Oes 2022 0003 Zhangyan

Opto-Electronic Review
Science 2022, Vol. 1, No. 8
DOI: 10.29026/oes.2022.220003
Terahertz generation from laser-induced plasma

Wenfeng Sun1,2, Xinke Wang1,2 and Yan Zhang1,2*
Interest of the research in terahertz (THz) wave has been strongly motivated by its wide applications in the fields of phys-
ics, chemistry, biology, and engineering. Developing efficient and reliable THz source is of uttermost priority in these re-
searches. Numerous attempts have been made in fulfilling the THz generation. Greatly benefited from the progress of the
ultrafast pulses, the laser-induced-plasma is one of the auspicious tools to provide desirable THz waves, owing to its su-
periorities in high power threshold, intense THz signal, and ultrawide THz spectrum. This paper reviews the physics and
progress of the THz generation from the laser-induced plasmas, which are produced by gas, liquid, and solid. The char-
acteristics of the emitted THz waves are also included. There are many complicated physical processes involved in the
interactions of laser-plasma, making various laser-plasma scenarios in the THz generations. In view of this, we will only
focus on the THz generation classified by physical mechanisms. Finally, we discuss a perspective on the future of THz
generation from the laser-induced plasma, as well as its involved challenges.
Keywords: terahertz generation; ultrafast pulses; laser-induced plasma
Sun WF, Wang XK, Zhang Y. Terahertz generation from laser-induced plasma. Opto-Electron Sci 1, 220003 (2022).
Introduction terials, such as plastic, paper, and cloth, which makes it

promising in the nondestructive evaluation. As the di-
Terahertz (THz) band is sandwiched between the mi-
pole-allowed rotational and vibrational transition of mo-
crowave (MW) and infrared (IR) in the electromagnetic
lecules undergoing within the THz range, so it features
spectrum, spanning from 0.1 THz to 10 THz. The THz
signature fingerprint in the forms of the THz spectrum;
waves can be accessed by electronics and photonics tech-
As the wavelength of THz wave is on the order of tens
nologies. In the last decades, the continuous supplies of
micrometers, the spatial resolution is higher than that of
new devices and materials by the progresses in the fields
MW when it is used in imaging. With these perform-
of photonics and electronics have bridged the THz gap.
ances, it has been proved to be particularly valuable in
As it is an area of convergence between the fields of elec- the characterization of semiconductor1−3, biology4−6, dia-
tronics and photonics, there are many significant fea- gnose the dynamics of water molecules7, non-destructive
tures in the THz band. Photo energy at 1 THz is only 4.3 testing8−10, homeland security9, and THz communica-
meV, far lower than that of an X-ray photon. At such en- tion11−13. Instead of using weak fields to observed THz
ergy level, ionizing a living cell with a THz source seems modes, one can also use strong THz field to actively trig-
to be hard. Therefore, unlike the X-ray, the THz radi- ger nonlinear THz responses of materials14−25, induces
ation is relatively safe for the sample to be detected; the materials to a new state26−31, rapid phase transitions32
Compared with IR, Mie scattering hardly happens to the or even THz atom probe microscopy33.
THz waves, owning to its longer wavelength. Therefore, Impressive advance has been achieved in the develop-
it is transparent for non-polar and non-conducting ma- ment of THz radiation in the recent years, owing to the
1Department of Physics, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China; 2Beijing Key Lab of Metamaterials and Devices, and Key Laboratory of
Terahertz Optoelectronics, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100048, China.
*Correspondence: Y Zhang, E-mail: yzhang@cnu.edu.cn
Received: 15 March 2022; Accepted: 17 May 2022; Published online: 4 August 2022
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
© The Author(s) 2022. Published by Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
220003-1
Sun WF et al. Opto-Electron Sci 1, 220003 (2022) https://doi.org/10.29026/oes.2022.220003
fast progress of femtosecond lasers. Specifically, the en- sociated with the induced plasma in liquid and solid me-
ergy of table-top femtosecond laser is increasing after the dia will be discussed, as well as their physical mechan-
onset of the technology of chirped pulses amplification. isms and the attempts to improve the performances of
There are several commonly used technologies to gener- the generated THz waves. Liquids will not be considered
ate THz waves, including photoconductive antenna as the target to be irradiated by relativistic laser pulse. Fi-
(PCA)34−37, optical rectification (OR)38−41, and plasma42−44. nally, we summarize these THz generation scenarios and
For the scheme of THz generation based on plasma, if discuss the future development and challenges of
the optical field strength is high enough to separate elec- plasma-driven THz sources in Section Summary and
trons from a media, the formed plasma will emit THz outlook.
waves. Moreover, there are extraordinarily high damage
threshold for the plasma scheme, which means high-en- THz generation from laser-induced plasma
ergy laser pulses can be employed for THz generation. As in gas
a result, the laser-induced plasma is a more promising When femtosecond pulses propagate in optical media, a
way to generate THz waves. It is common to group vari- plasma will be formed as the result of ionization if the
ous forms of matter into distinct states, such as gas, li- optical field strength is sufficiently intense to separate
quid, and solid. These matters are made from atoms, electrons. THz waves radiate from the laser-induced-air
which are electrically neutral. Under some conditions, plasma. As for the involved pump optical field, the
such as the interaction of strong electric field of femto- scheme of THz generation from air plasma can be di-
second laser pulse, these matters will be ionized to set vided into two parts. One is pumped by optical pulses
free electrical charges and induce the plasma. With the with one central wavelength, as called one/single-color
onset of plasma, the THz wave can be radiated out. The field. The other one is pumped by optical pulses with two
schematic diagram of THz generation from plasma is central wavelengths, as called two-color field. The ultra-
shown in Fig. 1. Three states of matters are different in fast pulses with the central wavelength of 800 nm are
their own physical characters, leading to different scen- commonly used in the former, while the pulses with the
arios of THz generations. central wavelength of 800 nm and its second harmonic of
In this paper, we will focus on the THz generation by 400 nm are usually used in the latter. The physical mech-
laser-induced plasma in gas, liquid, and solid. Since anisms and characters of THz generation are different,
laser-plasma interactions in plasma are quite complic- owing to the involved pump fields.
ated, we will discuss only the various THz generation un-
der different targets, including corresponding mechan- Physical mechanisms for THz generation from
isms and characters of the radiated THz waves, while less
laser-induced-gas plasma
ionization dynamics are involved. This paper is organ-
ized as follows: In Section THz generation from laser-in- THz generation from gas plasma induced by one-color
duced plasma in gas, we will introduce the THz wave pulse
generation from air plasma induced by one/two-color As demonstrated by Hamster, the experimental condi-
pulses. All the THz generation are pumped by laser tion of this THz generation scenario is quite simple that
pulses with the intensity lower than 1018 W/cm2 , at a so- a formed plasma is enough. In this experiment, the laser
called nonrelativistic level. In Sections THz generation pulse with the pulse width of 120 fs and energy of 50 mJ
from laser-induced-liquid plasma and THz generation was focused to form plasma, a pulsed radiation of elec-
from laser-induced-solid plasma, the THz generation as- tromagnetic wave at THz frequency was observed
Plasma in gas
Plasma in
liquid
Plasma in solid
Fig. 1 | Schematic diagram of THz generation from laser-induced plasma in gas, liquid, and solid.
220003-2
thereafter. Theoretically, the ponderomotive force accel- of a diploe, in which the laser pulses spatially separate the
erating the free electrons induces polarization, which was electrons from the heavier ions to induce the dipole. The
considered to be the mechanism of the THz generation. dipole moment along z-axis in the plasma channel in-
The ponderomotive force is described by45−47 duce the longitudinal current, which can be written as
e2 Iopt J (r, t) = −eNe (∂S/∂t)z , here Ne is the electron density
Fpm = −∇ , (1) and S is the longitudinal electron-ion separation, r is the
2ε0 cme ω2opt
spatial vector, z is the vector along z-axis, t is time. The
here e and me are the charge and mass of the particle, re-
current oscillating along the z-axis radiates a symmetric
spectively. Iopt and ωopt are the intensity and frequency of
THz wave as
the femtosecond pulses. ε0 and c are the permittivity and ( )
light speed in vacuum, respectively. The ponderomotive 1 ∂2 ∂J
∇ −
2
Erad (r, t) = μ0 , (2)
force model which describes the THz generation is illus- c ∂t ∂t
trated in Fig. 248. here Erad is the radiated electromagnetic field, μ0 is the
When laser pulse propagates in the air, it is subjected permeability in vacuum. The impact of the dipole contri-
to the effects of diffraction, energy depletion, plasma de- bution to the THz generation from the plasma induced
focusing, and nonlinear Kerr, which lead to an optical in- by femtosecond pulses was also investigated experiment-
tensity gradient. The spatiotemporal optical intensity ally and theoretically50.
gradient causes the ponderomotive force on the elec- In 2002, M. Kolesik presented a unidirectional optical
trons. The forces applied to the electrons make them to pulse propagation equation (UPPE) to illustrate in the
accelerate and oscillate, resulting in plasma current. The context of super continuum generation in the air51,52. In
axial and transverse components of plasma current have this propagation equation, various correction terms, in-
velocities close to the group velocity of the laser pulse. cluding the linear and nonlinear terms, in the envelope
The induced plasma current travels with laser pulse and approximation can be turned on or off, thus the corres-
emits electromagnetic pulse (EMP). That is so-called ponding effect can be evaluated. This model is also illus-
ponderomotive force model. The axial EMP electric field trated in the context of extreme focusing on a femto-
outside the filament is small due to shielding by surface second pulse. The UPPE provides a seamless transition
charges at the air-plasma boundary. Note that, the char- from Maxwell’s equation to the various envelope-based
acteristic frequency of the EMP measured outside of the models. These characters make the description of the
plasma depends on the laser pulse duration and not on EMP radiation more flexible and comprehensive. L.
the local plasma frequency48. Technically, the pon- Berge et al. combined the UPPE and local current model
deromotive force, radiation pressure force, as well as ion- and performed a lot of nice works in the THz generation
induced by two-color pulse53−56. The unidirectional pulse
ization are all included in this model.
propagation model for linearly polarized pulses can be
C. Cheng presented a model to elucidate the physics
written as,
underlying the THz generation from a femtosecond
√ μ ω2
pulse induced plasma49. This so-called dipole model can ∂z E = i k(ω) − k2x − k2y E + i 0 PNL ,
2
(3)
be described by the process of electromagnetic emission 2k(ω)
Distorted Iaser pulse

