b1-001 Practical Aircraft Repairs

AIR
SERVICE
TRAINING
(ENGINEERING)
LIMITED
A Subsidiary of Perth College
Practical: Aircraft Repairs

EASA Part 66 – B1/001
Module 7
BRAHAN BUILDING
CRIEFF ROAD
PERTH
PH1 2NX
TEL: 01738 877105
FAX: 01738 553369
© Air Service Training (Engineering) Ltd
Aeronautical Engineering Training Notes

These training notes have been issued to you on the understanding that they are
intended for your guidance, to enable you to assimilate classroom and workshop
lessons and for self-study. Although every care has been taken to ensure that the
training notes are current at the time of issue, no amendments will be forwarded to
you once your training course is completed. It must be emphasised that these
training notes do not in any way constitute an authorised document for use in
aircraft maintenance.
All Rights Reserved
The copyright in these technical training notes remain the physical and intellectual
property of Air Service Training (Engineering) Ltd, (AST). Copying, storing in hard
copy or electronic format, transmission to third parties and use for teaching by
establishments other than AST is forbidden, except with the written permission of the
AST Chief Executive Officer.
J Dobney
Theory Training and Exam Manager March 2010
© Air Service Training (Engineering) Limited
Part 66 – B1/001 Practical: Aircraft Repairs
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER 1 : SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

SECTION 1 : Precautions 1
CHAPTER 2 : RIVETING
SECTION 1 : Riveting 3
SECTION 2 : Riveted Joints 15
SECTION 3 : Riveting Inspections 23
CHAPTER 3 : PIPES AND HOSES

SECTION 1 : Flaring and Bending 29
SECTION 2 : Inspection and Testing 31
SECTION 3 : Installation 33
CHAPTER 4 : SPRINGS
CHAPTER 5 : BEARINGS
SECTION 2 : Lubrication 39
CHAPTER 6 : TRANSMISSIONS
SECTION 1 : Inspection of Gears 41
SECTION 2 : Inspection of Belts and Pulleys 43
SECTION 3 : Inspection of Screw Jacks and Control Rods 45
CHAPTER 7 : CONTROL CABLES

SECTION 1 : Swaged End Fittings 47
SECTION 3 : Flexible Control Systems 51
Issued March 2010 Contents 1

Practical: Aircraft Repairs Part 66 – B1/001
CHAPTER 8 : SHEET METAL WORK

SECTION 1 : Marking Out 53
SECTION 2 : Bend and Forming 61
SECTION 3 : Inspection of Sheet Metal Work 67
CHAPTER 9 : BRAZING, WELDING & BONDING

SECTION 1 : Brazing 69
SECTION 2 : Welding 73
SECTION 3 : Bonding 77
CHAPTER 10 : COMPOSITE & NON-METALIC MATERIALS

SECTION 1 : Matrix Materials 79
SECTION 2 : Curing Systems & Laminate Manufacture 81
SECTION 3 : Prepregs 85
SECTION 4 : Health and Safety 87
SECTION 5 : Machining Composites 91
SECTION 6 : Fasteners used with Composites 93
SECTION 7 : Composite Technology 97
SECTION 8 : Composite Repairs 101
2 Contents Issued March 2010

CHAPTER 1 : SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

SECTION 1 : PRECAUTIONS
Being written
Refer to C/001 Workshop Practices
Issued March 2010 Chapter 1 : Section 1 1

NOTES:
2 Chapter 1 : Section 1 Issued March 2010

CHAPTER 2 : RIVETING – 7.8

SECTION 1 : RIVETING
INTRODUCTION
In the construction of a metal airframe, permanent joints are made either with rivets
or bolts. With this extensive use of rivets, the design has been standardised to
ensure that for a given type of metal airframe structure the required type and size of
rivet is readily available for assembly work.
To securely attach structures together, rivets are cheaper to use, lighter and more
rapidly fitted than nuts and bolts, but in the case of power operated machine riveting,
more extensive equipment is usually required to make the permanent joints.
Solid Rivets
Solid rivets have the greatest strength and are therefore preferable to any other type
of rivet, but they can only be used where there is access to both sides of the
structure.
Rivets are always supplied to the operator with one head already formed and the
shank plain to permit insertion into the hole, the opposite end being formed into a
head by manual or mechanical means.
Rivets Standards, Identification and Classification

The standards for British rivets are issued by the Society of British Aerospace
Companies and are known as the AS series, and the British Standards Institute and
these are known as the SP series. AS rivets are gradually becoming obsolete and
are being replaced by SP rivets. Standards, identification and classification of rivets
are covered in Module C/003 Materials and Common Parts.

Rivet Dimensions
The size of a rivet is expressed as the diameter and length of its shank; the
exception is the countersunk rivet where the length is inclusive of the head. The
length of rivet used must equal the combined thickness of the metal to be jointed, the
grip length, plus the amount of shank necessary to form the second head, called the
rivet allowance. The selection of rivet size is governed by the thickness of the metal
sheet and the required strength of the joint. Usually, the rivet diameter is between
two and three times the thickness of the metal plate.
Parts of a Rivet
The parts of a rivet are known as the shank and manufacturer’s head, the head that
the operator form’s is sometimes referred to as the tail.
Types of Manufacturer’s Heads

SNAP HEAD: for general purposes where strength is required but not a streamline
finish.
MUSHROOM HEAD: for skin covering to give maximum strength
FLAT HEAD: for internal work where heads are not easily accessible.

COUNTERSUNK: for flush finish (90, 100, 120 head).
RAISED COUNTERSUNK: close tolerance rivets.
UNIVERSAL HEAD: SP metric rivets.
100 COUNTERSUNK TRUNCATED RADIUSED HEAD: SP metric rivets.

Rivet Clearance
This clearance is the difference between the size of the hole and the rivet diameter,
rivet holes are normally drilled 0.003” oversize. Clearance is necessary, particularly
with light alloys to prevent puckering of the sheet owing to the metal spreading when
the rivet is formed.
Allowances for Riveting

When fitting a rivet, sufficient shank must be left protruding above the plate to take
up the clearance and form the head. Failure to observe this precaution leads to
many riveting faults.
The allowance for rivet heads are expressed in terms of the diameter of the rivet
shank and are dependent on the material specification of the rivet gauge of sheet
being riveted.
Typical values are:

TYPE OF RIVET ALLOWANCE
Snap Head Tail 1.5D
Countersunk Tail .75D
Reaction Tail 1.5D

Rivet Grip Length

This is the length of rivet shank taken up by the combined thickness of the sheets
being joined.
To determine the length of rivet to be used, add the rivet allowance to the rivet grip
length. Have a trial on scrap metal of the same thickness and specification.
Countersunking
Countersunk rivets are internationally standardised at 100 and these rivets are
normally to be used. Rivets with 90 and 120 countersunk heads are, however, still
supplied to meet the repair requirements of existing aircraft using these angled
heads.
Holes for countersunk-headed rivets must be either cut countersunk or dimpled to

receive the rivet head according to the thickness of the metal and the diameter of the
rivet. The method to be used will be specified in the aircraft repair manual, but as a
general guide, sheet metal 20 SWG and under is dimpled, 18 SWG and thicker to be
cut-countersunk. If a plate of 20 SWg or less is to be countersunk riveted to a plate
of 18 SWG or over a combination of the two methods can be used.

Cut Countersunking
May be done by cut-countersinking tools. It is essential to ensure that the correct
depth of countersink is achieved, so that the rivet heads will fit flush with the surface
of the metal when the rivet is formed.
The tools should have a centralising spigot and an adjustable depth stop, which will
limit the depth of cut. The rivet head should always be slightly proud of the work
before riveting, and this can be set by trial drilling in scrap metal.
Aircraft manufacturers usually specify a tolerance on head protrusion after riveting,
and this is usually of up to 0.005 inch above the skin surface. It is not permissible for
the rivet head to be below the skin surface.
Dimpled Countersunking
May be affected by using hand punches (male and female), spinning or by squeeze
dimpling tools. Where applicable, all reference numbers and full operating
instructions for these tools are given in the relevant aircraft repair manual.
Dimpling
This is a process for indenting thin sheet material (not normally thicker than 20 swg)
around the drilled hole to accommodate a countersunk rivet. If correctly performed,
dimpling has a beneficial effect on the strength of a joint, but the method of dimpling
must be related to the ductility of the material to prevent overstressing and cracking.
The aluminium alloy skin panels commonly used for stressed skin structures are
either solution treated and naturally aged or solution treated and artificially aged.
The naturally aged materials and some of the artificially aged clad materials may be
satisfactorily dimpled at room temperature, although if dimples of 90 or less are
required, hot dimpling may be specified.
Punch dimpling is the simplest method of dimpling. The tool used is similar to a
centre punch but has a spigot which engages in a female tool of the same form. The
hole should first be drilled to the spigot size and then the male die driven or

squeezed into the female die to form the dimple. After dimpling the hole is drilled to
the rivet clearance size.
Spin dimpling is the most widely used method of cold dimpling. The sheet is first
pre-drilled and backed by a female die as for punch dimpling, then a rotating male
die is pressed into the hole, forming the dimple.
Hot dimpling, sometimes known as ‘coin dimpling’ is carried out using electrically
heated dies.

