an estimated value (generally around 30 kg/m or 0,3 KN/m) which aims to provide a certain
security given that the assumed hypothesis of this calculation corresponds to an ideal case which is unlikely to occur in
real conditions (with the actual dimensions, specific weight, etc, but assuming an empty pipe).
6.8.3.2 Deducing the free body formula
Developing the equilibrium of vertical forces from the free body diagram shown in Figure 1, we find:
Equation 1: ???+????+????=??+??
6.8.3.3 Common density values
The following table gives (indicative) mean density values for materials frequently used in buoyancy calculation.
Density of concrete
Concrete with iron ore 29.82 kN/m3 3040.0 kg/m3
Concrete 21.97 kN/m3 2240.0 kg/m3
Density of immersion fluid

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Fresh water 9.81 kN/m3 1000.0 kg/m3
Sea water 10.06 kN/m3 1025.0 kg/m3
River crossing in open cut 9.91 kN/m3 1010.0 kg/m3
Pipe-laying in soils with liquefaction 11.77 kN/m3 1200.0 kg/m3
Density of coating
FBE 13.93 kN/m3 1420.0 kg/m3
3LPP 8.83 kN/m3 900.0 kg/m3
3LPE 9.32 kN/m3 950.0 kg/m3
Density of sack filling
Aggregate for pipe sack 23.54 kN/m3 2400 kg/m3
6.8.4 Design by minimum buoyancy

Equation 1: ???+????+????−??−??=0
???????????? ????????????=???+????+??????
6.8.5 Continuous concrete coating: design by minimum thickness

Here, we expand the first four terms in Equation 1, expressing the terms as sections (areas):
Equation 2: ??????+????????+????????+??????−??=0
Where:
??? : Concrete section (area).
??? : Concrete specific weight
???? : Anticorrosive coating section.
???? : Anticorrosive coating specific weight.
???? : Pipe section.
???? : Pipe specific weight
??: Total section (area delimitated by the external concrete boundary).
???? : Surrounding medium specific weight (fluid producing hydrostatic uplift).
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Figure 2: Typical section of a concrete-coated pipe

Concrete load
The first term on the left side of Equation 2, can be expanded as the following expression (see Figure 2):
Equation 3: ???∗???= ??4 ??+2∗????+???2−??+2∗????2∗ ???
Where:
??: Pipe nominal diameter
???? : Pipe wall thickness
???? : Anticorrisive coating thickness
??? : Concrete coating thickness
The only unknown in Equation 3 is the concrete coating thickness "eh"; the other terms are known inputs at this stage.
Developing the quadratic binomial in Equation 3, cancelling equal terms and then reordering according to the unknown
“???”, the following expression is obtained
Equation 4 ???∗???= ??∗ ???∗???2+ ??∗???∗??+2∗????∗???
Anticorrosive coating load
Proceeding in the same way, the second term of Equation 2 can be written as (see Figure 2):
Equation 5 ????∗????= ??4 ??+2∗????2−??2∗ ????
Developing the quadratic binomial, cancelling and reordering Equation 5, we obtain
Equation 6 ????∗????= ??∗????∗????∗??+????
Pipe section load
The third term of Equation 2can be written as (see Figure 2):
Equation 7 ????∗????= ??4∗??2−??−2∗????2∗????
Developing the quadratic binomial, cancelling and reordering Equation 7, we obtain
Equation 8 ????∗????= ??∗????∗????∗??−????
Medium uplift load
The fourth term of Equation 2 can be expressed as (see Figure 2):
Equation 9 ??∗????= ??4∗??+2∗????+???2∗????
Developing the quadratic binomial, cancelling and reordering according to the unknown coat thickness “???", we
obtain::
Equation 10 ??∗????= ??∗????∗???2+??∗????∗??+2∗????∗???+??4∗????∗??+2∗????2
Main equation
Replacing Equation 4, Equation 6, Equation 8, and Equation 10 (developing the terms) into Equation 2 and grouping
according to the unknown "eh” (the coat thickness we seek to minimise), we obtain
Equation 11 ??∗???−????∗???2+??∗??+2∗????∗???−????∗???+??∗????∗????∗??+????+????
∗????∗??−????−????4∗??+2∗????2−??=0
Equation 11 is a quadratic polynomial of unknown “???”, where “A”, “B” and “C” are the coefficients of the different
terms, e.g. ??=??∗???−????. To solve the expression and get the results for “???eh”, the quadratic polynomial formula
is used
Equation 12 ???+,???−=−??±??2−4∗??∗??2∗??
The concept of adding a coating weight (in this case the concrete) is that such a coating has a greater specific weight
than the surrounding medium which produces the hydrostatic uplift. Then, coefficient "A" will be always positive (???
>????). In the same way, coefficient "B" will also always be positive.
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In order to obtain a real value for ???, the discriminant (term under the root) must be positive, i.e. ??2>4∗??∗??..
Considering the previous statements and analysing Equation 12, only the first root of that solution will be positive (when
the discriminant is added).
Therefore, the theoretical thickness for concrete coating is obtained by using the following formula:
Equation 13 ???=−??+??2−4∗??∗??2∗??
where "A”, "B" and “C” are the previously-mentioned coefficients in Equation 11.
6.8.5.1 Results
Conveniently introducing diameters, thicknesses, specific weights and desired negative buoyancy in Equation 13 (see
Equation 11 for coefficients “A”, “B” and “C”), the theoretical concrete coating thicknesses “???” are obtained. Due to
constructability issues, the adopted concrete coating thickness ??????????? is also considered. These are related by
the safety factor previously given in section 4:
???????????=???????????? ????????????∗???
6.8.5.2 Conclusions
In order to avoid pipeline flotation, the concrete coating thicknesses should be equal or greater than ???????????. The
previous statement is valid for the considerations detailed in this document.
6.8.6 Ballast load design by minimum load

In this case, we rewrite Equation 1 (???+????+????−??−??=0) as follows:
Equation 14: ????∗???−???????+????????+????????−??????−??=0
Where:
?? : Ballast weight in air.
??? : Ballast specific weight in air
??: Spacing between two ballast
???? : Anticorrosive coating section.
???? : Anticorrosive coating specific weight.
???? : Pipe section.
???? : Pipe specific weight
??: Total section (area delimitated by the external diameter).
???? : Surrounding medium specific weight (fluid producing hydrostatic uplift).
Here, the safety factor is defined as follows:
???????????? ????????????=?????−????−????
6.8.7 Safety factor on medium density

As the main uncertain is on medium density a valid alternative design is to apply the safety factor only on the density of
the medium (the fluid providing the hydrostatic uplift).
????????????= ????∗ ???????????? ????????????
6.8.8 Back-filling
Care should be taken if backfill is intended to be used as a means to ballast the pipeline for buoyancy control, as the
nature of soil could vary significantly, e.g. in density and type of soil.
For back filling below the water level the density of flooded material shall be used.
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6.8.9 Span lengths and stresses for ballast loads
6.8.9.1 Common definition
Various stresses for are presented below, which all share the following symbol definitions:
???? [m] Inside diameter
???? [m]Outside diameter
?? [m] Pipe thickness
?? [m] Span length of bending member
?? [Pa] Modulus of elasticity ??=207,000,000 [????]
?? [-] Poisson ratio ??=0.3
?? [m/m C] Thermal coefficient ??=1.16×10−5 [??/????]
?? [N/m]Load per unit length
6.8.9.2 Stress due to distributed load on beam
The moment for fixed ends beam is calculated with the following formula
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M at support= q∗ L212 N m
V= q∗ L2 N
Δ Max= q∗ L4E∗ I m
σb= ± M∗ OD2∗ I Nm2= ± M∗ OD2∗ I∗
1,000,000 MPa
Where:
???? [MPa] Stress due to bending moment
?? [m4] Moment of inertia ??= ??64 ????4−????4
6.8.9.3 Stress due to saddle
According to AWWA publication M11, the stress at the saddle tips can be calculated with the following formula:
??= 0.02−0.00012∗ (??°−90°)
??′??= ??∗ ????2∗ ???????????? Nm2 ????= ??′??1,000,000 [??????]
Where:
???? [MPa] Local bending stress at saddle tips
?? [-] Coefficient
?? [°] Contact angle in degrees, normally 120°
?? [N] Total saddle reaction
?? [m] Pipe outside radius ??=????/2
6.8.9.4 Hoop stress
Hoop stress is calculated as follow

???= ????????????????∗ ????2∗?? MPa
Where:
??? [MPa] Hoop stress
6.8.9.5 Poisson stress
Poisson stress is calculated as follow

????= ?? ∗ ??? MPa
Where:
???? [MPa] Poisson stress
6.8.9.6 Thermal stress
Thermal stress is calculated as follow

??′??= −??∗ ?? ∗ ??Δ?? ???? ????= ??′??1,000,000 [??????]
Where:
???? [MPa] Thermal stress
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6.8.9.7 Combined stress
The combinations of stresses which can be calculated can vary from code to code, so an appropriate code must be
used to address the combinations of stresses and equivalent pressure calculation criteria applicable to the problem at
hand.
6.8.10 Continuous concrete coating

A layer of concrete applied continuously to the required length of pipeline can provide weight for buoyancy resistance.
The concrete may be applied on site at the ditch side, or remotely.
The advantages of this system are that trucking costs may be reduced when local sources of aggregate and concrete
are available and mechanical protection is provided to the pipe in cases where installation damage is a concern. The
disadvantages of the system are that extra equipment and care are required to handle the pipe, due to the extra weight.
If coating off-site, transporting the heavier coated pipe is also more costly.
If easily accessible source of aggregate are not available near the right-of-way, onsite concrete coating is generally not
an option, as the cost to transport concrete bolt-on weights and concrete coated pipe are comparable, but handling of
concrete-coated pipe would have been more onerous than ballast weight.
6.8.11 Ballast weight

Ballast is defined as weight that is added to a floating structure to improve stability. In pipeline contexts, ballast is
discrete weights that are distributed along the pipeline atPage
a fixed
279
distance from a starting point that denote the start of
flooded or high water table area.