envelope
Jr λp
Vg x
Air
Jz
z
Modulated plasma filament cτL
Fig. 2 | Schematic diagram of THz generation by the ponderomotive force. Jr, Jz are the radial and axial currents, respectively. λp is plasma
wavelength. τL is laser pulse duration. Figure reproduced with permission from ref.48, American Physical Society.
220003-3
here E = E(kx , ky , z, ω) represents the Fourier transform, The spectral intensity of the transition-Cherenkov
with respect to transverse coordinates and time, of the emission reads as
electric field. k(ω) = ωn(ω)/c is the wave number. The [ ]
d2 WTHz re W2L ω2 v2e 2 ωL
nonlinear polarization PNL = PKerr + iJe /ω + iJloss /ω ori- = sin (1 − cosθ) , (4)
dωdΩ 16π2 me c3 ω40 θ2 2c
ginates from the Kerr effect, the electron current Je and a
here re is the electron classical radius, νe is the electron
photon absorption term Jloss.
collision frequency. WL and WTHz are the energy of laser
In 2007, D’Amico reported the generation of THz
and THz pulses. ω0 is the central frequency of laser pulse,
emission in the air as a new mechanism, which offers the
L is the plasma length, Ω is the solid angle of radiation, θ
advantages of simplicity57,58. In their experiment, the
is the THz radiation angle related with the laser propaga-
laser with the energy of 4 mJ per pulse, repeat rate of 10
tion axis. One has to consider the ratio of THz
Hz, a central wavelength of 800 nm, and a width of 150 fs wavelength over the plasma length is an important factor
has been focused in the air with a 2 m focal length lens to in this expression. With this transition-Cherenkov mod-
create a single filament. The experimental setup is shown el, the THz radiations from a single-color filament in
in Fig. 3. The spectral component of the THz radiation both time and frequency domains were investigated50. It
from the plasma filament was measured by means of a was found that the plasma density, electron collision fre-
heterodyne detector. The strong forward directed THz quency, and pulse duration play important roles in the
radiation was attributed from the laser induced plasma generated THz peak frequency and width of the THz
to a transition-Cherenkov emission since the electric spectrum.
current in the plasma moves behind the ionization front
THz generation from plasma induced by two-color
at light velocity. Compared with the Cherenkov emis-
pulse
sion, there is no net charge in the plasma and only a di-
In the senior of THz generation from plasma induced by
pole-like structure is moving in the plasma. Additionally,
one-color pulses, optics-THz conversion efficiency is
the THz wave can be generated even if the velocity of the
lower than 10–7, which cannot be used practically.
ionization front is exactly the same as the light velocity.
However, the plasma from gas was still regarded as a
In this model, the source term Sz is derived by the work
promising target to radiate strong THz waves, owing to
of Spangle et al48. The induced current can be written as
its high damage threshold and accessible phase match-
jz (ω) = iε0 ωEz (ω), here Ez (ω) is the field strength of
ing in gas. Hence, the scheme of plasma induced by one-
plasma wave, ω is the frequency. With this current, the
eikr color pulses turns to two-color pulses.
vector potential A will be obtained as, A (r) = μ0 Jω,k, In 2000, Cook and his coworkers used the femto-
4πr
k is the field wave vector, r is radiation radius. Thus, the second pulses with the fundamental wave (FW) and
magnetic B = curlA and the radiated electric field can be second harmonic wave (SHW) to form a plasma channel
obtained by its cross product of n and B. for THz waves generation59. They found that the
Laser-plasma
filament
X THz wave
vf
θ
Y α Z
Lens, f
Metallic grid To the

polarizer heterodyne
detector
Metallic
waveguide
Fig. 3 | Schematic of experimental setup for measurement of THz waves from transition-Cherenkov emission. Figure reproduced with
permission from ref.57, American Physical Society.
220003-4
amplitude of THz waves is surprisingly stronger than vidual control of the phase, polarization, and amplitude
that of the plasma induced by the single-color pulse. of the FW and SHW61. The measurement results show
They attributed this THz radiation to four-wave rectific- that the THz amplitude is proportionate to the intensity
ation (FWR), in which the third-order susceptibility was of FW and the square root of the intensity of SHW, as
considered in the process of the radiation. shown in Fig. 5. They attributed it as the third-order
In 2004, Markus Kress measured the dependence of nonlinear process mixing FW and SHW in the ionized
the THz signal on the BBO-to-focus distance60. As pre- plasma, called four-wave mixing (FWM)61. The gener-
dicted from the four-wave rectification model, the max- ated THz field can be written as
imal THz amplitude relies on the relative phase between
ETHz (t) ∝ χ (3) E2ω (t) E∗ω (t) E∗ω (t) cos(φ) , (5)
the FW and SHW φ = ω/c(2n2ω − nω )d, here nω and n2ω
are the refractive indices for FW and SHW, respectively. here E2ω and Eω are the electric field of the SHW and FW,
d is the distance between the BBO crystal to the focus. respectively. χ 3 is the third-order susceptibility. With this
They found that the phase shift between the FW and model, the experimental results can be explained well.
SHW has a great impact on the generated THz signal, as Initially, the proposed FWM model explained success-
shown in Fig. 460. fully the physical mechanism of THz radiation from the
In 2006, X. Xie studied the THz generation from the plasma induced by two-color pulse. However, it did not
plasma induced by two-color pulses through the indi- provide the microscopy origin of the nonlinearity. For
5
Lens BBO Focus
4 Measurements
Lin. fit extremes
3 Fit
THz amplitude (kV/cm)
d
2
−1
−2
8 10 12 14 16 18
BBO-to-focus distance d (cm)
Fig. 4 | Dependence of THz signal on the phase shift between the FW and SHW. The distance of BBO-to-focus corresponds the variety of
the phase shift between the two-color pulses. Figure reproduced with permission from ref.60, The Optical Society.
a 1.2 b
1.0
1.0
I400 nm=107 μJ I800 nm=165 μJ
THz amplitude (a.u.)
0.8
0.8
0.6 0.6
ETHz ∝ √￣
I400 nm
0.4 0.4
ETHz ∝ I800 nm
0.2
0.2
0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
I800 nm (μJ) I400 nm (μJ)
Fig. 5 | Dependence of THz field on the electric field strength of (a) FW and (b) SHW. Figure reproduced with permission from ref.61, American
Physical Society.
220003-5
the same FWM model, the third –order susceptibility dJ (t)

