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Fundamentals of Programming in
C++ (CoSc 2031)

BASICS OF PROGRAMMING

Mekonnen K.
(MSc)
Email: mekonnen307@gmail.com
 1. Process of compiling and
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running programs
 There are three steps in executing a c++ program: Compiling,
Linking and Running the program.
 The c++ programs have to be typed in a compiler.
 After typing the program, the file is saved with an extension
.cpp. This is known as source code.
 The source code has to be converted to an object code which is
understandable by the machine. This process is known as
compiling the program.
 You can compile your program by selecting compile from
compile menu or press Alt+f9. After compiling a file with the
same name as source code file but with extension .obj. is
created.
 Cont’d
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 Second step is linking the program which creates an

executable file .exe (filename same as source code) after
linking the object code and the library files (cs.lib) required
for the program.
 In a simple program, linking process may involve one object
file and one library file.
 However, in a project, there may be several smaller programs.
The object codes of these programs and the library files are
linked to create a single executable file.
 Third and the last step is running the executable file where
the statements in the program will be executed one by one.
 Programming – Errors
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 Errors are the mistakes or faults in the program that causes

our program to behave unexpectedly and it is no doubt that
the well versed and experienced programmers also makes
mistakes.
 Programming error are generally known as Bugs and
the process to remove bugs from program is called as
Debug/Debugging.
 There are basically three types of error:
◼ Compilation error or Syntax error,
◼ Runtime error or exception and
◼ Logical error.
 Cont’d
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 Compilation errors are the most common error occurred

due to typing mistakes or if you don't follow the proper syntax
of the specific programming language.

 These error are thrown by the compilers and will prevent your
program from running. These errors are most common to
beginners. It is also called as Compile time error or Syntax error.
 These errors are easy to debug.

Example: Typing int as Int, missing semi colon or paranthesis, type

integer for int datatype etc.
 Cont’d
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 Run Time errors (exception) are generated when the

program is running and leads to the abnormal behavior or
termination of the program. The general cause of Run time
errors is because your program is trying to perform an
operation that is impossible to carry out.
 Example: Dividing any number by zero, Accessing any file that
doesn't exist etc are common examples of such error.
 Cont’d
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➢ Logical errors will cause your program to perform

undesired operations which you didn't intended your
program to perform. These errors occur generally due to
improper logic used in program. These types of errors are
difficult to debug.
 Example: Multiplying an uninitialized integer value with some
other value will result in undesired output.
➢ Linker error: This error occurs when the files during
linking are missing or misspelt.
 1.2. Basic syntax and semantics of a high-
level languages
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The parts of a C++ Program

➢ To understand the basic parts of a simple program in

C++, lets have a look at the following code:

#include <iostream> output
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
cout << "HelloWorld!";
return 0;
}
 Cont’d
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➢ Any C++ program file should be saved with file name extension
“.CPP”.
➢ Type the program directly into the editor, and save the file as
hello.cpp, compile it and then run it. It will print the words Hello
World! on the computer screen.
#include <iostream>
➢ Lines beginning with a hash sign (#) are directives for the preprocessor.
They are not regular code lines with expressions but indications for the
compiler's preprocessor.
➢ In this case the directive #include <iostream> tells the preprocessor
to include the iostream standard file.
➢ This specific file (iostream) includes the declarations of the basic
standard input-output library in C++, and it is included because its
functionality is going to be used later in the program.
 using namespace std;
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➢ All the elements of the standard C++ library are declared

within what is called a namespace, the namespace with the
name std. So in order to access its functionality we declare
with this expression that we will be using these entities.
➢ This line is very frequent in C++ programs that use the
standard library, and in fact it will be included in most of
the source codes included in these tutorials.
➢ The effects of line 1, i.e. include<iostream.h> is to
include the file iostream.h into the program as if the
programmer had actually typed it.
 int main ()
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➢ int main() indicates the beginning of the program.

➢ In C++ the parentheses ( ) are used to indicate that the identifier or

name on its left is a function. Here main () is also a function.

➢ Every program in C++ must have only one main() function.

➢ The word int indicates that main is a value-returning function

that should return an integer value. Here int main() means that
function main() is a return type function which returns an integer
value. In case of a return type function the last statement is return
value; .
 Cont’d
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➢ Right after these parentheses we can find the body of the main
function enclosed in braces ({}). What is contained within these
braces is what the function does when it is executed.
➢ Every Left French Brace needs to have a corresponding Right
French Brace.