As a general rule when installing ballast weights, the separation tolerance is 0.5 metres apart, and laying weights on
welds should be avoided.
6.8.11.1 Pipe sack
Pipe sacks are woven (or not woven) geo-textile bags that hold aggregate (sand or gravel) and are draped over the pipe
to resist buoyant forces, like a set-on weight. Different types of sack are available on the market, and from one
manufacturer to another, the geotextile fabric used could change significantly in make, thickness and strength.
The advantages of pipe sacks are that trucking costs are reduced and installation is relatively easy. The disadvantages
of this system are that sufficient quantities of aggregate must be available nearby and ditch conditions must be suitable
for installation.
Furthermore, for pipeline with large diameters, the weight of each filled sack is in the order of tons (filled sack weight is
approximately 3.1 t for 30” pipeline, and 5.6 t for 42” pipeline), so consideration is needed regarding handling and
transport on the ROW.
For non-freezing conditions, a dry, clean aggregate ballast (less than five per cent silt content) or gravel with diameter
of 5 to 20 mm is recommended.
For freezing conditions, a screened stone with a diameter between 5 to 20 mm is recommended.
Sack filling can take place with the sack in a horizontal or vertical position, depending on the sacks’ design. In both
case a skid could be used to facilitate operations.
For long-term storage or freezing conditions it is advisable to cover the filled sacks with UV resistant wraps.
Trench depth will be unchanged, but width shall be increase to twice the pipe’s nominal diameter.
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6.8.11.2 Concrete saddle, set-on type
Concrete set-on weights, or saddle weights, are masses of pre-cast concrete, set on top of the pipeline after it has
been lowered into the trench. The mass of the concrete is used to increase the pipeline’s resistance to buoyancy.
As a result, ditch conditions need to be relatively firm and dry, not only to prevent the pipe from floating up and out of
the trench during installation, but also to prevent the set-on weight from overturning and releasing the pipe.
These weights are frequently used whenever buoyancy control is needed for operating conditions, that is, whenever it is
anticipated that the local water table will rise and the soil overlying the pipe will be incapable of restraining the pipe from
floating.
Typical drawings for the saddle are shown here. The saddle is designed to optimize the distance between one saddle
and the other, and to have a gap between pipe and saddle in order to avoid overstressing the pipe when water is not
present.
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Pipes must be protected with plastic sheets in the area in contact with saddle, in order to avoid damages to pipeline
coatings. The sheet shall extend from both sides of the saddle.
The saddle shall be designed to avoid the saddle resting on top of the pipe in dry conditions – after installation a gap of
about 20 mm must be present between the inside of the saddle and the pipe surface.
The trench where the saddle shall be installed shall be designed to be wider than normal, and with a parallel wall in the
bottom, in order to facilitate and guide the saddle during lowering in.
6.8.11.3 Concrete collar, bolt-on type
Bolt-on weights are two-piece pre-cast concrete weights that encircle the pipe with the pieces “bolted” together to
prevent detachment from the pipe. They are primarily used for water crossings or where ditches are very wet and/or
have no firm bottom. Their main advantage is the certainty they provide that the weight will stay attached to the pipe,
and continue to perform its function.
Concrete bolt-on weights are similar to set-on weights, except that they are manufactured in two halves.
Each half is installed on the pipeline and then bolted together.
Bolt-on weights are installed on the pipeline before the pipeline is lowered into the trench and are typically used in areas
where a large section of pipeline is to be installed in one piece into a submerged trench, as in a large river crossing.
Bolts shall be hot-dip galvanized and protected with bibulous coating to protect from corrosion, installed in vertical
position with nuts on top.
The pipeline shall be protected from contact with concrete by interposing a polyethylene sheet or wood lagging between
the two concrete halves and the pipeline.
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6.8.12 Anchor
Soil anchoring systems rely on the force developed from the soil in front of the anchor.
The stress distribution in front of a loaded anchor can be modelled using foundation theory. The ultimate performance of
an anchor is defined by the load at which the stress concentration immediately in front of the anchor exceeds the
bearing capacity of the soil.
Factors that will affect the ultimate performance of the anchor include:
Shear angle of the soil
Size of the anchor
Depth of installation
Submerged conditions
Generally anchors perform exceptionally well in a granular soil, displaying short load lock and extension characteristics,
with a broad frustum of soil immediately in front of the anchor and extremely high loads.
Stiff cohesive soils, such as boulder clays, can also give good results. However, weaker cohesive soils, like soft
alluvial clays, can result in long load settle and extension distances and a small frustum of soil in front of the anchor.
Consequently these conditions require a larger size of anchor and if possible a deeper driven depth to achieve their
design load.
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Standard mathematical models can be used for sizing the anchor and preliminary study for both granular soil (based on
Terzaghi’s calculation) and soft cohesive soil (based on Skempton’s calculation), but in any case for a reliable
installation only field test results should be relied on.
6.8.12.1 Screw anchor
Screw anchors are pairs of steel helices (screws), with one screw installed on either side of the pipeline, providing an
“anchor” into the ground. Helix size and design depend on the type of soil and force required. A polyester strap crosses
over the pipe and connects to each of the screws.
The advantages of this system are that the materials are relatively light and transportable, anchor spacing is much
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greater than with conventional set-on weights, are suitable for peat bogs and organic soils, and overall costs are low
where significant quantities are involved. An additional advantage of screw anchors is that they only engage if the pipe
attempts to move upwards. As a result, they don’t contribute to any settlement loading on the pipe in poor soil
conditions.
Disadvantages of this system are that ditch conditions must be suitable and a special installation crew is required.
Screw anchors, while usually less expensive to procure, transport and install than concrete weights, must be limited to
those areas where the pipe can be successfully placed in the bottom of the ditch prior to backfilling.
Screw anchors and extra depth are not effective if, during lowering-in, the open ditch is filled with water. However, if the
organic layer is too deep to allow “deep ditch” to be used, and the ditch is relatively dry, screw anchors can be cost
effective.
To start anchor design, it is advisable to have a general description of the soil, and SPT-N test results. In principle
however, the anchor-developed force is related to the torque force. Generally, a 10:1 ratio exists between the
installation torque (measured in foot pounds) and the ultimate holding capacity of an anchor (in pounds).
As a general rule an anchor shaft with a rated capacity of 2 times the specified minimum installation torque is
recommended in order to avoid breakage, or stopping of operations if during installation glacial tills or other irregular soil
types are encountered.
This shaft design will enable the installation to proceed even though the anchor may encounter soils slightly firmer than
the design soil strength, and also will enable the installation to proceed when the anchor encounters gravel or cobbles.
If installation equipment is able to develop a torque in excess of the maximum allowed by the screw shaft, the
installation must be equipped with a torque limit device.
Screws are driven, perpendicularly to pipeline axis, into soil by hydraulic motors. Operators monitor the oil pressure as
it is directly related to the torque applied to the screw shaft. The shaft will be extended to allow the screw to enter
deeper into the soil until a required minimum pressure and consequently the minimum design torque is achieved. The
hydraulic motor is disengaged, coupling on top of shaft is installed and a polyester pipeline saddle is firmly attached to
coupling, taking care to leave a gap of 50 - 80 mm maximum between the pipeline outside diameter and saddle. The
final screw assemble shall comprise the shaft with helix (6 feet long) plus as minimum one extension (6 feet long);
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shorter assemblies shall be evaluated case by case.

In areas of permafrost the screw anchor shaft shall be installed below high ice content permafrost to the required depth.
A higher installation torque may be specified for anchors terminating within the permafrost. If below the minimum depth,
an installation torque for non-permafrost area is appropriate.
As a general rule for anchor installation, the separation tolerance is 0.5 meters, and one should avoid laying a polyester
pipeline saddle within 0.5 meter from welds.
Final pull testing on 1 in every 10 anchor systems should be done at 115% of design load on both screws. The load
shall be held for a minimum of 60 seconds. If the movement is greater than 25 mm or a continuous creep occurs, the
screw anchor has failed the test.
In case of failing an extension shaft shall be added to the anchor, to run the screw to lower depths. It shall then be
retested. In addition the two screw anchors adjacent to the failing assembly (one on each side) shall be pull tested
using the same procedure. After failures, the test investigation frequency shall be increased to 1 in every 5 anchor
systems.
6.8.12.2 Bath anchor
Another earth anchor system is the bath anchoring system. This is mainly set up with anchors similar to that shown.
Their shape and dimensions varies depending on the required load. Bath anchors are driven into the soil by percussion
rod.
In comparison with screw anchors, the bath system can only be installed at shallow depths and the load that can be
sustained by each system is less.
Installation of the bath anchor system is simple: a hydraulic processor pushes the bath into the soil, and after reaching
the required depth the rod is removed and the bath is pulled
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286to turn and settle the surrounding soil.
When the two baths are in place a polyester saddle strip is firmly tied up between them.
As no direct correlation exists with the percussion force and minimum load, each bath anchor shall be pull-tested
following the same procedure described for the screw anchors.
Installation of the bath anchor system is simple: a hydraulic processor pushes the bath into the soil, and after reaching
the required depth the rod is removed and the bath is pulled up to turn and settle the surrounding soil.
When the two baths are in place a polyester saddle strip is firmly tied up between them.
As no direct correlation exists with the percussion force and minimum load, each bath anchor shall be pull-tested
following the same procedure described for the screw anchors.
6.8.13 Comparison
From the above it is clear that each solution has strengths and weaknesses that need to be evaluated properly, taking
into consideration factors including the location of the production facility, transport, availability on site of aggregate, site
condition, trench condition, etc…
Consequently it is not possible to give a general score based on abstract paper work, but only some general
indications: here we summarise the pro and cons of each system.
Pipe Set-on Bolt-on Continuous Screw Bath

Sack type type concrete anchor anchor
Cost + - - - + +
Transport + - - - + +
Installation - - + + + -
condition
Installation + + - + - -
speed
Certainty + + + + - -
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7. Crossings
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7.1 Trenchless Crossings

7.1.1 Cross Country Obstacles

In previous chapters open trench construction methods
have been explained. Going forward for cross country 7.1.1 Cross Country Obstacles
pipeline construction these methods are actually the most 7.1.2 Underground Construction Methods
efficient and fastest pipeline construction methods. But in 7.1.2.1 Overview of existing technologies
most projects it will not be possible to trench the whole 7.1.2.2 Decision Criteria
way. Hence, it is highly likely that the pipeline will come 7.1.3 Main Technologies
across either surface or sub-surface obstacles along the 7.1.3.1 Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD)
route that will require specialized construction techniques. 7.1.3.3 Combined Technologies
Some types of possible obstacles range from: 7.1.4 Technology Decision Chart
Rivers or coast line
Traffic infrastructure (roads, railways)
Logistic infrastructure (e.g. canals, other pipelines, electricity)
Buildings
Nature protection areas
Pipeline security (climate - freezing/thawing ground, damages - other infrastructure, impacts)
Topography (inclination, mountain)
Alignment design, depths
Each of these obstacles will have their own construction constraints including minimizing environmental impact,
pollution prevention, and minimizing disruption. Discussed below are some of the alternative pipeline construction
methods available to enable the pipeline to cross obstacles on the route in a safe and environmentally acceptable
manner.
7.1.2 Underground Construction Methods

Many of the existing construction methods have come from the tunnelling industry or were developed initially for cable
installation , but many of these methods are not always suitable for laying underground pipelines especially when most
of the upcoming projects have pipeline diameters of 42"or bigger. To give a full overview the following chart lists the
whole range of underground construction methods from small to big diameters and for short or long underground
crossings.
7.1.2.1 Overview of existing technologies
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Most of the common technologies were developed for laying small diameter infrastructure over short distances. For this
reason the following chapters will focus on the yellow marked methods which are suitable for most of the underground
construction parts of pipeline construction projects.
Additionally not all of these technologies are suitable for all underground conditions. At the beginning of each
underground project all project conditions have to be analyzed to find the safest and most cost-efficient method. The
following chapter presents the most important decision criteria to decide which method is the best to keep the project in
time and cost frames.
Additional issues to be considered include:
Comment
Minimizing The disruption on the environment should be reduced to a minimum. Disruption could be
disruption sound, dirt, ground and air pollution etc.
Crossing type Crossing of artificial infrastructure (streets, rails etc.) or natural obstructions (rivers, special
and size topography etc.) require different regulations and considerations.
Both surface Various questions, including: Is there enough area to prepare construction-side?Is the
and sub-surface topography sufficient to prepare the pipeline??
surveys
Pipeline design Has the pipe been adequately designed for the construction conditions, or has it to be modified
regarding the chosen method? (e.g. is the pipe wall thickness sufficient to perform a pipe jack
operation?)
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7.1.2.2 Decision Criteria
Geology
Analyzing the soil investigation report provided by the client is always the very first step into an underground
construction project.
Note, however, that prior to developing the requirements of the soil investigation, the pipe alignment must be developed
taking into account the requirements of pipe stress, scour, cavitation and obstacles, to ensure the full extent of the
trenchless crossing is adequately covered by the survey.
Soil properties have an impact on
Comment
Cutting tools Soft and hard rock cutting tools are customized to soil conditions and provide low wear and long
operating time.
Material Depending on the soil condition different conveying methods are available and have to be
conveyance optimized for each project.
Installed Different soil conditions require different technology capacities. Hard rock requires higher
power excavation energy than soft soil.
Drilling fluid The drilling fluid properties are defined for the existing soil conditions. The drilling fluid has to
stabilize the reamed and drilled hole and to reduce the forces during pull/push in of the pipeline.
Drilling The required drilling diameter varies, depending on the soil condition and the underground
diameter construction method to be chosen. Also the arch effect to make a hole stable is different in
different soils.
Drilling length A indirect impact leads into different drilling lengths, because different underground construction
methods have different start situations at the launch side which leads to longer or shorter
crossings.
Soil Stable (standing) or not stable (non-standing) soil conditions have to be supported differently.
stabilization Support by drilling fluids is limited to hole diameter, cover, drilling length etc.
Pipe wall Pipelines are designed additionally to the impact during construction period also to ground and
thickness ground water pressures during the operating period.
Pipe coating / Factory and field coatings should protect the pipeline during operating period against corrosion.
field joint But during construction period the coating has to resist different impacts like friction, point loads
coating etc.
To give a safe recommendation as a basis for technology decisions as many as possible of the following sub-surface
data should be available. Rock and soft soil samples for laboratory testing should be taken in general from the depth of
the planned pipeline but not directly in bore line to avoid vertical transfer of drilling fluid during construction. "The site
investigation boreholes should be carried out at a maximum spacing of 50 m […] In special cases, the intervals shall be
reduced. The boreholes shall be carried out at least:
Down to 2 m below the pipe invert in ground water free soils
Down to 3 m below the pipe invert in ground water bearing soils
Down to the planned bottom edge of the sheeting in the area of the starting, intermediate and target pits
and should be continued down to the stable subsoil in the case of insufficiently stable subsoil. All holes that may be
caused by this investigation shall be securely filled." (source: Standard DWA-A125E, Dec 2008).
For Rock Conditions
Criteria Comment Page 291