ETHz = . (11)
tensor gives different results on the THz polarization60,62. dt
And then, Kim et al. proposed a plasma current model to Recent reports reveal that both the FWM and photo-
explain the mechanism of THz generation63,64. Some pa- current models work in the THz generation from the
pers have well explained the current model53−55,65−67. In two-color induced plasma68,69, note that plasma conver-
this model, when the symmetry of the bipolarity in the sion usually prevails over Kerr response once photoion-
total laser field is broken, an electron current arises dur- ization sets in.
ing the ionization, and results in THz emission. The total
laser field containing the FW and SHW with the same Characteristics of THz wave generated from laser-
polarization can be written as induce-gas plasma
( 2) Compared with the physical mechanism of THz genera-
−t
EL (t) = [Eω cos(ωt) + E2ω (2ωt + ϕ)] exp , (6) tion from laser-induced plasma, more efforts have been
2T20
put into improving the performance of THz wave, in-
here T0 is the duration of FW. With two-color fields, the
cluding THz amplitude/conversion efficiency, spectrum,
molecular have been ionized in air. The ionization rate
polarization, and spatial distribution.
can be given by
( [( ) ]) THz amplitude/conversion efficiency
Ea 2 Ea
w (t) = 4ωa exp − , (7) Many attempts have been put on to enhance the THz
EL (t) 3 EL (t)
−2
amplitude/conversion efficiency by means of external
here ωa = (4πε0 ) me e4 /h3 is the atomic frequency.
−3
DC electric field, length of the filament, focusing condi-
Ea = (4πε0 ) me 2 e5 /h4 is the atomic field, h is the Planck’
tion of the pump pulse, wavelength/harmonic compon-
s constant. With the time of ionization, the increases rate ent of the pump pulse, and other optical parameters of
of free electrons can be written as laser pulses.
dN (t) Since the THz signal emitted from the plasma in-
= w (t) [N0 − N(t )] , (8)
dt duced by a single-color pulse is rather weak, an external
here N (t) denotes the electron density. N0 is the initial DC based electric field has been exerted on the plasma
electron density. The velocity at time t can be written as induced by a single-color pulse. The schematic of the
( )w typical experimental setup is shown in Fig. 6(a)70. In this
e t
v (t, t′ ) = − dtE(t′′ )exp[−γ(t − t′′ )] , (9) work, a model based on transition-Cherenkov was used
me t′
to explain the experimental results. When an external
here t′ is the ionization instant when the electron is born.
DC based electric field was brought to the ionized
γ is the phenomenological collision rate(γ ≈ 5 ps−1 ). The
plasma region along direction X, the current leading to
electron current can be given by
wt THz wave can be written as
J (t) = − ev(t, t′ )dN (t′ ) , (10) ε0 Es ω2pe
∞
Jω = , (12)
and the generated THz field is given by ω2 − ω2pe + iνe ω
a b 40
35
Electric
field Es 30
25
20
15
10
Laser at ω X
THz wave 5
0
Z
Y −5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Eex (kV/cm)
Fig. 6 | (a) Schematic of experimental setup for THz generation based on external electric fields in single color plasma and (b) experimental res-
ults. Figure reproduced with permission from: (a) ref.70, American Physical Society; (b) ref.71, The Optical Society.
220003-6
here, ωpe is the plasma frequency, Es is the external stat- showed that the energy conversion efficiency is of
istic electric field. With this relation, this model predicts 7 × 10−4, about 7 times better than the spherical lens fo-
a relation of the radiated THz energy to the applied field cusing. In addition, there are other reports about the
as contribution of the focusing condition on the THz radi-
π 2 4 ω3pe ation enhancement88−91.
WTHz ≈ ε0 E r L , (13) The parameters of the femtosecond pulse are import-
8 s 0 c2 ν e
ant factors to be used in increasing the energy of THz ra-
here, r0 is the radius of plasma. The enhancement of THz
diation. Conventionally, pulses of the FW at 800 nm and
is also considered as a result of the increase of second
SHW at 400 nm are used to induce plasma and emit THz
harmonic current when there is an external DC electric
wave. In the scheme of THz generation from the plasma
field in the plasma region71. With this increased second
induced by two-color pulse, the electric current obtains a
harmonic current, the enhanced THz wave was ex-
drift velocity that scales linearly with the wavelength of
plained via the magnetic vector potential and scalar po-
laser pulse (νd ∝ λ). It was reported that the THz energy
tential. In the experiment, above 1000-fold enhancement
scales as ∝ λ2 or ∝ λ4.6. A. Nguyen et al. reported THz
of the radiated THz energy has been observed, when a
energy scaling like λa0 with large exponents
static electric field exerting on the plasma. The experi-
5.6 ≤ a ≤ 14.3, which departs from the growth in λ2 ex-
mental results are shown in Fig. 6(b). Additionally, there
pected from photocurrent theory56. Although the scales
are other electric fields exerting technology and theoret-
are not coincident, the results show that a longer laser
ical explanations for this THz generation from the DC
wavelength is desirable to get higher energy. Efficient
based plasma72−74.
THz generation from air plasma via mid-infrared coher-
Since the laser beam is focused to form a plasma
ent control has been investigated experimentally and the-
which emits THz waves, the number of filaments has
oretically92−95. In 2020, it was demonstrated that two-col-
been considered as a way to increase the energy of the
or plasma induced by femtosecond mid-infrared laser
output THz waves. Two filaments75−77 or even filament
pulse at 3.9 μm can generate THz wave with sub-mJ en-
array78,79 have been formed in the experiments with the
ergy and the THz conversion efficiency is about 2.36%96.
technology of coherent syntheses. The radiated THz
The record of 2.36% is partly due to the change of pump
wave is about 1 order of magnitude more intense than
polarization. Using the circularly-polarized two-color
that from a single-filament under the same experimental
pulse can increase the THz energy yield97,98. Another pos-
condition.
sibility for increasing THz yield is to increase the num-
It is noted that the length of the plasma can modify the
ber of colors65,67,99. The harmonic component involved in
THz field generated from the two-color pulse induced
the formation of plasma is also an important factor for
plasma, in which the filamentation process was
the enhancement of THz generation100−102. It was shown
tailored80. Therefore, the approaches of increasing the
experimentally that the efficient THz occurs at the con-
length of plasma to increase the THz signal have also
dition of new rations of ω2 /ω1 = 1 : 4 or 2 : 3, which are
been investigated81−84. In their experiments, they ob-
the uncommon frequency ratios in the two-color
served that THz amplitude increased with the length of
scheme103 can be achieved. Chirped pulse104,105 and carri-
the plasma channel.
er-envelope phase106,107 are also the parameters of femto-
It is well known that the plasma can be formed by fo-
second pulses to enhance the THz energy.
cusing laser pulses. Therefore, the focusing conditions
were considered for getting intense THz radiation. K. Liu THz spectrum
et al. demonstrated that a 5.3-time enhanced THz pulse As described above, the THz signal generated from air
energy was observed when the plasma was formed by ab- plasma induced by one-color pulse is rather weak, lead-
ruptly autofocusing laser beam85. The feedback wave ing to a low signal noise ratio (SNR). Accordingly, its
front was manipulated to get the best focus to enhance Fourier-transformed spectrum is with low SNR too. To
the THz radiation, in which a 6 folds improvement was demonstrate the spectrum of THz wave generated from
obtained86. A cylindrical lens was used to focus the plasma induced by one-color pulse, the external electric
femtosecond pulse to avoid plasma-induced laser defo- field was applied in the plasma region70. In the experi-
cusing and subsequent THz saturation87. The results ment, the THz signal was characterized by a plasma-based
220003-7
technology108,109. The results are shown in Fig. 7(a). It can second pulse was controlled by the method of inserting a
be seen that the SNR in the THz spectrum is still quite fixed phase plate, which subsequently manipulated the
low although an external electric field is exerted on the profile distribution of the radiated THz spectrum80. Re-
plasma region. It also shows that the bandwidth of the cently, Y. Zhang reported a simple and energy-saving
spectrum spans to ~10 THz. Moreover, the spectrum of method for actively modulating the output THz waves
THz wave generated from air plasma induced by two- spectrum with a liquid crystal spatial light modulator
color pulse was also measured. In the experiment, the (LC-SLM)115. The LC-SLM actively controls the wave-
THz spectrum was measured by Fourier-transform in- front of femtosecond pulses and facilitates the replace-
frared spectrometry. The result is shown in Fig. 7(b)110. It ment of the fixed phase plate. The schematic of the ex-
can be found that the THz spectrum spans to ~20 THz perimental setup and results are shown in Fig. 8. In the
with a higher SNR. Though different detection methods experiment, two focuses are formed and adjusted by the
were used in characterizing the spectrum of THz wave phase distribution on the SLM to induce two serial plas-
generated from air plasma, the results show that under mas with spatiotemporal intervals. With this proposed
the same experimental conditions the spectrum of THz method, the modulation of THz spectrum has been ob-
wave generated from air plasma is wider than that from served and the amplitude dip has been manipulated, as
other optics-to-THz methods, which may be owing to shown in Fig. 8(b). Filamentary gratings have also been
the lack of quantum absorption in air plasma. Addition- demonstrated as a frequency modulator116. Additionally,
ally, the results show that the spectrum of THz wave gen- the spectrum of THz radiation can also be controlled by
erated from plasma induced by two-color pulse is wider
tailoring two-color laser beams117.
than that by the one-color one.
Usually, a formed plasma emits THz pulses with a Polarization
fixed spectrum, modulated THz spectrum may provide Polarization of THz radiation emitted from plasma has
more potential applications. Many attempts have been been initially investigated in the aspect of measurement
tried to modify the profile distribution of the radiated and characterization. In 2007, D’Amico observed that
THz spectrum111−113. As an easy and practicable way, the the plasma induced by single-color pulse emits radially
temporal coherence of THz pulses has been considered polarized THz waves57, as shown in Fig. 9. In the meas-
to be utilized in modifying the output THz spectrum114. urement, a metallic grid polarizer was used to detect the
In experiments, the THz waves were generated by two polarization of emitted THz waves. From the figure, it
optical paths, in which the femtosecond pulses were con- can be found that the radiated THz wave is radially po-
trolled to induce plasma separately. By adjusting the time larized. The radial polarization has also been observed in
delay between the pulses in two paths, the superposition ref.118. So far, the radial polarization of THz radiation
of THz waves generated in two paths resulted in modu- from plasma induced by a single-color pulse is univer-
lated spectra. After that, the wavefront of the femto- sally accepted.
a b
Amplitude (a.u.)
0.5 Delay (fs)

