Fifth edition

The
Caribbean
Environment
for CSEC Geography
®

Mark Wilson

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 CONTENTS
1 The Earth’s internal forces 5.9 Protecting reefs and beaches 90
1.1 The Earth’s crust and plate tectonics 4 5.10 Coastal features: review 92
1.2 Convergent, divergent and transform
plate boundaries 6 6 Weather and climate
1.3 The Caribbean plate and its neighbours 8 6.1 Weather and climate 94
1.4 Plate boundaries: volcanoes, folding, 6.2 Influences on weather and climate 98
and faulting 10 6.3 Caribbean weather systems 102
1.5 Intrusive volcanic features 16 6.4 Weather maps 106
1.6 Extrusive volcanic features 18 6.5 Hurricanes 108
1.7 Changes in volcanic features 22 6.6 Tropical marine and equatorial climates 114
1.8 Rock types and erosion 26
7 Climate change
2 External forces 7.1 The Earth’s changing climate 116
2.1 Denudation, weathering, mass wasting 28 7.2 Carbon and climate change 118
and erosion 7.3 Climate change and the future 120
2.2 Weathering 30 7.4 Climate change and the Caribbean 122
2.3 Mass weathering 34 7.5 Facing the challenge in the Caribbean 124
7.6 Climate change and the UK 128
3 Limestone landscapes 7.7 Proposals for international action 132
3.1 Limestone 36
3.2 Caves and limestone features 38 8 Ecosystems
3.3 Cockpit karst 42 8.1 The components of an ecosystem 134
8.2 Tropical rainforests and other woodlands 136
4 Rivers 8.3 Threats to the forests 142
4.1 The hydrological cycle 46 8.4 The effects of deforestation 144
4.2 Drainage basins 48 8.5 Land management strategies 148
4.3 Erosion, transport and deposition 50 8.6 Volcanic and limestone islands 152
4.4 River valleys 54 8.7 The soil 154
4.5 Rapids, waterfalls and gorges 56
4.6 Floodplains and meanders 58 9 Natural hazards
4.7 Oxbow lakes, levees, braided channels 9.1 Natural hazards and disasters 156
and deltas 60 9.2 Hazard management and mapping 158
4.8 Caribbean rivers 64 9.3 Hurricanes: the threats 162
4.9 Rivers and weathering: review 68 9.4 Hurricanes: the warning 164
9.5 Ivan and Jeanne 166
5 Coasts 9.6 Volcanoes: the threats 170
5.1 Waves in action 70 9.7 The 1995 Montserrat eruption 172
5.2 Cliffs and marine erosion 72 9.8 Montserrat: warning and reconstruction 174
5.3 Bays and beaches 75 9.9 Earthquakes: the threats 176
5.4 Spits, tombolos and bars 78 9.10 Earthquakes in the Caribbean 178
5.5 Coral reefs 81 9.11 The 2010 Haiti earthquake 180
5.6 The importance of coral reefs 84 9.12 Hazard risk management 184
5.7 Mangroves 86 9.13 Warnings and preparedness 186
5.8 Coral reefs and beach erosion 88 9.14 Response and reconstruction 188

ii

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 10 Population 15 Manufacturing
10.1 Population distribution 190 15.1 Challenges to Caribbean manufacturing 276
10.2 Population maps 192 15.2 Food processing 278
10.3 Population growth 194 15.3 Manufacturing in Singapore 280
10.4 The demographic transition 196 15.4 A Caribbean economy: Jamaica 284
10.5 Population in the Caribbean 200 15.5 Environmental degradation 288
10.6 Nigeria, India and China 202 15.6 Location factors: review 292
15.7 Trends and challenges: review 294
11 Settlement and migration
11.1 Urbanization 206 16 Using maps
11.2 Urban growth: Port-au-Prince 208 16.1 Satellites and maps 296
11.3 Settlement in St Vincent 210 16.2 Latitude and longitude 301
11.4 Population changes in Kingston 212 16.3 Time zone and maps 302
11.5 Benefits and problems of urbanization 214 16.4 Aerial photographs and maps 305
11.6 Urban pollution problems 218 16.5 Scale and symbols 308
11.7 Controlling urbanization in the Bahamas 220 16.6 Grid references 310
11.8 International migration 222 16.7 Scale and distance 312
11.9 Caribbean migration flows 224 16.8 Relief mapping 314
11.10 Population and settlement: review 228 16.9 Sections and gradients 318
16.10 Direction 322
12 Resources and development 16.11 Reducing and enlarging 323
12.1 Economic activities in the Caribbean 230 16.12 Petit Martinique 324
12.2 Development: key concepts 232 16.13 Tucker Valley, Trinidad 326
12.3 Resources in the Caribbean 234 16.14 Grenville, Grenada 328
12.4 Fishing in Belize 236 16.15 Holetown, Barbados 330
12.5 Forestry in Guyana 240 16.16 Queen of Spain’s Valley, Jamaica 332
12.6 Bauxite mining 242 16.17 Interpreting maps: review 335
12.7 Oil and gas in Trinidad and Tobago 246
17 Field studies
13 Agriculture 17.1 Choosing a topic 340
13.1 Agriculture in the Caribbean 250 17.2 Preliminary research 344
13.2 Small-scale farming in Guyana 254 17.3 Primary sources 345
13.3 Sugar growing in Guyana 258 17.4 Presenting your study report 348
13.4 Sugar growing in Brazil 260 17.5 Illustrations and photographs 352
13.5 Agriculture: review 264 17.6 The bibliography and appendix 354

14 Tourism Index 356

14.1 Tourism in the Caribbean 266
14.2 Barbados: successes and challenges 268
14.3 Contrasts in tourism 270
14.4 Cruise ships and aircraft 272
14.5 Sustainable tourism 274

iii

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 1.1 The Earth’s crust
and plate tectonics
Key ideas ● The Earth has a thin crust of solid rock.
● Beneath the crust are the mantle and the core.
● The crust is made up of slowly moving plates.
● Plate tectonics is the study of crustal plates.
● Volcanoes and earthquakes are associated with
plate margins.

The structure of the Earth

The surface of the Earth is made up of a thin layer 1.1.1 A lava flow on Mount Etna, Italy.
of soil, with solid rock underneath. Most of the
time it appears completely stable – but it can be The crust is made up of two types of material:
shaken violently by earthquakes, and the hot, ● Sima is dense material. A thin layer of sima
molten matter below the crust can emerge during a forms the oceanic crust, and also the lower part
volcanic eruption. of the crust beneath the continents.
The solid crust of the Earth is comparatively ● Sial is composed of lighter rocks. It forms the
thin. It is up to about 5 kilometres deep below the upper part of the continental crust. Sial floats on
oceans and 20–65 kilometres deep below the the denser material beneath.
surface of the continents.
Oceanic crust is a A tectonic plate may include both
Beneath the crust, the distance to the centre of thin layer of sima oceanic and continental crust
the Earth is more than 6,400 kilometres, so the
thickness of the crust is less than 1% of the distance
to the centre of the Earth.
In continental crust, sial
Crust – the outer shell “floats” on a layer of sima
Oceanic

Continental
Mantle – the mid-zone
of the earth; averages
Oceans 2,900 km thick;
temperatures reach up
to 3,800 °C

1.1.3 Sial and sima.

The Earth’s surface looks stable and rigid; but the crust
is being slowly warped or deformed in many places.
The mantle, which is below the crust, can flow
very slowly, like an extremely sticky liquid. Slow-
motion movements in the Earth’s mantle disturb the
crust. Sections of the crust, called plates, are moved,
very slowly, usually at speeds of only a few
Core – extends from 2,900
Continents
to 6,400 km; molten except centimetres per year. The crust and the upper part of
for the solid inner core;
temperatures reach up to
the mantle form the lithosphere. Below the mantle
4,300 °C is the core. The inner core is solid and has a
1.1.2 The structure of the Earth. temperature of up to 4,300 °C.

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 Plate tectonics
“Plate: A rigid segment of the Earth’s crust, which rocks along the plate margin snap suddenly into a
can ‘float’ across the heavier, semi-molten rock new position. There is a major earthquake.
below.” Volcanoes are formed at plate margins. Beneath
Oxford Dictionary of Geography the Earth’s crust, there is hot rock at high pressure.
When there is a weakness in the crust, this hot rock
The Earth’s surface is made up of crustal plates. may burst out to the surface in a volcanic eruption.
Plate margins – where two plates meet – form
lines of weakness in the crust. Earthquakes and Atlas work
volcanoes are associated with these zones. 1 Which crustal plates are these countries on?
Plate tectonics is the study of the plates which a) USA
make up the Earth’s crust, and how their movements b) Russia
affect rocks and landforms at the surface. c) India.
Two plates may move steadily or in a series of 2 Which of these places are close to a plate
small jumps. When this happens, there will be a boundary?
large number of small earth tremors. a) California
When two plates are locked tightly together by b) New York
friction, these small movements cannot occur. The c) Britain
plates are warped or deformed. Instead of being d) South Africa
e) Iraq
released gradually, energy is stored up for many
f) New Zealand.
years. Eventually, the strain is too much, and the

Eurasian
North American

Iranian

Pacific
Philippine

Arabian
Caribbean Mi
Cocos d-A African
tla Indo-
nti
cR Australian
idg
South e
American
Nazca
Indo-Australian

Antarctic

1.1.4 The main crustal plates and their boundaries, plus the
world distribution of major earthquakes and volcanoes. Key
plate boundary (edge) earthquakes

direction in which plate is moving volcanoes

THE EARTH’S INTERNAL FORCES 5

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 1.2 Convergent, divergent, and
transform plate boundaries
Key ideas ● Plate boundaries may be convergent, divergent, or transform.
● The continents have changed position over an extended period.

G Divergent plate boundaries Spreading ridge. Volcanoes form Some faults

New rock is near ridge run at right
Where two plates are pushed slowly apart, there is a formed here. angles to ridge
Crustal plates
divergent plate boundary. Molten rock or magma is are forced
forced slowly upwards between the two plates and, apart

when it hardens, it forms a strip of new crust. In

some places the magma flows very slowly, whereas,
in others, there are volcanic eruptions.
Sima or oceanic crust
There are divergent or constructive plate
boundaries beneath each of the world’s oceans. The
best known is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Volcanic
islands, such as the Azores, Iceland and Ascension, Magma

have been formed close to the Ridge. Molten rock moves

upwards between two plates
G Convergent plate boundaries 1.2.1 A divergent plate boundary.
Where two plates are being pushed together, there
is a convergent plate boundary.
Most convergent plate boundaries are formed
close to the edge of an ocean. The oceanic crust, Deep ocean trench where
which is made up of heavy sima, is drawn Arc of volcanic islands,
plates are pushed together

downwards beneath the adjoining plate and such as St Vincent,

St Lucia and Martinique Islands like Barbados
reabsorbed into the mantle. This is a subduction form on the fore-arc ridge
Rocks are folded
zone, or destructive plate margin; 75% of the here
world’s earthquakes are at convergent plate
boundaries. A deep ocean trench runs parallel to
most convergent plate boundaries, and may be
thousands of metres deeper than the surrounding
ocean floor.
CARIBBEAN PLATE
Volcanoes are formed at convergent plate
E
boundaries, where a plume of magma rises towards AT
PL
Plume of AN
the surface. When this occurs on oceanic crust, a magma rises RIC
AME Subduction zone
through the TH
volcanic island arc is formed. crust OU
S
Where continental crust lies close to a
subduction zone, the rocks may be folded and Magma
pushed upwards. Fold mountains are formed, such
1.2.2 A convergent plate boundary.
as the Andes and the Rockies, close to the western
margin of the South and North American Plates. The
Himalaya Mountains, the world’s highest, are at the
boundary between the Eurasian and Indo-Australian
Plates.