Impact on
Rock type, mineral Examples: Sediment (e.g. sandstone), igneous (e.g. granite) or Bore
content metamorphic rock (e.g. gneiss); impact on drillability diameter,
drilling length,
cutting tools,
wear,
machine
design
UCS, uniaxial The higher the compressive strength, the more difficult it is to destroy Bore
compressive the rock; low values: below 15 MPa; high values: above 50 MPa diameter,
strength drilling length,
cutting tools,
wear,
machine type
Tensile strength or Typical range of tensile strength is from 5 to 30 MPa. High tensile Bore
gap tensile strength strength means more energy for chipping and higher wear. diameter,
drilling length,
cutting tools,
wear,
machine
design
CAI, Cerchar Range of CAI-index from 0 (not abrasive) to 6 (extremely abrasive). Wear, drilling
Abrasivity Index Granite has 5 for example and is extremely abrasive and creates high length
wear on cutting tools, pumps and lines.
RQD rock quality RQD value (0-100%) indicates the quality of a rock-mass: 0-25% Cutting
designation or joint indicates very poor rock, 90-100% indicates excellent rock. The joint Tools,
spacing, orientation spacing and the orientation of the joints indicates the stability of an open machine
of joints borehole and defines for example the kind of support which affects the design
machine design
Degree of Gives idea of the drillability and stability, the fresher the rock, the more Cutting tools,
alteration/weathering difficult to bore but the more stable the borehole is. machine
design
Abrasive mineral Used when no CAI is possible. The higher the percentage of abrasive Wear, drilling
content minerals (e.g. quartz), the higher the wear of cutting tools. length
Water permeability / Indicates groundwater inflow towards the working face of the machine Machine
k-value and with possibly the necessity for watertight machines. The water design
permeability indicates also the loss of drilling fluids into the rock
formation.
For Soft or Mixed Soil Conditions
Criteria Comment
Particle size Gives overall impression on the characteristics of a soil. Defines the Cutting tools,
distribution amount of coarse (e.g. gravel) and fine (e.g. silt) material in a soil. machine design,
curves (PSD) separation
equipment
SPT values Indicates the compactness or consistency of a soil. The higher the SPT-N Cutting tools, soil
(Standard value, the higher the compactness of the soil (e.g. values 0 to 4 indicate conditioning
Penetration very loose soil; values above 50 indicate very dense soil)
Test) Page 292
Obstacles Depending on the diameter of the borehole, sometimes stones, boulders, Cutting tools,
blocks or timber are referred to as obstacles. If known special equipment special
can help to clear obstacles. equipment
Water Indicates groundwater inflow towards the working face of the machine and Machine design
permeability / with possibly the necessity of water tight machines. The water permeability
k-value indicates also the loss of drilling fluids into the soil formation.
Compactness Very dense soil indicates different cutting conditions than loose soil Cutting Tools
Atterberg Need to be tested on samples in the laboratory. They tell about the Machine design,
limits, mole behaviour (plasticity) of a fine-grained soil in different stages of water- conveyance
firmness saturation. Also clogging risk can be predicted with the Atterberg limits. system, soil
conditioning
Cohesion Is important for the frictional forces within a soil – only fine grained soil (clay Cutting tools,
or silt) exhibits cohesion machine design
Shear Structural analysis, machine selection, thrust bearing. Mostly used for
strength, calculations for structural analysis
angle of
friction
Bulk density Structural analysis, machine selection, buoyancy; Important to define shield
loads and the tendency to move vertical in very soft soils.
Abrasive The higher the percentage of abrasive minerals (e.g. quartz), the higher the Wear, drilling
mineral wear of cutting tools length
content
Especially for horizontal directional drilling (HDD) projects but also for microtunnelling projects the soil conditions and
ground water have a deep impact on the bentonite lubrication or drilling fluid in general. Therefore the following
additional data are needed:
Criteria Measurement unit:
pH of the ground water [-]
Ca-hardness of the ground water [mmol/l]
Other contaminants (chlorine, iron… ) [mg/l]
Swelling clays volume increase [%], swelling pressure [psi]
Saltwater salinity [mg/l] or electric conductivity [?S/cm]
Note
Even the best jobs will have widely spaced boreholes which can mask potential ground variability. The key step is
understanding the geology and its variability, and there should be an interpretation of the boreholes and the geology in
terms of ground conditions and variability.
Some of the tests and test results are not always available in testing labs. Therefore cores should be kept available for
other potential tests.
Alignment design
In underground pipeline construction the product pipeline has to be pushed or pulled along the designed alignment and
has to follow all curves or gradients. Especially in urban areas alternative route selection to avoid extreme pipeline
configurations is limited by local or environmental conditions and the designed curves or gradients may influence the
pipe design itself (e.g. steel quality, wall thickness, stress limits) and the possible construction methods.
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Construction time and costs

To have a fair and safe decision about the most time and cost-effective underground construction method all
construction steps from beginning (jobsite installation) till removal of all equipment from jobsite have to be included.
Also space requirements for pipe storage or pipe string, start/target pits, foundations etc. will have deep impact on the
overall construction costs. For schedule estimation not only the drilling performance but also the number of construction
steps are important.
To have a most cost-effective underground construction product especially close to other infrastructure a combined
crossing could have advantages. When building a river crossing casing tunnel for a later pressure pipeline installation
other infrastructure lines (e.g. gas, water, electricity) could be included. Using such combined crossings the need for
additional crossing projects could be reduced and the additional space in such a tunnel could have a commercial benefit
(sold or rented).
7.1.3 Main Technologies

In section 7.1.2.1 there is a limited overview table on existing underground technologies. Each technology has its
eligibility for special project conditions. Three main groups of underground technologies will be focused on, facing the
main future pipeline construction challenges, especially regarding capacity, diameter and numbers or lengths of
crossings.
7.1.3.1 Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD)
Procedure
In the first phase of a horizontal directional drilling (HDD) project a drill bit is pushed through the ground on a designed
alignment from an entry point close to the drill rig to an exit point on the other side of the obstacle to be crossed.
Established surveying and steering techniques are used and proven drill tools are available for a wide range of soil and
rock conditions.
Fig 1 – Pilot drilling
The pilot drilling is then enlarged by one or more reaming passes until it has reached the desired diameter. For this
purpose, suitable tools like barrel reamers, fly cutters or hole openers are used. During the process, drill pipes are
continuously added behind the reamer to ensure that there is an entire drill string from the entry to the exit point at all
times.
Fig 2 – Reaming
In the final step of the operation the product pipe is pulled into the reamed borehole starting at the exit point on the other
side of the obstacle. The drill string in the borehole is connected to the pipe by a special pull head with a swivel. As
soon as the drill rig has pulled the whole pipeline into the ground and the pull head arrives at the entry point, the pipeline
has reached its final and safe position deep in the ground.
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Fig 3 – Pullback
The critical point during the HDD process is the time from finishing the pilot drilling to pulling back the product pipeline
into the borehole. During that time when the borehole diameter has to be enlarged from pilot drilling cutting bit diameter
(up to approx. 8") to the diameter where the product pipeline can be pulled in. This final diameter should be the product
pipeline diameter plus one third of its diameter, so that the pipeline can be pulled in with minimal friction resistance.
During this time the borehole has to be stabilized by special drilling fluids like bentonite plus special additives
customized to the soil conditions. Non-cohesive ground (e.g. gravel) below ground water are quite problematic to
stabilize using such drilling fluids and need to be analyzed intensively to determine if it is feasible to proceed. As a
result the HDD method is a well-proven method in suitable soil conditions but should not be recommended in
heterogeneous (soil/rock/soil) geologies. Also appropriate topography on pipe side and rig side is important to achieve
bore geometry (curves) suitable for the pipe material flexibility.
Major advantages of horizontal directional drilling are:
Direct installation of product pipelines; no casing pipe/tunnel required
Cost effective
Fast pipeline installation
Long distance crossings achievable
Small ratio of borehole diameter/pipeline diameter
7.1.3.2 Microtunnelling
In the microtunnelling (pipe jacking) process a casing tunnel (usually made of concrete pipes) with the heading machine
at its tip is driven by hydraulic cylinders from a launch shaft towards the target shaft.
The distance to the target shaft can be as much as 1000 meters or more, depending on the nominal diameters of the
pipes, the geological conditions, the pipe materials and the number of intermediate jacking stations. The thrust cylinders
are retracted after they have reached their final position. The next tunnelling pipe is let down into the launch shaft,
installed and then pushed forward. This process is repeated until the target shaft has been reached. The tunnelling
machine is then recovered from the target shaft and prepared for the next operation. When the tunnelling machine has
been recovered the casing tunnel has been finished. In a next step the product pipeline could be inserted (by floating or
using rollers installed inside the tunnel) into the casing tunnel. The space between product pipeline and casing tunnel
will usually be filled with grout to provide pipe and corrosion protection. Additionally to the pipeline other infrastructure
could be installed inside the tunnel to minimize the costs and schedules and or an optimal use of the crossing structure.
As an alternative to microtunnelling and pipe jacking the casing tunnel could also be constructed using tunnel segments
which are combined to form full tunnel rings. This common known tunnelling method allows smaller curve radii and
longer drives especially if the casing tunnel diameter is bigger than approx. 2500mm (90"). Tunnelling machine
technology is comparable in both tunnelling methods.
Fig 4 – Microtunnelling
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Trenchless tunnelling has many advantages for the environment, traffic flow and those living in the affected area,
because no major earth shifting is necessary at the tunnelling site and only a few shafts are required. Above ground
everything carries on as before.
Major advantages of microtunnelling are:
Roads do not need to be dug up or cordoned off and there are no traffic jams
Earth moving or construction site traffic (trucks) are kept to a minimum
Groundwater lowering is required only at certain spots resulting in minimum environmental impact
Minimum inconvenience to inhabitants from dirt and noise
No danger to historic buildings
Sewers and buildings not subject to subsidence.
Facing the upcoming major offshore pipeline projects which have to be brought ashore in the most ecologically friendly
manner, the microtunnelling technology opens an additional construction option often used for sea outfalls. To protect
the coastline areas the construction starts from a launch shaft back from the shore line. Underground and under the
seabed the tunnel or pipeline leads to an exit point where the machine will be recovered by divers and the pipeline will
be connected to the offshore pipeline part laying on the seabed.
Fig 5 – Microtunnelling technology in a coastline context
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7.1.3.3 Combined Technologies
In the past, numerous methods and devices have been developed for the trenchless laying of pipelines in the ground to
enable sensitive areas on the surface to be crossed. Geological considerations and time and cost budgets are the
crucial factors determining the choice of the most suitable laying technique. Underground pipeline laying poses many
problems - for example, how to work in a space-restricted area or circumvent possible obstacles both rapidly and cost-
effectively. Combination methods, like the direct pipe method, combine the advantages of the established
microtunnelling and horizontal directional drilling (HDD) pipe laying methods, thereby opening up potential new
applications. One single, continuous working operation is sufficient for the trenchless laying of a pre-fabricated pipeline
and the simultaneous creation of the necessary borehole.
Fig 6 – A combined technology approach
As with pipe jacking, earth excavation is by means of a microtunnelling machine. The machine is navigable and uses a
slurry circuit to transport the excavated material to the surface. Modern and proven controlled pipe jacking techniques
ensure accurate measurement of the current position along the intended route. The force required to feed the pipeline
forward is provided by a new type of feed device known as the pipe thruster. The thrust necessary for the boring
process is transferred along the pipeline to the cutter head.
Advantages of combined technologies:
Combining advantages of conventional construction
Pagemethods
297
Saving construction costs and time