−500 −250 0 250 500
10
Field correlation
0 1.0
0.5
Spectral intensity (a.u.)
8
−0.5
(a.u.)
0
−2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
6 −0.5
t (ps)
0.1 −1.0
Amplitude (a.u.)
0.01 2
10−3 0
0 5 10 15 20
0 2 4 6 8 10 Frequency (THz)
Frequency (THz)
Fig. 7 | THz signals generated from air plasma induced by (a) one-color pulse and (b) two-color pulse. Simulation result is shown by the red line
in (a). Figure reproduced with permission from: (a) ref.70, American Physical Society; (b) ref.110, under a Creative Commons Attribution licence.
220003-8
For the case of THz wave from plasma induced by individually controlling the polarization of the pulses of
two-color pulse, the process of condition is rather com- FW and SHW beams, the plasma induced by two-color
plicated. In 2009, the polarization of THz waves from pulses can also emit THz signal with linear-to-elliptical
plasma induced by two-color pulse has been investigated polarization128. By inducing the circularly polarized
experimentally and theoretically119. It was shown that the femtosecond pulse to form plasma, elliptically polarized
polarization of THz wave is linear when both the pulses THz waves radiation have been observed129.
of FW and SHW are linear polarized. The THz radiation
Spatiotemporal distribution
generated by circularly-polarized pump waves (FW and
Great efforts have been put into the investigation of the
SHW) with the same helicity may be observed not lin-
spatial distribution of THz wave generated from the laser
early polarized in the experiment, which is out of the ex-
induced plasma. For the scenario of single-color, the spa-
pectation of plane wave theory. It owns to the spatial
tial distribution is commonly believed to be conical. But
alignment and non-collinear propagation of the two-col-
in the case of two-color, the spatial distribution may be
or pulses98. The mechanism of elliptically polarized THz
rather various, including bell-shape, conical shape, and
wave generation in femtosecond two-color induced
plasma has also been investigated120−122. After that, the re- ring-shape. In the early time of the exploration, the ob-
search on the polarization of THz radiation from the served results mostly depend on the detection methods
two-color pulse induced plasma has been turned to con- used in the experiments, including line scanning, raster
trolling123−125. Various polarization of THz wave can be scanning, and CCD array detecting.
realized via modifying the polarization of laser pulse or H. Zhong induced the technology of line-scanning in-
external electric field. By exerting a helical electric field to heterodyne detection of THz waves130. In the experi-
on the plasma region, an elliptically polarized THz sig- ment, a metal slit with a width of 2 mm was moved ver-
nal was observed126. By using a cross-DC biasing ap- tically in a plane before the lens. Combining with the
proach, the polarization of THz waves can be freely var- technology of electro-optical (EO) sampling, the angle
ied from linear to elliptic with arbitrary ellipticity127. By distribution of the THz radiation was measured. The
a b 3.0
Exp-ref.
Exp-f1=400 mm
2.5
Exp-f1=600 mm
Amplitude (a.u.)
y Exp-f1=700 mm
LC-SLM 2.0 Exp-f1=900 mm
x
z Exp-f1=1000 mm
1.5
Phase map Lens
CCD 1.0
Plasma1
Plasma2
0.5
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Frequency (THz)
Fig. 8 | (a) Schematic of the experimental setup and (b) results of actively modulated THz spectra. Figure reproduced with permission from
ref.115, The Optical Society.
1.0 x x
THz signal (a.u.)
θ
0.5 z y
0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Polarizer angle (°)
Fig. 9 | Polarization of THz forward emission measured at θ = 10°. The experimental and simulation THz signals are denoted with black
and red dots. Figure reproduced with permission from: ref.57, American Physical Society.
220003-9
experimental result shows that the THz intensity profile two-color pulse induced plasma was also investigated by
in the cross section is a Gauss-like type. The angle distri- a raster scanning pyroelectric detector132. In the experi-
bution of THz generation from laser induced plasma was ment, a silicon wafer is used to filter out the unwanted
also measured by the technology of line scanning and optical and infrared light. Filters were used to character-
Michelson interferometer68. The measurement for the ize THz profiles at different frequency bands. The meas-
frequency-angle spectra of THz radiation was performed ured far field THz profiles are donut-shaped, as shown in
by moving a 1.5 mm slit across the diverging THz beam. Fig. 10. In this work, the dephasing length is about 22
mm. As shown in Fig. 10(a), the plasma length is shorter
The measured angle distribution of THz wave exhibits a
than the dephasing length, so that all THz waves con-
maximum at about 4°~6° relative to the propagation axis.
structive interference in the forward direction, concen-
The off-axis maximum in the angle distribution corres-
trating THz radiation on axis. Fig. 10(a) and 10(b) are
ponds to a ring-shape. At the same time, the experiment-
from a plasma with the length of 10 mm, 10(c) and 10(d)
al result was simulated by the non-propagating plasma
are from a plasma with the length of 40 mm. 10(e) and
fluid model. Both the experimental and simulation res- 10(f) are simulated THz profiles for a plasma with the
ults show that 15% of the THz energy propagates on the length of 40 mm. 10(a) and 10(c) show the profiles of
axis and 85% in the region of ring. THz waves at low frequency owing to a Teflon filter,
The technology of line scanning is easily operated and while 10(b) and 10(d) show the profiles of THz waves at
time-saving, but if this technology is used in the meas- high frequency owing to a germanium filter. All figures
urement of the spatial distribution, the obtained results show that the far-field THz radiation profiles are dough-
cannot reveal the real THz spatiotemporal distribution, nut–shape in the THz frequency range. Additionally, an
because the obtained signal is the integration of the un- off-axis phase matched model was utilized to simulate
blocked individual signal values. In 2009, with the tech- the radiated THz spatial distributions. The doughnut-
nology of raster-scanning, R. A. Akhmedzhanov meas- shaped distribution of THz radiation from two-color
ured the spatial distribution of THz radiation from two- pulse induced plasma by the technology of raster scan-
color pulse induced plasma131. In the experiment, the ning was also demonstrated in ref.133. Compared with the
spatial distribution was scanned by moving a field stop in technology of line-scanning, the raster-scanning techno-
a transverse plane. The obtained intensity distribution is logy is more accurate in obtaining the THz spatial distri-
bell-shaped. It was explained by the self-phase modula- bution. The accuracy of the measurement depends on
tion of a laser pulse with high intensity propagating in a the size of the stop. The small size will lead to more ac-
plasma. The spatial distribution of THz radiation from curacy measurement results under the same experimental
a c e
4
0.5
4 5
Angle (°)
Angle (°)
Angle (°)
2
0 0 0
0.3
−4 1 −5
−4
0.1
−5 0 5 −5 0 5 −5 0 5
Angle (°) Angle (°) Angle (°)
b d f
4 0.8
4 15 5
Angle (°)
Angle (°)
Angle (°)
0 0 10 0
0.4
−4 5 −5
−4
0
−5 0 5 −5 0 5 −5 0 5
Angle (°) Angle (°) Angle (°)
Fig. 10 | Measured and simulated far-field THz radiation profiles. Experimental results (a–d) were obtained by raster scanning of a pyroelec-
tric detector with a silicon filter. (a) and (b) are from a plasma with the length of 10 mm. (c) and (d) are from a plasma with the length of 40 mm.
(a) (c) Teflon and (b) (d) germanium filters are used for low and high frequency transmission. (e) and (f) are simulated THz profiles for a plasma
with the length of 40 mm. Figure reproduced with permission from ref.132, American Physical Society.
220003-10
condition. However, if the size of the stop approaches are important factors contributing to the spatial distribu-
mm or sub-mm, the diffraction effect will be obvious, tion of THz radiation138−140.
resulting in errors in the measurement. Additionally, the
raster scanning technology is time-consuming, which is a THz generation from laser-induced-liquid
challenge to the stability of the experimental system. plasma
In 2014, a THz camera with the bandwidth of 1–7 THz Liquid water as a target to generate THz waves has been
was used to capture the THz intensity profile134. The re- historically considered to be impossible owing to its sig-
corded THz images are shown in Fig. 11. In the un- nificant absorption in the THz band141. Like the gas me-
focused intensity profile shown in Fig. 11(a), it can be dia, the fluidity of liquids makes it replenish quickly,
found that the THz intensity pattern in the far-field is in which leads to a high damage threshold in the liquid tar-
the form of a donut-shaped profile, and it evolves into a get when it was irradiated by intense laser pulses.
spot after being focused, as shown in Fig. 11(b). With the However, compared with the gas media, the liquid target
series of intensity profile images recorded by THz cam- has more than 3 orders of molecular equivalent cross
era, a 3D THz profile has been obtained. Recently, with section142. The above characters make it reasonable to ex-
the technology of THz focal-plane imaging135,136, E. L. pect the liquid to be a candidate for intense THz sources.
Wang measured the spatiotemporal distribution of THz In 2017, the broadband THz radiation from the plasma
radiation from two-color pulse induced plasma137. Com- in liquid water has been experimentally demonstrated,
pared with the above imaging technologies, the THz fo- which was also induced by femtosecond laser pulse143.
cal-plane imaging technology can provide more detailed After that, various experiments with different liquids and
information on THz images, including amplitude, phase, geometries have been investigated.
frequency, and even polarization. The schematic of the
experimental setup is shown in Fig. 12. It is clear that the
Physical mechanism for THz generation from laser
spatiotemporal distribution varies with the frequency as
induced liquid plasma
well as the length of plasma. A donut-shaped profile oc-
curs in the lower THz frequency range. The results are THz generation from liquid plasma induced by single-
shown in Fig. 13. Moreover, the length of plasma chan- color pulse
nel, focusing condition, pulse duration, or even the filter Understanding the physical mechanism for THz
a b
5 800
4
600
Y (mm)
Y (μm)
3
400
2
200
1
0 0
0 2 4 6 100 300 500
X (mm) X (μm)
Fig. 11 | Intensity image recorded by a THz camera. (a) Unfocused THz intensity profile and (b) focused intensity THz profile. Figure repro-
duced with permission from ref.134, under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) licence.
Stage
ω
ω, 2ω
Lens BBO Plasma tinfoil THz lens1 THz lens2 SiZnTe BS