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 Transform plate boundaries
When two plates are moving past each other A wide range of evidence suggests that 150
without converging or diverging, there is a million years ago the two continents were joined
transform plate boundary, sometimes with an ocean together:
trench. Earthquakes occur at all types of plate ● We can measure the present-day movement of

boundary, but volcanoes are found mainly at the continents with sensitive electronic
convergent and divergent boundaries, not transform surveying equipment.
plate boundaries. ● We can detect new rock emerging at the

Rocks near plate margin Earthquake zone near plate margin divergent plate boundary.
are faulted and tilted ● There are no sediments more than 150 million

years old on the floor of the South Atlantic. In

the areas close to the Ridge, sediments are much
younger than this.
● Rocks that formed more than 150 million years

ago in eastern South America are very similar to

rocks that formed at the same period in western
Two plates move past each other without converging or diverging.
Africa.
There are earthquakes but no volcanoes. ● Animals that lived in South America and Africa
1.2.3 A transform plate boundary. at this time were very similar.
Magma: Molten rock beneath the Earth’s crust
North America was once joined to Europe. India
Lava: Molten rock which reaches the surface of
the Earth in a volcanic eruption. was joined to the southern continents – Australia,
Antarctica, Africa, and South America.

Continental drift Atlas work

New rock is being formed at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 1 Mark these places on a world map:
which is a divergent plate boundary. South America a) Mountain ranges – Andes, Rockies, Himalayas
and Africa are being pushed apart at a rate of b) Islands – Azores, Iceland, Hawaii
4 centimetres per year – about the rate at which 2 Name the island arcs that lie:
human fingernails grow. a) south-west of Alaska
b) south of Japan.

NORTH AMERICA

ASIA
EUROPE

AFRICA
SOUTH INDIA
AMERICA

AUSTRALIA

ANTARTICA

1.2.4 The continents 135 million years ago.

THE EARTH’S INTERNAL FORCES 7

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 1.3 The Caribbean Plate
and its neighbours
Key ideas ● The Caribbean islands are close to plate boundaries.
● Guyana, Suriname and the Bahamas are geologically stable.

Caribbean plate margins Areas of stability

Most of the Caribbean population lives close to the Some Caribbean countries are not close to plate
boundaries of the Caribbean Plate. boundaries. They are geologically stable, with few
There is a convergent plate boundary on the earthquakes and no volcanoes. These include:
east of the Caribbean Plate. The North American ● the Bahamas, which are formed on a stable

and South American Plates are slowly moving west platform of limestone rocks, as part of the
and are being pushed under the margin of the North American Plate
Caribbean Plate. ● Guyana and Suriname, which are made up

A chain of volcanic islands runs parallel to this mainly of the ancient rocks of the Guiana
plate boundary, from Grenada in the south to the Shield, which is part of the South American
small island of Saba in the north. This is a volcanic Plate.
island arc.
Shield: A large area with very old, stable rocks,
Barbados, which lies east of these islands, is not
e.g. Guiana shield, Canadian shield.
volcanic in origin. It has been pushed to the surface
by earth movements close to the plate boundary.
There is another convergent plate boundary
along the Pacific coast of Mexico and Central Atlas work
America. The Cocos Plate is moving east and 1 On a map of the Caribbean:
pushing under the margin of the Caribbean Plate, a) show the convergent, divergent and
along the Middle America trench. A chain of transform boundaries of the Caribbean Plate
volcanoes runs through these countries, and (use a different colour for each one, and
earthquakes are common. make a key)
There is a transform plate boundary to the b) name the adjacent plates and show their
north of the Caribbean Plate, where it runs past the boundaries
southern margin of the North American Plate, close c) show the position of your own country and
to Jamaica, Haiti, and Puerto Rico. Another three other Caribbean countries
d) show three volcanoes.
transform plate boundary runs through Trinidad and
2 List three Caribbean countries close to:
close to the north coast of Venezuela.
a) a transform plate boundary
Earthquakes are common along these transform b) a convergent plate boundary.
plate boundaries, but not volcanoes. The Puerto Rico
trench is more than 8,400 metres deep; it is the
Quick question
deepest part of the Atlantic Ocean. The Cayman
trench runs further west. 3 Is your country close to a plate boundary?
There is a short divergent plate boundary to the How is your country affected by its position in
west of Jamaica, called the Cayman Islands Ridge. relation to plate boundaries?

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837456_ch01 indd 9
The Bahamas
Stable limestone platform N

NORTH AMERICAN PLATE

Hispaniola Puerto Rico

Trench Trench

1842 0 500 km

1751 1946
Cayman 1770 Lesser Antilles
and arc
Trench Former isl Trench
s, fo ld in g a nd faulting
e
Earthquak
Cayman Islands 1863
2010

1.3.1 The Caribbean Plate and its neighbours.

Ridge 1637 1824 1976
1692 1867
1907 2004
Vo
lc
anic
i

Fol CARIBBEAN PLATE

d
sland arc

mo
un
ta 1931
in
s
1972

,e
ar
thq
u
Mi
dd

ak

le
es
a

Am
nd

er
vo
1765

ic a
ca

Tr
n
1954

en
oe
s

ch
1967

SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE

s
ain
u nt
o
dm

Guiana Shield
fol
–

Key
es

Ancient stable rocks

NAZCA Recently active volcano
A nd

COCOS PLATE PLATE

e

Major historic earthquake

Th

Convergent plate boundary: subduction zone

Divergent plate boundary
Transform plate boundary

THE EARTH’S INTERNAL FORCES

Ocean trenches

16/02/2016 15 12
 1.4 Plate boundaries: volcanoes,
folding, and faulting
Key ideas ● Earthquakes occur on fault lines.
● Faulting influences landform development.
● Where the crust is compressed, rocks are folded.
● Fold mountains form on convergent plate boundaries. (See also Section 9.9,
Earthquakes: the threats.)

Earthquakes and faulting

Most earthquakes occur close to convergent, ● In a transform fault, two masses of rock are pushed
divergent or transform plate boundaries. When two past each other. The Earth’s crust is torn but not
crustal plates move, there is an earthquake. Small stretched or compressed.
earthquakes can be detected only with scientific
instruments; large earthquakes are unusual, but they If there are many earthquakes of a similar type over
can cause devastating damage. a long period of time, there will be many
The focus or hypocentre of an earthquake is movements along the same fault line:
the point below the Earth’s surface where most ● A block of land may be thrown upwards to

movement takes place and most energy is released. form a block mountain (or horst), such as Long
It may be very close to the surface or as much as Mountain to the east of Kingston in Jamaica.
several hundred kilometres deep. The epicentre is ● Land may be pushed downwards to form a rift

the point at the surface that lies directly above the valley (or graben), such as the Porus graben in
focus. Jamaica or the Takutu graben in Guyana.
An earthquake fractures the rocks along a line ● Two areas of land that were once joined may

called a fault. There are many types of fault: become widely separated. The rocks that now
● In a normal fault, rocks are pulled apart as the form Cuba and Hispaniola were once a single
Earth’s crust is stretched. island, but they have been separated over the past
● In a reverse fault, rocks are pushed together as the 20 million years by repeated earth movements on
Earth’s crust is compressed. the northern boundary of the Caribbean Plate.

'Shield' volcano found Single volcanic

over 'hotspot' in crust island

Trench
Island arc Mid-ocean ridge

250 °C
500 °C
750 °C

1,000 °C Ocean crust forced to sink

and melt, forming island arcs,
at plate margin Molten rock or magma rises
along mid-ocean ridge, making
new crust and some mid-ocean
1,250 °C 1.4.1 Large-scale landforms caused by plate movements. The island arc on the left is similar to volcanoes
the eastern Caribbean. The fold mountains on the right are similar to the Andes
or Rockies. The ‘shield’ volcano of basic lava is similar to the Pacific islands of Hawaii.

10

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 The epicentre

ne
is directly above Upthrow
Vertical

pla
the focus

ult
throw

Fa
Downthrow Horizontal
Heave

e
Shockwaves

lin
travel outwards

lt
Fau
from the focus

The focus is below the surface

Transform fault
No vertical movement

Fa
ult
Normal pla
ne
fault

A horst A graben or A tilt block

rift valley Tension
Upthrow side Tension
Line of fault

Downthrow side
Reverse
fault

Compression
Compression

1.4.2 Faulting.

Volcanoes
Volcanoes are formed where magma is able to weakness in the Earth’s crust, such as Hawaii.
penetrate to the surface of the Earth. Most volcanoes Volcanoes and other features, such as lava plateaux,
are close to convergent or divergent plate are built up by repeated eruptions over an extended
boundaries, but some are at other points of period of time.

Fold
Rift valley
mountains

Lava plateau
Trench

50 km

Ocean crust forced 100 km

to sink and melt under
edge of continental plate,
causing earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions

THE EARTH’S INTERNAL FORCES 11

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 Folding
At convergent plate boundaries, rocks may be slowly ● The rocks of the Northern Range have been
folded as they are compressed by plate movements: overfolded and faulted upwards. They are
● A syncline is formed where rocks are folded resistant to erosion and reach 940 metres in
downwards. height at the Cerro del Aripo.
● An anticline is formed where rocks are folded ● The rocks of the Caroni and Siparia synclines
upwards. are folded downwards. The synclines have been
filled with mud and sand, so the land is flat and
Where there is powerful and extensive folding, low-lying.
complex patterns are formed, such as overfolds and ● The Central and Southern Range rocks are folded
recumbent folds. In an overthrust fold, folding and into synclines and anticlines, but they are more
faulting are combined. easily eroded than the Northern Range, so the
Rocks have been folded in many parts of the hills are not nearly as high. Mount Tamana in
G Caribbean. Trinidad is one example: the Central Range reaches a height of 308 metres.
● The Northern Range is crossed by flat-floored
Syncline Anticline rift valleys or grabens, such as the Diego Martin
valley and the Tucker valley.
Axial plane

b Lim
Lim
Axial plane

Lim b
b
Limb

Overfold Recumbent fold

Axial plane
Limb
ne
e
an

pla
pl
b

l
Lim

xia
ial

b Axial plane
Ax

A Lim

Asymmetrical fold Overthrust fold

e

Thrust
plan

b
plan

Lim
Lim
al
Axi

cture
al

b of fra
Lim
Axi

Line

1.4.3 How rocks are folded. 1.4.4 Small-scale folding in rocks at La Fillette in Trinidad.

Northern Range Caroni Syncline

1.4.5 A cross section of Trinidad.

12

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 Fold mountains
The world’s great mountain ranges – the Himalayas, These mountains have been formed by a
Andes, Rockies and Alps – have been formed close to combination of processes:
convergent plate boundaries, where two crustal plates ● Rocks are folded by powerful earth movements

are moving together. So have many other mountain into complex patterns. Although folding is not
chains, such as those of Central America and Mexico. the only process at work, the resulting
mountains are often called fold mountains.
● Blocks of land are also faulted
1.4.6 Folded mountain scenery in the
Southern Alps in New Zealand. upwards as the plates converge.
● In some of these mountain

ranges – for example in the

Andes and the Rockies – there
are powerful volcanoes, which
play an important part in the
mountain-building process. G

Quick questions
1 Use diagrams to describe the
difference between:
a) epicentre and hypocentre
b) normal and reverse faults
c) a horst and a graben
d) a syncline and an anticline.
2 Make a sketch to show the
pattern of small-scale folding
in Figure 1.4.4. Which types of
fold are shown?