Solid Riveting Procedures

Solid rivets can be fitted manually using the appropriate snaps, sets and dollies, or
mechanically by special hand or power operated riveting tools. Access to both sides
of the joint is essential, since the rivet must be supported on one side whilst the
second head is correctly formed on the other.
Solid rivets can be closed by hand using appropriate snaps, sets and dollies. This
technique is normally confined to bench work. On aircraft structures reaction riveting
using pneumatic riveting guns is normally used.
Solid Riveting Tools

Set : this is a hollow punch used to draw the metal sheets together and bring the
preformed rivet head against the metal surface.
Snap: a form of punch with a hollow recess at one end, the same shape as the rivet
pre-formed head. The set and snap may be combined together in one tool.
Dolly: this is a metal block with a recess having the same shape as the preformed
head of the rivet. It is used to support the preformed rivet head while forming the
rivet.
The preformed rivet head should fit squarely into the dolly.

Solid Riveting Procedures

When the appropriate actions of drilling, countersinking, dimpling, de-burring,
cleaning and adjustment have been completed, the work to be riveted should be
assembled, sealant applied (see page 04-01-09), and mating surfaces brought tightly
into contact by use of skin grips, care being taken not to damage the skin surface.
It is important that no gaps are present between layers, as this will prevent the
correct forming of the rivet and reduce shear strength. Riveting may stretch thin
sheets slightly, particularly with minimum rivet clearances, and this should not be
allowed to accumulate by riveting, for example, straight along a line of rivets.
The correct sequence of closing rivets can only be obtained by experience, and with
each type of joint the order of riveting may vary slightly.
NOTE: Riveting tools are available in different sizes to accommodate the various
rivet sizes.
The steps in forming snaphead rivets are as follows:

 Mark out rivet positions, centre-pop, and drill holes to the correct clearance
size.
 Clean the joining surfaces carefully, removing all burrs from the drilled holes.
 To prevent movement during riveting, join the surfaces temporarily by
inserting riveting clamps at regular intervals along the joint.
 Insert a rivet of the correct length, support the head in the dolly and place the
riveting set over the rivet shank. Lightly tap the set to draw the metal sheets
close together and to bring the preformed rivet head against the metal
surface.
 Remove the set and strike the rivet centrally several times to spread the rivet
shank in the hole. Using the snap, form the second head of the rivet to the
correct shape.

 When solid rivets are closed with a hand hammer, the preformed head should
be supported in a dolly and the tail hammered to a thickness of 0.5D. If a
snaphead is formed ensure 0.6D thickness.

Riveting with Power Tools

In reaction riveting, a suitable shaped snap is held in the riveting gun and placed
against the rivet preformed head. A reaction block or ‘bucking bar’ is held against
the tail of the rivet. When the riveting gun is operated, the tail is spread by the
reaction of the bucking bar.
When flush rivets are being closed, a ‘flat snap’ with a slightly convex surface is
used.

Reaction Blocks
These come in a variety of shapes and sizes to suit a particular task. They may
even be made locally to suit an unusual situation but ensure the mass is sufficient to
‘react’ the rivet.

SECTION 2 : RIVETED JOINTS

INTRODUCTION
In consideration a typical joint it should be understood that the plate resists shear,
bearing and tensile loads while the rivet resists shear and bearing loads only.
At no time should the rivets be in tension as this tends to burst them apart with a
load they are not designed to withstand.
It should be understood that the dimensions given in this note are typical ‘standard’
figures where the material to be joined and the rivets used are compatible in terms of
strength. In structures, the manufacturer may use different dimensions for a variety
of reasons, but in every case the completed joint will have been thoroughly checked
by test and analysis to ensure it’s integrity.

Strength of Joints
The factors that govern the strength of a joint are:
Plate specification This will be of such a material and gauge as to
successfully withstand tensile and bearing loads.
Rivet Specification This will be selected to withstand shear loads. In cases
where the specification of the rivet is not given, use a
rivet of the same material as the plate, with a diameter of
21/2 where T is the thickness of the plate.
Rivet Pitch This is important as too great a pitch will result in
insufficient rivets to take the shear loads and too small a
pitch will result in lowering the resistance of the plate to
tensile loads.
RIVET PITCH AND POSITION

Types of Rivet Spacing

Single Chain Used chiefly on attachment and lightly stressed joints.
SINGLE CHAIN
Multiply Chain Used on watertight joints and in places of high stress where
thick gauge plate is used.
MULTIPLE CHAIN
Staggered Riveting Used as an alternative to multiple chain in watertight

joints, circular patches etc.
STAGGERED RIVETING

Types of Rivets Joints

Lap Joint Used in places where stress is not particularly high and where flush
surfaces are not required. A disadvantage is that the loads are not directly opposite
one another and therefore not truly axial.
LAP JOINT
Joggled Lap Joint The under plate is joggled to preserve the continuity of
the upper surface. This provides a flush surface but as in
the previous joint, the load is not truly axial.
JOGGLED LAP JOINT
Butt Joint Single strap, used on flush surfaces where high stress is
encountered, requiring the use of heavy gauge plate.
SINGLE STRAP BUTT JOINT

Butt Joint Double strap, used in places of very high stress, where
strength is more important than streamlining.
DOUBLE STRAP BUTT JOINT
Flange Joint Used on structural members, such as ribs, frames, etc,

where loads are chiefly compression.
FLANGED JOINTS

FAYING SURFACES
The faying surfaces are the surfaces of the plate that lie in contact with each other.
All joints have faying surfaces and these must be treated as specified in current
instructions. On normal joints where only structural considerations are involved the
surfaces are insulated with suitable jointing compound, such as pigmented varnish.
This is absolutely essential if dissimilar metals are in contact, otherwise rapid
corrosion of the parts will result.
On watertight or airtight joints the faying surfaces must be separated by polysulphide
jointing compound, this ensures the joint is watertight.
To make a good joint, care must be taken when preparing the plates to ensure that
there are no gaps in the faying surfaces, when the riveting has been completed.
FAYING SURFACES
Guide to Rivet Pitch and Position

It should be understood that when working to a repair scheme as laid down in the
particular aircraft repair manual, the rivet pitches and positions given there must be
strictly adhered to even if they conflict with one or more of the following statements:
‘The RIVET PITCH of a joint will depend on the function to be performed by
that joint’

TYPICAL RIVET POSITIONS
The Pitch
The rivet pitch is the distance between each rivet in a row.
Joints subjected to high stress, the pitch should not be more that 4D and under no
circumstances less than 3D.
If it is merely an attachment joint, then the pitch will be 8-10D.
The Land
Rivets should never be placed nearer than 2D from the edge of a plate.
The Spacing
The distance between adjacent rows of rivets should be 2-4D.
Row spacing is less than the pitch when rows are staggered.
Sealants
After components have been prepared for riveting the mating surfaces are normally
given a coat of jointing compound or sealant before final assembly.
The purpose of the jointing compound is to inhibit electrolytic action between
materials of different electrical potential and prevent the ingress of moisture,
whereas a sealant (normally a polysulphide type synthetic rubber) is used to seal
joints in fuel tanks and pressurised compartments.
Jointing compound should be applied in a thin even film, sufficient to ensure that all
mating surfaces, including rivets, are adequately covered, but sealant should
normally be applied in a layer approximately 0.030 inch thick so that it exudes from
the joint when the rivets are closed.

It may be recommended that the rivets are dipped in the compound before use but
the exposed shanks of some types of rivets should, after insertion, be carefully wiped
clean to ensure correct closing of the rivet. Riveting must be completed before the
compound or sealant has set and any excess material on external surfaces should
be wiped off or to a prescribed fillet while still wet.

SECTION 3 : RIVETING INSPECTIONS

INTRODUCTION
Before commencing any type of riveting job, the operator should whenever possible,
make a ‘dummy run’ by forming rivets in some spare piece of metal of corresponding
thickness, checking the rivet allowance and the ability to produce well-set
satisfactory rivets.
After the rivets have been closed they should be inspected to ensure that they are
tight and fully formed. Rivet heads must not be deformed or cracked, and the
surrounding area should be free from distortion and undamaged by the riveting tools.
Rivets, which are obviously not performing their function, should be replaced, but
replacement of rivets, which are found to be only slightly below standard might do
more harm than leaving them in position, particularly in thin materials. Before
rejecting such rivets, the strength requirements of the particular joint and the
effectiveness of the rivets in question should be considered.
When a flushness tolerance is specified for countersunk rivets, this is normally
checked before riveting is commenced; however, the milling of solid rivet heads may
sometimes be permitted after riveting to obtain a uniform protrusion. In this case
protective treatments must be re-applied after milling.
Riveting Faults
The main causes of faulty riveting are as follows:
Excessive or insufficient shank allowance
INSUFFICIENT HAMMERING
Rivet holes not drilled straight or drilled in wrong size.
INCORRECT SNAP
Rivet holes out of line on separate plates.
HOLE TOO SMALL

Surfaces of metal not drawn up together, possibly due to burrs around the drill holes.
DOLLY NOT SQUARE
Wrong size of dolly or snap used, thus damaging the metal surface or forming a bad
rivet head.
SNAP NOT SQUARE
Rivets not filling rivet holes correctly because initial hammer blows on the tail of the
rivet have not swollen the shank.
HOLE TOO LARGE

Riveting Faults

Removal of Rivets
For any particular situation the thickness and strength of the structure should be
considered and the method likely to cause the least damage should be used.
Before refitting a rivet of the same diameter, the hole should be checked to ensure
that its diameter is within the limits specified by the aircraft manufacturer.
If it is not within limits, an approved oversize rivet must be fitted and the hole
enlarged accordingly.
The usual method of removing solid rivets is as follows:
 1 File a flat on the pre-formed (makers) head of the rivet. The preformed
head is more symmetrical about the shank than the formed head.
 2 Mark the centre with a centre punch.
 3 Drill through the head with a drill of the same diameter as the rivet
shank and to a depth slightly less than the thickness of the rivet head,
then carefully chip off the head with a small flat chisel.
 4 Support the work locally to prevent buckling of the plate on hitting and
drive out the rivet with a parallel pin punch slightly smaller than the rivet
shank.