Fig. 12 | Schematic diagram of experimental setup for THz focal-plane imaging. Figure reproduced with permission from ref.137, under a Cre-
ative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
220003-11
2.400 ps 2.533 ps 3.066 ps 3.600 ps 3.866 ps

a
3 1.0
y (mm)
7 mm 0 0.5
−3 0
y (mm)
3 1.0
4 mm 0 0.5
−3 0
3 1.0
y (mm)
2 mm 0 0.5
−3 0
−3 0 3 −3 0 3 −3 0 3 −3 0 3 −3 0 3
x (mm) x (mm) x (mm) x (mm) x (mm)
0.117 THz 0.205 THz 0.411 THz 0.558 THz 0.705 THz
b 3 1.0
y (mm)
7 mm 0 0.5
−3 0
3 1.0
y (mm)
4 mm 0 0.5
−3 0
3 1.0
y (mm)
2 mm 0 0.5
−3 0
−3 0 3 −3 0 3 −3 0 3 −3 0 3 −3 0 3
x (mm) x (mm) x (mm) x (mm) x (mm)
Fig. 13 | Intensity distributions of THz waves generated from plasmas with different lengths. THz images in the (a) time domain and (b)
frequency domain. Figure reproduced with permission from ref.137, under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
generation from liquid target is essential for advancing are accelerated backward, leading to a dipole structure
THz aqueous sources. A diploe model based on the pon- and emitting THz waves. The THz intensity can be de-
deromotive force is proposed to explain the THz genera- scribed as
tion from laser-induced liquid plasma144. A schematic of
ITHz (α, β) ∼ T1 (α) T2 (β) sin2 [γ(α, β)]
the dipole model, which shows the schematic diagram of ( )( )2
apTHz df WL
the THz radiation process, is shown in Fig. 14. The laser × exp − , (14)
2cosθt (β) r0
pulse penetrates and is refracted at the air/water inter-
face of the water film, and then ionizes water molecules here α is the incident angle of laser pulse. β is the detec-
at the focus. In the ionized region, the quasi-free elec- tion angle of THz wave. T1 and T2 are transmittance of
trons move towards the regions of lower electron dens- the laser pulse and THz wave. γ is the measurement
ity with the ponderomotive force. The ions keep relat- angle related to the direction of the dipole. θt is the exit-
ively stationary owing to the relatively large mass. The ing angle of THz waves. apTHz is the absorption coeffi-
density of ionized carriers keeps identical in the forward cient of THz waves. WL is the energy of laser pulse, and
direction for the reason that the envelope of the laser df is the thickness of water film. With this model, THz
pulse faster than the electron. Therefore, the electrons intensities are simulated and normalized. As shown in
220003-12
a b
90 1.0
Air Water Air
0.8
45
Incident angle α (°)

θt
0.6
γ
^ θr 0 B F B
n
0.4
α
−45
Laser 0.2
x
y z
−90 0
−180 −120 −60 0 60 120 180
Detection angle β (°)
Fig. 14 | Ponderomotive force–induced dipole model for THz generation from liquid water. (a) Schematic diagram of the diploe model for
THz generation from the plasma in the water film. (b) Its simulation result. α, θr are the incidence and refractive angle for the laser pulse, β and θt
are the detective angle and exiting angle for THz pulse. F and B indicate the forward and back propagation THz signals, respectively. Figure re-
produced with permission from ref.144, AIP Publishing.
Fig. 14(b), F and B indicate the forward and back where w0 is the width of the laser beam. This model im-
propagation of THz signals, respectively. The symmetric plies THz strength scales linearly with the laser energy.
pattern results from the symmetric structure geometry in A theoretical model which describes the physics of ul-
the model. The simulation results support the observa- trashort pulses has also been used in the THz generation
tion of the THz intensity dependence on the laser incid- from liquid water147,148. In this model, the dynamics of
ent angle. the radiation field, the evolution of the current density of
In 2020, a two-dimensional dipole array model was in- quasi-free electrons, and the dynamics of the concentra-
troduced to illustrate the THz wave emission from water tion of electrons have been included,
line145. In this model, the THz emission is considered as ∂E ∂3E ∂E 2π
+ Γ0 E − ap 3 + gE2 + j=0,
superposition of emission by a 2D dipole array, and ex- ∂z ∂τ ∂τ cn0
pressed by ∂j j
+ = ξρE3 ,
∂τ τc
Earray = E(1 + eikdsinθ + e2ikdsinθ + · · · ), (15)
∂ρ ρ
here E is the THz electric field generated from each di- + = ζE2 , (17)
∂τ τp
pole in the array. θ is the angle between the observation
where Γ0, ap, and n0 are the empirical coefficients charac-
point and the spherical coordinate axis. d is the distance
terizing the dependencies of the medium absorption and
between two adjacent dipoles. With this model, the de-
the refractive index. g characterizes the low-inertia cubic
pendence of THz peak electric field on the relative posi-
nonlinear response of the medium, j is a current density
tional relation between the plasma and the water line was
of quasi-free plasma electrons. ρ is excited states popula-
simulated. The simulation result agrees well with the ex-
tion of the medium molecules. τc and τp are times of re-
perimental one.
laxation from quasi-free and excited states. ζ and ξ are
In 2019, the mechanism of laser ponderomotive-force-
the efficiency of the transitions to the above states. z is
induced current with the symmetry broken around the
the position of propagation. The schematic and simula-
water-column interface was attributed to the THz gener-
tion results of this model are shown in Fig. 15. The pump
ation from a liquid water line146. In this model, the THz
laser pulse propagates in the liquid and ionizes the li-
radiation was considered to originate from a net current
quid via multiphoton absorption. With the formation of
owing to the presence of the column interfaces. The cur-
the plasma channel, THz waves radiate in both direc-
rents distribute on two sides of the laser propagation ax-
tions, as shown in Fig. 15(a). The THz energy versus the
is, which were formed by the ponderomotive force. If the
pump pulse duration and liquid thickness was simulated,
laser axis deviates from the water column center, the
as the result shown in Fig. 15(b). For clarity, some typic-
symmetry of the two currents will be broken. The gener-
al data were abstracted from Fig. 15(b) to compare with
ated THz electric field can be written as
the experimental ones. Both the experimental and simu-
WL Ne lation results show that the maximum generation effi-
ETHz ∼ , (16)
w20 ciency of THz radiation varies with the liquid thickness
220003-13
and the pump pulse duration. With this model, the where ap is the acceleration from the ponderomotive
quasi-quadratic dependence of THz energy on the optic- force, vd is the drift velocity of electrons under an asym-
al excitation has been revealed. Certainly, as a theoretical metric field composed of the FW and SHW. The first
description via equations, the UPPE is also used to de- term on the right-hand side is relative to the acceleration
scribe the THz generation from laser-induced liquid from the ponderomotive force, while the second one cor-
plasma149, which was utilized in the scenario of THz gen- responds to the drift motion of newly generated elec-
eration from air plasma. trons. With this model, the THz generation from the wa-
A unified model from the principle of electrodynam- ter film was well explained.
ics was induced to explain both single/two color excita-
tion of THz waves from a liquid150. In this model, both Properties of THz wave generated from laser-
the ponderomotive force along the laser propagation ax- induced liquid plasma
is and the drift current perpendicular to the laser Great efforts have been put into the improving the prop-
propagation axis have been considered. The schematic erties of THz wave generated from laser-induced plasma
diagram is shown in Fig. 16. The generated THz field can in liquid. Like the case of the air, different liquids and ex-
be logically written as citation geometries have been investigated for the excita-
∂NeT (t) tion. THz intensity, spectrum, and polarization are also
ETHz (t) ∝ Ne ap (t) + vd (t) , (18)
∂t included in the concerned properties of the liquid sources.
a b c
Air Liquid Air 1.0