Northern Range

Central Range

Pt Radix
Major fault zones

Southern Range

Line of cross-section

Central Range Siparia Syncline Southern Range

THE EARTH’S INTERNAL FORCES 13

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 The Great Rift Valley
Along plate boundaries, major fault lines can
develop continental-scale landforms, such as the
Great Rift Valley in Africa. The eastern part of the Continental Normal fault
crust
continent is being pulled slowly away from the rest
of Africa. Faults have formed a steep escarpment
from 400 to 2,000 metres high on each side of the Mantle
valley floor. Where the valley is deep, there are large
lakes, such as Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika. The
1.4.8 A rift valley.
Rift Valley is slowly getting wider. In 50 million
years, it could be as wide (300 kilometres) and as ● Over the past ten million years, the island has
deep (2,000 metres) as the Red Sea is today. been faulted upwards by as much as 2,000 metres.
It has also been broken up by smaller-scale faults,
Key
African
Arabian most of which run from east to west, or from
Fault lines Plate
Divergent plate boundary
Plate north-north-west to south-south-east.
Major active volcanoes
Major dormant or
extinct volcanoes
Within the island, many major landforms have been
Basalt lava plateaux formed by faulting.
● The John Crow Mountains are a tilt block, made
Afar Depression
mainly of limestone. There is a steep slope or G
escarpment on the south-west side of the
range, which has been faulted upwards. There is
Lake Turkana
a gentle dip slope to the north-east.
Lake Albert Mt. Elgon Eestern ● Many stretches of coast run along fault lines.
Rift Valley
Lake Victoria The rocks that have been faulted downwards are
Mt. Kenya now under water.
● Along a fault, the rocks are shattered and are
Western Kilimanjaro
Rift Valley more easily eroded by rivers. Many river valleys
Indian Ocean
run along fault lines. The Plantain Garden River
Lake Tanganyika
in eastern Jamaica follows a major east–west
N fault, which continues through Haiti as the
Enriquillo-Plaintain Garden fault.
● There are areas of flat land in rift valleys or
Lake Malawi

0 500 km
grabens that have been faulted downwards, such
as Lluidas Vale in central Jamaica or the Queen
1.4.7 The Great Rift Valley. of Spain’s Valley. See Section 16.16.
● The Blue Mountains have been pushed upwards
Faulting and landforms in Jamaica by faulting. They also show the influence of
Landforms in Jamaica are influenced by faulting. folding; they are made up of rocks that have
● The whole island is a large-scale horst. been strongly folded in the past.
● The oldest rocks in Jamaica were formed 100

million years ago, in a former island arc along a Point Radix in Trinidad
subduction zone between the North American Point Radix on the east coast of Trinidad is formed
and Caribbean plates. from a block of resistant sandstone and other rocks, G
● About 30 million years ago, earth movements which has been faulted up to 120 kilometres east from
pushed the island below sea level. Limestone its original position. Smaller faults have influenced
was deposited on top of older volcanic rocks. many local and small-scale features on Point Radix.

14

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 Volcano
Volcano
Sea

Magma Magma
one
ault Z
Trin idad F
entral
zone C SANDSTONE HIGH
bduction GROUND Point
er su Radix
Form

Or toire River
About 70 million years ago – part of an Island arc 0 1 km

Limestone Limestone
Limestone Key
Resistant rock
Beach sand
Cliffs

1.4.12 Point Radix.

G
About 30 million years ago – limestone deposited under the sea

Blue John Crow

Mountains Mountains
Cockpit Country
Lim
Limestone est
on
e

Today – uplift and extensive faulting

1.4.9 Stages in the development of Jamaica.

N
Queen of Spain’s Valley Fault lines

Blue Mountains

John Crow Mts.

1.4.13 Point Radix is a block of sandstone that has been
faulted to the east, forming a headland on the low- G
Cockpit
Country
lying Atlantic coast of Trinidad.

0 25 km Lluidas Vale Plantain

Garden Fault Map work
1.4.10 Major fault lines in Jamaica. 3 Look at the map of Kingston in Section 16.4.
Draw a sketch map of the area east of Easting
73. You should show:
a) the coastline
b) Long Mountain and Dallas Mountain, which
have been faulted upwards
c) Hope River, which runs close to a fault line.
4 Look at the map of the Tucker Valley in Section
16.13. Draw a sketch map to show the wide,
flat-floored north–south valley, the steep valley
sides, and the Cuesa River. G

Atlas work
1.4.11 This block of land at Caymanas, between Spanish Town 5 Find the Great Rift Valley on a map of Africa.
and Kingston, has been faulted downwards to form a) How long is the Great Rift Valley?
a graben. In the foreground are the Rio Cobre and
b) Which countries does it cross?
Mandela Highway.

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 1.5 Intrusive volcanic features

Key ideas ● Intrusive features are formed by magma beneath the surface.
● They may be exposed when the rocks above are removed by erosion.

A dyke is formed by a A plug remains when an extinct A sill formed by a horizontal or near-horizontal
sheet of magma which volcano has sheet of magma. An escarpment may be
rises vertically through eroded formed where it is exposed by erosion
the surrounding rocks away

Fort on a sill
(natural defence)
Church on a volcanic plug
Dykes clearly
seen on the beach
Waterfalls cut
into a sill

Sill
Volcanic vent

Dykes Sill

(Cooled) magma
chamber – batholith

A batholith is formed by a large mass of magma It may be exposed when the overlying
cooling and hardening below the surface rocks are removed by erosion

Volcano

Former surface

Rocks removed by erosion

Overlying rocks

Magma Batholith
batholith exposed

1.5.1 A landscape with intrusive volcanic features.

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 Intrusive volcanic features are formed by magma or removed by erosion. A plug may be exposed as
molten rock, which cools and hardens before it steep-sided rock, after the rest of the volcano has
reaches the surface. been worn away by erosion.
Magma forces its way to the surface at a line of Dykes are hard rocks, which resist erosion. A
weakness in the Earth’s crust. It pushes into a narrow resistant dyke may form a ridge of high ground. On
joint in the rock and then widens it to anything from a smaller scale, they may form narrow ridges when
a few centimetres to tens of metres across; more the surrounding rocks are worn away. A network of
magma then flows in and pushes further on towards dykes forms the Moule à Chique headland at the
the surface. When the molten rock has cooled and southern tip of St Lucia. Figure 1.5.2 shows how
hardened beneath the surface of the Earth, it forms a one of these dykes has resisted coastal erosion.
sheet that runs through the surrounding rock: Where the hard rock of a sill meets the surface,
● A sill is formed by magma flowing horizontally it may form a steep slope or an escarpment. The less
between two rock layers and roughly parallel to resistant rocks above and below the sill are more
the surface. easily eroded. The escarpment formed by the Great
● A dyke (or dike) is a vertical sheet of igneous Whin Sill in northern England was used as the site
rock, formed by magma moving directly for an ancient defensive feature, Hadrian’s Wall. On
upwards towards the surface. another part of the sill is a well-known waterfall,
● A plug is a vertical pipe of rock, formed when High Force.
the molten material in the vent of a volcano Some large mountains, such as Morne Watt in
cools and hardens. Dominica, were formed as a mass of intrusive rock.
● A batholith is a much larger intrusive feature, The rocks above are removed by erosion, leaving the
formed when a large underground reservoir of more resistant intrusion exposed as a mountain or
molten rock cools and hardens below the surface. island. There is a large batholith in the central part
of the island of Tobago. Another lies under Virgin
Intrusive volcanic rocks are formed below the Gorda and the eastern part of Tortola in the British
surface, but they may be exposed after many Virgin Islands.
thousands of years if the rocks above them are
Key
Batholith
Charlotteville

Caribbean Sea LITTLE

TOBAGO
TOBAGO
Roxborough
Plymouth

Scarborough

Atlantic Ocean

0 5 km

1.5.3 The Tobago batholith.

Quick questions
1 Draw a diagram to show:
a) a sill b) a dyke
c) a batholith.
2 Name a location where each of these can be
found.
3 Describe a landform that may result when each
1.5.2 A resistant dyke on the Moule à Chique headland in
St Lucia, exposed by coastal erosion.
of these is exposed at the surface.

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 1.6 Extrusive volcanic features

Key ideas ● Extrusive volcanic features are formed at the Earth’s surface.
● Lava plateaux and shield volcanoes are found close to divergent plate boundaries.
● Volcanic cones, calderas, and viscous lava are found close to convergent plate
boundaries. (See also Section 9.6, Volcanoes: the threats.)

Types of lava Basalt plateaux

Extrusive volcanic features are formed by lava and Basalt lava plateaux are formed when basic lava
ash at the surface of the Earth. There are two main flows to the surface over a wide area, often
types of lava: emerging through a vent or fissure. The lava
● Viscous lava (also called acid lava) comes to the smothers the hills and valleys of the existing
surface close to subduction zones, which are landscape, producing a wide, flat plateau.
found at convergent plate boundaries. It has a The world’s largest basalt plateaux are in India,
high silica content and it does not flow readily South America, and Africa; each covers an area
– the word viscous means “sticky”, or resistant larger than Guyana. They were formed more than
to flow. It contains gas that cannot escape easily, 100 million years ago by a series of eruptions.
so eruptions may be explosive and violent. Iceland is formed from a more recent basalt
Caribbean volcanoes produce viscous lava. plateau. Some of the rocks in Aruba and Curaçao
● Basic lava flows to the surface close to divergent were formed as basalt lava flows.
plate boundaries. It has a low silica content and
flows easily. Volcanoes in Iceland and Hawaii
produce basic lava. Basalt is a rock formed when
basic lava solidifies.

1.6.1 Drakensberg escarpment: a basalt lava plateau in South Africa with an extensive flat surface and steep sides.

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 Lava flows
form “steps” Lava flows through vents and
at plateau edge spreads out over a wide area.
Each eruption forms a new layer

Magma flows up through vents

1.6.2 A basalt plateau.

Shield volcanoes

tlantic

Ridge
Shield volcanoes are also formed from basalt lava,

Mid A
which flows to the surface. After many eruptions, NORTH AMERICAN EURASIAN
the lava forms a gently sloping dome that may be PLATE PLATE

more than 10 kilometres across. The Hawaiian

Islands are shield volcanoes. The largest, Mauna Kea,
is 200 kilometres across and rises 4,000 metres
from the ocean floor. G
ICELAND

Reykjavik Laki
e
dg

Eyjafjallajökull
Ri
tic
lan

Surtsey
At

Key
id
M

volcanoes
Atlantic Ocean

1.6.3 Iceland lies directly on the constructive boundary

between the North American and Eurasian plates.
There are large basalt plateaux within the shaded area.
The Laki fissure erupted with disastrous results
in 1783–4. International flights over Europe were
disrupted when Eyjafjallajökull erupted in 2010.
Surtsey is an island formed by the eruption of an
underwater volcano in 1963.

Many lava flows build up a wide,

gently sloping volcano

Magma chamber

1.6.4 Basalt lava flowing at the Mauna Ulu Crater, Hawaii

Volcanoes National Park. 1.6.5 A shield volcano.

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 Viscous lava domes
Viscous lava cannot easily spread outwards. It may Successive eruptions
Spine formed by
form a spine, or a steep-sided dome. A lava spine of viscous lava produce
recent eruption
formed in the Mont Pelée eruption of 1902, but a steep-sided
dome
collapsed under its own weight.
A lava dome has formed in the crater of the
Soufrière volcano on Montserrat since 1995, and
there is also a dome in the crater of the St Vincent
Soufrière.
There are many older viscous lava domes in St
Lucia and Dominica. The Pitons are two mountains Magma
chamber
in St Lucia that are formed from the core of a pair
of viscous lava domes. The weaker outer layers have
1.6.6 A viscous lava dome.
crumbled away.