NOTE: The utmost care should be taken when drilling and punching, to ensure
that the original hole is not enlarged.
When removing rivets fro assemblies which include bonded laminations or

reinforcements it is essential not to apply shear loads liable to part of the bond.
If any rivet hole is found to be enlarged as indicated by a loose rivet, or shows signs
of cracks around the edges, or a hole is enlarged during the drilling out operations
for rivet removal prior to repairs, the repair information in the relevant aircraft repair
manual must be consulted.
The aircraft repair manual usually contains authorisation for the hole to be enlarged
up to 1/32” more than the existing rivet holes, they must be carefully reamed to the
required size, ensuring that all cracks are removed for edges of holes.

NOTES:

CHAPTER 3 : PIPES AND HOSES

SECTION 1 : FLARING AND BENDING
Refer to C/003 Common Parts

NOTES:

SECTION 2 : INSPECTIONS AND TESTING


NOTES:

SECTION 3 : INSTALLATION

NOTES:

CHAPTER 4 : SPRINGS
SECTION 1 : INSPECTION AND TESTING
Issued March 2010 Chapter 4: Section 1 35

NOTES:
36 Chapter 4: Section 1 Issued March 2010

CHAPTER 5 : BEARINGS
SECTION 1 : INSPECTION AND TESTING

NOTES:

SECTION 2 : LUBRICATION

NOTES:

CHAPTER 6 : TRANSMISSION
SECTION 1 : INSPECTION OF GEARS

NOTES:

SECTION 2 : INSPECTION OF BELTS AND PULLEYS


NOTES:

SECTION 3 : INSPECTION OF SCREW JACKS AND CONTROL

RODS

NOTES:

CHAPTER 7 : CONTROL CABLES

SECTION 1 : SWAGED END FITTINGS

NOTES:
48 Chapter 7 : Section 1 Issued May 2010

SECTION 2: INSPECTION AND TESTING


NOTES:

SECTION 3 : FLEXIBLE CONTROL SYSTEMS


NOTES:

CHAPTER 8 : SHEET METAL WORK – 7.14.1

SECTION 1 : MARKING OUT
Guiding Rules for Bend Allowance and Allied Calculations
A good system to follow is tabulated below:
 Always divide a sheet metal component into various straight and curved
sections, for carrying out calculations.
 Always examine the drawing or pattern of a sheet metal component to
ascertain whether any sections occur identically more than once. This avoids
unnecessary calculations.
 Always use decimals when making calculations, then convert the answers
obtained to practical rule measurements. This leads to accuracy.
 Always make a development drawing of the job and retain it until the job has
been made and its finished accuracy checked.
 Remember that the position of a ‘sighting line’ at a distance from the start of a
bend equal to the specified bend radius, it is related to that portion of the bend
allowance which will be out of sight between the bend bars.
 Major bends should be made at right angle to the grain of the metal sheet.
 ‘Lead’ pencils should be used for short term marking out only, any marks
being removed as soon as possible using white spirit or MEK. When it is
necessary to leave a mark in place for more than a few hours a grease pencil
of any colour except black should be used. Fine felt tip pens may also be
used.

Bend Allowance
When making a bend in a sheet metal, the amount of metal required to bend the
material around a given radius and through a given angle must be calculated.
The bend allowance depends on:
 The degree of bend.
 The radius of the bend.
 The thickness of the metal.
The Degree of Bend

This is the angle through which the material is to be bent.
The Radius of the Bend

When metal is bent, the inside of the curve is compressed and the outside curve is
stretched, therefore the radius for calculating the bend allowance is taken from the
neutral axis of the material (neutral axis = ½ thickness.
The Thickness of the Metal
(Standard Wire Gauge (SWG)

The thickness of sheet metal is normally given as a gauge number, to find the actual
thickness of the material, this number must be cross referenced to a set of tables or
chart appropriate to the gauge system to which the sheet was produced. See
Chapter 2 Section 2 – Wire Gauges.
Example – 18SWG = 0.048” thick.
SWG not only ensures standardisation of sheet metal but ensures the
standardisation of wire diameters.
Typical British SWG dimensions
SWG Material SWG Material
Thickness (in) Thickneses (in)
12 0.104 18 0.048
14 0.080 20 0.036
16 0.064 22 0.028

Method of Calculating Bend Allowance

To calculate the amount of material required for a bend, the following formula is
used:
2 R  1 / 2 T 
Bend allowance =
360
R = Radius of bend.
T = Thickness of metal, add 1/2T if the drawing shows the internal radius of bend,
subtract ½ T if the external radius is shown.
 = Angle through which material is to be bent.
2 R  1 / 2 T  2 R  1 / 2 T 
Bend allowance =
360 360
Application of Bending Allowance

The procedure is as follows:
 Study the drawing.
 Find the gauge (thickness) of the material in inch units.
 Separate the straight’s from the bends.
 Calculate the lengths of the straights.
 Calculate bend allowance.
 Add the length of straights to number of bend allowance to obtain length of
material.
 Make a plan drawing, usually called a development, putting in lengths
calculated and width of metal.

Example
This shows the application of bending allowance. The method of calculating the
length of metal required for constructing the channel piece is shown overleaf.
Calculating metal required to construct channel piece illustrated from 18 SWG sheet
metal (0.048” thickness).
A = 1” – 3T = 1” – (3x0.048”) = 1” – 0.144” = 0.856
B=

2 2T 1 / 2 T 90  =
2 0.096 0.024"90
360 360
2  0.12" x 90 2 x 3.142 x 0.12" x 90
  = 0.188
360 360
C  5"  3T 1" =5” – 1.144” =.3.856
D
 
2 1"  1 / 22T 180

2 1"  0.924"180
360 360
2 x 3.142 x 0.976" x180
 = 3.066 E = 2” – 1” = 1.000”
360
Total Length of Metal Required = 8.966

Development of the Channel Piece
NOTE: When marking out on light alloys a pencil must be used, only use a scriber
for lines that are to be cut out.

Example 2
Calculations for Reverse Bend Section
In the part illustrated it is assumed that the small bends B and D are 90.
Thickness of material = 12 SWG = 0.104
STRAIGHT A = 4/2 – (R + t + r) = 2” – (1 + 0.104” + 0.125”)
= 2” – 1.229” = 0.771
2 R  1 / 2T  2 0.125"  0.052"90
BEND B  =
360 360
2 3.142 0.177" 90
 =0.278
360
BEND C 
 
2 r  1 / 2 T 
360
2 1"  0.052"180

360
 2 3.1421.052" 180
= 3.305”
360
BEND D = Same as Bend B = 0.278”
STRAIGHT E = Same as Straight A = 0.771”
Total Length = 5.403”

Development of Reverse Bend Section
NOTE: The most common angle for making bends is 90, and in this case it is
convenient to simplify the formula and then consider the bend radius and
material thickness. It is then possible to use the fractional value for phi ()
This is shown using Bend B in the reverse bend section as an example
Bend Allowance =
 
2 r  1 / 2 t 
=
2

 r  1/ 2 t 
360 360
= 21 x 2211 x 901 x (r + ½ t) = 11 x (r + 1/2t)

7 x 3601 7
= 11 x (0.125” + 0.052”) = 11 x 0.177” = 0.278”

7 7

NOTES:

SECTION 2 : BENDING AND FORMING

Folding or Bending Machines
These are used to produce bends of small radii or sharp ‘sets’ in sheet metal.
Examples are flanging and folding-up box section, trunking etc, they are not normally
used to produce aircraft parts.
The Folding or Bending Machine comprises of:
The Bed
A flat machined surface upon which, the work is supported.
THE FOLDING MACHINE
The ‘Yoke’
Suspended above the Bed and extending the full length of it. This can be raised or
lowered, and has attached to its underside a steel bar which grips the work and also
acts as a former for the bend. The former is detachable and may be replaced by
others of varying sections to suit work requirements.
The ‘Bending Beam’

Pivoted along the front edge of the bend. When swung up it forces up the ‘overhang’
of the work around the former to produce the required bend.
The two main types of machine are the ‘open end’ and the ‘closed end’. The former
allows flanges of practically unlimited length to be made, while the latter limits the
length to that of the yoke and beam.
The bending beam is normally adjustable, up or down. This adjustment is to
accommodate the various gauges of material which may bend on the machine.

BOX PAN BREAK

This bending machine has detachable fingers of various widths that can be placed
together to form any size box required and works exactly as any other folding
machine.
BOX PAN BRAKE
Bend Bars
Used for hand forming bends in sheet metal. The bars have different radii on each
edge and can be obtained in various lengths.

Sighting of Lines for Bending Purposes

Having checked that the development of a particular fitting is correct, the next
essential is to position the bends in the right places.
This is done by the use of ‘sight lines’ which are measures from the bending
allowance construction lines.
SIGHT LINES
When the metal is in position in the bend bars, one bend allowance construction line
must be directly against the radius point of the block.
This is done by pencilling a line (known as the ‘sighting line’), at a distance equal to
the inside radius of the bend above the bend allowance construction line, on the side
being clamped in the bend bars. This line will then come directly in line with the
edge of the bend bar.
When the sighting lines can be seen level with the top of the bend bars, as shown,
they should be tightened and the metal can be bent over using a wooden mallet.
various special tools and machines are required to assist in cutting and forming the
metal to the desired shapes and forms.
When operating any machines, safety precautions must be observed. On no
account is the capacity of the machine to be exceeded. No machine is to be
operated without first being instructed in it’s use.