270 1.0
0.8
THz energy (a.u.)
230
0.6
z (μm)
190
0.5
Pump pulse
0.4
150 100 μm
0.2 150 μm
110 270 μm
0
z 0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Pulse duration (ps) Pulse duration (ps)
Fig. 15 | Model of ultrashort pulses propagation equation and its simulation results. (a) Visualization of the model description, (b) simula-
tion result of THz signal with different liquid thickness and pump pulse duration, and (c) comparison of experiment results with simulated results
abstracted from (b). Figure reproduced with permission from ref.147, The Optical Society.
vd
ap ap
Fig. 16 | Schematic diagram of the particle dynamics in the unified theoretical model. ap and νd are the acceleration and drift velocity of
electrons, respectively. They are related to the laser propagation direction and electron dynamics in the water medium. The electrons are accel-
erated forward and backward between the ascending and descending edges owing to the ponderomotive force. νd is perpendicular to the laser
propagation direction. The combined effect of ap and νd results in THz generation in liquid water. Figure reproduced with permission from ref.150,
AIP Publishing.
220003-14
THz intensity the ionization events play an important role151. This de-
To get intense THz wave from liquid, the crucial factors pendence was also explored in the case of THz genera-
affected THz generation, including the optimal angle of tion from liquid plasma. It was observed that from either
optical incidence, optimal pulse duration for optical ex- water film or line, the optimal pulse duration for THz
citation, and geometry parameters of liquid, have been wave generation is in the order of sub-
investigated. picosecond143,147,148,152. This observation results from the
Optimal angle of optical incidence. The dependence dependence of plasma formation in water on the optical
of THz intensity on the incidence angle of optical pulses pulse duration, in which the electron density (corres-
was measured in the experiment of excitation of liquid ponding to the pulse width) plays an important role153.
water films, the results are shown in Fig. 17. The blue Geometry parameters of liquid. The diameter of the
dots and black squares denote the data measured by a water line is also considered in the contribution to the
Golay cell and EO sampling, while the red line denotes generated THz signal. It was demonstrated that the
the simulation results. B and F represent the back and strongest THz wave generates when the diameter of the
forward propagation signals. It is clear that the optimal water line is in the range of 0.1–0.2 mm145,152. The prefer-
incidence angle is independent of the water thickness. ence of the diameter range was simulated by the model
Apart from it, about ~80% of energy is dissipated when of electromagnetic wave propagation equations, and it
α = 65◦, due to the total internal reflection at the surface was attributed to the changed pulse duration in water,
and the absorption of water. It can be found that the op- which results in the enhanced THz signal153.
timal angle of optical incidence is 65◦, which was owing Energy of laser pulse. The dependence of THz elec-
to the results of the transmittance of the p-polarized ex- tric field strength on the energy of laser pulse has also
citation laser at the air/water interface and the dipole dir- been investigated. In most of the experiments, the linear
ection. A similar result is also observed when a water line dependence of THz intensity on the energy of laser pulse
is used as a THz source. In these experiments, the optim- was observed before the saturation of THz signal144,146.
al incidence angel depends on the asymmetry optical ex- However, there are measurements revealing that the THz
citation, project of dipole component in x direction and energy scales quasi-quadratically with the optical pulse
total internal reflection of THz wave at the liquid/air in- energy146,147,154. The difference of the observed depend-
terface144,145. ence may result from the liquid target geometry and the
Optimal pulse duration of optical excitation. In the excitation energy of the laser pulse. It is noted that the
case of THz generation from air plasma, the dependence THz energy generated for the single-color induced
of THz amplitude on the laser pulse duration has been plasma in liquid is more than that in air, given it under
explored in many works54,151. It is found that the THz the same experimental conditions.
amplitude increases with the increasing of the laser pulse
duration at low laser intensity, while decreasing with the Spectrum
increasing laser pulse at a high laser intensity, in which The spectrum of THz wave generated from liquid plasma
−65 +65 −35
a b
1.0 1.0
β=0° β=55°
Normalized intensity
0.5 0.5
B F
0 0
−90 −45 0 45 90 −90 −45 0 45 90
Incident angle α (°) Incident angle α (°)
Fig. 17 | THz intensity versus incidence angle α for different detection angle β, (a) β = 0° and (b) β = 55°. The blue dots and black squares de-
note the data measured by a Golay cell and EO sampling, while the red line denotes the simulation results. F and B represent the forward and
back propagation signals. Figure reproduced with permission from ref.144, AIP Publishing.
220003-15
was characterized by Fourier-transformed time domain THz generation from laser-induced-solid