Pushes the boundaries of HDD
Feasible in a wide range of geologies
7.1.4 Technology Decision Chart

The following decision chart was developed to get a first intention of feasible technologies to handle upcoming projects
as well as a first ranking of possible options. The criteria are mainly qualitative and individual manufacturer solutions
have to be developed for each project.
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Note:
Not considered in this chart are crossing lengths. In general the HDD method will have advantages in small crossing
projects and allows reduced costs and time frames. For large diameters and long crossings alternatives to HDD should
reduce the risks of reaming processes and heterogeneous geologies and lead to trustable costs.
General Note:
Further, more detailed information and decision criteria for this chapter are available in numerous and international
guidelines and standards like ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) manuals, PRCI (Pipeline Research Council
International) reports, DWA (Deutsche Vereinigung für Wasserwirtschaft, Abwasser und Abfall e. V.) working sheets
and many others.
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1 Comment
Anonymous
All soils test should be available in the major labs in all continents. For example, see above: CERCHAR
abrasivity, tesmec resiliance test.
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8. Logistics
Logistics are a key component of any cross-country pipeline project, and as such should be given the same importance
as other activities: engineering, procurement, construction, etc… A difficulty arises however in defining “logistics”: do
we limit it to the transportation of goods and people, or do we enlarge its perimeter by incorporating other aspects?
The choice was made to incorporate into logistics all the activities that are linked to the construction activities, which
we would consider as indirect costs. The following chapters will develop the following topics, which have been
identified as being relevant to logistic activities:
Line pipe supply chain
Customs and administrative matters (visas)
Camp, catering & communications
Fuel management
Goods management on site
Transportation of goods and people on site
Lifting as a recurrent activity throughout the supply chain
Traceability of all items on a project
Below we list some of the key words, concepts and questions which will be developed in each chapter.
Line pipe supply chain:
Handling, storage, transport; measurement by tons; traceability / tracking system; what pipe: bare / coated / special
coating; where: to different locations: pipe mill, coating yard, stockpile; how: train, trucks, vessels, barge, LTA,
helicopter; problems encountered: constraints due to external coating; bevel protection; safety; weather / climate;
accessibility; stockpile location / optimization; local rules (road transport)
Customs issues:
Visas issues
Camp (temporary construction camp):
How to define a camp: specs from client; specs from contractor; first aid facilities; specs from the country (local rules);
manufacturing: location, lead time, transportation; easy relocation; utilities: water management; power management;
waste management; food management (kitchen, dry store, cold store, etc), final disposal of the camp; optimization of
camp location; security; communications
Catering:
Population diversity; quality of food / choice; service / availability; health; local content; subcontracted work
Fuel management:
Quality / tier IV; fuel local treatment; price: refer to risk allocation; storage / security / safety;
transportation & delivery; easy relocation
Goods:
Equipment / incorporated materials / consumables; measurement, volume; how: train, trucks, vessels, barge, LTA,
helicopter; warehouse & material management; disposal at the end of the project
On-site transportation:
Cars / trucks / buses; fleet management; safety:
Security
Lifting:
Best practices
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Traceability:
RFID / tagging of valuables
» Continue with 8.1 Pipe Logistics Operations

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8.1 Pipe Logistics Operations

Created by Guy Henley, last modified by Henning Dresp on Nov 04, 2013
8.1.1 Introduction
When a pipeline is completed and operational,
it is the result of cooperation between a 8.1.1 Introduction
number of parties in the supply chain. These 8.1.2 Pipe-end protection
parties perform steps which are sequential Pipe Closure
and overlapping involved in the design, 8.1.3 Corrosion prevention of the internal pipe surface
manufacturing, blasting, coating, handling, Desiccant material
storage, transport and construction of the Volatile corrosion inhibitor) (VCI) method
pipeline. The supply chain is illustrated in 8.1.4 Protection and efficiency during the coating process
Figure 1. 8.1.5 Pipe Handling
8.1.6 Pipe Transport
8.1.7 Pipe Storage
8.1.8 Effect of pipe handing on barcoding
8.1.9 Pipeline construction
8.1.10 Key message
Fig. 1 Line pipe supply chai

Pipes and coatings can be damaged in each stage of this supply chain. This recommended practice shall address the
processes after manufacturing of the pipes and discuss risks and available solutions during logistic operation.
For every pipeline project the sequence of logistic operations and the circumstances in which they take place are
different. It is important to have an exact overview of this logistic trail. When mapping out this trail, the following
questions need to be answered:
What are the different stages for the pipes in a project, and where do they take place geographically? For
example:
How are pipes transported to their next destination, by truck, train or vessel?
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How does the loading / unloading (handling) take place in every transport stage?
Where along the trail are the pipes being stored, and in which climate conditions?
What is the duration of each storage period?
These questions need to be answered to ensure a good end-quality of the pipes and coating layer. The answers help to
make a selection of equipment and protection that is fit for purpose. Although modern coatings such as 3 layer
polyethylene and fusion-bonded epoxy are designed to resist damage associated with ‘normal’ logistic operations, in
practice numerous damages are encountered. The types of damage that are most likely to occur are the result of forces
associated with impact or abrasion. If the coating is damaged during logistics operations it needs to be repaired. These
repairs are project-specific but due to the use of imprecise technical specifications, repairs can fail and result in many
in-ground coating problems. Damage can also remain undetected or be very difficult to detect like UV degradation.
Therefore damage prevention is always the best solution.
Owners and developers often choose cheap alternatives, assuming nothing will go wrong as long as minimum
requirements or specifications are followed. However specifications and requirements are not always comprehensive.
In the long run, asking specialists for advice can save considerably on costs. Often with only a small extra initial
investment, one can win not only in terms of quality but also on other grounds such as safety and efficiency. A fair cost
comparison is only made when not just the buying price is taken in to consideration, but also the consequences of
choosing for a certain product, such as the suitability for the terrain conditions.
We shall discuss encountered damages in processes during the supply chain, root causes and ways to prevent or
minimize them. This chapter is aimed to secure the quality of coated pipes and also to improve the safety and
efficiency in related processes. This chapter is relevant for all parties involved in the line pipe supply chain, from the
early phases in project management and planning to the last construction operations.
8.1.2 Pipe-end protection