ROLLING MACHINE
These are used for forming cylindrical work and consist of three rollers. The two
front rollers are in vertical alignment, the top being adjustable to grip the material.
The back roller is adjustable to form curves of different radii. The bottom front roller
has swivel bearing which allows the complete cylinder to be withdrawn from the
machine.
ROLLING MACHINE
Guillotines
Usually treadle-operated machines, and are fitted with a long straight blade for
making cuts up to approximately 4 feet in length on metal not exceeding 18-16
gauge thickness. The blades are guarded to prevent injury.
Hand Lever Shears

Are toggle or gear jointed shearing thickness. The gauge being too guillotine.
BENCH SHEARS

HAND TOOLS
Mallets
Normally made with a beech or lignum-vitae head and beech handle. Used for
forming and shaping sheet-metal.
Shear or Snips
Used for cutting thin sheet metal. May be straight or curved.
Irons and Heads

Normally made from steel in various sizes and shapes. Used as formers for
shaping, flanging, forming etc. Typical shapes shown below.

Wood and Sand Formers

For compression and stretch flanges, usually made from beech wood, and shaped,
using normal wood-working tools, to the shape required.

SECTION 3 : INSPECTION OF SHEET METAL WORK

Checks after Bending Operations
On completions of bending operations the material must be free from defects such
as scratches, scribe marks, hairline fractures on the outside of the bends, cracks at
edges adjacent to bends, tool marks, twisting and warping.

NOTES:

CHAPTER 9 : BRAZING, WELDING & BONDING – 7.15b

SECTION 1 : BRAZING
INTRODUCTION
The operation of Hard Soldering or Brazing is considerably more difficult in practice
than Soft Soldering, hard soldering or brazing gives a much stronger joint than soft
soldering because the solders are harder and the melting temperatures are higher.
As much more heat is required, and the difference between the melting point of the
metal being brazed and the spelter (hard solder) is not always very great, therefore
the risk of melting the work is introduced.
The heat for brazing may be supplied by a bright coke fire, gas of acetylene blowpipe
flame, paraffin or petrol blowlamp.
When brazing copper on a bright coke fire, care should be taken to see that the fire
is properly burnt up and bright, otherwise the amount of sulphur absorbed from the
burning coke by the copper renders the metal more liable to fracture in subsequent
working.
Hard soldering is used when a strong joint is needed or when a part is subject to
vibration. The brazed joint is the strongest and has a higher melting point than a
hard solder joint.
There are two kinds of soldering:
 BRAZING: using a copper and zinc (brass) alloy as a solder.
 SILVER SOLDERING: using a silver/copper/zinc alloy.

Hard Solders
Hard solders may be divided into two groups:
 Silver solders (copper, silver, zinc alloy).
 Brazing spelter solders (copper, zinc alloy).
The term ‘spelter’ as applied to bronzing solder should not be confused with ingot
zinc, to which the term also applies.
The addition of silver to spelter containing equal quantities of copper and zinc
considerably lowers the melting point of the resulting alloy. This silver solders as it is
called, may be used; for instance, when joining thin brass sheet, which would not
stand the heat required for brazing with ordinary spelter.
There is a wide range of silver solders differing in melting points according to the
amount of silver used in their manufacture. Easy flow solder consists of 50% silver,
15% zinc and 20% cadmium.
Brazing spelter may be obtained in strip, rod or granulated form, selected according
to the class or work. When preparing to make a joint using granulated spelter, the
worker should first wash the spelter in borax water to ensure cleanliness and always
run borax water through the joint before applying heat.
One can generally assume that if the metals are clean and carefully trued, the
spelter will, when melted, follow the flux.
Fluxes
Borax is the best known flux for brazing and hard soldering, but there are several
other manufactured fluxes, which mostly contain borax in some form or another.
They prevents oxidation and helps the solder to flow.
It is beneficial to have the borax calcined (fused) as it then settles down to its work
immediately when applied to hot metal, whereas uncalcined borax will swell and
have a tendency to leave the work. This calcinated borax is used as a powder or
mixed into a paste with water.
When using very hard spelters, ie. those, whose melting point is very high, powered
glass is sometimes used as the flux.

THE PROCESS OF HARD SOLDERING/BRAZING

As with all soldering, the joint must be clean before work begins.
Sometimes considerable ingenuity has to be used to hold the parts of the joint in
close contact ready for soldering.
A layer of flux is applied as a paste along the joint before heating starts.
The brass solder (‘spelter’) can be applied in one of two ways according to the job.
Lay small snippets of solder along the joint, this accurately controls the amount of
solder used. Bring the joint to red heat and then apply the spelter rod; this requires
some skill.
Joints consisting of metals of different thicknesses must be heated so that the whole
joint is brought to soldering temperature at the same moment.
The glass-hard remains of the melted borax flux except that the metals being joined
are usually non-ferrous with lower melting temperatures; care must be taken not to
overheat them.
Silver solders are available with a range of melting temperatures to enable complex
constructions, such as teapots, to have a number of soldered joints close together.
Points to note with Hard Soldering/Brazing

 Have a clean fire or flame.
 Do not poke the work with the brazing rod.
 Avoid using too much spelter, have enough at hand to add when necessary.
 Always keep a good supply of borax handy whilst brazing.
 Do not use emery cloth on a job that is to be brazed, clean it with a file or
scratch card.
 Keep fingers off the joint, they are greasy.
 If for any reason you cannot braze your job as soon as it is cleaned, or it is left
overnight, clean it again before brazing. Copper will oxideise in a workshop
very quickly and oxidisation prevents good soldering or brazing.

 It is very difficult to remove a brazed nipple, socket or flange in the fire or

flame, because during the process a percentage of zinc in the spelter
vaporised, thus raising the melting point of the spelter, which sets in the joint.
INSPECTION OF BRAZED JOINTS

The following points should be checked when visually inspecting a finished joint.
 The joint and surrounding surfaces should be free from pitting, corrosion,
scale, flux residue and other evidence of bad workmanship.
 The filler alloy must have penetrated throughout the joint. In the case of pipe
joints an examination should be made for excessive penetration which may
partially obstruct the pipe bore.
 Fillets of filler alloy should be smooth and coninuous.
 The dimensions of the assembly should be in accordance with the appropriate
drawing.
A visual examination may sometimes be sufficient to establish that the filler alloy has
penetrated through the joint. In these cases, X-ray, ultrasonic or eddy current
inspections may be required.
ASSESSMENT OF IN SERVICE CONDITION OF BRAZED JOINTS

 Brazed joints should be inspected for evidence of failure cracks and corrosion.
 If any doubts exist as to the integrity of a brazed joint then X-ray, ultrasonic or
eddy current inspections may be required.

SECTION 2 : WELDING
WELDING
Welding is the joining of two similar metals by the use of heat.
There are two types of welding:
 Pressure welding
 Fusion welding
WELDING PROCESSES
FUSION PRESSURE
GAS ELECTRIC ARC ELECTRIC BLACKSMITH’S
RESISTANCE FORCE
Oxy-Hydrogen Carbon Arc Spot Hammer
Oxy-Acetylene Metallic Arc Seam Automatic Hammer
Atomic Hydrogen Argon Arc Butt
Flash
PRESSURE WELDING
In this process the metals to be joined are raised in temperature until they reach the
plastic state, which is just before the melting point. When the plastic state is reached
a flux is added and pressure applied to force the metal together.

FUSION WELDING
In fusion welding the metals to be joined are melted then fused together. The great
heat required to melt the metals is obtained from burning suitable gases, eg. oxygen
and acetylene, or by electric arc. At the same time a metallic filler rod is melted into
the joint, adding thickness to the weld and replacing any losses incurred during the
process.
GAS WELDING
In this type of welding the gas most commonly used is a mixture of oxygen and
acetylene, supplied to the welding torch at a regulated pressure from two portable
cylinders. The gases are mixed for burning by adjusting two valves on the welding
torch. Different metals require different flames, which are produced by alternating
the ratio of gases. Acetylene bottles must be stored upright.

ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

In electric arc welding, heat is obtained from the electric arc formed when the
positive and negative terminals of an electric circuit are brought together.
In practice the arc is produced between the work itself, which is connected to one
side of the circuit, and an electrode connected to the opposite pole.
With electric metallic arc welding, the electrode is a filler rod coated with flux. The
flux coating melts at a slower rate than the electrode, thereby forming a shield to
concentrate and direct the arc stream, it also forms a gas shield, preventing
atmosphere elements from reaching the molten metal.
Part of the coating remains in the vicinity of the weld and solidifies as a protective
blanket over the weld whilst it is still hot. This is known as slag and must be
removed with a chipping hammer to carry out inspection of the weld. Some
electrodes have a special coating, which shrinks as it cools, cracks, curls up and is
largely self-removing.
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
ELECTRIC RESISTANCE

NOTES:

SECTION 3 : BONDING
ADHESIVES
INTRODUCTION
Many adhesives are available for use on aircraft. The range of materials may be
divided into groups.
 Adhesives for general purposes.
 Adhesives for use where high temperature is encountered.
 Adhesives for use where resistance to fuel, oilor water is essential.
Not one adhesive is available which gives perfect under all conditions on every
surface. It is most important therefore to ensure that the correct adhesive is used.
EXAMPLES OF ADHESIVES

GENERAL
The advantage of using an adhesive as a fastening method is the ability of adhesive
to fill the joint area completely. This prevents air or water entering the joint.
Generally an adhesive is only as strong as the surface to which it is applied. If the
surface is painted, dirty, or greasy, the strength of the resulting bond is greatly
reduced.
Cleaning Prior to the Application of Adhesives

The surfaces to be joined should be paint stripped and degreased, using the
specified paint stripper and solvent. Alternatively, if degreasing only is required, a
cloth moistened with equal volumes of white spirit and naptha should not be used.
Adhesives and cleaning solvents should only be used in well-ventilated areas at a
temperature of not less than 18C. Most of these compounds are highly inflammable
and must not be used near naked flames.
General Guide to using Adhesives

The manufacturers instructions should always be followed and any adhesive which
has exceeded its shelf should not be used.
 Carefully remove all traces of dirt, oil, grease, paint, french chalk, or old
adhesive compound from the surfaces to be joined.
 After using a cleaning or degreasing solvent, allow the surfaces to dry and
wipe them with a clean, soft cloth.
 Do not touch or handle a cleaned surface.
 If a brush or spatula is to be used, it must be clean and dry before use to
avoid contamination of the joint.
 Ensure that a joint is not moved or subjected to any strain until the adhesive
used has fully cured. During this setting period, fumes are given off and may
cause corrosion if the work is not adequately ventilated.

CHAPTER 10 : COMPOSITE & NON-METALIC MATERIALS

– 7.14.2
SECTION 1 : MATRIX MATERIALS
The matrix is the bonding material that completely surrounds the fibre to give
strength and transfer the stresses to the fibres. The key to the strength of a
composite lies in the ability of the matrix to transfer stress to the reinforcing fibres.
The matrix used in conjunction with the reinforcing fibres is a liquid polymer usually
referred to as a resin. To make a composite the resin and fibres are mixed together
in the correct proportions and the resin then allowed to harden.
During the curing process the polymer molecules are permanently joined together by
a process known as cross-linking. Once this has happened it can not be reversed
and the polymer is fixed in a permanent shape. Plastics which are not softened by
heat are known as thermosets.
There are two types of thermoset used to make composites, polyesters and
epoxides.
POLYESTERS
An example of an earlier matrix formula is the polymer known as polyester.
Polyester resin has been used with glassfibre for many non-structural applications
such as fairings, spinners and trim. These polyester/glassfibre formulas do not
provide sufficient strength to be used to fabricate primary structural members.
Polyester resins are cured by the addition of a catalyst. Only small amounts of
catalyst are required to produce the change. The catalysts are known as peroxides
and are thin liquids.
About 2% of peroxide is needed to cure a polyester, ie. 2 grams of peroxide for every
100 grams of resin. At this concentration the resin will set in about 30 minutes.
However, it will take several hours before it reaches its full strength. If the
temperature is high, the resin will cure more quickly, so workshop and storage areas
must be temperature controlled.
The length of time the resin remains usable after the catalyst is added, is known as
the pot-life. When the resin starts to harden too much, it will not mix properly with
the fibres. Note that when a large amount of resin is mixed with the catalyst, it
produces heat which speeds up the curing process. It is important not to mix up
more resin than can be used in a short time. Small amounts of resin cure more
slowly.
In extreme cases, too much heat is produced and the resin can catch fire. This is
called an EXOTHERM.
An accelerator is sometimes added to a polyester resin to speed up the cross-linking
process.

EPOXIDES
When high performance properties are required, epoxides or epoxy resins are used.
That is why they are preferred for the aerospace industry.
Epoxy resins are mixed with a hardener to allow them to cure. A typical epoxy
system may be cured by mixing equal parts of resin and hardener. The hardener is
usually a thick resin, like the epoxy itself.
Some epoxy systems cure at room temperature, but many need to be cured at
higher temperatures.
Epoxides have a number of useful properties which make them superior to
polyesters:
 Very good resistance to chemicals.
 Low shrinkage as they cure.
 Variable curing time – different combinations of resin and
hardeners can be used to give curing times varying from a few
minutes to days. Pot life can also be varied by choice of hardener.
 Variable curing temperature – some epoxides cure at room
temperature, but by choosing the right hardeners, materials can be
produced which will only cure when heated. This gives more time
in which to work with the mixed resin.
Epoxy resins do have some disadvantages:
 They are more expensive.
 They are more difficult to use than polyester.
 They are possibly hazardous to health.
It is very important to refer to the manufacturer’s instructions when using resins of all
kinds.

SECTION 2 : CURING SYSTEMS & LAMINATE MANUFACTURE

Curing the polymer from a thick liquid to a strong solid is a chemical process. This
may be brought about by cold curing or hot curing.
Cold Curing Systems
Cold curing takes place at room temperature (21oC). As previously stated, before
the resin is combined with the fibres, a carefully measured quantity of a catalyst or
hardener is added to the resin and mixed thoroughly. A catalyst or hardener is a
substance which produces the cross-links which will finally set the resin. The resin
now hardens slowly over approximately 30 minutes giving time for the fibres to be
added while the resin is still liquid. However, as soon as the catalyst or hardener is
added, the curing process starts.
Hot Curing Systems
Hot curing systems cure the resin at high temperatures e.g. 200oC.
As with cold curing systems, the cross-links are formed by a catalyst or hardener.
However, in this process heat is required before cross-linking occurs.
The catalyst or hardener only becomes active when it is heated. However, the
properties of the final composite depend on the curing temperature, and how quickly
the resin is heated up. This is controlled by the curing equipment.
RESIN/FIBRE RATIO
An important feature of a composite structure is the proportion of fibre to resin used,
or the resin fibre ratio. If too much resin is used, the fibres will have little effect and
the composite will be weak.
There is an optimum resin/fibre ratio to produce the best composite. The ratio will
vary depending on the fibre and resin used. With polyesters the ratio is usually
about two parts of resin to one part of fibre by weight. This is because of the inferior
adhesion of the polyester resin and the fibre, and it is usual to use a slight excess of
resin to make sure that the fibres are thoroughly wetted with resin.
Epoxy resins, with their superior adhesion, bond very well to the fibres so the fibre
resin ratio can be higher to produce a lighter but strong composite. For example,
when using glass fibre and carbon fibre with epoxy resin, equal parts by weight of
resin and fibre are used. When using Kevlar the epoxy resin must be 1.7 times the
fibre weight. Precise resin/fibre ratios are given by the fibre and resin
manufacturers.

LAMINATE MANUFACTURE

LAMINATES
Composites are made from woven or chopped mat built up in layers. Each layer is
bonded together by the resin. The method used to produce a laminate depends on
the item being made and whether hot or cold curing is being used.
Cold Curing Laminate Manufacture
Before laying up a glass-fibre reinforced plastic part, a mould is required. To make a
box for example, the female mould must have internal dimensions which will form the
outside dimensions of the box. The mould can be made from wood, plaster or even
glass-fibre reinforced plastic. It must however have a smooth surface. It is normally
coated with wax, so that the part being made can be separated form it. Other
coatings called release agents can be used. The mould for the box is illustrated.
Next, the glass-fibre cloth is cut into pieces that will fit into the mould with a small
overlap at the edges. Several layers are used, depending on the thickness and
strength required in the final moulding. If three layers of cloth are used, the fibre
orientation should be 0o, 45o and 90o.
The glass-fibre cloth is weighed so that the resin can be weighed out to give the
correct ratio of resin to glass-fibre cloth. The correct quantity of catalyst or hardener
can then be added to the resin and mixed in thoroughly.
The lay-up must now be completed in about 30 minutes.
To form the glass-fibre laminate, a layer of resin is brushed on to the surface of the
mould and a piece of the reinforcing glass-fibre placed on top. Air trapped under the
fibres is squeezed out using special grooved rollers. The roller forces the resin up
through the cloth and separates the individual fibres to ensure that they are
thoroughly wetted with resin. Any air trapped between the layers of cloth will weaken
the moulding. The other layers are built up in the same way using up all the resin. It
is most important that the resin is used before its pot-life has expired.
When all the layers have been laid up, the resin is left to cure. A few hours later the
item can be removed from the mould and the edges can be trimmed.
The outer surface of the moulding is a replica of the mould inner surface. A smooth
mould will produce a smooth moulding. However, any defects on the mould surface
will also be reproduced.