signal. It was found that the bandwidth of THz wave is plasma
narrower than that of air plasma (tens THz)155,156. It Intense THz radiation is always pursued due to its nu-
shows that there is an obvious diversity in the frequency merous applications. As described above, overcoming
component profile of the THz wave, where the high fre-
the damaged problem make plasma a promising medi-
quency is more than that of the low frequency, as shown
um to produce THz radiation. However, the way to fur-
in Fig. 18. When the pulse width increases from 50 fs to
ther enhance the THz yield by increasing the pump laser
300 fs, the difference of spectrum characters becomes in-
intensity is always blocked. The saturation of the ioniza-
conspicuous. This inconspicuous difference results from
tion current will occur if the laser intensity is up to
the decreased energy of SHW pulse at a longer duration,
∼ 1015 W/cm2. Currently, the peak intensity of an ultra-
which make the effect of SHW pulse insignificant.
intensity laser pulse can be above 1018 W/cm2 , which is
Apart from the water, other liquids have been used as
commonly called relativistic laser157,158. At this level, the
the target in the THz generation from liquid plasma,
electron quiver velocity in the laser field approaches the
such as α -pinene, p-xylene, and ethanol147,153. The spec-
light speed. Under this experimental condition, the
tra of THz waves generated from α -pinene and water are
plasma without saturated ionization current from a tar-
shown in Fig. 19. It is clear that the spectrum of THz
get is desirable.
waves generated from α -pinene has more high-fre- Compared with the media of air and liquid, a higher
quency components and a wider bandwidth. The refract- density of electron can be obtained from the plasmas of
ive index and absorption of α -pinene are contributed to solids. Furthermore, the solids can endure the higher in-
the difference and shown in the inset. Besides that, the tensity of laser pulse. Hamster et al. observed the THz
material-related function in the ionization process is also emission from aluminum thin foils with the pump laser
a contributor to the discrepancy. THz spectra width has pulses at relativistic intensity ∼ 1019 W/cm2 159,160. At
been specially investigated with different liquid targets149. present, intense THz pulses with energy up to tens of mJ
It shows that 99.5% of the spectral power lies between have been observed from the relativistic laser pumping
0.1 –50 THz for air, 72% and 64% of the spectral power solid targets. There is no evidence showing the satura-
for acetone and ethanol, respectively. tion of THz signal even the pump intensity is up to
Polarization 1020 W/cm2 161. Although intense THz wave can be ob-
tained in the way of relativistic laser-solid interaction,
For the THz generation from liquid plasma, the effort on
the involved mechanisms are rather complicated and are
THz polarization is not so much as the case of air
still in exploration.
plasma. Further exploration on polarization is limited,
maybe owing to the complicated configuration and geo- Physical mechanisms for THz generation from
metry. Only one experimental and theoretical investiga- laser-induced-solid plasma
tion showed that the THz wave is always p polarized THz generation from plasma wave
whether the optical exciting pulse is s or p polarized146. When the laser pulse propagates in the plasma, its
50 fs 300 fs
a 100 b 100
Amplitude (a.u.)
Amplitude (a.u.)
10−2 10−2
10−4 10−4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Frequency (THz) Frequency (THz)
Fig. 18 | Spectra of THz waves generated from a 120 μm thick water film with one-color (black line) and two-color (red line) excitation schemes in
the case of the pulse duration of (a) 50 fs and (b) 300 fs. Figure reproduced with permission from ref.155,156, AIP Publishing.
220003-16
Absorption (cm−1)
n
α-pinene 4
1.6
Refractive
index
100 2
Amplitude (a.u.)
1.1 α 0
1 2
Water Frequency (THz)
10−2
10−4
1 2 3 4
Frequency (THz)
Fig. 19 | Spectra of THz waves generated from α-pinene and water. Figure reproduced with permission from ref.153, under a Creative Com-
mons Attribution 4.0 Unported License.
energy is coupled to the plasma via resonant absorption. Liao et al. observed the intense THz radiation generated
In this process, a plasma wave with a large amplitude is from plasma wave165. Based on this theory, the observa-
excited, also called as laser wakefield. This electrostatic tion was explained by the excitation via the stimulated
plasma wave happens at the critical density where the Raman scattering and self-modulated laser wakefields.
frequencies of plasma and laser are nearly equivalent. In the magnetized plasma, the transverse motion of
This electrostatic plasma wave can be reversed to electro- the electron is formed by the Lorenz force and induces a
magnetic wave if some conditions are required162. In un- transverse current, which makes the magnetized wake-
magnetized plasma, the dispersion relations for the elec- fields convert partially into the electromagnetic wave,
trostatic and electromagnetic wave are expressed as with a frequency closer to the frequency of plasma,
ω = ω2p + 3k2 ν2e and ω = ω2p + k2 c2 , respectively. It is ob- which is commonly called Cherenkov wake radiation164.
vious that the electrostatic wave can be efficiently con- The geometry of the external B field compared with the
verted to the electromagnetic with the conditions k=0 propagation axis of the exciting source is illustrated in
and ω = ωp, as illustrated in Fig. 20(a)163. In the plasma Fig. 20(b).
with homogenous density, the wave number of the elec- THz generation from electron transport
trostatic wave k = ωp /νg ̸= 0, ωp and νg are the fre- When the pump laser intensity is above 1018 W/cm2 , the
quency of plasma and group velocity of laser. Hence the typical density of the induced plasma can arrive 1017 /cm3.
linear conversion cannot occur in the plasma with ho- In this scenario, the intense laser can break the wakefield
mogenous density. In the plasma with inhomogeneous oscillation, which leads the wakefield-based emission
density, the wave number of electric static varies with its mechanism will not work166. When the relativistic laser
spatiotemporal distribution, which makes it possible to irradiates on the solid target, the electron generated in
convert the electric static wave into the electromagnetic the laser-plasma interaction will be accelerated and
wave. Apart from the condition of k=0, the incidence transported in a short time scale, which produced a time-
angle of the laser to the inhomogeneous plasma must be varying transient current to radiate electromagnetic
considered. waves. This radiation is believed to be responsible for the
The electrostatic wave is a longitudinal wave, while the radiation in the infrared and THz spectra range. The
electromagnetic wave is a transverse one. If they propag- electron transports in longitudinal and lateral directions.
ate in the same direction, the linear conversion cannot If a relativistic laser pulse interacts with an over dense
occur. Thereafter, when the intense laser pulse irradiates plasma from the solid target, the joint contribution of
obliquely to an inhomogeneous plasma with under dens- light pressure and electrostatic restore force creates the
ity, the projected components of both electric fields are longitudinal motion of bunches of electrons, and radi-
partially in parallel. The THz wave can be emitted from ates intense THz pulse167. Apart from the longitudinal
the electrostatic wave in the specular reflection direction. electron transport, the lateral transport has also been
220003-17
a ω b
Slope c
Radiation
y Plasma
ωpe
Langmuir
waves Slope 31/2vle
vb
x
Wakefield
kλDe B0
Short electron beam or laser pulse
Fig. 20 | (a) Dispersion curves of plasma waves and electromagnetic waves and (b) Cerenkov wake radiation. vb is the velocity of the disturb-
ance that creates the wake in the medium. Figure reproduced with permission from: (a) ref.163, IEEE; (b) ref.164, American Physical Society.
observed168,169. In the experiment, the longitudinal trans- a moderate density gradient at a small incidence angle,
port was excluded because it exists in the high-density the emitted THz waves show different features172. Two
region and THz wave cannot escape from this region. types of transient current driven by either the laser pon-
The lateral current has been validated by the 2D particle- deromotive force or two-plasmon decay (TPD) have
in-cell simulation, which is informed by electrons been analyzed. The experimental results of TPD are
propagating near the target surface owing to the confine- shown in Fig. 22. In the experiment, a laser pulse at the
ment of the spontaneous quasi-static magnetic and elec- wavelength of 800 nm was used to irradiate the target,
trostatic fields at the surface170,171. In the simulation, the the spectrum of the scattered light contains 3/2ω0 and
p-polarized laser pulses irradiate on the front target sur- 2ω0 components as shown in the upper-left inset of the
face at an incidence angle of 60◦ as shown in Fig. 21(a), figure, where ω0 is the laser frequency. When the laser
the density of the plasma slab is 6 nC, where nC is the contrasts are changed, the THz energy is independent of
critical density. Thus, there is a surface current at the va- the 2ω0 component, as shown in another inset of the fig-
cuum-plasma interface along the y-direction at time of ure. During this THz radiation, the THz energy scales
50, 60, and 70 laser cycles, as shown in Fig. 21. It can also linearly with the intensity of 3/2ω0 signal. Since the
be found that the current flows in the y-direction with 3/2ω0 component is an indicator for TPD instability, the
time. Consequently, the lateral electron transport is con- transient current included by TPD is determined via the
tributed to the THz radiation. With this mechanism, a 3/2ω0 component. The results show that the transit cur-
self-organized fast electron current model is proposed to rent induced by TPD is responsible for the observations.
explain the observations. With the theory of lateral transport of electron, the radi-
When laser pulses are irradiated on a solid target with ation energy with frequency was also explained173.
a b c
80 0.08
Plasma
60 slab
Vacuum
y (λ0)
40
20 Laser −0.08
5 10 15
x (λ0) Surface current at the
vacuum-plasma interface
Fig. 21 | Electron current distributions at the surface of solid target obtained from 2D particle-in-cell simulations. (a), (b), and (c) are the
cases at the time of 50, 60, and 70 laser cycles, respectively. Figure reproduced with permission from ref.169, AIP Publishing.
220003-18
THz generation from plasma emission pulse, and accelerates the positive protons to a very high
When the relativistic laser pulse is irradiated on the solid energy, resulting in electromagnetic emission. Because
target, there is a scenario that THz radiation is emitted the evolution time scale of the separation field is in the
from the target rear surface. For the case of THz radi- order of picoseconds177, the emitted electromagnetic
ation from the target front surface, it is a result of the waves are in THz band. The THz field is correlated with
direct interaction of the NIR laser pulse with the foil, the square of the numbers of protons. This is so called
where the surface current is formed by the motion of target sheath acceleration (TNSA), as illustrated in Fig.
electrons from the plasma. However, in the case of THz 23(b). In order to form a quasi-static field accelerating
generation from the target rear surface, the THz dynam- ions over ps time scales, the sheath radiation needs the
ics are different. There are mainly two mechanisms in- go and back motions of less energetic electrons from the
volved in the dynamics, coherent transition radiation rear of the target.
(CTR) and sheath radiation (SR). There are many more complicated physical processes
Transition radiation is produced by an electron bunch are involved in the relativistic laser-solid interaction, es-
passing through a metal foil. The electron was acceler- pecially in the case of submicron solid target. By analyz-
ated by the laser wakefield to have enough kinetic en- ing the fields emitted by longitudinal and transverse cur-