➢ The lines we find between the braces are statements or said to be

the body of the function. A statement is a computation step which
may produce a value or interact with input and output streams. The
end of a single statement ends with semicolon (;).
 A brief look at cout and cin
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➢ cout and cin are declared in the iostream standard file within
the std namespace, so that's why we needed to include that
specific file and to declare that we were going to use this specific
namespace earlier in our code.
➢ Cout is an object used for printing data to the screen.
➢ To print a value to the screen, write the word cout, followed by
the insertion operator also called output redirection operator (<<)
and the object to be printed on the screen.
➢ Syntax: Cout<<Object;
➢ The object at the right hand side can be:
• A literal string: “HelloWorld”
• A variable: a place holder in memory
 Cont’d
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➢ Cin is an object used for taking input from the keyboard.

➢ To take input from the keyboard, write the word cin, followed by
the input redirection operator (>>) and the object name to hold the
input value.
➢ Syntax: Cin>>Object;
➢ Cin will take value from the keyboard and store it in the memory.
Thus the cin statement needs a variable which is a reserved
memory place holder.
➢ Both << and >> return their right operand as their result,
enabling multiple input or multiple output operations to be
combined into one statement. The following example will
illustrate how multiple input and output can be performed:
 Cont’d
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➢ E.g.: Cin>>var1>>var2>>var3;

➢ Here three different values will be entered for the three variables.
The input should be separated by a space, tan or newline for each
variable.

➢ Cout<<var1<<“,”<<var2<<” and “<<var3;

➢ Here the values of the three variables will be printed where there
is a “,” (comma) between the first and the second variables and the
“and” word between the second and the third.
 Comments on C++ programs
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➢ Comments are parts of the source code disregarded by the compiler.

They simply do nothing.
➢ Their purpose is only to allow the programmer to insert notes or
descriptions embedded within the source code.
➢ C++ provides two types of comment delimiters:
➢ Single Line Comment: Anything after // {double forward slash}
(until the end of the line on which it appears) is considered a comment.
o Eg: cout<<var1; //this line prints the value of var1
➢ Multiple Line Comment: Anything enclosed by the pair /* and */ is
considered a comment.
o Eg: /*this is a kind of comment where Multiple lines can be
enclosed in one C++ program */
 Cont’d
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➢ Comments should be used to enhance (not to hinder) the

readability of a program. The following two points, in
particular, should be noted:

 A comment should be easier to read and understand

 Over-use of comments can lead to even less readability.

 Use of descriptive names for variables and other entities

in a program, and proper indentation of the code can
reduce the need for using comments.
 1.3. Basic Elements of Programming
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Identifiers
 The C++ identifier is a name used to identify a variable,
function, class, module, or any other user-defined item. An
identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore
(_) followed by zero or more letters, underscores, and digits
(0 to 9).
 C++ does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $,
and % within identifiers. C++ is a case-sensitive
programming language. Thus, Manpower and manpower are
two different identifiers in C++.
 Rules for C++ Identifiers
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❑ When naming an identifier, follow these established rules

➢ First character: The first character of the identifier in C++
should positively begin with either an alphabet or an underscore. It
means that it strictly cannot begin with a number.
➢ No special characters: C++ does not encourage the use of
special characters while naming an identifier. It is evident that we
cannot use special characters like the exclamatory mark or
the “@” symbol.
➢ No keywords: Using keywords as identifiers in C++ is strictly
forbidden, as they are reserved words that hold a special meaning
to the C++ compiler. If used purposely, you would get a
compilation error.
 Cont’d
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➢ No white spaces: Leaving a gap between identifiers is

discouraged. White spaces incorporate blank spaces, newline,
carriage return, and horizontal tab.
➢ Word limit: The use of an arbitrarily long sequence of identifier
names is restrained. The name of the identifier must not exceed 31
characters, otherwise, it would be insignificant.
➢ Case sensitive: In C++, uppercase and lowercase characters
connote different meanings.
Here are some examples of acceptable identifiers
mohd Piyush abc move_name a_123
myname50 _temp j a23b9 retVal
 Variables
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➢ A variable is a reserved place in memory to store information in.

➢ A variable will have three components:
➢ Variables are used for holding data values so that they can be used in
various computations in a program.
➢ All variables have three important properties:
❖ Data Type: a type which is established when the variable is defined.
(e.g. integer, real, character etc.). Data type describes the property
of the data and the size of the reserved memory.
❖ Name: a name which will be used to refer to the value in the
variable. A unique identifier for the reserved memory location
❖ Value: a value which can be changed by assigning a new value to the
variable.
 Fundamental Variable types.
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➢ Several other variable types are built into C++. They can be
conveniently classified as integer, floating-point or character
variables.
➢ Floating-point variable types can be expressed as fraction i.e.
they are “real numbers”.
➢ Character variables hold a single byte. They are used to hold 256
different characters and symbols.
➢ The type of variables used in C++ program are described in the
next table, which lists the variable type.
 Fundamental Variable types
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➢ Signed integers are either negative or positive. Unsigned integers are always
positive.
➢ Because both signed and unsigned integers require the same number of bytes,
the largest number (the magnitude) that can be stored in an unsigned integer
is twice as the largest positive number that can be stored in a signed integer.
 Declaring Variables.
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 Variables can be created in a process known as declaration.