Hot Curing Laminate Manufacture

The simplest hot cure system would be produced in exactly the same way as a cold
cure system and then put in an oven to activate the catalyst or hardener. However,
the quality of the laminate depends on the skill of the operator.
A better hot cure system uses an autoclave to remove the air and to mix the fibres
with the resin. The autoclave uses a vacuum to suck out the air and controlled
heaters to cure the resin.
The glass-fibre cloth and resin are prepared and laminated as before. The lay-up
and mould is then covered with a perforated plastic sheet and a layer of material
which absorbs the excess resin. The mould and lay-up are covered with a nylon
sheet and sealed around the edge. The vacuum supply is connected to the inside of
the vacuum bag, and the whole assembly place in the autoclave. The autoclave is
like a large oven but is connected to vacuum and pressure supplies, to allow the
pressure inside the autoclave to be controlled. First the laminate is heated and the
air is drawn out from under the nylon sheet. Pressure is then applied to force the
layers of cloth together, while the heat cures the resin. The rate of heating and the
pressure are controlled automatically to pre-set values.
After curing, the assembly is removed from the autoclave. The vacuum bagging
materials are then removed and the moulding separated from the mould.
This method is less dependant on the skill of the operator, providing the machine
which controls the heating is programmed correctly.
AUTOCLAVE

SECTION 3 : PREPREGS
A prepreg (an abbreviation of pre-impregnated) is a sheet of fibre reinforcement
impregnated with the resin/hardener system. The resin is chosen so that it is fairly
solid at room temperature in its uncured state. When it is heated it initially softens,
then cross-links to form a cured solid. Glass-fibre, carbon fibre, Kevlar and
aluminium mesh is available as a prepreg.
ADVANTAGES OF PREPREGS
The advantages of a prepreg are that the resin/hardener ratio and the fibre/resin
ratio are carefully controlled by the manufacturer. Each batch of prepreg is identical.
The resin is already spread evenly throughout the fibres. This is important in the
manufacture of helicopter rotor blades. It allows the blades to be moulded to a
controlled thickness and weight in a repeatable process.
Prepregs can only be used with hot curing systems, because they must not cure
during storage.
STORAGE
Polymer resins deteriorate during storage. If prepregs or resins get warm, cross-
linking starts and the resins can cure before they are used. Resins must be stored in
an even cool temperature as specified by the manufacturer. Prepregs are stored in
a sealed bag at –18oC. A record must be kept on the package of the date and time
of each transfer of material in and out of the refrigerator. After warming to room
temperature the required amount of material is removed from the package. The
package is then resealed and returned to the refrigerator.
Each time the bolt of fabric is out of the freezer the time must be recorded and added
up. The manufacturer will specify a maximum out of freezer life. Once the
accumulated time that the material has been out of the freezer totals the maximum,
the fabric will no longer cure sufficiently in a repair to give the proper strength.
Resins and prepregs must be used before their shelf life expires.
REPAIRS
Structural repair manuals often specify the use of prepregs when carrying out repairs
to composite structures. However, this may cause difficulties. An operator may
have a number of different aircraft types, and it is likely that each type will use
prepreg from various manufacturers. This would require the operator to stock a wide
range of prepregs in a number of freezer units. Most of these prepreg repair
materials would need to be discarded every 6 to 12 months as their shelf life expired.

NOTES:

SECTION 4 : HEALTH AND SAFETY

INTRODUCTION
Polyester and epoxide resins are quite safe if used correctly, but can be dangerous if
sensible safety precautions are not taken.
HAZARDS
There are two main hazards:-
 Skin contact
 Inhaling fumes
Skin Contact
Polymer resins are sticky liquids which are difficult to remove from the skin.
Dermatitis
Dermatitis is an inflammation of the skin leading to sores, rashes and cracks in the
skin. If a person gets dermatitis they are more likely to get it again very easily in the
future. There are two reasons for contracting dermatitis:
This means that if a person is allergic to a resin, just one

ALLERGY contact may set off dermatitis
Even people who are not allergic may get dermatitis if their skin
PROLONGED is in contact with a resin for a long time.
CONTACT
Inhaling Fumes
Polymer resins are not toxic in the sense that a small amount of the fumes does
harm. However, breathing the fumes in high concentrations day after day may result
in lung damage.
The worst substances are polyester resins which contain styrene and the hardeners
used with epoxy resins.

Safety Precautions
The following items should be available when working with polymer resins, and the
safety precautions observed.
 One piece overalls, preferably with close fitting cuffs.
 Close fitting protective gloves. Hairdresser’s gloves are ideal.
 Eye protection should be worn at all times. A full face shield may
be necessary if there is a possibility of splashing chemicals on to
the face.
 Barrier cream helps to protect the skin and helps remove any
contaminants when washing up.
 Resin removing cream is the best material for removing resins
from the skin.
 Re-fatting or after work cream replaces some of the protective oils
removed from the skin by various chemicals.
 Cuts and abrasions should be kept covered.
 Before removing gloves wash and dry them as you would your
hands, to avoid contaminating hands.
 Always wash hands before eating, drinking or visiting the toilet.
 Keep work clothes and other clothes in separate lockers.
 Work rooms should be well ventilated.
 Flammable solvents and resins must be stored in a fireproof
building outside the main workshop building.
 Note that epoxy resins tend to be more hazardous than polyester
resins.
 Accelerators are very reactive substances and must always be
added to the resin before the catalyst.
 NEVER MIX A CATALYST AND AN ACCELERATOR. The result
would be a violent explosion.
CATALYSTS
These belong to a group of chemicals known as peroxides and must be treated with
care. They are oxidising agents, and although not very flammable themselves, they
can cause other flammable substances to burst into flames if they are spilt on them.

HANDLING PRECAUTIONS FOR FIBRES

Glass, carbon and Kevlar fibres are made from non-toxic materials, but health
hazards do occur because of the very fine nature of the fibres.
Fibres can affect the skin, the lungs and the eyes.
Skin
The fibres are fine enough to be able to enter the pores of the skin. This causes
severe itching and can cause rashes. Safety precautions involve preventing fibres
entering the pores.
When working with glass, carbon or Kevlar fibres:
 Wear a one piece overall.
 Protect the hands with barrier cream or disposable gloves.
 Wash hands in cold water, as this will close the pores.
Lungs
Airborne fragments of fibre can be breathed into the lungs. Cutting cloth does not
tend to produce airborne fragments. However, when machining or cutting
composites, great care is required.
When machining composites:
 Wear a breathing mask.
 Work in a well ventilated area.
 Use dust extraction equipment such as a vacuum cleaner to
collect fine particles at the site of the machining operation.
Eyes
When machining composites, wear eye protection conforming to BS 2062.

NOTES:

SECTION 5 : MACHINING COMPOSITES

Machining is the drilling, cutting, sanding or grinding of material.
Glassfibre and carbon fibre can be cut with conventional fabric scissors. Scissors
with serrated edges are used to cut aramid fabric. The serrated edges hold the
fabric while at the same time cutting it without fraying the edges. Scissors should be
used for a particular type of fabric. The different types of fabric blunt the cutting
surface in different ways so if one pair of scissors were used to cut all the fabrics
they would blunt quickly.
Pre-impregnated materials can be cut with a scalpel and a template or straight edge.
DRILLING AND COUNTERSINKING COMPOSITES.
Great care is required when drilling composites. Delamination, fracture, breakout
and separation are typical failures that may occur when drilling composites.
Delamination occurs as a peeling away of the bottom layer as the force of the drill
pushes the layers apart rather than cutting through the final layer.
A fracture occurs when a crack forms along one of the layers due to the force of the
drill.
Breakout occurs when the bottom layer splinters as the drill completes the hole.
Separation occurs when a gap opens between layers as the drill passes through
successive layers.
Backing up the holes with wood, light pressure and sharp drills help overcome these
problems. When drilling for blind fasteners a drill stop should be used to avoid
breaking the fibres at the bottom of the hole. Cutting coolants are not used.
Carbide drill bits work satisfactorily on all types of composites. High speed and a
drill included angle of 135o is used.
Special drills are used with Kevlar. If conventional drills are used, then the individual
fibres form a fuzz around the hole. Drills designed for use on Kevlar have a C shape
as illustrated.
BRAD POINT DRILL FOR KEVLAR COMPOSITE
For glassfibre or carbon fibre drilling, a dagger or spade bit can be used.
A SPADE BIT USED FOR GLASS AND CARBON FIBRE COMPOSITES

COUNTERSINKING COMPOSITES
A countersunk hole should be produced to the proper fastener angle, proper depth
and proper finish. The tendency of aramid fibres to fuzz around a drilled hole can be
eliminated by using very sharp countersinks that are made for aramid composites.
The fastener must seat properly in the hole. All fuzzing around the hole should be
removed to allow good contact between the fastener and the hole.

SECTION 6 : FASTENERS USED WITH COMPOSITES

The fasteners which are used on composites are different to those used on sheet
metal. Conventional rivets are not used in composites. If the metal of a rivet were to
expand and completely fill a hole in a composite structure, the rivet would expand
against the sides of the laminate and possibly delaminate the edges of the hole.
If a composite part fails because of worn fastener holes, one solution is to use an
oversize fastener. Since the hole may become worn again a more permanent
solution is to use a fastener with a liner permanently installed in the structure. The
fastener can be removed, but the liner stays in place.
Special composite fasteners are available and one is illustrated.
The following general rules should be followed when installing fasteners into a
composite structure.
 When fasteners are used in carbon/graphite structures, they must
be made of titanium or corrosion resistant steel. Aluminium
fasteners should not be used with carbon/graphite material
because of their tendency to corrode the aluminium.
 If an aluminium fitting is used in a carbon/graphite structure,
ensure that corrosion protection must be applied to the aluminium.
 Solid rivets must not be used in composite structures.
 Close tolerance holes and fasteners ensure more equal load
distribution.

COMPOSI-LOK FASTENER
The composite structural fastener described is available in both flush and protruding
head versions. The fastener has a large blind side upset which distributes the
bearing loads over a large area permitting the fastener to exert very high clamping
loads to the structure without damage to the composite. It is not subject to corrosion
when assembled in carbon fibre structure.