Pipe-end protection is advisable in case the pipe-ends are bevelled at the pipe manufacturer. In the case of overseas
transport, there is an especially increased risk of damaged pipe-ends. This is caused by extra handling procedures in
ports and shifting of the pipes onboard vessels. Furthermore, it is difficult to control the circumstances in ports
overseas. Research and experience show that a good quality pipeend protection can prevent 95% of the damages most
likely to occur in practice.
How to select proper pipe-end protection?
For protecting the bevel of the pipe, the most effective method is application of a bevel protector made of
steel or another hard material – we refer to steel bevel protectors throughout this chapter.
Important features of a good bevel protector:
1. Strong clamping system that can withstand transport vibrations, and also help cope with large diameter pipes.
2. Effective protection of the bevel: Both a deformable buffer zone and material
thickness contribute to the effectiveness of the bevel protector (see example in Figure 2).
3. No parts sticking out: To promote safety and prevent damage to other pipes, it is
important that the bevel protector has no sharp edges or parts sticking out that might
cause harm or damage.
4. No open gaps: Two overlapping ends ensure that the complete circumference of the pipe
is covered.
5. Diameter tolerances of pipes: If the pipes are produced with a certain tolerance, one
should make sure that the bevel protector chosen can deal with this tolerance.
6. Re-usability: For example if pipes are being transported from the manufacturer to a
coating plant on a different location, the bevel protectors have to be removed before
coating and re-installed after coating.
7. Fast and easy: fitting and removal.
8. Suitable for hook lifting.
9. Fitting and removal on stacked pipes should be possible.
Fig. 2 - Example steel bevel protector: Strong clamping system, buffer profile, no parts sticking out, no open gaps
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Tips:
Rough transportation or handling procedures may lead to loss or loosening of bevel protectors. One should build in
checkpoints after logistic procedures to ensure that all missing bevel protectors are replaced and loose bevel protectors
are re-attached before continued handling and transportation.
Pipe Closure
One can also choose to close off pipes after manufacturing in order to protect the internal pipe surface against
contamination by sand, snow, animals and vegetation.
Contamination of the pipes is often seen, especially when pipes are stacked and stored for long periods of time at
project locations, or close to the sea. Contaminated surfaces remain moist for a longer period of time, because the
moisture evaporates less easily. Figure 5 shows pipes that have been stored for emergency repairs, which show heavy
weathering and contamination both inside and outside of the pipe where the coating disbonds at the pipe-end. Other
forms of contamination seen in Figures 6 and 7 are foreign objects that are found inside pipes such as tools, wood,
animals, cans etc.
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For closing off pipes, there are different types of plastic caps available, as well as combination possibilities of a
steel bevel protector with a plastic plug. These solutions are designed to close off pipes, however it is good to
consider the following advantages/disadvantages.
1. Pipe end caps
- Made for standard external pipe diameters
- Not hookable
- Can loosen due to temperature fluctuations, there is no clamping system (this risk increases with larger
diameters)
- Cannot be applied on stacked pipes
See Fig. 8
2. Recessed caps
- Made for standard external pipe diameters, with a certain wall thickness range
- Hookable
- Can loosen due to temperature fluctuations, there is no clamping system (Risk increases with larger diameters)
- Cannot be applied on stacked pipes
See Fig. 9
3. Steel bevel protector combined with plastic plug
- Made for any internal diameter, also for non-standard external diameters
- Hookable
- No difficulties with temperature fluctuations, because of the secured clamping system (the steel bevel protector
keeps the plastic plug firmly positioned during logistic operations)
- Can be applied on stacked pipes
- Additional bevel protection
See Fig. 10
4. Solutions for extreme climates
Plastics can deteriorate fast in extreme climates. Both UV degradation and extreme cold / hot temperatures can
cause plastic caps to become brittle and break easily under influence of wind, sand, ice, snow or rain.
The material quality and thickness is crucial when selecting end protection for demanding project circumstances.
It is also important to consider that pipes might come across differing climates during their logistic trail.
Nowadays pipelines run through more demanding latitudes and altitudes than ever before.
See Fig. 11
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Consequently one should choose a material that is fit for purpose. The example shows a bevel protector combined with
a plastic plug that is made from very low density polyethylene (VLDPE). This material is highly UV-resistant and keeps
its flexible qualities in low temperatures (-50°C).
Tips:
In some cases it is seen that pipes are closed with thin plastic sheets that are attached to the pipe by tape. This
is not a solution that is designed to close off pipes, and it is not advisable for harsh circumstances or storage
periods longer than 6 months. When choosing this solution, attention must be paid to selecting the appropriate
material. Due to its flexible nature, wind can easily move the sheets back and forth repeatedly, causing them to
rupture. In addition, tape is often not UV and water resistant, resulting in failure after only a short time. What
appears to be a low cost solution may cause a lot of additional costs for repair and cleaning. One must make
sure to take the total exposure time of the pipe’s coating into consideration and evaluate the quality of the sheet
material and tape carefully. For improved long term fixing, sheets can also be fixed with a steel bevel protector,
offering pipe closure and bevel protection at the same time.
When choosing a hookable end cap, one should make sure that the depth corresponds to the length of the hooks
that are used to handle the pipes.
If there is a large altitude difference between the location where the end caps are put on the pipes and the
location where the pipes are being transported to, it is advisable to apply a small ventilation hole in the end cap.
Otherwise the end caps might be pushed off due to expansion of air inside the pipe.
The UV stability of end caps varies strongly. One must remember to check if the UV-resistance of the end caps
corresponds with the climate in which the pipes are stored and the duration of storage.
Recycling: Make sure the plastic caps can be recycled for protection of the environment.
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8.1.3 Corrosion prevention of the internal pipe surface
Desiccant material
To prevent corrosion inside the pipe, desiccant material can be added. For this purpose, a tight sealing of the pipe is
necessary. A steel bevel protector in combination with a plastic plug is the best solution, as the steel ring forces the
plastic plug against the internal pipe surface. Desiccant material, which can be supplied in bags, absorbs moisture from
the air. The quantity is calculated according to climate conditions and duration of storage. Not every desiccant material
is suitable for applying in steel pipes. Chemical additives such as salts might even speed up corrosion instead of
preventing it. It is important to check if the desiccant is suitable for use in combination with steel products.
In case of long term pipe storage (> 6 months) it is advisable to regularly monitor if the desiccant material is still
active. This can be done by looking on indicator cards that change colour depending on the relative humidity inside the
pipe.
The main features of desiccant materials are:
Water absorption
CO2 absorption
Non-toxic and dust free
Fig.12 Desiccant bags inside a pipe
Volatile corrosion inhibitor) (VCI) method
The volatile corrosion inhibitor (VCI) method is an active corrosion protection method, as chemical corrosion processes
are actively influenced by inhibitors. In simple terms, the mode of action is as follows: due to its evaporation properties,
the VCI substance (applied in a powder or spray formulation) passes relatively continuously into the gas phase and is
deposited as a film onto the internal pipe surface.
This change of state proceeds largely independently of ordinary temperatures or humidity levels. Its attraction to metal
surfaces is stronger than that of water molecules, resulting in the formation of a continuous protective layer between
the metal surface and the surrounding atmosphere which means that the water vapour in the atmosphere is kept away
from the metal surface, so preventing any corrosion.
The attraction means VCI molecules are also capable of passing through pre-existing films of water on metal surfaces,
so displacing water from the surface. The presence of the VCI inhibits the electrochemical processes which result in
corrosion, suppressing either the anodic or cathodic halfreactions. Under certain circumstances, the period of action
may extend to two years.
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The main advantage of VCI is that it is a very effective corrosion inhibitor that penetrates into the smallest holes and
cavities. It maintains its protective qualities for a long period of time. A possible disadvantage is that its effectiveness
is difficult to monitor.
The powder or spray substrate is more difficult and time-consuming to apply compared to inserting bags or pouches
containing VCI. However, when contained in bags in a closed environment without air flow, spreading of the VCI
molecules is more difficult and limited up to a few meters.
Fig. 13: VCI method (source: Transport Information Service TIS Germany)
8.1.4 Protection and efficiency during the coating process

If pipe ends are bevelled, it is advisable to protect the bevel during external blasting and coating.
During external blasting:
It is advisable to protect and close off the pipe-end during external blasting. This prevents loss of steel grit and damage
to the pipe-end and internal pipe surface. Futhermore, especially when internal coating is done prior to external blasting,
the pipe needs to be closed to prevent any steel grit from entering and damaging the internal coating. There are
specialized tools, blasting plugs, available for this purpose.
Tools that are used to protect and close off the pipe-ends during external blasting should:
be easy to handle for employees
provide strong clamping inside the pipe
resist friction between rotating pipes
resist the pre-heating oven
resist impact of steel grit in the blasting cabin
resist acid wash or chromate treatment
take in to account the cutback of any present internal coating
Shield the pipe’s internal coating from any temperature changes during blasting
By fine tuning the blasting process (manually or automatically), damages to the pipe-ends can be prevented. When
pipes run against each other, friction forces between pipes should be minimized and a constant line speed should be
maintained. One should prevent pipes from opening up inside the preheating oven or blasting cabin.
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Fig. 14 Blasting plug for protecting and closing off the pipe-end during external blasting
Fig. 15 Blasting plug during blasting process

During external coating:
To improve efficiency during external coating, and the quality of the coating application, it is possible to line up and
connect pipes. An unstable coating process can cause unwanted movements in the coating line and damage to the
bevelled pipe-end. Because the pipe doesn’t rotate in a straight line, the coating thickness can vary over the length and
circumference of the pipe. In the worst case scenario, unwanted movements can even cause air seals underneath the
coating layer. If pipes are lined up, there is less movement which ensures a coating application of better quality.
A coating process can be unstable due to multiple causes:
Large pipe diameter combined with thin pipe walls
Curved or oval pipes
Unequal support rolls
Unstable support rolls such as air tires
High line speed
Long distances between support rolls
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Lining up and connecting pipes stabilizes the coating process and minimizes the likely consequences of the
abovementioned causes, such as air seals underneath the coating layer.
Lining up pipes can be achieved with a pipe coupling. Pipe couplings are ideally made for one external diameter and
adjustable for a certain wall thickness range. There are two types of pipe couplings available: Male-female pipe
couplings and single side pipe couplings. The male-female pipe couplings exist out of two parts that have to be inserted
in both pipe-ends that are running against each other. The single side pipe couplings have to be inserted in only one
pipe-end. The upcoming pipe is automatically lined up.
Which features are important for a good pipe coupling? A good pipe coupling should:
Line up pipes accurately
Cause no permanent deformation to the pipe after fastening (especially in case of thin pipes)
Provide bevel protection
Not scratch the internal pipe surface (usually caused by insufficient clamping or blocking of the coupling when
pipes move away from each other)
Not absorb too much heat from the pipe, as this would have a negative effect on the bonding of the coating.
Hence contact surfaces between the coupling and the pipe should be limited
Be able to handle oval or curved pipes
Be easy to adjust for a large wall thickness range
Allow the flow of static electricity between pipes
Be able to resist heating by gas or induction oven
Be able to bridge thermal expansion of the pipe
Remain strongly fixed during the entire coating process
If using pipe couplings, these have to be integrated in the coating process. It is important to choose a good position for
inserting and removing the couplings. For large diameter pipe couplings a lifting crane or balancer is necessary for fitting
and removal. Transport of the couplings back to the beginning of the process can be done by manual carts or an
automatic rail system.
Tips:
It is advisable to insert the coupling in the pipe-end of the pipe that enters the cooling street first. In that way the
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coupling will cool down and shrink slightly earlier than the upcoming pipe, which allows a more easy release of
the other pipe-end.
In case of a fragile bevel or thin wall, choose softer material for rollers, such as heat resisting Nylon (Nylon 6.6)
Make sure that the coupling allows conductivity flow through the coating line to prevent sparks caused by static
electricity
8.1.5 Pipe Handling

Pipes are handled multiple times in the supply chain, for example in ports and storage yards. By handling we mean
lifting of pipes and loading to or unloading from trailers, train wagons or vessels. Most damages to pipe ends, surfaces
and coatings occur during handling procedures due to a combination of inadequate equipment and poor personnel
awareness. This also leads to unsafe situations and accidents. The personnel’s awareness issue is the hardest to
overcome as circumstances cannot always be controlled and many different people are involved in handling the pipes
during different stages in the pipeline project. Proper trainings, planning beforehand and safe equipment can help to
overcome this issue.
Practical example
In many factories and coating plants, pipes are occasionally moved by hand. Special tools are made for this purpose
that allow rolling of pipes with help of a lever arm. Generally these kind of tools are ‘home made’ by employees. If not
constructed properly these tools can cause damage to pipes and injuries to people. That is why training and technical
insight into the fragility of the bevel and internal / external coating are so important.
Fig.20 Pipe roller designed for safe manual handling of pipes

Pipe lifting
Lifting can be done with hooks, forklift, hydraulic spreader and vacuum equipment. Here we examine these methods
and their impact on the pipe coating.
It is commonly known that badly-designed pipe hooks could damage bevelled pipe-ends. The hook design and lifting
angle determine if forces are spread evenly over the pipe's surface, to avoid deforming the pipe. Bevel protectors can
be applied to overcome this issue. A correct lifting angle is also very important to ensure safety - a lifting angle that is
either too small or too large can cause the pipe to fall.
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Fig.21 Safe lifting angle

Less well-known is that hooks can also damage pipe coatings during loading operations, or if dangling hooks knock
against the pipes causing impact damage to the coating. Proper handling of coated pipes with pipe hooks is possible,
but employees must be made aware of the vulnerability of pipe coatings. A well designed pipe hook should be selected
for this purpose. There are also additional protective sleeves available to shield pipes against hard parts from the pipe
hook, such as bolts and shackles.
Fig.22 Pipe hook with protective sleeve

Features of a well-designed pipe hook:
Covered with a softer material such as PU to prevent impact damage to the pipe coating
Exchangeable pads
Handgrip and rope shackle for safety of personnel
Calculated for a prescribed lifting angle and pipe weight
Shaped to spread lifting forces on the internal pipe surface and bevel
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Forklifts are frequently used for handling pipes. Damage to coated pipes is caused when the steel forks are not covered
with a softer material to protect the coating. It has been known for forklifts’ forks to be driven directly into the pipe-ends
to lift them. This type of handling causes damage to the pipe and internal coating. There are custom made forklifts
available with soft covered grippers to hold the pipes during driving – these should be used instead.
Tip:
Grippers are appropriate if the driving area is bumpy or not straightened. If a normal forklift, carrying a pipe,
drives through a hole or bump in the road, one of the pipe-ends might scrape over the floor causing serious
coating damage and deformation of the pipe. Not to mention the risk that the pipe might slide off the forks
The best way to handle coated pipes is by means of hydraulic spreaders, vacuum lifters or other new lifters. This
equipment is designed to minimize the risk of damaging pipe coatings. An investment is required, but is well worth the
effort. It not only has the advantage of needing less ground personnel, but also allows the loading and unloading to be
done in less time.
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8.1.6 Pipe Transport