ergy to escape the target. When the electrons transit the rents, J. Dechard et al. reveals that the THz emission
plasma-vacuum boundary, they will induce a lateral po- consists of CTR and antenna-type emission, in which the
larization current owing to the dielectric first one results the recirculation hot electrons, while the
discontinuity172,174. This current gives rise to the THz ra- second one results from the shielding of electron
diation. The THz radiation induced by one electron is currents178.
weak. However, during the transition radiation, the elec-
Characteristics enhancement for THz wave
tron bunch length is in the order of 10 μm and shorter
generated from laser-induced solid plasma
than the emitted THz wavelength. According to the rela-
tion of the bunch structure with the radiation THz intensity
wavelength175,176, the transition radiation from the elec- As expected, the scheme of laser-solid interactions can
tron bunches becomes coherent, with a power propor- provide intense THz waves, the focus of this scheme is
tional to the square of the number of electrons. The CTR mostly on the THz enhancement. By optimizing the pre-
process is illustrated in Fig. 23(a). plasma scale length, extremely broadband THz bursts
As the electrons escaping the target surface, a strong with energy of above 100 μJ/sr in the laser specular was
charge separation field with the behavior like a dipole is observed165. For the CTR, energetic electron bunch with
formed owing to the electron dynamics. The separation both high charge density (nC-μC) and short duration (fs-
field is comparable to the peak electric field of the laser ps) will provide high THz radiation energy. The THz
5
4
Signal (a.u.)
3
4
2
3/2ω0 signal (a.u.)
1
3
0
400 500 600 700 THz (μJ)
Wavelength (nm) 0 1 2 3 4 5
2
15
2ω0 (a.u.)
10
1
5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
THz energy (μJ)
Fig. 22 | Relation of the 3/2ω0 signal intensity of the scattered light with the THz energy. Figure reproduced with permission from ref.172, AIP
Publishing.
220003-19
a b
Vacuum
Laser Laser
Plasma
sheath
Target Target
Fig. 23 | Schematic diagrams of two main mechanisms for THz generation from plasma emission. (a) Coherent transition radiation and (b)
sheath radiation. Figure reproduced with permission from ref.175, under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) licence.
energy about 3~5 nJ over a collection angle of 30 mrad was Summary and outlook
experimentally demonstrated when the 1.5 nC electron In this paper, the focus is mainly on an overview of
bunch was used179. It is predicted that the THz energy mechanisms and properties concerning the generation of
will be enhanced to mJ-level by increasing the energy of THz radiation from laser-induced plasma in air, liquid,
electron beam and the transverse size of plasma180,181. By and solid. For the scenarios of THz generation from
irradiating the foil targets with femtosecond or pico- laser-induced plasma in air and liquid, only the cases of
seconds laser pulses, the THz energy of ~400 μJ and ~50 pump laser pulse in the nonrelativistic region are in-
mJ have been demonstrated experimentally182,183. volved. For the scenario of THz generation from laser-
For the TNSA, the THz pulses with energy of 460 μJ induced plasma in solid, only the cases of the irradiated
have been observed experimentally at the rear surface of laser pulse in the relativistic region are involved. There
a thin metal foil176. Target structure is also considered to are some cases excluded in this paper, such as pumping
enhance the THz energy via increasing the laser absorp- liquid nitrogen, metal (Hg, Ga) and pumping air with re-
tion. It is predicated that the targets with gratings or lativistic laser pulses. There are many significant works
multilayer structure can emit more THz energy than a on the relativistic interaction to THz energy yields from
flat target184. This structured target was used in the ex- air plasma190,191, and they are not reviewed in detail ow-
periment, in which 10-fold of enhancement of THz en- ing to the length limitation of this paper. For the mech-
ergy has been observed from a thick planar target with anisms of THz generation from the laser induced plasma
deposited copper nanorod arrays185. are overviewed, it was divided according to the pump
laser fields, as one/two color. Since THz generation from
Spectrum
laser-induced plasma is an increasingly active research
By changing the parameters of plasma and laser pulse,
field, it is inevitable to cover all relevant reported mech-
the backward THz radiation from solid targets in the
anism in this paper. For the properties of THz genera-
presence of the preplasmas has been widely
tion from laser-induced plasma in three medias, the THz
investigated169,172,173,186,187. The results show that the low-
energy/efficiency, spectrum/bandwidth, polarization,
frequency radiation will emit under the conditions of a
and angular distribution are reviewed separately in cor-
larger laser incidence angle and a steep plasma density at
responding sections. A comparison of THz generation
the target surface, while the high-frequency one corres-
from laser-induced plasma in three media is shown in
ponds to the conditions of a smaller incidence angle and
Table 1.
a moderate plasma density.
In terms of THz generation from laser-induced
Polarization plasma in gas, its THz signal is larger than that from the
The polarization of THz pulse from the laser-solid inter- effect of optical rectification of crystals, which is com-
action is still in exploration. Radially polarized THz pulse monly used in the THz time domain spectroscopy.
has been observed from the rear surface of a thin foil ir- However, the SNR is worse than that of the effect of op-
radiated by laser pulse176,188. By focusing radially polar- tical rectification of crystal. Hence, the performance of
ized THz fields from the laser-irradiated thin foil, longit- SNR should be improved. The spectrum of THz radi-
udinal polarized THz pulse has been observed189. ation from the laser-induced-air-plasma can be
220003-20
broadened to ~100 THz, thus, it is frequently used in the and gas. Therefore, innovative theories on these mechan-
ultrabroad absorption spectrum measurement of a isms are expected, which will help to understand the
sample. However, the solution and bandwidth of the physics in depth. Compared with the THz generation
spectrum depending on the detection method. There- from gas and solid, the THz generation from liquid is
fore, both the performance of SNR and detection meth- rather new, and the obtained results are not sufficient.
od should be addressed for its wide applications. It is well The justification of the models may depend on the fur-
known that the two-color scheme of THz radiation from ther research results. As described in the section of THz
laser-induced plasma in the air is very popular to gener- generation from laser induced plasma in gas, many at-
ate THz waves in labs. Its mechanisms and correspond- tempts have been put on increasing the THz yield or
ing boundaries of validity are still in exploration. If they broadening its spectrum, including modifying target
are established, it will help to deepen the understanding geometry, pumping with different wavelength of laser
of the physics of THz generation from plasma. It is well pulse, external electrical field, and controlling the elec-
known that the wavelength of THz is shorter than that of tron density and dynamics. These attempts can also be
MW, leading to its advance of imaging resolution. applied on the scenario of THz generated from laser-in-
However, the conical THz radiation form laser-induced duced plasma in liquid.
plasma in gas characters a hollow distribution in the far- In terms of THz generation from laser-induced
field. The hollow distribution may be modified by re- plasma in solid, energetic THz waves are always gener-
shaping the THz pulse, or controlling the wavefront of ated from the solid plasma. However, the samples were
laser pulse to directly generate THz wave with solid-core excited by laser pulse in single-shot mode, meaning re-
distribution. freshment of solid target after each shot. The output THz
In terms of THz generation from laser-induced efficiency is limited by the degradation of the solid tar-
plasma in liquid, its plasma density is higher than that get. Therefore, replenishing of energetic electrons is re-
from the gas which induces a higher THz signal than that quired to match the repeat rate of the exciting laser pulse.
from gas with the same condition of pump laser power. As described above, the electron bunch charge and
However, the THz field is not scaled with the electron bunch duration limit the THz peak power. Hence, one
density. It is out of expectation and maybe owing to the can expect energetic electric bunch (nC-μC) and short
absorption of THz waves by liquids. Unlike a string bunch duration (fs-ps) to get high peak power THz
plasma induced in gas, the length of plasma induced in waves. As a new THz source, the THz radiation from the
liquid is rather short, meaning the number of electrons laser-induced plasma in solid is still in exploration. The
contributed to THz yield is not much. Therefore, in- validated mechanisms and tunable properties including
creasing the length or volume of induced-liquid-plasma spectrum, polarization, and angular distribution will be
and decreasing the absorption of THz wave are import- feasible.
ant for enhancement of THz wave in the scheme of li- In terms of the applications of THz radiated from the
quid. For the corresponding mechanisms, most of theor- laser-induced plasma in three medias, it always drives
etical models are based on plasma in the gas. It is known the investigation going further and into depth. Since
that there are many differences in the dynamics of liquid THz waves are directly from the plasma, they could serve
Table 1 | Comparison of THz generation from laser-induced plasma in gas, liquid, and solid.
Gas Liquid Solid
Configuration Atmosphere Film, line, droplet Foil, bulk
Laser excitation intensity Nonrelativistic Nonrelativistic Relativistic, >1018 W/cm2
Excitation field One/two-color One/two-color One-color
96 149
THz field >100 MV/cm ~MV/cm ~0.8 GV/cm183
96 149
Conversion efficiency 2.36% >0.1% ~0.1%183
THz energy 0.185 mJ96 76 μJ 149 ~2.3 mJ183
THz bandwidth >50 THz96 ~100 THz149 <20 THz183
Geometry Easy Complicated Complicated
Laser pulse width ~fs ~ps fs-ps
Detective THz yield Forward/sideway Forward/sideway Forward/sideway/backward
220003-21
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Acknowledgements
185. Mondal S, Wei Q, Ding WJ, Hafez HA, Fareed MA et al. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of
Aligned copper nanorod arrays for highly efficient generation of China (Grant Nos. 11774246 and 121774271), the National Key R&D Pro-
intense ultra-broadband THz pulses. Sci Rep 7, 40058 (2017). gram of China (Grant No. 2019YFC1711905), the Beijing Talents Project
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plasma interactions on terahertz radiation from solid targets ir- man Center for Science Funding (Grant No. M-0225), the Capacity Build-
ing for Science & Technology Innovation-Fundamental Scientific Research
radiated by ultrashort intense laser pulses. Phys Rev E 84,
Funds (Grant No. 00820531120017).
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absorption in terahertz radiation generation from solid targets. Competing interests
Opt Express 22, 11797–11803 (2014). The authors declare no competing financial interests.
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Opto-Electronic Review

Science 2022, Vol. 1, No. 8

Terahertz generation from laser-induced plasma

Keywords: terahertz generation; ultrafast pulses; laser-induced plasma

Introduction terials, such as plastic, paper, and cloth, which makes it

Distorted Iaser pulse

Modulated plasma filament cτL

Metallic grid To the

THz amplitude (a.u.)

the same FWM model, the third –order susceptibility dJ (t)

0.5 Delay (fs)

Lens BBO Plasma tinfoil THz lens1 THz lens2 SiZnTe BS

2.400 ps 2.533 ps 3.066 ps 3.600 ps 3.866 ps

Incident angle α (°)

Air Liquid Air 1.0

was characterized by Fourier-transformed time domain THz generation from laser-induced-solid

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