The fitting procedure is as follows:-
1. The Composi-Lok II fastener is inserted into the prepared hole. The installation
tool is placed over the screw simultaneously engaging the wrench flats and the
DRIVE NUT.
2. Torque is applied to the screw while the DRIVE NUT is held stationary. If the
DRIVE NUT is not already threaded down tight, then both the screw and nut body
rotate until the DRIVE NUT is ‘jammed’ against the nut body. This restrains
further rotation of the nut body. The screw continues to advance through the nut
body causing the sleeve to be drawn up over the tapered nose of the nut. Initial
blind head formation is started.
3. Continued tightening removes sheet gap, completes the large blind head and
clamps the sheets tightly together.
4. When the sleeve forms tight against the blind side of the structure the screw will
fracture in the break groove. The tool is pulled away and the pintail DRIVE NUT
assembly is discarded.

NOTES:

SECTION 7 : COMPOSITE TERMINOLOGY
Plastic The term plastic is a commonly used term to denote any

of the thermoplastic or thermosetting polymers used in
aircraft construction.
Fibre Material in a form which has a high length to thickness

ratio and is characterised by flexibility and fineness.
Filament A single fibre.
Tow An untwisted loose bundle of filaments.
Strand An untwisted compact bundle of filaments.
Roving An untwisted assembly of strands.
Yarn A twisted strand of continuous or discontinuous filaments

suitable for weaving into fabric.
Denier The weight in grams of 9000 metres of roving, tow, yarn

or strand.
Tex The weight in grams of 1000 metres of roving, tow, yarn

or strand.
Lamina, Ply A single layer of resin impregnated reinforcement.
Laminate A moulded assembly of laminae (plies).
Lay-Up The description of the components and arrangement of

reinforcement in a laminate.
Matrix The component of a composite which surrounds the

reinforcement, protects it from damage and transfers
loads to and between reinforcing fibres.
De-Lamination The failure of a laminate due to separation of the layers

(laminae).
Prepreg (Pre-impregnated Reinforcement). A combination of

reinforcement with the correct quantity of resin for
moulding, usually partially cured (to the B-stage) and
capable of shipment and handling but having a limited
storage life. A B-stage cure is the partial cure of a resin.
The resin remains flexible but can no longer glow.
Tack The stickiness of the partially cured resin in a prepreg.
Flow The movement of the resin during moulding.

Splice A join in a tow, roving or yard made by an adhesively

bonded lap joint rather than by a knot.
Catalyst (Hardener) An active reagent which causes the resin to cure.
Accelerator A material which is added to a mixture of resin and

catalyst to speed up the curing reaction.
Fabric A manufactured assembly of fibres or yarns with sufficient

mechanical strength to hold the assembly together when
handled.
End An individual roving, tow, thread, yarn or mono-filament,

especially in the warp direction.
Pick An end in the weft direction.
Warp The end running lengthwise in a woven fabric.
Weft (Fill) The end running across the width of a woven fabric.
Catenary A defect in a roving or tow caused by uneven tension in

the component filaments or strands resulting in some
fibres hanging in a loop below the remainder when the
tow or roving is stretched horizontally.
Drape The ability of a woven fabric or prepreg to conform to an

irregular shape especially a double curvature.
Size A compound applied to the reinforcement which bonds

the filaments lightly together for ease of handling and may
provide improved properties in the laminate.
Composite A material consisting of two or more different constituents

which retain their identity combined together to provide
properties unobtainable with either constituent separately.
Cure To irreversibly change the properties of a thermosetting

resin by chemical reaction with a suitable agent with or
without heat.
Post Cure The additional processing of a laminate at elevated

temperatures to improve the properties or complete the
cure of the resin.
Pot Life The length of time a resin system comprising the mixed
resin catalyst and accelerator retains a viscosity low
enough to be used satisfactorily in the moulding process.

Isotropic Having uniform properties in all directions.
Anisotropic Not isotropic, having different properties along axes in

different directions.
Modulus A measure of the stiffness or rigidity of a material which is

independent of the geometrical shape of the component.
the numerical value is obtained by dividing the stress by
the strain when a specimen is loaded within the elastic
limit.
Specific Modulus value divided by specific gravity or density in

consistent
Modulus Units.
Specific Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) divided by specific gravity

or
Strength Density in consistent units.
Eight Harness Satin A type of fabric weave. It looks different on one side than
on the other. The fabric has a seven by one weave
pattern in which a weft thread passes over seven warp
threads and then under one. This weave is more pliable
than any of the others and is especially adaptable to
forming around compound curves such as radomes.
Shelf Life The shelf life of a resin system or prepreg is the length of
time that it can be stored before the flow and tack
properties of the liquid resin or the mechanical properties
of the cured resin deteriorate too far for the material to be
used. An average shelf life for epoxy resins is 3 to 6
months. Storage at –18oC will increase shelf life.
Gel Coat A gel coat is a polyester resin which is used during the
manufacturing of the part. The mould is coated with a
colour coat of polyester resin. The plies are laid down
into the surface of the coloured gel coat and impregnated
with epoxy resin. After curing, the gel coat is on the
outside surface and provides a smooth finish.
Bolt A term used to describe a roll of fabric.

NOTES:

SECTION 8 : COMPOSITE REPAIRS

Introduction
Repairs to fibre reinforced plastic structure must always be carried out in accordance
with the Manufacturer’s Structural Repair Manual. The materials used must be
identical to the original, or be alternatives having the same properties as the original
and be approved by the SRM.
The preparation of materials and resins for aircraft repairs requires extreme care.
The correct safety precautions as described earlier, should always be observed.
Assessment of Damage
Damage may be the result of rain or hail erosion, bird strikes or impact damage,
lightning strikes or static discharge. However, in many cases, the actual damage
may be difficult to detect. This is because the surface may return to its original
shape after the impact, due to the flexibility of the material. The damage may only
be visible as a crack, crazing, scuffed paintwork, or a stain. Damage of this nature
should be investigated to make sure that no damage has occurred to the base
material. The structure and fittings should also be examined for any secondary
damage. Damage can also result from chafing against internal structure, pipes or
cables.
Damage to the surface of glassfibre laminate or honeycomb structure will allow
moisture to enter, resulting in a deterioration of the bond between the glassfibre and
the resin. Freezing and thawing of this moisture can result in a complete destruction
of the bond between the glassfibre laminations and between honeycomb core and
skins. This causes the damage to extend over a much greater area.
Moisture absorption can be checked using a moisture meter, but it must be noted
that no all moisture meters will function on carbon fibre composites, and the exterior
surface must be dry. Another method is the use of X-ray equipment.
Delamination can often be found by tapping the suspect area with a coin, or a light
hammer. This should produce a live resonant tone if the bonding is sound and a flat
dead tone, if delamination has taken place.
Repairs to Scratches, Pits and Dents
Minor damage such as scratches, pits and dents is normally repaired by first of all
cleaning the surrounding damaged area, mixing a small quantity of resin and
hardener and filling the damaged area. After the resin has cured, any unevenness
can be sanded off and the original paint finish restored.
Small Blisters and Delamination
Blisters of less than one inch diameter can be repaired by injecting mixed resin using
a hypodermic syringe. Normal practice is to drill two holes in the blister, fill the blister
with resin, the flatten it to remove the excess resin. After the resin has cured, the
surplus resin is sanded off and the paint renewed.
Edge delamination is repaired by forcing resin between the separated plies and
applying pressure until the resin has cured. The surplus resin is then sanded off and
the paint renewed.

Small Holes in Glassfibre Reinforced Structure

Holes that pass right through the skin and are less than 0.375 inches diameter can
be repaired as illustrated. A glassfibre ply is removed from either side of the skin to
a distance of at least 0.5 inches from the edge of the damage. After cleaning the
area, two pieces of glass cloth of identical thickness and weave to the original are
cut to fit into the damaged cut-out area. Two separate parts of resin are prepared.
One for impregnating the cloth, the other containing chopped glassfibres to plug the
hole. It may be necessary to support the patch during the curing period. After
curing, the area should be sanded smooth and the paint renewed.
MULTIPLE SCARFED LAMINATION REPAIR
Multiple Lamination Repair

This type of repair is permitted when a number of plies have been damaged. The
Structural Repair Manual (SRM) will indicate the type of repair to be carried out. The
scarfed type of repair is carried out as follows:
1 Clean the area and remove paint using glass paper.
2 Scarf the area surrounding the damage by sanding. Remove all
the damaged fibres, cutting back to sound material. Use a
vacuum cleaner to collect dust and particles of fibre.
3 Clean the area with acetone. Make a support for the repair.
4 Cut out patches of reinforcement which are 20 mm or so larger
than the area to be covered with the correct orientation. Also cut
out one ply of woven glass cloth 20 mm larger than the largest
patch (sanding ply).
5 Weigh out the correct resin, add hardener and mix thoroughly.
6 Brush resin onto a polythene sheet and wet out the first layer.
Place a second layer of polythene on top and use a roller to roll
out all the air.

7 Draw the outline of the patch to the exact size on the polythene
sheet (cover with masking tape if necessary) and mark the
orientation of the fibres.
8 Cut out the patch with the protective polythene film. Use tweezers
to remove the bottom polythene film and place patch in position
on the repair.
9 Roll out the patch and then carefully remove the top polythene
layer and consolidate with a bristle roller.
10 Repeat steps 6 – 9 with the subsequent layers including the
sanding ply which should be made 20 mm larger than the largest
patch.
11 Cure the repair using the hot bonder.
12 When fully cured wet sand the repair lightly.
13 Restore the paint finish.
Multiple Scarfed Lamination Repair
Resin/Hardener Ratios
Manufacturers normally state how many grammes of hardener have to be added to
100g of resin. This figure is often referred to as phr, or parts per hundred of resin.
For instance, the data sheet might say:
Recommended hardener loading (phr) = 60
This means that 100g of epoxy resin requires 60g of hardener for a complete cure.
Resin/hardener ratios vary immensely from as low as 10phr to as high as 150phr for
normal use. 100phr means that equal proportions of resin and hardener are mixed
together.