Pipes need to be transported between parties involved in the supply chain. This is done by truck, train and/or vessel.
Pipes need to be fixed during transport. To do this, wooden dunnage can be applied in combination with tensioning
belts, however there are some risks that need to be considered. The quality of the wooden dunnage varies strongly and
depends on the design and person who makes them. Various specifications are found for the design of wooden
supports. In most cases wedges are nailed onto wooden beams. As wood is a product of nature it has widely varying
material properties, and is unreliable due to hidden cracks and voids. Besides this, wood is highly subjective to weather
influences such as drought and rain that cause fast deterioration. Most specification do not take these factors into
consideration and only focus on the basic design.
A risk that also needs to be considered is that nails can loosen due to transport vibrations. This not only causea
unsafe situations, but also severe coating damage as the nails intrude into the coating layer.
If wooden dunnage is used, the following measures are advisable:

Thorough inspection after each use
Immediate disposal of broken supports
Use only 1-4 times
Always store inside
Have the dunnage tested before use
Immediate danger for everyone involved in pipe transport occurs when the wooden supports are not constructed with
care. Plenty of examples have been found during field work. Beams are found to be broken, wedges are too small,
wedges are not made for the correct pipe diameter, wedges are poorly or not nailed to the beam, or nailed at very
unfortunate locations.
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Fig. 31: Most wooden dunnage is not adjustable for different diameters. It is very difficult to organize a stock and select
the appropriate system for a certain diameter
Alternative for wooden dunnage
There are more specialized systems available for pipe transport. An example of this system will be presented now. It
has the following advantages:
Safe for any coated pipe surface
Wedges are made from one part, with a constant material quality
No nails sticking out
Adjustable for multiple diameters
Durable
Design based on static and dynamic calculations in accordance with API recommended practice 5L1 and VDI
2700
There is one other essential difference to consider between wooden dunnage and a system as shown in figure 26-31.
With wooden dunnage the pipes are supported on the bottom. Although the pipes are blocked by wedges, almost all the
weight rests on the beam underneath the pipe. With a system as shown below, the pipe doesn’t touch the bottom, but
is fully supported by the wedges. This helps maintain the pipe’s roundness, and prevent material stresses, as we shall
demonstrate in the next chapter about pipe storage.
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This type of transport system is especially developed for safe pipe transport on truck and train:
The following issues should be checked prior to pipe transport to ensure safety:
The first tier of pipes must be long enough to be positioned on all the support blocks; shorter pipes can be placed
on the upper tier.
Ensure there are no ropes caught between pipe and support blocks or support rubbers. Make sure there are no
loose ropes and that zip ties on ropes are checked.
All straps should be in straight vertical alignment over the load, without any twists or knots
Check if hook and keepers are correctly secured, and hammer locks must not be caught under bolts or frames
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8.1.7 Pipe Storage

Pipes are stored a number of times before they reach their destination. During storage the pipe coating is among other
things subject to high pressure, ultra-violet (UV) degradation, design of bottom support, and contamination. In this
paragraph the impact of these influences on the pipe coating is examined.
Impact of storage method on coating
Pyramid stacking is the most common way to stack pipes. When pipe stacks are built layer on layer, the forces on the
bottom row of pipes approaches the number of pipe layers times the weight of one pipe. These forces are transmitted
by the bottom pipes to the ground. Pipes in the stack deform as a result of these forces. The coating is subject to these
forces as well. The resulting pressure on the coating must be considered to avoid damage.
The maximum pressure that coating material can take is known. A careful estimation should be made of the area that
transfers the forces. This could either be the contact area between the pipes or between the bottom pipe and the
support that carries the pipe. In any case it should be avoided that the 3 and 9 o’clock positions of the pipes touch each
other. Because of the load on top, pipes temporarily become oval. When there is contact between the 3 and 9 o’clock
positions of the pipe due to this out-ofroundness, the pressure on the coating becomes extreme. There should be just
enough distance between the pipes to make sure that pipes do not touch due to deformation after the stack has been
completed. This is one of the reasons why some manufactures apply ropes around the pipes – this helps prevent
deformation.
If supporting the pipes of a stack it is advised to block every pipe from rolling. Using only stops at the end of the stack
is advised against. If only end-stops are used, forces add up at the end of the stack. The more the layers of pipes, the
more forces add up, as demonstrated in Figure 38. The diagonal lines represent the forces that the pipes transfer to the
pipes underneath. The bottom pipes in the middle of a stack experience the same forces from the left and from the
right. They are in static balance. The forces on the pipes towards the end of the stack are not in balance, as they
experience more pressure from one side than the other . If only end stops are used, the bottom pipes transfer the forces
to each other which add up till the last pipe. This force is blocked by the end-stop only, resulting in extremely high
pressure (depending on the surface of the end stop). Steel supports as shown in Figure 39 are therefore not
recommended as they only block the pipes at the end of the stack. Figure 40 shows an example of an overloaded end
stop.
Fig. 38 Forces add up towards the end of a pipe stack when using only end stops
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Tip:
Similar calculations can be made for stacks in a vessel. Inside the vessel there is an even higher chance of
damage due the movements at sea. The pipes are blocked by the vessel’s cargo hold only and sometimes pipes
are stacked higher inside the vessel than on land. This needs to be taken into consideration.
Risks when using sand berms for pipe storage
Sand berms and wood with wedges are commonly used for pipe storage, while steel profiles with only end stops are
less used.
If left uncovered, sand berms are highly subjective to erosion. Erosion takes place slowly by wind and water washing
away the sand. Pipe stacks might seem stable in the beginning but they become unstable after a period of time. The
degree of erosion is difficult to measure and monitor. Therefore bare sand berms are unreliable and unsafe. This
especially holds when berms are reused without rebuilding. Besides safety risks, the composition of sand and rocks for
the sand berms is not specified. Although the time frame for storage is relatively small compared to the time a pipeline
lays in the ground, there are well-known cases in which the sand berm was highly contaminated with salts that affected
FBE-coated pipes with pitting corrosion.
There are also better examples of sand berms, constructed following a predefined specification with polyethylene to
cover the sand and periodical examinations to assess the stability of the stacks. However, when applying sand berms
a level of uncertainty always remains, as you can never tell if sand is about to shift either because it is too wet or too
dry.
If sand berms are used, the following minimum measures are advisable:
Cover the sand with PE or rubber sheets
Pre-define the height, depth and shape of the sand berm
Use indicators to monitor any movement in the pipe stack, such as markings on the ground or on the pipes
Use a back-up system to help support the pipe stack, such as pipe clamps
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Fig. 41 Eroded sand berm, the sand is too dry

Risks when using wooden systems for pipe storage
There are three main risks when using wooden pipe supports:
1. Wood is a natural product with an inhomogeneous structure. Pipe supports can have hidden cracks and
weaknesses
2. Wood deteriorates fast due to weather influences, losing its capacity to carry loads
3. Nails that stick out intrude into the pipes’ coating, causing severe damage.
If wooden systems are used, the following minimum measures are advisable:
Pre-define the design of the wooden system
Use indicators to monitor any movement in the pipe stack, such as markings on the ground or on the pipes
Use a back-up system to help support the pipe stack, such as pipe clamps
Use rubber padding to prevent coating damage
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Pipe support on wedges

A pipe storage system as shown in Figure 44 has some advantages compared to the systems discussed earlier. It
requires an initial investment, but pays itself back in the longer run because of its reusability and minimized risk of
coating damage or accidents. This system comprises low density polyethylene compound wedges that are positioned
on a steel reinforced polyethylene compound gear rack. The gear racks can be connected to create the needed storage
length. Pipes are raised from the ground for at least 80 mm and settings can be made in such that the distance
between the pipes is at least 1% of the pipe diameter.
Advantage of wedge support

Pipe support on two wedges instead of on one bottom beam has a big advantage. Because there are two support
surfaces instead of only one, the deformation of pipe is reduced significantly. Finite element method analysis indicates
3.8 times less displacement and 1.8 to 1.9 times less von Mises stress. Figures 46 and 47 show the difference
between bottom support and wedge support.
The design of these type of systems is based on calculations and pressure tests. In addition these systems are
certified by third parties. Uncertainties and hidden weaknesses are eliminated.
Tip:
Sometimes pipes are stored on a slope. Even a slope of only a few degrees makes a large difference in the way
forces are transmitted in a pipe stack. One should make sure that the storage system can handle the forces
when storing pipes on a slope.
Position of supports
When a pipe is not supported over its full length, it is going to bend under its own mass. Because of the bending,
Page 320
compression and tensile stress on the pipe’s upper and underside arise, which can lead to coating disbondment or
damage and permanent deformation of the pipe.
Figure 48 shows a schematic storage situation of a pipe, using two support rails. To achieve as little deflection of the
pipe as possible it is necessary to calculate the ideal position of the supports.
Fig. 48 Bending of pipe due to support position

Calculations prove that the ideal position is at 22% (measured from the ends) of the total length of the pipe, when using
two supports underneath one pipe. This results in the lowest possible displacement and thus the lowest bending stress.
This ideal position of the supports, distance a, is also determined with FEM analysis.
The results of the FEM analysis are shown in figure 49. The smallest displacement can be seen at 22.15%, marked by
the green line.
Fig. 49 Displacement of pipes depending on supporting position and width

If the supports are placed at 18% of the pipe length, the displacement in the middle is more compared to the
displacement at both ends.
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Fig. 50 Pipe support at 0.18 x L

If the supports are placed at 25% of the pipe length, the displacement at both ends is more compared to the
displacement in the middle.

When supporting the pipe at 22% of the pipe length, the displacement at both ends and in the middle of the pipe is
equal. Forces are spread in an optimal way. A support position at 22% of the pipe length therefore gives the best result.

UV radiation
Another vicious enemy of pipe coating is UV radiation. Damage caused by it is difficult to see with the naked eye.
Serious consequences of UV radiation are addressed by Argent & Norman. In their paper an example is shown with
severe coating embrittlement caused by UV radiation. Studies undertaken by Cetiner et al on fusion-bonded epoxy
(FBE) coated pipes proved a loss in coating thickness and flexibility, and a loss of gloss with chalking, occurred as a
result of degradation by UV degradation. Based on their results they conclude that pipes which are stored outside for
longer than one year should be protected against UV degradation. This can be done by adding UV stabilizer additives to
the coating or by shielding the pipes from direct sunlight with a pipe stack cover.
Pipe Clamps
One tool that is seen at many locations is a clamp that connects pipe-ends in a stack. It is used to keep the pipes
together and to prevent the stack from collapsing. As described earlier, the heavy pipes exert high forces on the pipes
on the bottom. The clamps must be designed to handle these forces. Many clamps that are used in the field are not fit
for purpose.
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The limiting factor in the design of a good pipe clamp is the resistance to twisting. With 20 mm thick steel pipe clamps,
tensile strengths over 80 kN can be reached. With a safety factor of 2 that results in a safe working load of 40 kN. An
example of a well-designed pipe clamp can be found in figures 55-57.
When applying pipe clamps, the following should be taken into consideration:
In case of internal coating, the pipe clamp should have a soft cover to prevent coating damage
For keeping a pipe stack together, one should not rely on pipe clamps only! It is essential to make sure there is
a good support system for the pipes. Pipe clamps can (accidentally) be removed, creating an unstable pipe
stack and a dangerous situation
One should choose a pipe clamp design based on calculations, rather than the feeling that it will be strong
enough Page 323
New pipe monitoring technology