 Syntax: DatatypeVariable_Name;

 The declaration will instruct the computer to reserve a memory

location with the name and size specified during the declaration.

 Good variable names should be self descriptive .

 E.g. int myAge; //variable used to store my age

 The name of a variable is called an identifier which should be

unique in a program
 Initializing Variables
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➢ When a variable is assigned a value at the time of declaration, it is

called variable initialization.

➢ This is identical with declaring a variable and then assigning a value

to the variable immediately after declaration.

➢ The syntax:

➢ type identifier = initial_value ;

➢ e.g. int a = 0;

➢ or: int a; a=0;

 Defining a data type (User defined data type)
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➢ The “typedef ” Keyword is used to define a data type by the

programmer as the user of a programming language is a programmer.
➢ It is very difficult to write unsigned short int many times in your
program if many variables need such kind of declaration.
➢ C++ enables you to substitute an alias for such phrase by using the
keyword typedef, which stands for type definition.
➢ E.g.:

➢ Immediately after the second line, whenever the compiler

encounters the word USHORT it will substitute is with
“unsigned short int”.
 Characters
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 Characters variables (type char) are typically one byte in

size, enough to hold 256 different values. A char can be
represented as a small number (0 - 255).

 Char in C++ are represented as any value inside a single

quote. E.g.:‘x’,‘A’,‘5’,‘a’, etc.

 When the compiler finds such values (characters), it

translates back the value to the ASCII values. E.g. ‘a’ has a
value 97 in ASCII.
 Special Printing characters
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➢ In C++, there are some special characters used for

formatting.These are:
◼ \n new line
◼ \t tab
◼ \b backspace
◼ \” double quote
◼ \’ single quote
◼ \? Question mark
◼ \\ backslash
◼ \a alert (beep)
 Constants
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➢ A constant is any expression that has a fixed value.

➢ Like variables, constants are data storage locations in the memory.
But, constants, unlike variables their content can not be changed
after the declaration.
➢ Constants must be initialized when they are created by the program,
and the programmer can‘t assign a new value to a constant later.
▪ E.g.:
▪ const int studentPerClass =15;
studentPerClass is a symbolic constant having a value of 15. And 15
is a literal constant directly typed in the program.
 defining constants with #define
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 Its format is :
➢ #define identifier value
For example:
#define PI 3.14159
#define NEWLINE '\
 This defines two new constants: PI and NEWLINE. Once they are
defined, you can use them in the rest of the code as if they were any
other regular constant, for example:
 In fact the only thing that the compiler preprocessor does when it
encounters #define directives is to literally replace any occurrence of
their identifier (in the previous example, these were PI and NEWLINE)
by the code to which they have been defined (3.14159 and '\n'
respectively).
 defining constants with the const key word
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➢ With the const prefix you can declare constants with a

specific type in the same way as you would do with a variable:
▪ const int pathwidth = 100;
▪ const char tabulator = '\t';

➢ Here, pathwidth and tabulator are two typed constants. They

are treated just like regular variables except that their values
cannot be modified after their definition.
 Expressions and Statements
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➢ In C++, a statement controls the sequence of execution, evaluates an

expression, or does nothing (the null statement).
➢ All C++ statements end with a semicolon. E.g.: x = a + b; The
meaning is: assign the value of the sum of a and b to x.
➢ White spaces: white spaces characters (spaces, tabs, new lines) can‘t
be seen and generally ignored in statements. White spaces should be
used to make programs more readable and easier to maintain.
➢ Blocks: a block begins with an opening French brace ({) and ends with
a closing French brace (}).
➢ Expressions: an expression is a computation which yields a value. It
can also be viewed as any statement that evaluates to a value (returns a
value).
➢ E.g.: the statement 3+2; returns the value 5 and thus is an expression.
 Expressions and Statements
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➢ Expressions: Expression: An expression is a combination of

operators, constants and variables. An expression may consist of one or
more operands, and zero or more operators to produce a value.

➢ an expression is a computation which yields a value. It can also be

viewed as any statement that evaluates to a value (returns a value).

➢ E.g. 1: the statement 3+2; returns the value 5 and thus is an expression.
E.g.2: x = a + b;

y = x = a + b;
 Operators
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➢ An operator is a symbol that makes the machine to take an action.

➢ Different Operators act on one or more operands and can also
have different kinds of operators.
➢ C++ provides several categories of operators, including the
following:
◼ Assignment operator
◼ Arithmetic operator
◼ Relational operator
◼ Logical operator
◼ Increment/decrement operator and
◼ Comma operator
 Assignment operator (=)
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➢ The assignment operator causes the operand on the left side of the
assignment statement to have its value changed to the value on the right
side of the statement.