Ash cones
In some violent eruptions, molten lava is thrown Ash is
high into the air. It breaks up, cools and solidifies thrown
Wind disperses
20 km or
before falling back to earth as volcanic “ash”. A more into fine ash
series of ash eruptions may build up many layers of the air
ash into a cone, which may be almost symmetrical
in shape, like Mount Fuji in Japan or Paracutin in Thick layers of Crater
debris fall near
Mexico. The cone has a hollow or crater at the the crater and
summit, where molten lava is ejected from the vent build a cone
of the volcano during an eruption. A thin layer of fine ash
falls over a wide area

1.6.8 An ash cone.

1.6.7 Lava escaping from the Montserrat volcano during an 1.6.9 Mount Fuji in Japan: an ash cone, with snow on its
eruption. upper slopes.

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 Composite volcanic cones Layers of Crater
Parasitic cone lava
Some volcanoes produce both
ash and lava eruptions – one Layers of ash
after the other. One eruption
Side vent
produces a layer of ash. The next
produces a layer of lava, or a
series of narrow lava flows down
the sides of the volcano. The
result is a composite volcano,
with many layers of ash and lava
built up over a long period.
Many Caribbean volcanoes are of
this type. One example is the St 1.6.10 A composite volcanic cone.
G
Vincent Soufrière; another is a
famous Italian volcano, Vesuvius.
In a composite volcano, the
main vent that carries magma to the
surface may become blocked as
molten rock cools and solidifies.
Magma may then find an alternative
path to the surface, through a side
vent. A conelet, or parasitic cone,
will then form on the slope of the
main volcano.

Calderas
A powerful volcanic eruption may
empty a magma chamber below
the surface, resulting in powerful
1.6.11 Crater Lake in Oregon, USA fills a caldera 9 km wide
pyroclastic flows of hot gas, ash,
and 3,000 m deep, which was created by an eruption
and lava fragments. The summit of 6,000 years ago.
the volcano collapses to form a
large, steep-sided depression called
a caldera. A caldera is much larger
than a volcanic crater.
A crater is formed when a volcanic explosion
throws material outwards and upwards. A caldera is
formed when material collapses into an empty
Pyroclastic flow
magma chamber.
Quick questions
1 Draw a diagram of:
a) a composite volcanic cone
b) a basalt plateau
c) a caldera A violent eruption
empties a magma
d) a shield volcano. chamber
2 Name an example of each one, and say which
type of plate margin it is associated with.

1.6.12 A volcanic eruption with powerful pyroclastic flows

empties a magma chamber.

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 1.7 Changes in volcanic features

Key ideas ● Volcanic features are altered by erosion over time.

● The features of recently active volcanoes are easily recognized.

Volcanic landscapes
The island arc of the Eastern Caribbean is associated
with a convergent plate margin. Most of these
islands have a volcanic origin, but many volcanic
features have been altered by erosion over time:
● Rivers cut channels down the sides of a volcanic

cone.
● Loose material, such as ash, is eroded quickly.

● Lava may cool to form a hard rock, which

resists erosion for a long period of time.

● Lava and intrusive features form high ground

long after the rest of the volcano has been

eroded away.

St Vincent
The Soufrière volcano in St Vincent is recent in age.
It is a composite volcano, built up from layers of 1.7.1 The caldera, crater and lava dome of the St Vincent
ash and lava over the last million years. Soufrière.

The volcano is still active, and has erupted eight 0 1 km

4,000
Crater rim East rim of caldera
times since 1700, most recently in 1971 and 1979. 3,500
Crater rim Lava dome
Each eruption adds new ash, lava, or other deposits.

Feet
3,000
The mountain’s volcanic features have not been 2,500
Former lake
greatly altered by erosion, and are easily recognized. 2,000
● Like many volcanoes, it is roughly conical.
1.7.2 St Vincent Soufrière: the former crater lake.
● There are ridges of high ground that were

formed by tongues of lava flowing down the Map questions

side of the volcano. At Owia, a lava flow forms
1 Make a sketch map of the St Vincent volcano, to
as headland where it reaches the sea. show:
● The small rivers and streams that flow down the
a) the crater
sides of the volcanic cone have eroded narrow, b) the lava dome
steep-sided valleys. c) two headlands formed by lava flows
● At the top of the volcano, there is a crater. d) the caldera
● Until the 1971 eruption, there was a e) the Rabacca Dry River, which was formed by
1-kilometre-wide lake in the crater. Now, there a pyroclastic flow in the 1902 eruption.
is a lava dome more than 500 metres across. 2 Use the map to calculate:
● Around the crater is a caldera, a large a) the distance from the caldera rim to the
depression 2 kilometres across, which was coast at Fancy
b) the average gradient of the slope along
formed when the top of the mountain collapsed
this line (the height of the caldera rim is
in a gigantic eruption in prehistoric times.
approximately 1,220 metres).

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 1.7.3 The St Vincent Soufrière –
a volcanic cone.

0 2 km

N
Key
Lava dome –
formed in 1979

Crater rim

Caldera rim Rab

a c ca D
ry River
Georgetown
Pyroclastic flows
1971 and 1979 Richmond
Peak Mount
Pyroclastic flows 1,074 m Brisbane
1902 1,003 m

Slopes of volcano
Grand
Bonhomme
Older volcanic 970 m
centres

Kingstown

0 10 km

1.7.4 A sketch map of the St Vincent Soufrière.

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 Crater

Radial streams Symmetrical cone

begin to erode.

Crater has been eroded.

Deep V-shaped valley Irregular cone

1.7.5 Small rivers and streams have eroded a radial pattern

of V-shaped valleys close to the summit of the
St Vincent Soufrière.
Plug of resistant
St Lucia rock remains.
Cone removed
Volcanic rock by erosion.

Why so many Soufrières? with dykes

Volcanoes and fumaroles in St Vincent,

Montserrat, Guadeloupe and other islands are
called Soufrière. The name derives from the
French word for sulphur.
Dyke Dyke

Key
F Fumarole
Peaks
Lava domes
Dyke rises through Dyke resists erosion
Ridges along dykes surrounding rocks and forms ridge
Main river valleys
Pyroclastic Flow Castries 1.7.7 How volcanic features change over time.
Settlements

Rose
a
St Lucia is a volcanic island. On most of the island,
volcanic activity took place several million years ago.
u
Rive

The older volcanic landforms have been greatly

r

altered by erosion.
Barre d

● The north of St Lucia was a centre of volcanic

e I’I

activity from 5 to 20 million years ago. The

s le

original volcanic landscape has been completely

Mt Gimie altered by erosion. There are no craters or
Soufrière
volcanic cones.
Petit Piton F ● Deep valleys have been eroded in the interior,

Gros Piton for example by the Roseau River.

● Ridges of high ground, such as the Barre de

l’Isle, are influenced by dykes that have resisted

erosion.
● The Moule à Chique headland at the southern
0 2 4 km Vieux Fort tip of St Lucia is made of volcanic ash and lava
Moule à Chique
from 5 to 10 million years old. There are dykes
1.7.6 Volcanic features in St Lucia. forming ridges of high ground.

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 ● Figures 1.5.2 and 1.7.6 show dykes on the Volcanic features on the Soufrière Hills volcano on
Moule à Chique. Montserrat are more recently formed than those in
● Mount Gimie and its neighbouring peaks are St Vincent or St Lucia. They have barely been altered
G
probably the eroded remnants of a composite by erosion.
volcanic cone that was formed around 2 million
years ago.

In the south-west of St Lucia, the volcanic centre

around the town of Soufrière has been active much
more recently, and could become active again at any
time.
● There are several viscous lava domes, which

were formed in the past 300,000 years. The

Pitons represent the inner core of two domes;
loose material that formerly surrounded the
core has been removed by erosion.
● Between 20,000 and 40,000 years ago, a series

of eruptions produced pyroclastic flows of hot

gas, ash, and lava fragments. These left thick
deposits, which blanket much of south-eastern St
Lucia as a gently sloping plateau. Rivers have cut
deep, steep-sided valleys in these easily eroded
rocks, and waves have formed steep coastal cliffs.
● Also within the caldera there is hot rock quite

close to the surface. The St Lucia Soufrière

1.7.9 An eruption of the Soufrière Hills volcano. Earlier
(shown in Figure 1.7.6) is a fumarole, or hot pyroclastic flows have produced a fan-shaped area of
spring. Water sinks into the ground, is heated by new land.
the rocks below, and rises to the surface as
steam, carrying sulphur and other minerals.
Sulphur deposits on the ground prevent plant
growth near the fumarole. Quick questions
3 Look at Figure 1.7.9.
a) How will the lava dome be altered in future
years by rain and river erosion?
b) How will the land created by pyroclastic
flows be affected by marine erosion?
c) What evidence indicates that erosion
has already altered the features and new
coastline shown?
4 Look at the map of Petit Martinique in
Section 16.12. The composite volcanic cone has
not been greatly altered by erosion, and the
shape is clearly visible in Figure 16.12.1. Make a
sketch map to show:
a) the coastline
b) the main volcanic peak
c) a smaller volcanic peak to the west
d) two rivers which are eroding the lower
slopes of the volcanic peak
1.7.8 The Pitons are two viscous lava domes, formed more e) the stretch of coastline where volcanic rocks
than 200,000 years ago. The outer rocks have been
have been eroded to form cliffs.
removed by erosion.

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 1.8 Rock types and erosion

Key ideas ● There are many different types of rock.

● Some rock types are easily eroded and some resist erosion.

Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are formed from molten material Volcanic islands such as St Vincent, St Lucia, and
from below the surface of the Earth, such as magma Montserrat are made up mainly of igneous rocks.
or volcanic lava. The word “igneous” means There are older igneous rocks in Guyana and Belize,
“formed of fire”. Most igneous rocks are formed at and in islands such as Jamaica or Trinidad.
constructive or destructive plate margins. Intrusive Many igneous rocks are resistant to weathering
features such as sills, dykes and batholiths are and erosion, but volcanic ash is easily eroded.
formed of igneous rock deep below the Earth’s
surface. Volcanoes and basalt plateaux are formed of Sedimentary rocks
igneous rock at or close to the surface. Sedimentary rocks are formed at the Earth’s surface.
These are the names of some igneous rocks: Many sedimentary rocks are formed like this:
● granite 1 Older rocks are weathered to form loose material.
● andesite 2 Weathered material is then eroded and
● basalt. transported to another location by rivers, wave
action, wind, or glaciers.
When liquid lava or magma cools, the minerals that 3 The material is deposited in a river valley, in a
it contains form solid crystals. Each mineral forms a lake, or beneath the sea, forming layers of
different type of crystal. When the rock cools slowly, sediment.
the crystals are large. When it cools quickly, the
crystals are small. In a fresh deposit of sediment, the particles are
These are some of the minerals found in loose and not stuck together. Low-lying areas such
igneous rocks: as river valleys often contain recent sediments,
● quartz which are easily eroded.
● feldspar In older sediments, the particles may be
● sulphur. cemented together by minerals such as iron oxide,
calcium carbonate, or silica to form a solid rock,
Volcanic rocks
which is hard and resists further erosion.
Intrusive
Weathering and erosion igneous rocks Transport by
wind and rain Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks
Deposition

Metamorphic rocks

1.8.1 Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

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 Type of Fresh Consolidated
sediment deposit rock
Very fine Clay Shale
Fine Silt Mudstone
Coarse Sand Sandstone, grit
Small stones Gravel Conglomerate

There are other types of sedimentary rock, such as:

● limestone, which is formed mainly from coral,
shells, and similar material. The main mineral in
limestone is calcium carbonate. Many areas of
Barbados, the Bahamas, and Jamaica are made
1.8.2 Students examining igneous basalt rocks at Sans Souci
up of limestone on the north coast of Trinidad.
● evaporites, which are formed when a sea or
lake dries up, leaving a layer of salt and other
minerals.