Logistic processes in the supply chain of line pipes are becoming more complicated, demanding and global. With
today’s high value assets, it is important to reduce uncertainties and control the total project data management.
A new development is the application of active radio-frequency (aRFID) technology for identification and monitoring of
pipes in the supply chain.
Small tags, that are positioned in the pipe, actively measure location, movement, humidity, temperature and more.
Other data, such as pipe numbers and production data, can also be stored. Data is communicated through micro
routers and a gateway in a self-organizing and healing mesh network. The central database is accessible by WiFi or
ethernet through a connect-box. With such system all pipe data can be monitored by multiple users on any desktop
computer or mobile. Integration with existing ERP systems can be achieved with XML streams.
Important features of an intelligent pipe monitoring system:
Wireless technology, no cables necessary in the field (solar powered routers), which is important in remote areas
and to save costs for infrastructure.
Easy to install, self-organizing, self-healing network
Low total cost of ownership
Long battery life of the tags (up to 5 years)
Reprogrammable
Uniform data output, such as XML streams, that can easily be processed in other software applications
Possible functions of the pipe tag:
Localization
Identification
Movement alert
Battery alert
Temperature measurement
Humidity measurement
LED-light (flashes on command)
Additional data storage (1 MB)
Historic log
Fig. 58 Schematic representation of a RFID pipe monitoring system at a storage yard
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Fig. 59 RFID pipe tags
8.1.8 Effect of pipe handing on barcoding

When using handhelds (barcode scanners) barcoding is very important for inventory purposes and logistical planning,
especially when the pipes are stored in more than one laydown area:
The following should be looked at when applying barcode labels to the pipes. One should:
Make sure the adhesive will not damage the coating.
Make sure the label will withstand different pipe handing stages from the moment of despatching the pipe from
the coating facility up to lowering-in without being damaged or removed.
Make sure the label adhesive to be used will withstand high temperatures, humidity, heavy rain and other
environment and weather conditions.
Barcoding technology to be used: this depends on the amount of information to be stored in a barcode and the
physical damage that it will be able to withstand and still be readable. There are two main technologies to be
used:
One-dimensional barcodes can store a small amount of information; they are not resistant to physical damage
along the vertical axis.
Two-dimensional barcodes are capable of holding around 2000 characters; they are able to provide readability
even if the label is 50% damaged.
Another alternative is to ink-jet the labels on to the surface of the pipe.
8.1.9 Pipeline construction

Once one has gone through all the trouble of getting the pipes safely and free of damage to the construction site, it
would be a pity to waste all this effort and risk damaging the pipes at the last moment. One should choose adequate
equipment during the final stages of the project for handling and support of pipes and prevent last-minute coating
damage.
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Fig. 60 Poor support of a pipeline in the field
8.1.10 Key message

The key message of this chapter is that quality, safety and efficiency should be pursued during each step in the supply
chain of line pipes in order to build a successful pipeline.
A chain is only as strong as its weakest link. Control of the entire supply chain, including every movement of pipes is
necessary. One should take active responsibility and seek cooperation with professional partners. Responsibility should
not be rejected, it should be handed over.
The choices that one makes have consequences further along the way. One should not limit oneself to one’s own part
in the supply chain. Instead, one should make choices that contribute to a good quality in the end, by thinking ahead
and feeling co-responsible for other processes in the supply chain. Good communication lines with other involved
parties are essential for achieving this goal.
A small extra investment in a good solution pays itself back in the long run. There are numerous examples where cost
savings in the wrong areas lead to more costs in the end. A conscious and well-considered choice for quality is always
better than choosing a poor solution only because it is cheap. Costs are usually calculated per project, but if a solution
reduces risks and can also be used for future projects, it is worth making an extra investment.
» Continue with 8.2 Fuel logistics

« Back to 8. Logistics
« Back to 8. Logistics Page 326

1 Comment
Anonymous
Hi Ade. Best thing to do is go into the Tobacconist section of the wtibsee, then Pipes, and use the search
options on the left of the page to select 9mm charcoal filtration. That will show all the 9mm pipes we have.
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3/28/2015 8.2 Fuel logistics - Road to Success - IPLOCA WIKI Collaboration Platform
8.2 Fuel logistics

Benjamin Franklin
"Gain may be temporary and uncertain; but ever while you live, expense is constant and certain: and it is easier to
build two chimneys than to keep one in fuel.”
8.2.1 Introduction
Fuel is the blood to be pumped in the construction project, to bring the project to
life. 8.2.1 Introduction
8.2.2 Types of fuels
The fuel logistics of a pipeline construction project is the discipline of evaluating 8.2.3 Fuel supply chain
and managing all the costs and effective risks associated with the sourcing, Fuel transportation
transport, storage and delivery of fuel during the whole project life-cycle. Fuel storage
Construction’s bottom line can be affected by the complex relationships between 8.2.4 Fuel management
fuel stocks, the fuel supply chain and the strategies that oil companies use to Fuel quality control
minimize working capital. The impact on price of a weak fuel supply chain could
be very high.
8.2.2 Types of fuels

The types of fuel normally used in big onshore pipeline construction projects are:
Diesel fuel
Gasoline
Propane
Other less common fuels
Diesel fuel usually represents more than 90% of the total fuel used (even without taking into account the fuel for
personnel and material transportation to the yard site or area).
Diesel fuel is used to power up all the main construction machines (excavators, bulldozers, loaders, haulers, etc.),
most portable power generators and most trucks involved in material transportation.
Diesel fuel quality is an important factor in satisfactory engine life and performance. Fuels must provide adequate
combustion without producing excess contaminates that can harm the engine. Additionally, fuel selection involves
economic and environmental considerations. The availability of certain grades of fuels may be cost-prohibitive or
inappropriate for various applications.
A variety of fuel oils, also known as middle distillates, are marketed for use in diesel engines. Their properties and
performances depend on the refining practices used and on the nature of the crude oils they are produced from.
Low grade: low-grade fuels produce a higher heat value which translates into more power for the user motor, but
they also produce more contaminates that could negatively impact engine-life. The use of low-grade fuel oil in
diesel engines often produces darker exhaust fumes and a more pronounced odour.
Moreover, the high sulphur content often found in low-grade fuels causes corrosion, wear and deposits in the
engine, resulting in poor starting, or running under adverse operating conditions. The use of low-grade fuels may
require the use of high priced, higher detergent lubricating oils and more frequent oil changes to yield appropriate
performances and to preserve engine life.
High grade: high-grade fuels burn cleaner but they have a lower heat value. Just as an example, aviation jet fuels
and kerosene are high-grade fuels and seldom contribute to the formation of harmful engine deposits and
corrosion. Other attributes of high-grade fuels include the benefits of faster engine starting and less frequent
overhauls, and the drawback of reduced lubricity.
Experience has proven that distillate fuels meeting basic specifications will result in optimum engine performance and
durability. Depending on fuel costs and availability, the proper use of alternative fuels such as crude oil, blended oil or
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residual oil can also provide cost-competitive engine operation.

Crude oil: the term crude oil is used to describe petroleum-based oils/fuels that are not refined yet. They are
essentially in the same state as when they were pumped from earth. Certain types of crude oils can be burned in
diesel fuelled equipment or generator engines and, in some cases, it is a practical and economical fuel. Crude oils
are to be evaluated individually and special equipment may be needed to condition the fuel (see paragraphs and
tables below).
A great deal of sludge can be removed from crude oil by a proper settling system.
Residual oil or blended heavy fuel oil (HFO): residual fuel (which resembles tar and contains abrasive and
corrosive substances) is composed of the remaining elements from crude oil after the crude has been refined into
diesel fuel, gasoline, or lubricating oil.
Residual fuel can be combined or diluted with a lighter fuel to produce a mixture that is called blended or heavy
fuel. Heavy fuels tend to create more combustion chamber deposit formations which can cause increased cylinder
and ring wear.
Blending may improve fuel density; however, adding alcohol (ethanol, methanol) or gasoline causes an explosive
atmosphere in the tank and is not recommended.
Equipment engines can be modified to run on blended fuels, but extreme preventive measures must be taken,
including following a thorough maintenance program and using high-quality fuel treatment equipment.
Blended fuels can lower fuel costs, but there are often significant trade-offs. Fuel price must be weighed against
the following:
Fuel containment effects
Reduced engine component life
Higher maintenance and personnel costs
Reduced warranty
Ultimately, the use of blended fuels should be limited to the cases in which no other fuel is locally available, i.e. in
countries with poor refinery capacity or low refinery standards (see Figure 1 – countries with low refinery standards
have high diesel fuel sulphur levels).
Fig. 1: Diesel fuel sulphur level - August 2011

Distillate fuel: distillate fuels are refined from crude oil and are commonly referred to as diesel fuel, furnace oil, gas oil
or kerosene.
Marine diesel oil: many different names are used for marine diesel oil, which can often cause misunderstandings. Four
types of marine diesel fuels are generally recognized and available at bunkering ports around the world. However, not
all types are available in every country. Page 329
Gas oil: this is a light distillate fuel which does not contain any residual fuel. Gas oil is approximately ASTM
No.1 diesel fuel.
Marine diesel: this is a distillate that boils at a higher temperature than gas oil. The fuel varies from ASTM No.2
diesel fuel to ASTM No.4 diesel fuel.
Blended Fuel Oil: this is a blend of distillates and residual fuel. This fuel is blended to the viscosity that is
requested by the operator or the engine manufacturer. Blended fuel is not recommended as a fuel option for
engines.
Residual fuel: this is a residue from distillation of crude oil in a refinery. It should never be used as diesel fuel
Aircraft jet fuels and kerosene-type fuels: these may be used as diesel engine fuel provided they meet acceptable
limits. Adequate viscosity is a major concern, particularly with kerosene-type fuels. Kerosene-type fuels have a lower
energy content than diesel fuels and therefore produce less peak power output and/or will require more fuel volume to
do an equivalent amount of work.
Biodiesel: this is a fuel that can be made from a variety of sources. Soybean oil and rape seed oil are the primary
sources, but alternate base stocks may include animal tallow, waste cooking oil, or a variety of other feedstocks.
In their original form, these oils are not suitable for use in a compression engine; they must be esterified. Without
esterification, these oils will gel in the crankcase and the fuel tank. They should be avoided for use in equipment and
generators engines, and they are not cost effective.
Ultra low sulphur diesels (ULSD): these represent distillate with ≤ 15 ppm sulphur. They have been developed to
reduce particulate engine emissions. A new generation of diesel engines was therefore designed, as the sulphur
content of diesel fuel worked also as an internal lubricant for engines, and therefore additives were needed to replace it
in ULSD diesel fuels. They have been specifically designed to reduce pollution in highly-industrialized countries. ULSD
diesel should not be used in older engines, or in engines designed for standard fuels. Vice versa, standard diesel with
sulphur content greater than 500 ppm should not be used in newer engines, to avoid corrosion, the presence of
residues and consequent reduction of engine life.
Diesel fuels’ general characteristics
The following information describes the basic fuel characteristics and their relation to engine performance:
Cetane number: this is the index of ignition quality, determined by comparing with fuels used as standards for
high and low cetane numbers. The higher the cetane number is, the shorter the ignition delay period (which
affects warm-up, combustion, cold start capability and exhaust smoke density).
Sulphur: sulphur is an element that occurs naturally in all crude oils, and when burned in the combustion
chamber can form oxides of sulphur. These can react with water vapour to create sulphuric acid, which can
cause severe engine damage. High sulphur content requires usage of high total base number (TBN) oils or
shortening of the oil change period.
Gravity: this is an index of weight. Lower ratings indicate heavier fuel containing greater heat content.
Viscosity: this is a time measure to resistance of flow. High viscosity causes poor fuel atomization and
therefore decreased combustion efficiency. Low viscosity may not provide adequate lubrication to fuel system
components.
Flash point: this is the lowest temperature at which fuel will give off sufficient vapour to ignite when a flame is
applied.
Pour point: this is the temperature 3°C (5°F) above the temperature where the fuel just fails to flow or turns
solid.
Water and sediment: this is the percentage by volume of water and foreign material removed by centrifuging.
Corrosion: a polished copper strip is immersed in fuel for three hours at 50°C (122 °F). Fuel imparting more than
slight discoloration should be rejected.
The diesel fuel type to be used could also be prescribed by national rules or laws regulating pollution (see Figure 2). To
ensure compliance, not only should a specific type of fuel be used, but also modern engines that are able to burn that
particular fuel, to reduce the pollutants released to the atmosphere.
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Fig. 2: Emission requirements - 2012 update