➢ Syntax: Operand1=Operand2;

➢ Operand1 is always a variable

➢ Operand2 can be one or combination of:

• A literal constant: Eg: x=12;

• A variable: Eg: x=y;

• An expression: Eg: x=y+2;

 Compound assignment operators
(+=, -=, *=, /=, %=, >>=, <<=, &=, ^=)
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➢ When we want to modify the value of a variable by

performing an operation on the value currently
stored in that variable we can use compound
assignment operators:
 Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /, %).
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➢ Except for remainder or modulo (%), all other arithmetic

operators can accept a mix of integers and real operands.

➢ Generally, if both operands are integers then, the result will be

an integer. However, if one or both operands are real then the
result will be real.

➢ When both operands of the division operator (/) are integers,

then the division is performed as an integer division and not the
normal division we are used to.
 Cont’d
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➢ Integer division always results in an integer outcome.

➢ Division of integer by integer will not round off to the next integer
E.g.: 9/2 gives 4 not 4.5
-9/2 gives -4 not -4.5
➢ To obtain a real division when both operands are integers, you should
cast one of the operands to be real.
E.g.: int cost = 100;
Int volume = 80;
Double unitPrice = cost/(double)volume;
➢ The module(%) is an operator that gives the remainder of a division
of two integer values.
E.g.: a = 11 % 3 a is 2
 Relational operator (==, !=, > , <, >=, <=)
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➢ In order to evaluate a comparison between two expressions, we

can use the relational operator.
➢ The result of a relational operator is a bool value that can only be
true or false according to the result of the comparison.
➢ E.g.: (7 = = 5) would return false or returns 0
➢ (5 > 4) would return true or returns 1
➢ The operands of a relational operator must evaluate to a number.
➢ Characters are valid operands since they are represented by
numeric values.
➢ For E.g.: ‘A’ < ‘F’ would return true or 1. it is like (65 < 70
 Logical Operators (!, &&, ||)
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 Logical negation (!) is a unary operator, which negates the logical value
of its operand. If its operand is non zero, it produce 0, and if it is 0 it
produce 1.
 Logical AND (&&) produces 0 if one or both of its operands evaluate to
0 otherwise it produces 1.
 Logical OR (||) produces 0 if both of its operands evaluate to 0
otherwise, it produces 1.
 E.g.: !20 //gives 0 which mean false
10 && 5 //gives 1 means true
10 || 5.5 //gives 1 which mean true
10 && 0 // gives 0 which mean false
N.B. In general, any non-zero value can be used to represent the logical true,
whereas only zero represents the logical false.
 Increment/Decrement Operators: (++) and (--)
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The auto increment (++) and auto decrement (--) operators

used to add and subtract 1 from numeric variable

E.g.

int a=9;

a++; //a =10 we can also write as ++a;

int b=12;

b--; //b=11 we can also write as ++b;

 Cont’d
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Prefix and Postfix

➢ The prefix type is written before the variable.
Eg (++ myAge), whereas the postfix type appears after the
variable name (myAge ++).
 Prefix and postfix operators can not be used at once on a single
variable: Eg: ++age-- or --age++ or ++age++ or - - age - - is
invalid
 In a simple statement, either type may be used. But in complex
statements, there will be a difference.
 The prefix operator is evaluated before the assignment, and the
postfix operator is evaluated after the assignment.
 Comma Operator (,)
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➢ Multiple expressions can be combined into one expression using the

comma operator.
➢ The comma operator takes two operands. Operand1,Operand2
➢ The comma operator can be used during multiple declaration, for the
condition operator and for function declaration, etc
➢ It the first evaluates the left operand and then the right operand, and
returns the value of the latter as the final outcome.
E.g. int m,n,min;
int mCount = 0, nCount = 0;
min = (m < n ? (mCount++ , m) : (nCount++ , n));
➢ Here, when m is less than n, mCount++ is evaluated and the value of m
is stored in min. otherwise, nCount++ is evaluated and the value of n is
stored in min.
 Operator Precedence
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 The order in which operators are evaluated in an

expression is significant and is determined by precedence
rules.
 Operators in higher levels take precedence over operators
in lower levels.
 Precedence Table:
 Cont’d
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➢ E.g.
✓ a = = b + c * d is evaluated first because * has a higher
precedence than + and = =.
✓ The result is then added to b because + has a higher precedence
than = = And then == is evaluated.
➢ Precedence rules can be overridden by using brackets. E.g.
rewriting the above expression as: a = = (b + c) * d causes + to
be evaluated before *.
➢ Operators with the same precedence level are evaluated in the
order specified by the column on the table of precedence rule.
E.g. a = b += c the evaluation order is right to left, so the first b
+= c is evaluated followed by a = b.
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