Fossils are traces of dead plants or animals. They are

found in sedimentary rocks. Minerals such as oil,
natural gas, and coal may also be found in
sedimentary rocks.

Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed when rocks from
near the surface are dragged down to much greater
depths, for example at a convergent plate boundary. 1.8.3 Sedimentary rocks with bands of sand and clay on
They are subjected to high temperatures and the east coast of Trinidad, eroded and shaped by
enormous pressures, and their structure is the waves.
completely altered. Metamorphic rocks are also
formed near the surface, when rocks are heated by
volcanic lava. Marble is a metamorphic rock that is
formed from limestone.
The Northern Range in Trinidad is made up of
metamorphic rocks. Most of southern and central
Trinidad is made up of sedimentary rocks.

Quick questions
1 Are the rocks shown in these illustrations
igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic? In each
case, give a reason for your answer. 1.8.4 Metamorphic rocks on the north coast of Trinidad,
a) 1.5.2 on p. 17 eroded and shaped by the waves.
b) 2.2.2 on p. 31
c) 2.2.3 on p. 31
d) 2.2.8 on p. 33
Quick research
e) Close to the river in 4.4.5 on p. 55 1 Which types of rock are found in the area close
f) 3.1.3 on p. 36. to your school?

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 2.1 Denudation, weathering, mass
wasting, and erosion
Key ideas ● Rocks are broken down in situ by weathering.
● Mass wasting moves material down slopes.
● Rivers, waves, wind, and other forces erode the land.
● Eroded material is deposited to make new landforms.

Weathering
“Weathering: The breakdown, but not the Where weathering is slow or material is
removal, of rocks.” removed rapidly, the regolith is thin. In some places
Oxford Dictionary of Geography the regolith is absent and bare rock is exposed at
the surface.
Most rocks are formed deep below the Earth’s Weathering may penetrate deep below the
surface, at very high temperatures and under surface, as water seeps underground and reacts with
tremendous pressure from the rocks above; they are the rock. The boundary between weathered material
formed away from air and water. and unweathered rock is called the weathering front.
When these rocks are exposed at the surface,
conditions are very different: temperatures are much Mass wasting
cooler and the great weight of the rocks above them “Mass wasting, mass movement: The movement
has been taken away. downslope of rock fragments and soil under the
Rocks at the surface are exposed to the influence of gravity.”
atmosphere and to rainwater. The rocks begin to Oxford Dictionary of Geography
break down in situ (a Latin phrase meaning “in their
original position”). They are weathered. The layer of Most rocks are held together by a structure of solid
weathered, broken and unconsolidated rock that minerals. When rocks are weathered, this structure
forms at the Earth’s surface is known as the regolith. is weakened and the solid rock is replaced by a
Where weathering is rapid and material is mixture of clay minerals, larger soil and sand
removed slowly, the regolith is many metres thick. particles, and small fragments of rock.
The regolith may consist of loose Weathered material can move downslope under
Soil forms on rocks, gravel, sand, silt or clay the influence of gravity. Movement is faster on steep
the surface
slopes and when the ground is wet. This process is
known as mass wasting, or mass movement.

Erosion
Regolith
“Erosion: The removal of part of the land surface
by wind, water, gravity or ice.”
Oxford Dictionary of Geography

Weathered material can be removed by running

water, by the wind and, in cold climates, by glaciers.
Unweathered rock may have In the Caribbean, water is the most important agent
The weathering front some cracks or joints
of erosion. The land may be eroded by rain action,
2.1.1 The regolith. by rivers and streams, and by the sea.

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 Deposition
“Deposition: The dropping of material which has Weathering, transport, and erosion remove rocks
been picked up and transported by wind, water and other material from the surface of the Earth. In
or ice.” doing so, they carve out river valleys and create
Oxford Dictionary of Geography other landforms. This process is known as
denudation.
When weathered material has been eroded, it is Some landforms are not created by denudation.
usually transported to another location by running They are called constructional landforms. Examples
water, wave action, or by wind or glaciers. include volcanoes, which are built up by eruptions
At a later stage, the material is deposited. of ash and lava, and coral reefs, which are created
Deposition may occur in many locations, for by coral polyps and other marine life.
example at the base of a slope, in the lower part of
Quick question
a river valley, on a beach where waves deposit sand
or stones, or in the sea. 1 In your own words, explain the meaning of these
terms:
Denudation a) Weathering b) Erosion
“Denudation: The laying bare of underlying rocks c) Deposition d) Mass wasting
e) Regolith f) Denudation.
by the processes of weathering, transport and
erosion.”
Oxford Dictionary of Geography

Rocks are formed by volcanoes

and other constructional
features.
Rocks at the surface are broken
down by weathering.

Weathered material moves downslope by mass

wasting, and is eroded by rivers and the sea.

Material is deposited by rivers

and by the sea.

These processes together are

known as denudation. 2.1.2 Weathering, erosion,
and deposition.

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 2.2 Weathering

Key ideas ● Physical weathering breaks rocks into smaller particles.

● Chemical weathering alters minerals in the rock.
● Plants and animals cause biological weathering.
● Weathering is influenced by climate and rock type.

Physical weathering
Physical weathering breaks up rock but does not and sandstones. It works most rapidly where the
change its mineral composition. The rock particles rock is completely saturated with water and there is
are not softened and do not change their colour. a sudden fall in temperature to several degrees
Rock particles created by physical weathering below freezing point.
may be altered and broken down further by This weathering process is also known as frost
chemical weathering. shattering, or freeze-thaw weathering. It produces
coarse, angular fragments of rock. These may be
Frost action broken down further by other forms of weathering.
In cold climates, where the temperature falls below In mountainous areas with a cold climate,
freezing point at night, frost action is an important broken rock may accumulate at the foot of a rock
form of weathering. It operates like this: face, as small and large fragments are broken off by
1 During the daytime, when the temperature is frost shattering. This is called a scree slope.
above freezing point, small cracks and fissures
in the rock fill with water from rain, dew, or Pressure release
melting snow. When rocks are removed by erosion, the pressure
2 At night, the temperature falls below freezing weighing down on the rocks below them is
point. The water held in the rocks is turned to ice. reduced. They expand slightly. As the rock expands,
3 When water freezes, it expands by about 9%; joints and cracks are formed. This process is called
this means that there is not enough room for pressure release.
the ice. The ice crystals press against the rock in Pressure release may form joints parallel to the
an effort to expand. surface. Similar joints are formed when the rock
4 When this process is repeated many times over, cools and contracts. Other weathering processes
the pressure of the ice can split the rock. widen these joints, until a layer of rock breaks away.
This process is called exfoliation. It has helped to
Frost action is most effective on rocks with many shape landforms such as the Sugar Loaf Mountain in
joints and fissures, for example limestones Rio de Janeiro and the Pitons in St Lucia.

Joints and cracks in the rock fill At night, the water in the joints The frozen water expands by 9%, When this process is repeated many
with water during the day freezes causing the joints to widen and deepen times, fragments of rock break off

2.2.1 Frost action.

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 2.2.2 A scree slope
beneath a
sandstone cliff
in the Rocky
Mountains, USA
– rock has been
broken off the
cliff by frost
action.

2.2.3 Chemical
weathering –
rock salt being
formed by water
(solution).

Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering alters the minerals that make
up the rock and may produce changes in its colour
or texture. The rock rots away as a result of the
action of air and the water in the soil, which
contains natural acids. Small cracks allow water to
penetrate into the rock. Most chemical weathering
produces fine material, such as salts, which can be
dissolved, or clay particles, which can easily be
washed away.
There are many forms of chemical weathering.
Three chemical weathering processes, which operate
on many types of rock, are:
● hydrolysis. This happens when minerals react

chemically with water. Feldspar is a hard,

rock-forming mineral, which reacts with water
to produce clay minerals.
● solution. Some minerals, such as rock salt and

calcium bicarbonate, can be dissolved by water.

Most rainwater is slightly acidic, and so is the
water in the soil. This increases the rate at which
solution operates on most minerals.
● oxidation. This happens when a mineral reacts

with the oxygen in the air. When iron is left

exposed to the atmosphere, iron oxide (or rust)
will form on the surface. Many other rock-
forming minerals, such as sulphur, can also be
altered by oxidation.
2.2.4 Chemical weathering – an iron train in Bolivia rusting
(oxidation).

E XTERNAL FORCES 31

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 Carbonation Biological weathering
Carbonation is a form of chemical weathering that Plants and animals may sometimes help to break
affects limestone. It operates like this: down rocks, particularly if these are already
1 Limestone consists mainly of calcium carbonate unconsolidated or soft. This is sometimes called
(CaCO3). Before weathering, this mineral is not biological weathering. Biological weathering includes
soluble. both physical and chemical processes:
2 The atmosphere contains carbon dioxide (CO2). ● Tree roots growing in joints in the rock may

There is a higher concentration of carbon help to split it up.

dioxide in the air trapped between soil particles. ● Burrowing animals and earthworms may help to

3 Rainwater reacts with the carbon dioxide in the break up the rock.
atmosphere and in the soil to form a weak ● When dead plants and animals decay, acids are

carbonic acid (H2CO3). produced that can play an important part in

4 This carbonic acid reacts with the limestone to chemical weathering.
produce calcium bicarbonate in this chemical ● On limestone coasts, rock is weathered by algae

reaction: H2CO3 – CaCO3 → Ca(HCO3)2. and snails living close to the water line. They
5 Calcium bicarbonate is soluble and it can easily break up the limestone to leave loose material,
be washed away by rainwater, rivers, or which is easily eroded by the waves.
underground water.

2.2.5 Part of a limestone building, weathered by

carbonation and oxidation.

2.2.6 Building a house from freshly cut limestone blocks. 2.2.7 Biological weathering – tree roots breaking up a rock
face in Australia.

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 Weathering and climate
In a cold climate, frost shattering is an important Most rocks are made up of many different
form of weathering. Frost action is most effective minerals. When some of these minerals are weathered,
where there is a wide daily temperature range, and this weakens the structure of the rock. If feldspar
the night-time temperature falls many degrees below crystals are changed to clay minerals by hydrolysis, this
freezing point. Rainfall should also be fairly high. will cause stresses in the rock. Some rocks crumble into
However, most chemical reactions operate small particles when weathering is well advanced. This
slowly at low temperatures. Chemical weathering is process is called granular disintegration. Large crystals
less effective in a cold climate. of resistant minerals (such as quartz) may form grains
In a warm climate, most chemical reactions take of sand, while other minerals may form clay.
place at a much faster rate. Many types of chemical Rocks with many joints and cracks are
weathering can take place only when there is some weathered more easily. Water and air can penetrate
moisture on the ground. Chemical weathering is into the rock to aid both physical and chemical
most effective in a warm, moist climate, as in most weathering processes.
of the Caribbean.
Quick questions
Rock type and weathering 1 What evidence shows that the limestone
The type of weathering affecting rock depends on building blocks in Figure 2.2.5 have been
the rock’s type and structure. For example, affected by weathering?
limestone is affected by carbonation. Some minerals, 2 Explain why a rock with many joints and cracks
will be affected quickly by:
such as quartz, are resistant to chemical weathering.
a) frost shattering
Others, such as feldspar, are changed to clay by
b) chemical weathering
hydrolysis or altered by oxidation or solution. Rocks c) biological weathering.
containing a high proportion of quartz weather 3 Explain two ways in which weathering may be
more slowly than rocks composed mainly of less influenced by:
resistant minerals, such as feldspar. a) rock type b) climate.