If the final weight of resin/hardener mix was 35g. How much resin and how much
hardener is required to give this total.
Resin hardener ratio = 100:60
Proportion of resin = weight of resin
total weight
= 100 = 0.625
160
Weight of resin needed = Total weight x proportion of resin

= 35 x 0.625 = 21.87g
Hardener required = 35 - 21.87 = 13.13g

Repair to Honeycomb Core and One Facing
Single Surface Honeycomb Damage
When the core and one facing have been damaged, the core and facing must be cut
back to sound material. A typical repair is carried out as follows:
1 Cut out the damage to the smallest circular or oval shape, using a hole saw or
router. The lower facing should be supported and the minimum pressure used.

2 Scarf the surface laminations to form a shallow depression, with a taper of 0.5
inches for each ply.
3 Sand the exposed core and surface of the lower facing. Sand the surface for one
inch around the repair.
4 Clean the area with acetone.
5 Cut a section of replacement core, to fit the
cut-out area. Ensure that the node lines of
the replacement core are parallel to the node
lines of the original core. Lightly sand the
bottom and sides of the new core and wash
in acetone. Sometimes the damaged core is
replaced with a mixture of resin and
micro-balloons.
Honeycomb Replacement Core
Coat all mating surfaces of the core and cut-out with catalysed resin and
press the core into position.
Repair the facing as described in the scarfed repair to fibre laminated
structure.
Cure the repair using the hot bonder.

Repair to Honeycomb and Both Facings
Honeycomb with Through Damage
This repair is carried out in two stages. The damage is cleaned up as described
previously. A scarf repair is carried out on the outer facing. The replacement core is
held in place using a distance piece the same thickness as the inner facing, and a
shaped mould.
Honeycomb with Through Damage Trimmed and Scarfed
Honeycomb with Through Damage with Core and Outer Skin Repaired

When the resin has been cured, the inner facing is then repaired.
RADOMES AND DIELECTRIC PANELS

In many cases it is not permitted to carry out repairs to radomes or dielectric panels.
Any repair must produce the same strength, contour, thickness and density, as the
original.
When repairs are carried out to repairable panels, a suitable means of measuring the
thickness of the repair must be available.
Repairs are similar to the repairs carried out to other parts of similar construction.
Dimensional limits for certain areas of the radome may be specified in the repair
manual. It may also be specified that electrical tests be carried out on completion of
the repairs.
Scarfed and stepped repairs, similar to those applicable to other glassfibre laminated
structures, are applicable to radomes and dielectric panels. The main difference
being the need to minimise any increase in thickness of the structure.

Curing Repairs using the Hot Bonder

After laying up a repair using reinforcing fibres and epoxy resin, the layers must be
compressed together and any excess resin in the composite removed.
Earlier, autoclave curing of a composite component was described. After layup of
the component, the whole composite is placed inside the autoclave where both
temperature and pressure can be controlled and monitored. The high pressure in
the autoclave helps to compress the layers of fibre reinforcement and squeeze out
any excess resin. A vacuum is applied to the composite to remove any air bubbles
that form between the layers of fibre. This procedure produces a string compact
composite which has the best fibre/resin ratio and contains no voids or air bubbles.
For many repairs it is impracticable to use an autoclave, so the vacuum bagging
technique is used. In this process, atmospheric pressure is used to compress the
layers together.
The maximum pressure available using atmospheric pressure is about 100 kpA
(15lbs/sq.in.): much less than that available in an autoclave but sufficient for small to
medium size repairs.
Composite Repairs using Vacuum Bagging

Vacuum Bagging
Composite repairs are vacuum bagged for the following reasons:
 To bond the repair to the original component and bond together
the various layers of the repair.
 The fibre/resin ratio is controlled by removing excess resin.
 The correct temperature and time cycle can be applied to the resin
(cure cycle).
 To produce a good surface on the final repair.

 There are several layers of material within the vacuum bag as

follows:
 Release Film – The non-stick release film allows the vacuum
bagging materials to be separated from the repair after curing. It
may be a perforated clear film or a woven fabric such as nylon.
 Thermocouples – They are placed directly over the repair or even in
the repair itself. They allow the hot bonding machine to monitor
the temperature of the repair during the during cycle.
 Bleeder Fabric – The bleeder fabric absorbs the resin bleeding out
of the repair, at the same time allowing air to pass through so that
the repair is properly evacuated. Bleeder fabric is a thick non-
woven cloth made from synthetic fibre.
 Heater Blanket – A silicon rubber heater blanket is used to provide
the heat required to cure the repair. The heating element is
sandwiched between two layers of silicon rubber sheet. Being
silicon rubber, the sheet will not stick to resins and can withstand
high temperatures.
 Insulation – Normally four to six layers of breather fabric can be
used to insulate the repair against heat loss. The insulation also
helps to maintain a free path for the vacuum.
 Vacuum Bag –The vacuum bag is normally a flexible nylon film.
The nylon bag is sealed onto the panel undergoing repair by a strip
of sealant all round the repair. The sealant also seals around the
electric blanket and thermocouple leads.
 Air is drawn out from under the film through a vacuum connector
which is attached to the bag material. A vacuum gauge is attached
to the bag on the opposite side of the repair.
Resin Curing Cycles
The high performance epoxy resins used for advanced composite repair are
normally cured by the application of heat. The temperature required varies and can
be as high as 200C for a particular repair. Normally the required temperature is
built up over a period of time, held constant for a time and then the repair is allowed
to cool.
Increasing the temperature over a period gives the resin time to flow before it gels
and cures. This is particularly important when using prepregs in the repair. If the
resin is heated too rapidly, it does not have time to flow before it gels. This results in
a poorly consolidated repair and a large amount of voiding. Too slow a ramp rate
and the resin may have too much time to flow. Too much resin is squeezed out of
the fibre leaving it too dry which also leads to a large amount of voiding.

A typical stepped cure cycle might be:

 15 minutes at 65C
 30 minutes at 130C
 3 hours at 160C
Apart from controlling the temperature, it is also necessary to control the amount of
vacuum applied to the repair. A high vacuum might suck too much resin out of the
repair. A low vacuum may produce a weak repair because of poor consolidation of
the plies and trapped air.
Hot bonding machines are used to provide the correct vacuum and can also be
programmed to provide accurate control of temperature during the curing cycle. Hot
bonders also incorporate alarms which warn of high and low temperatures or
incorrect vacuum.

NOTES:

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AIR

A Subsidiary of Perth College

Practical: Aircraft Repairs

Aeronautical Engineering Training Notes

All Rights Reserved

CHAPTER 1 : SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

CHAPTER 3 : PIPES AND HOSES

CHAPTER 7 : CONTROL CABLES

Issued March 2010 Contents 1

CHAPTER 8 : SHEET METAL WORK

CHAPTER 9 : BRAZING, WELDING & BONDING

CHAPTER 10 : COMPOSITE & NON-METALIC MATERIALS

2 Contents Issued March 2010

CHAPTER 1 : SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Issued March 2010 Chapter 1 : Section 1 1

2 Chapter 1 : Section 1 Issued March 2010

CHAPTER 2 : RIVETING – 7.8

Rivets Standards, Identification and Classification

Issued March 2010 Chapter 2 : Section 1 3

Types of Manufacturer’s Heads

MUSHROOM HEAD: for skin covering to give maximum strength

4 Chapter 2 : Section 1 Issued March 2010

COUNTERSUNK: for flush finish (90, 100, 120 head).

RAISED COUNTERSUNK: close tolerance rivets.

UNIVERSAL HEAD: SP metric rivets.

100 COUNTERSUNK TRUNCATED RADIUSED HEAD: SP metric rivets.

Issued March 2010 Chapter 2 : Section 1 5

Allowances for Riveting

Typical values are:

6 Chapter 2 : Section 1 Issued March 2010

Rivet Grip Length

Holes for countersunk-headed rivets must be either cut countersunk or dimpled to

Issued March 2010 Chapter 2 : Section 1 7

8 Chapter 2 : Section 1 Issued March 2010

Issued March 2010 Chapter 2 : Section 1 9

Solid Riveting Procedures

Solid Riveting Tools

10 Chapter 2 : Section 1 Issued March 2010

Solid Riveting Procedures

The steps in forming snaphead rivets are as follows:

Issued March 2010 Chapter 2 : Section 1 11

12 Chapter 2 : Section 1 Issued March 2010

Riveting with Power Tools

Issued March 2010 Chapter 2 : Section 1 13

14 Chapter 2 : Section 1 Issued March 2010

SECTION 2 : RIVETED JOINTS

Issued March 2010 Chapter 2 : Section 2 15

RIVET PITCH AND POSITION

16 Chapter 2 : Section 2 Issued March 2010

Types of Rivet Spacing

Staggered Riveting Used as an alternative to multiple chain in watertight

Issued March 2010 Chapter 2 : Section 2 17

Types of Rivets Joints

JOGGLED LAP JOINT

SINGLE STRAP BUTT JOINT

18 Chapter 2 : Section 2 Issued March 2010

DOUBLE STRAP BUTT JOINT

Flange Joint Used on structural members, such as ribs, frames, etc,

Issued March 2010 Chapter 2 : Section 2 19

Guide to Rivet Pitch and Position