Impact of the type and quality of fuel on modern diesel engines
Modern diesel engines are equipped with sophisticated fuel injection systems, which are electronically regulated and
working under very high pressures. Consequently, the diesel fuels used must be of very high quality.
Use of lower quality fuels can greatly impact engine life.
Fuel quality depends on the geographical location of a given country (see Figure 1) and is related to the level of fuel
refining and also quality of storage.
Poor storage quality can lead to water content and impurities, and while existing mechanical treatments (centrifugation
and filtration) can produce clean fuel, low refining levels produce fuels with high sulphur content.
There is no transportable system able to reduce sulphur content, consequently some engines will not accept low
quality fuels and other engines will work but with reduced intervals for filters changes. It should be noted that fuel filters
changes should be concurrent with oil filters changes.
General recommendations for frequency of engine oil filters / fuel filters changes
Sulphur content Change interval
<0.3% 500 hours
0.3% to 0.5% 250 hours
> 0.5% 125 hours
Note: these values are for normal climate conditions down to -10°C; below -10°C these figures should be divided by 2.
8.2.3 Fuel supply chain
Fuel tr ansportation
Fuel transportation includes fuel logistics to the main camps and through the yard (from the main camps to construction
site equipment).
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Fuel transportation to the main camps could be managed in a variety of different ways, mixing different means of
transport according to the way in which storage is organized inside the camps and the nearest fuel terminal (refineries
or main fuel deposit).
The main means of transport involved are:
Truck: tanker trucks could have a capacity ranging from 10,000 to 50,000 litres, and the vehicle carrying the tanker
could be provided with different type of assets to cross all type of roads (paved, unpaved, with ice, mud, etc.).
Fig. 3: Tanker trucks of different types and in different environments

The main feature of a tanker truck is its flexibility, and trucks are the only means of transport that are able to reach
remote areas carrying a significant amount of fuel.
It is however typically the most expensive means of transport for fuel and liquid. It should be used mainly to supply fuel
to the final users on site (usually construction equipment located along the pipeline).
Rail: this is probably the cheapest among all the means of transport. It suffers from the main problem that all railroads
have: it cannot easily be distributed over a geographic area, only along the railway line. Moreover, it could not move
easily to follow the camp development and movement along project areas.
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Fig. 4: Tanker cars forming a long train

Its limited flexibility is not only due to the need for terminal infrastructure, but also to the costs: the significant logistic
management of a fuel train is compensated for only by transporting a large amount of fuel all together to the same
location.
The capacity of a single tank car could go from 50,000 litres to 75,000 litres (standard size) up to 108,000 liters (jumbo
size).
A significant advantage is that facilities and tank cars usually already exist, and can be used.
Barge: this is not as cheap as rail transport, but it requires less infrastructure and it is not strictly linked to a
complicated fuel terminal. Moreover, the logistics of the whole supply chain can be easier.
The real disadvantage of this means of transport is that it requires navigable water!
Page 333
Fig. 5: Fuel barge on a small channel

Ultimately, fuel transportation is always a combination of 2 or more of the previously stated means. And trucks, are
always present as the final step to bring fuel to the final users (construction equipment on site).
Fuel storage
Fuel storage should be composed of strategic, intermediate and destination fuel storage facilities in order to maximize
the robustness of our supply chain and minimize the risk of disruption.
Each storage facilty, even smaller ones, are often subject to the stringent local regulations, and they should be
designed well to avoid any health, safety or environment risk, not to mention the financial risk due to fuel loss or
construction delays related to fuel shortage.
Fuel storage could be done though fixed installations (the common concrete or steel fuel repositories, whether above or
underground) or through mobile installation. Here below we provide some examples of mobile installations most
frequently encountered on site.
Containerized tanks: a containerized tank is mainly a cylindrical steel vessel modified (with additional carpentry
structures) to be moved as a containerized separate unit. These systems are suitable for the storage and
dispensing of diesel fuel, as they are usually provided complete with control systems, safety systems and
dispensing systems (pumps).
The system offers a more suitable solution for use in demanding condition (remote location, construction yards)
when a high protection from weather conditions and/or other requirements (safety, easy handling) are required.
They can be moved with flat trucks or similar.
The main problem with containerized tank is the small amount of fuel they can contain (usually less than 50,000
litres).
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Fig. 6: Containerized fuel storage vessel

Bladder tanks: these are also called pillow inflatable tanks (PIT, for the form they keep when inflated), and are
inflatable plastic containment systems. They are the simplest and fastest method of creating a large storage area
on the ground. There are two main materials used in the manufacture process, PU and rubber. PU is lightweight,
easy to manufacture and repair in the field and is better for temporary installations, whereas rubber has an
excellent track record for durability.
The tissues are fabricated specifically to guarantee that the bladder tank is self-supporting – that it can stand
alone, independent of any support.
The installation is fast and simple. It only requires a large surface on which the bladder tank will lay. The surface
must be perfectly horizontal, free of rocks and it is strongly recommended that the surface contains a fine layer of
sand. The new alternative to sanding under a bladder tank is to lay down a ground cloth. Most ground cloths are
made from a geotextile fabric that works in concert with the bladder tank to minimize the chance of abrasion
causing the tank to fail. The bladder tanks ensures the fuel stored is always clean, is evaporation-free, and no
contamination from the exterior can enter and pollute the liquids stored. Moreover, there is a full containment of
any smell.
Inflatable bags or depots are transportable (once emptied), and therefore can represent the ideal storage for mobile
installation.
Even if they are really resistant however, extreme caution should be taken when using bladder tanks, and
continuous surveillance should be provided to act immediately in case of leakages.
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Fig. 7: Two examples of bladder tanks

Fuel cans (jerrycans) or barrels: usually the last fuel storage on site, fuel cans and barrels are easily
transportable and can move with the yard. Standard sizes for cans go from 5 to 20 litres, but different sizes (both
metal or plastic) can easily be found on the market. Crude oil is typically stored in barrels. These have a standard
size of about 160 litres, but barrels of different capacity can also easily be found.
Fig. 8: Fuel cans and barrels
8.2.4 Fuel management

Fuel management on site has two main purposes:
To secure the needed fuel, when and where needed, to guarantee continuous work on the field
To ensure the needed Health - Safety - Environment standards are met
In the recent past, most fuel management was performed with periodical visual checks and with manual consumption
calculations.
Recently however, computerized fuel management applications have been introduced on the market. These rely on the
development of portable digital instruments (installed locally on bulk fuel mobile reservoirs, or used when needed), and
also on modern network communication systems (GPRS, GPS, and web-based applications).
Computerized systems provide operators with a real-time view of inventory data, such as fuel level, temperature,
density, standard density, gross volume, water volume and/or net volume. Such systems can automatically calculate
density and net volume using industry standards.
With these systems, moreover, fuel management can be easily integrated with other asset management tools already
present at the yard, significantly improving the efficiency of logistics along the construction project.
A recent proposal in that field is the installation of communication devices on board equipment to transfer fuel
consumption data directly to the computerized system, therefore giving access to even more precise data on fuel
needs, and also giving precious hints on how to save fuel and optimize fuel logistics.
Fuel quality contr ol

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Fuel quality is essential to ensure correct combustion inside engines, and therefore to have the power needed for
equipment output, as well as the predicted maintenance frequency (i.e. the lowest outage time of equipment due to
engine damage or extraordinary maintenance activities).
Fuel quality should be verified with a dedicated chemical analysis performed in each of the following situations:
When new fuel arrives at the strategic reservoir (base camp) from outside. This control should be performed also
to avoid mixture of different type of fuels (or of fuel with other liquids) in the main storage.
Periodically on the bulk fuel reservoirs along the yard
Chemical analysis could be performed in a local laboratory (if present near the construction site) or by a dedicated
containerized laboratory located at the base camp.
Even if verified, fuel (especially diesel fuel) contains a naturally-high density of residual dirt deposits and water.
Therefore, before distributing it to final users (and before delivering it to final reservoirs - cans, barrels or inflatable
tanks) it should be treated by filtering it.
Usually, normal filters are present, in series, on commercial pumping systems to cover this issue.
Ultimately however, this kind of filtration does not solve the problem of sulphur or high densities being present – that
should be solved by bringing the correct fuel to the yard, as appropriate for the machines used (see previous chapters).
» Continue with 9. Welding

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« Back to 8. Logistics
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3/28/2015 THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol.

1 & 2 - Road to Success - IPLOCA WIKI Collaboration Platform

THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1

Onshore Pipelines THE ROAD

0. Iploca Objectives • Executive Summary • Preface

2. Development Phases of a Pipeline Project

2.1 Front-End Loading (FEL) Phases

2.2 Key points to address during FEL

3. The Baseline of a Constr uction Contr act

3.1 Defining the Scope of Work

3.2 Programming the Work

3.3 Contr act Price Information to Facilitate

Appendix 3.4.4 ­ Contr actual Topics that have a

4.1 Analysis, Allocation and Mitigation of Risks

Appendix 4.2.1 ­ Examples of Evaluation of Time

5.1 Right of Way & Constr uctability Guidelines

5.2 Minimum Data Requirements and Activities for

Appendix 5.1.2 ­ Google Earth in Pipeline Design

6.1 Typical ROW Cross Sections for Large

6.4 Health and Safety

6.5 Onshore Pipeline Survey Requirements by

6.7 Non-Intr usive Survey Techniques

6.8 Buoyancy Contr ol

Appendix 6.2 ­ Pipeline Trench Design

Appendix 6.3 ­ Environment Contr ol Measures

Appendix 6.4 Health and Safety Contr ol Measures

7.1 Trenchless Crossings

8.1 Pipe Logistics Operations

8.2 Fuel logistics

9.1 Intr oduction

9.2 Governance over pipeline welding activities

9.3 Stakeholders in pipeline projects

9.4 Cross-countr y pipeline welding activities

9.5 Welding methods and processes

9.6 Typical weld imperfections and pipe mill defects

9.7 Field constr uction equipment

9.8 Welding safety hazards

9.9 Engineering stages for pipeline welding

9.10 Mainline constr uction stages

9.11 New welding technologies

10. Non-Destr uctive Tests (NDT)

10.1 The background of inspection – public safety

10.2 Stakeholders in the pipeline project

10.3 The NDT toolbox

10.4 NDT during the FEL stage

10.5 NDT at the Material Supplier and Vendor

10.7 Future developments

10.8 Concluding remarks

11. Pipeline Protection Systems

11.1 Review of Key Mainline External Anti-

11.4 Mechanical Protection Selection Guide

11.5 Internal Coating

11.7 Buoyancy Contr ol Systems

11.8 Cathodic Protection

Appendix 11.1.1 Comparison of Mainline External

12.1 Intr oduction

12.2 Environmental and Socio-economic Screening

12.4 Applicable Laws And Regulations

12.5 Description Of Alternatives

Appendix 3.4.4 Contr actual Topics that have a

Appendix 4.2.1 Examples of Evaluation of Time

Appendix 5.1.2 Google Earth in Pipeline Design

Appendix 6.2 Pipeline Trench Design

Appendix 6.3 Environment Contr ol Measures

Case Studies Constr uction Mitigation Measures

2.1 FrontEnd Loading (FEL) Phases