2.2.8 A piece of granite with a high quartz content. Minerals like quartz are
not easily weathered.

E XTERNAL FORCES 33

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 2.3 Mass wasting

Key ideas ● Soil creep is slow movement of material downslope.

● A landslide is the downslope movement of a mass of rock or weathered material
under the influence of gravity.
● Mass wasting is influenced by water, rock type, and slope angle.
● Human activities can increase the danger of landslides. (See also Section 9.3,
Hurricanes: the threats, and Section 9.6, Volcanoes: the threats.)

Soil creep Landslides

On some slopes, a layer of soil moves gradually “Landslide: A landslip. The movement downslope under
downwards at a rate of perhaps 1 millimetre per the influence of gravity of a mass of rock or earth.”
year. Usually, the layer of soil near the surface moves Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Physical Geography
more quickly than the soil below it. Soil creep can
also affect unconsolidated rocks, such as clay or A whole section of hillside can sometimes slide
sand. It can be detected when: downhill. Landslides can affect soil and unconsolidated
● a post, tree, or wall begins to lean downhill rocks. Consolidated rocks may also be torn from a
● layers of clay or unconsolidated rock are warped mountainside. Large masses of rock are sometimes
in a downhill direction. affected. In Iran, geologists have identified a block of
limestone 14 kilometres long, 5 kilometres across and
There is some soil creep on most slopes, but the 300 metres thick, which slid down a mountainside
process is quicker when: into a valley in prehistoric times.
● rainfall is high (water in the soil makes it easier Sliding movements are sometimes so slow that
for soil particles to move) they can be detected only by careful observation,
● slopes are steep but frequently they are fast enough to be dangerous.
● the regolith is thick. The term “landslide” can be used for many types of
mass movement; the land may slide, slump or fall
Greater movement down a slope. When the ground is very wet, a mass
near surface of mud may flow like a liquid.
Fences lean Landslides are most likely to occur in the
following conditions:
● On steep slopes.
Trees bend
● Where there is a thick layer of unconsolidated

rock, such as sand, clay, or volcanic ash. When

volcanic ash is saturated with water, there may
Thinner soil
on top of slope be a damaging mudflow, known as a lahar.
● Where there are rocks such as shale and clay,

which become slippery when wet.

● When the base of a slope is undercut by an

eroding river or by the sea.

Deeper soil at Landslides can also be triggered by heavy rainfall, for

base of slope
example during a tropical storm. Water acts as a
2.3.1 Soil creep.
lubricant, so it becomes easier for soil and rock
particles to move. Water also increases the weight of
the soil, making the slope unstable.
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 Landslides often occur when there is a layer of Human activities such as deforestation can make
slippery shale or clay beneath a solid rock like landslides more likely. In a forest, tree roots help to
limestone. The wet clay acts as a lubricant, so the bind the soil and rocks, so when trees are removed
rocks above it can move downwards more easily. slopes become unstable.

The base of a slope is A layer of clay Thick layers of volcanic Road building and other
acts as a lubricant
undercut by a road
cutting, a river, or by
ash become unstable
when wet
construction activities can
the sea also increase the chance of
Limestone
landslides. When a road is
Regolith
cut into a hillside, this
Clay increases the slope angle,
Unweathered Limestone
creating conditions for a
rock landslide. Buildings may be
constructed on slopes that
are not strong enough to
bear their weight. When
other conditions are in
place, an earthquake can also
trigger a landslide.

2.3.2 Conditions which make landslides more likely.

2.3.3 Landslide damage in Venezuela.

Landslide damage
Sudden slumps, slides and flows can be dangerous.
In December 1999 heavy rain triggered hundreds of
landslides near Caracas in Venezuela, where many
people had built houses in narrow, steep-sided
valleys and on unstable slopes. Vegetation had been
removed and the slopes had been destabilized. On
one estimate, 30,000 people were killed and
200,000 left homeless.
Roads can be blocked by debris or can fall away
when the slope below the roadway is unstable. In
Dominica there was heavy rain in October and
November 2004, followed by an earthquake.
Landslides blocked 19 roads and the airport runway.
Landslides that block rivers create a temporary
dam. A lake is then formed on the upstream side.
When the dam is breached, the water rushes
downhill, creating a powerful flash flood.
Quick research
1 a) Name an area in your country that has been
affected by landslides.
b) What were the factors that caused landslides
in this area?
c) How were human activities affected?

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 3.1 Limestone

Key ideas ● Limestone is composed mainly of

calcium carbonate.
● Limestone is weathered by carbonation.
● Limestone is a permeable rock.
(See also Section 2.2, Weathering.)

3.1.1 Coral limestone in Barbados.

The composition of limestone
Limestones are rocks made mainly of calcium
carbonate, a mineral with the chemical formula
CaCO3. They are sedimentary rocks that were laid
down under the sea, or sometimes in fresh water.
There are large areas of limestone in all the larger
Caribbean islands, and also in Belize; the Bahamas
are made up almost entirely of limestone; there is
also limestone in Barbados and many of the other
smaller islands.
There are many different types of limestone:
● Some limestones are made up mainly of coral,

for example in Barbados.

● Others are composed mainly of shells.
● Most Bahamian limestones are oolites, formed

when small egg-shaped grains of calcium

carbonate are precipitated from seawater.
● Many limestones consist of almost pure calcium
3.1.2 Oolite, magnified to show grains.
carbonate. They are usually white when they
have been freshly broken.
● Others contain a high proportion of mud and

other material. They may be yellow or brown.

Limestone is an important resource for several

reasons:
1 Fresh groundwater can be extracted from
limestone. This is the main water source in
Barbados.
2 Limestone is the main raw material for
manufacturing cement. It is also used in the
alumina and iron and steel industries.
3 Limestone can be crushed to make an aggregate
for the construction industry.
4 Many types of limestone can be cut into blocks
and used as a building material.

3.1.3 Oolite is being deposited today in the Bahamas, where

grains of calcium carbonate are precipitated from
warm, shallow seas as pale streaks.

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 Weathering and drainage on limestone Map question
Limestone is not soluble before it has been 1 Figure 3.1.5 shows the main rivers of Jamaica
weathered. Section 2.2 explains how limestone is and the location of the limestone areas in the
weathered by carbonation. Calcium carbonate, the western part of the island. The limestone areas
main mineral in limestone, reacts with rainwater. in the eastern part of Jamaica have not been
The reaction forms calcium bicarbonate, a soluble marked.
mineral that can be washed away. a) What do you notice about the pattern of
Most limestones contain pores, fissures, and drainage in the limestone areas?
joints which water can pass through. These are b) Make a map of Jamaica, and shade in what
enlarged when rainwater begins to dissolve the appear to be the main areas of limestone in
limestone. The limestone becomes a permeable rock the eastern part of the island.
– water can flow through it very easily.
Limestones are not equally permeable. Coral Quick research
limestone is highly permeable, whereas the yellow 2 Are there any areas of limestone in your
limestone of Jamaica contains more impurities and country? If so, what types of limestone are most
is more solid in structure – it is less permeable. common? Is the limestone used as a resource?
A few rivers in limestone areas flow on the
surface. The Great River in Jamaica runs through
limestone. It has cut rapidly down through the rock
and flows through a narrow, steep-sided gorge. The
bottom of the gorge contains alluvial deposits and
lies below the water table.

Sedimentary: Rock composed of sediments that

have been laid down by water, wind, or glaciers.

3.1.4 The Radcliffe Camera in Oxford, England,

is built out of oolite.
3.1.5 Drainage patterns in Jamaica.

Limestone areas

0 30 km

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 3.2 Caves and limestone features

Key ideas ● Landforms such as dolines and dry valleys may form on limestone.
● In many limestone areas, rivers flow underground in caves.
● Stalagmites, stalactites, and other features form inside caves.
(See also Section 2.2, Weathering.)

Underground rivers River flows

in gorge
Limestone
pavement Swallow holes
Impermeable rocks
above the limestone
In areas of permeable limestone, joints and fissures
Resurgence
in the rock are enlarged as the limestone is
weathered by carbonation and dissolved. Rivers may
Resurgence
disappear down a swallow hole or sink hole, and
flow underground through a cave. Few rivers flow
on the surface in limestone areas. Swallow
holes
Further downstream, where the river leaves the
limestone area, there may be a resurgence. This is a
large spring, where a full-sized river flows out of Underground cave with
stalactites and stalagmites
the ground.

Barbados Impermeable rocks beneath the limestone

Most of Barbados is covered with a layer or cap of

3.2.1 Swallow holes (also known as sink holes), caves, and
coral limestone from 30 to 100 metres thick. The resurgences.
limestone is permeable and contains large fissures.
On the coral cap, there are no permanent surface
rivers. Key
Scotland District clay
Most of the land is flat or gently sloping. The and other rocks
original limestone surface has not been altered very Coral limestone cap

much by erosion. Rivers and streams

Gullies which sometimes
There are narrow, steep-sided dry valleys, carry water
known locally as gullies. When the weather is very Line of cross-section
wet, a stream may flow for a short time. There may
0 5 km
be flooding where gullies flow on to flat land near
the coast.
In the Scotland District of eastern Barbados the
coral cap has been removed by erosion. Clay and
other rocks are exposed at the surface. There are
surface rivers and streams in this part of the island.

Caves
Rainfall sinks down through the coral limestone
until it meets a layer of impermeable clay, called the
Oceanic Series. At this level, underground rivers
have dissolved the limestone to flow through caves 3.2.2 Limestone and drainage in Barbados.
at the base of the coral cap.

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 Rain water seeps Coral
Inland cliffs and down through the limestone cap Spring water flows
At Harrison’s Cave, visitors can see a small part of a
coral terraces coral limestone to the surface large underground cave system, which has been
Below sea level the
limestone is saturated developed as a tourist attraction. They travel to a
with water depth of 50 metres in an electric vehicle. There is a
Clays and other rocks river and an underground waterfall.
Underground rivers flow in There are limestone caves in Jamaica, the
caves beneath the coral limestone cap
Scotland district Bahamas, Trinidad, and many other Caribbean
with surface rivers
and streams
islands. The Blue Holes of Belize and the Bahamas
are deep, round lakes, linked to ancient cave systems
3.2.3 Limestone and drainage in Barbados.
now flooded by the sea.

Stalagmites and stalactites

Sometimes the water in a cave carries more
dissolved calcium carbonate than it can hold. When
this water drips from the roof of the cave, it leaves
tiny crystals of the mineral behind. Over the years,
the crystals that are formed by the drips will
accumulate, to create:
● stalagmites, which grow up from the cave floor

● stalactites, which grow down from the roof

● pillars, which join the roof to the floor.

In Harrison’s Cave, there are stalactites, stalagmites,

and an underground river with pools and waterfalls.
There are other caves in Barbados that have not been
developed for tourism.
Definitions
1 Explain the meaning of these terms, using
diagrams:
a) Swallow hole b) Resurgence
c) Cave d) Stalagmite
e) Stalactite f) Pillar.

3.2.4 Harrison’s Cave, Barbados.

Revision
2 Explain the meaning of these terms:
a) Permeable (Section 3.1)
b) Weathering (Section 2.2)
c) Carbonation (Section 2.2).
Pillar
Stalactites
Research
3 Are there any limestone caves in your country?
Stalagmites
If so, have any been developed for tourism or
Underground river other uses?
Underground Pool
waterfall

3.2.5 Stalagmites, stalactites and a pillar.

LIMESTONE LANDSCAPES 39

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 Surface depressions Most buildings in limestone areas are safe. However,
Solution of limestone may form a surface when a new building is proposed, engineers may
depression. There are many types of surface investigate the ground beneath, for example with
depression, such as sink holes, dolines, poljes and ground-penetrating radar. If caves are identified:
● the foundations can be strengthened
cockpits.
● alternatively, the proposed construction can take

A river may disappear down a swallow hole into place on another site.
a limestone cave.
Solution doline Collapse doline
A sink hole may be a swallow hole. In Barbados
and elsewhere, a sink hole may be dry, with no Surface Fissure
weathering enlargement
associated river or stream.
Minor
collapse Fallen
A doline is usually a larger depression, often blocks
from 10 m to 1 km in diameter.

Cave
There are caves under the surface of many areas of Limestone
Cave
Limestone
Barbados. Some have been mapped but others are Cave or fissure

not known in detail. The roof of a cave may 3.2.7 How dolines are formed.
collapse, forming a sink hole, if:
● the cave is close to the surface

● the roof of the cave is thin

● the limestone is weakened by joints and fissures

● the cave is enlarged over a long period by

carbonation and solution

● the ground above is disturbed, for example by

heavy construction machinery or a new

building.

A German geologist in 2000 identified 2,830 sink

holes and dolines in Barbados from air photographs
and satellite images. Most are stable, and are
thousands of years old.
In an unusual incident, a two-storey apartment
block collapsed in 2007, with a new sink hole
opening at Arch Cot, close to Bridgetown in 3.2.8 A smaller sink hole opened in 2011, close to Arch Cot
Barbados. Three small children and their parents were in Barbados. It revealed a cave 8 m across and
killed. The zone close to the site was declared unsafe. 5 m deep.

Dolines are usually larger depressions.

● Collapse dolines form around an enlarged sink

hole when the roof of a cave collapses, as in

Arch Cot in Barbados.
● Solution dolines form when a concentration of

joints and fissures within a small area of

limestone leads to rapid weathering.

When a doline has formed, clay may accumulate in

the depression. Water cannot flow through the clay
into the limestone below. A small lake may be
formed.
3.2.6 A small lake formed in doline at Cove Bay in Barbados.

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 How gullies were formed Running parallel to the coastline in many areas of
Barbados are steeply sloping inland cliffs and coral G
terraces.
Figure 1.2.2 shows how Barbados was formed
by earth movements that created a forearc ridge,
close to the subduction zone at the convergent plate
boundary of the South American and Caribbean G
plates. Barbados is still being pushed upwards at a
rate of up to 50 centimetres every 1,000 years.
The major inland cliffs represent previous
shorelines, which were formed as the island was
raised above sea level.

Limestone pavements, clints and

grykes
A limestone
pavement is a
surface of bare
3.2.9 A limestone landscape in Barbados. limestone rock
with almost
The steep-sided gullies that cross the coral cap in no soil. There
Barbados have been formed in two ways: are limestone
● Some were formed when the roof of a cave pavements
collapsed. Former stalagmites and stalactites can in exposed
be seen on the sides of Welchman Hall Gully, coastal areas in
close to Harrison’s Cave. Barbados and
● Some were formed by river erosion many other islands.
thousands of years ago, when rainfall was In Britain,
some limestone 3.2.11 Clints and grikes.
higher than it is today.
pavements
Inland cliffs have a pattern of cracks formed by joints in the
limestone. The cracks are called grikes and the
blocks between them are clints.

Definitions
4 Using diagrams, explain the difference between
these terms:
a) Solution dolines and collapse dolines
b) Clints and grykes.

Photo questions
5 Look at Figure 3.2.10.
a) What type of vegetation grows in the gullies?
b) What use is made of the areas of flat land?
6 Look at Figure 3.2.11. What indications are there
3.2.10 A coral terrace and inland cliff close to Cove Bay in
that this is a former coastline?
Barbados.

LIMESTONE LANDSCAPES 41

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 3.3 Cockpit karst

Key ideas ● Karst landforms are distinctive features formed in

limestone areas.
● Cockpit karst, with conical hills, is found in Jamaica.

Karst landforms
3.3.1 Cockpit Country
Because limestone can be dissolved, distinctive
in Jamaica.
landforms develop on this rock. These are known as
karst features. The word originates in the European
country of Slovenia, where there are many areas of
Cockpit Country
limestone. To the south of Falmouth there is a large area with
The way in which karst landforms develop in a landforms known as cockpit karst. The rock here is
limestone landscape depends on: very pure white limestone, with a criss-cross pattern
● the type of limestone of jointing. It has been weathered and eroded to
● the climate of the area form a maze of small conical hills and depressions.
● the amount of time that the rocks have been The hills have very little soil and are covered with
exposed to weathering and erosion thick forest and woodland.
● other structural features, such as folding and Pockets of red soil have collected in some of the
faulting. depressions, or cockpits. Sometimes these are
cultivated, but they have to be reached by a long,
There are many contrasting karst landscapes in winding path. There is no permanent surface water
Caribbean islands, for example Jamaica: in most of Cockpit Country.
● There are many types of limestone in Jamaica. Cockpits are formed like this:
The purest is the white limestone, which covers 1 The limestone has a criss-cross pattern of joints.
many parts of the island. Yellow limestone 2 The rock nearest to the joints is dissolved
contains more impurities. There are also areas fastest, because this is where water collects.
with coral limestone, for example close to the 3 A deep, star-shaped depression is formed where
north coast. two joints meet.
● Jamaica has a warm climate with fairly high 4 Small conical hills remain away from the joints.
rainfall. In some locations decomposing Where the jointing is regular, the hills are
vegetation increases the acidity of water in the arranged in rows.
soil, accelerating weathering by carbonation.
Original land Rectangular pattern
Cold-climate weathering processes, such as frost surface of jointing
action, do not operate in Jamaica.
● Some limestone areas of Jamaica have been

exposed to weathering and erosion for several

million years. Elsewhere, there are more recent
coral limestones, which are less than 100,000
years old.
● Jamaican limestone has been fissured by a large

number of faults, many of which run from east Cockpits form at the Small hills remain
intersection of joints, between the joints
to west or NNW–SSE. These have also influenced where erosion is fastest
the development of limestone landscapes.
3.3.2 How cockpits are formed.

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 Roads are difficult to build in Cockpit Country Map questions
because of the broken terrain. A small area inside
each cockpit can be cultivated, but large-scale 1 On the map in Figure 3.3.3, one cm represents
100 m. The area west of the fault line covers
agriculture is impossible. There are few human
1.05 sq. km. How many hills and cockpits does it
settlements. In the eighteenth century some of
contain?
Jamaica’s Cockpit Country was settled by Maroons; 2 Describe the contrast between the areas of
it was difficult terrain for British troops to control. white limestone and yellow limestone under the
Figure 3.3.3 shows an area on the edge of headings:
Cockpit Country, near Albert Town. To the west of a) Relief b) Settlements c) Roads.
the fault line the rock is white limestone; to the east
there is yellow limestone, which contains more
Montego
impurities. Bay N
Cockpits have formed on the white limestone Queen of Spain’s Valley
Cockpit
because it is more strongly jointed and more easily Flagstaff Country Lluidas Vale
dissolved. Some cockpits are elongated towards the ive
r
John Crow
Mountains
R
north, which is the main direction of underground Black Kingston

drainage.
0 50 km
On the yellow limestone there are some
depressions or dolines, but they are wider and the
3.3.4 Some limestone landforms in Jamaica.
land slopes more gently. It is more easily settled and
cultivated.
Cockpits are also found on other Caribbean G
islands, such as Puerto Rico.

1500 150
N

17
0

50
FAULT

1500

1750
F I A N C E

1750
0
150 1642
1750

1632

M O N A R C H 15
00 15
00
1561
125
0

G R E A T
1310
R O C K
1750
V A L L E Y S P R I N G

150
0

C O N G O
1500

B O T T O M

Key
Depression Over 1,750 feet 1,500–1,750 feet 1,250–1,500 feet below 1,250 feet

3.3.3 Cockpit Country near Albert Town in Jamaica. Scale 1:10 000. Contour interval 50 feet (15.42 m).
LIMESTONE LANDSCAPES 43

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 Poljes Caves and underground rivers
A polje is a wide, flat-floored valley formed in
limestone where a block of land has been faulted
downwards. Rivers flow into the depression and
deposit alluvium or sediment, creating a broad, flat
G valley floor. There are several poljes in Jamaica, such
as Lluidas Vale and the Queen of Spain’s Valley
(shown in Figure 16.16.2).
Water in the soil of the polje accumulates acids
from decaying vegetation. Rapid weathering by acid
soil water undercuts the surrounding hill slopes and
gives them a steep profile.
A mogote is a small hill inside a polje, formed
from a block of resistant limestone.

Acid groundwater is dissolving

Limestone Limestone
the limestone at these points
upland upland
3.3.6 Man with a kerosene torch walking through Windsor
Polje Caves, Cockpit Country.

Mogote There is no surface drainage within Cockpit

Country. Water passes through swallow holes to feed
underground rivers flowing through caves. These
Alluvium Alluvium
emerge as major surface rivers, such as the Great
River and the Black River.
This block of
limestone has For example, the One Eye River:
Fault been faulted Fault
● is fed by underground water flowing beneath
downwards
the Cockpit Country
● emerges at the Oxford Caves
3.3.5 How a polje is formed. ● flows across the flat floor of the Oxford polje

● disappears into a
Oxford Caves
Cockpit Country swallow hole at
Wallingford
● emerges again in a

resurgence 1 kilometre G
to the west
● joins the Black River as a
POLJE tributary
Black River r ● meanders across the
ive Wallingford
er

Appleton polje
Riv
R

One E y e
Eye

One ● crosses the wetlands of

Balaclava Rot
ten the Black River Morass
POLJE Gut
Riv
er and Great Morass
● flows into the sea near

the town of Black River.

0 1 2 km

Key
Spring or resurgence Swallow hole Depression
3.3.7 The course of the
Under 500 feet 500–750 750–1,000 Over 1,000 feet
One Eye River.

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 Review question Cockpit Country and Jamaican heritage
3 Copy the table at the bottom of this column,
‘Influences on limestone landscapes’, and
complete it by putting the words below in the
correct empty boxes. There may be more than
one entry for each box.
Warm Dolines
High rainfall Gullies, dry valleys
Coral terraces
Inland cliffs
Coral limestone Around 40 million years
Up to 10 Very high – many cracks
million years and fissures in coral
ago

Influences on limestone landscapes

Cockpit Country Barbados
Types of White limestone
limestone
Age of Up to one
limestone million years
Emerged from Up to one 3.3.8 Quashie’s River Sink: caves and underground rivers
are potential tourist attractions.
sea: erosion in million years
progress ago Cockpit Country is important for Jamaica’s national
Structure Many faults, Radial cracks heritage.
running E-W or formed in uplift • More than 200 years ago it was a centre of the
NNE-SSW Maroon wars. Maroon communities live there
Criss-cross today with a distinctive culture and a close
jointing relationship with the environment.
Permeability High • There are endemic species of plants and animals,
Climate Warm found nowhere else in the world. For example,
Moderate the giant swallowtail butterfly, which needs
rainfall humid air, is extinct in the Blue Mountains but
still found in Cockpit Country.
Carbonation Rapid Rapid
• Some plants are used in traditional medicine.
Surface Cockpits These can be studied to develop wider uses.
features Conical hills • There is scattered small-scale agriculture.
aligned with Some practices, such as clearing land by fire,
faults and joints cause environmental damage. Sustainable
Underground Caves Caves farming helps conserve the environment.
features Stalagmites Stalagmites
Stalactites Stalactites Cockpit Country is classed as a World Heritage Site
Underground Underground by a UN agency, UNESCO. In 2004 the government
rivers rivers issued licences to mining companies to prospect
for bauxite. There were protests over this threat to
the environment and two years later the licences
were suspended.

Sustainable tourism creates jobs and helps visitors

appreciate the environment. The village of Flagstaff
has a visitor centre, with cultural presentations,
foods and crafts for sale, and hiking tours.

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 4.1 The hydrological cycle

Key ideas ● Water circulates between the sea, the atmosphere, and the land.
● Water may flow on the Earth’s surface or through soil and rocks.
● Water flows into rivers and returns to the sea.

The water cycle

Most of the world’s water is stored in the oceans Water is transferred from:
and seas. Water evaporates from the oceans and seas, ● the sea and land to the atmosphere by

and is held as water vapour in the atmosphere. evaporation and transpiration

Water from the atmosphere falls as rain or snow. ● the atmosphere to the land and sea by

When it reaches the ground, most of it flows into precipitation, falling as rain or snow
rivers and returns to the sea. Some snowfall is ● the land to the oceans by rivers, streams, and

stored in ice caps and glaciers. groundwater seepage.

This pattern of circulation is known as the
Impermeable: Rock that water cannot flow
hydrological cycle or the water cycle. Hydrology is
through, such as clay.
the study of the Earth’s water. At any time:
Permeable: A rock with joints, fissures or pores
● 97.3% of the Earth’s water is in the oceans and
that water can flow through, such as limestone,
seas sand, or gravel.
● 2.1% is in the Greenland and Antarctic ice caps
Rill: Small channels that carry rainwater.
● 0.6% is stored in the soil and rocks
Run-off, overland flow: The flow of rainwater
● 0.01% is in rivers and lakes over the land surface.
● Only 0.001% is held in the atmosphere as Infiltration: Penetration of water into soil or rocks.
clouds and water vapour. Percolation: Downward flow of water through soil
or rocks.
Throughflow: Movement of water downslope
through the soil.
Groundwater: Water found beneath the land surface.
4.1.1 The hydrological or water cycle.

Air Precipitation
Condensation

Infiltration
Run-off
Transpiration Percolation
Lakes
Evaporation
Rivers

Aquifer
Ocean (Groundwater)
Key
Direction
Water Store Process
of transfer

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 Water pathways
When rain falls, some of it soaks into the soil. This Some soil water flows downslope, roughly parallel
is called infiltration. Soil or rock with a high to the surface. This is called throughflow. Some of
infiltration capacity, such as sand, can absorb it evaporates or is taken up by plant roots.
rainwater quickly. Clay has a low infiltration capacity. Where there are permeable rocks, such as sand
It cannot absorb much water. or limestone, some water sinks through the soil to a
Some rainwater is intercepted by trees, grass, greater depth below the surface. This is called
and other plants, which hold drops of water, for percolation. Water that has moved down through
example on their leaves. the rocks is called groundwater. Rock that can
When rain is falling too fast for the soil to contain groundwater is an aquifer. Groundwater
absorb it and plants to intercept it, the excess flows slowly, away from areas of high land.
rainwater flows across the surface of the land. It Water flows into rivers and streams from:
flows in small rills or as a continuous sheet of ● overland flow after heavy rain

water. This is called overland flow or run-off. ● throughflow slowly seeping through the soil

Overland flow dries up soon after a rainstorm has over a long period
finished. ● groundwater flow, which also continues slowly

over a long period.

Leaves catch some rain as it falls. This is

called interception.

If the ground is hard, or very wet,

rainwater just runs along it.
This is called surface run-off or
overland flow.

The rain soaks into the ground. This is

called infiltration.
Below ground, some flows sideways through the
soil. This is called throughflow.

This rock is permeable: it lets

water seep to greater depths.
This is percolation A mixture of surface runoff, throughflow
and groundwater flow feeds the river.

Some water soaks right down and fills up

the pores and cracks in the rock. Now it is
called groundwater.

Groundwater flows along slowly. This is

groundwater flow.

This rock is impermeable. It will

not let water through.

4.1.2 How water flows into rivers.

Water table
Springs meets the surface
Water table

Permeable Rivers
rock
Ground
water An aquifer is composed of permeable rock.
Below the water table, the rock is saturated with water.
Impermeable
There may be a spring where the water table meets the surface.
rock

4.1.3 Aquifer, springs and water table.

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 4.2 Drainage basins
The drainage basin is the area from
Key ideas ● Rivers carry excess water from a drainage which rainwater drains into the river.

basin to the sea.

● Rivers may form a dendritic, radial or
trellised drainage pattern. The watershed is an imaginary line that
separates one drainage basin from the
next. It is usually on high ground.

Water flows into a river channel from a wide area,

which is the catchment area or drainage basin.
As a river flows downstream, more water is
added to the river channel as overland flow,
throughflow and groundwater flow, and by
tributaries which join the main stream. The amount 4.2.1 A drainage basin.
of water flowing past any one point in the river is
known as the discharge. The discharge usually
Drainage density
increases as the river flows downstream.
In a few rivers, the discharge decreases Some areas have a tightly packed network of rivers;
downstream. This happens if: they have a high drainage density. Others have few
● the river flows into an area of permeable rock,
rivers, with a low drainage density.
where water can sink rapidly into the ground There are many rivers in areas where:
● rainfall is high
● the climate is dry, with high evaporation and
● the rocks cannot absorb water very quickly.
low rainfall
● too much water is removed from the river for

irrigation and other purposes. Dominica has a high drainage density, with many
rivers and streams. Most of the island has rainfall of
Changes in the upper part of a river basin affect the more than 4,000 millimetres per year and most of
lower course. If water is taken for irrigation, less the island’s volcanic rocks are impermeable – they
water will flow downstream. Heavy rainfall in the cannot absorb water quickly.
upper course may cause flooding near the river’s There are few rivers in areas where:
● rainfall is very low, and/or
mouth. Pollution in the upper course will affect the
● there are permeable rocks, which can absorb
lower course. When two or more countries share a
river basin, there may be disputes over water use. rainfall quickly.

Key River The Bahamas has a very low drainage density, with
Watershed mouth no permanent rivers or streams. Annual rainfall is
or boundary
Confluence
of river basin below 1,400 millimetres and the limestone rock
absorbs water easily.
N
Source: The start of a river’s course.
Spring Mouth: The point where a river flows into the sea.
Tributary Spring: A point where water flows out of the
ground. It may be at the source of a river.
Tributary: A small river that flows into a larger
Tributary
Spring (main one.
source of river)
Confluence: The point where a tributary joins the
0 2 km main river.
Spring

4.2.2 A river basin.

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 Drainage patterns N

Rivers and their tributaries form distinctive patterns,

depending partly on geological structure:
● Radial drainage: This is where rivers radiate

from a central point, like the spokes of a wheel.

Rivers on volcanic cones often develop a radial
drainage pattern. In Grenada, rivers flow
outwards from the main volcanic peaks in the
centre of the island. There is also a radial
drainage pattern around the St Vincent Soufrière, 0 5 km
G as shown in Figure 1.7.4.
4.2.3 Radial drainage in Grenada.
● Trellised drainage: This is where the drainage N
pattern has the appearance of a rectangular grid.
Rivers and their tributaries flow almost Blanchisseuse Bay

perpendicular to each other, with confluences at

an angle close to 90°. Trellised drainage is
common in an area with alternate bands of rock.
In parts of the Northern Range in Trinidad,

Paria River
r
ive
there is a trellised drainage pattern. There are

eR
Mariann
bands of rock running in an east–west direction.
The main rivers run north or south, cutting
across the bands of rock. The tributary streams
erode more easily in an east–west direction,
along the grain of the bands of rock, so they run
G roughly at right angles to the main river.

0 2 km

● Dendritic drainage: This is where the drainage 4.2.4 Trellised drainage in northern Trinidad.
pattern looks like a tree. The main river is the
Key
“trunk”; the larger tributaries are the main Scotland Bruce Vale River
District Rim and its tributaries
“branches”; and the smaller tributaries form a
Boundary of
pattern like little branches and twigs. river basin
The Bruce Vale river basin in Barbados has a N
0 2 km
dendritic drainage pattern. As the river flows
downstream, it increases in size. The tributaries
feed the flow of the main river. Dendritic
drainage develops where there are no strong
geological controls on the drainage pattern.
Diagram exercise
1 Draw a diagram to show a trellised drainage
pattern. Add these labels:
Bruc

a) Spring
e Va

b) Confluence
le Riv

c) Tributary
er

d) Mouth
e) Source of main river.
Atlantic
Ocean

4.2.5 Dendritic drainage in Barbados.

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 4.3 Erosion, transport, and deposition

Key ideas ● Rivers shape landforms through erosion, transportation, and deposition.
● Large, fast-flowing rivers have most energy for erosion.

4.3.1 The Mazaruni River, Guyana.

Rivers and energy

The rivers of the Caribbean have shaped the
landforms of the region by:
● the erosion of rock, weathered material, and soil

● the transportation of this material downstream

● the deposition of sediment along the river valley

and in the sea.

Rivers in a mountainous area have potential energy,

which allows them to flow towards the sea, erode
the material on their banks and bed, and transport
the eroded material. The potential energy of the river
can also be used to generate hydroelectric power.
A large, fast-flowing river has powerful
quantities of energy for erosion and to transport
material downstream. It alters the landscape quickly,
cutting a valley in a mountainous area, then
widening it to produce a broad floodplain.
A small river that runs slowly needs almost all
its energy to overcome friction and flow towards
the sea. It has little erosive power. 4.3.2 Erosion, transport, and deposition.

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 Erosion
A river erodes the bed and bank of its channel
through a number of methods:

● Solution: River water can dissolve some of the ● Hydraulic action: This is the force of the river
minerals in rocks, soil, and weathered material. water itself, acting on the bed and banks.
Solution is particularly important in limestone Hydraulic action is particularly powerful when a
areas, but all rivers carry significant quantities of river flows very fast, for example near a waterfall,
dissolved salts – even though we think of them and becomes turbulent. The water looks white
as fresh water. because it is full of air bubbles. Jets of water and
imploding air bubbles produce sudden pressure
changes, which can break up the rock.

● Abrasion or corrasion: This is the process by ● Attrition: Stones and rocks carried downstream
which stones, sand grains, and other particles are thrown against each other. They are worn
carried by the river are thrown against the bed away and gradually become more rounded as
and banks and help to erode them. they are carried downstream.
4.3.3 How rivers erode their bed and banks.

Transportation
Rivers transport material through these methods:

● Solution: As explained above, some minerals are ● Traction: Stones and boulders are rolled along
dissolved in the water. the riverbed. Material moved by traction is
known as the bed load.

● Suspension: Fine clay particles float along in the ● Saltation: Sand particles are often “bounced”
river water. along the riverbed.
4.3.4 How rivers transport their load.

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 Deposition How material is deposited
When a river does not have enough energy to When a river begins to deposit material, it will not
transport all the material that has been eroded deposit its entire load at once. The material it carries
upstream, some of its load will be deposited. River is often sorted out by size, with the largest pieces
deposits are known as alluvium. Energy decreases, deposited first, like this:
causing deposition in the following conditions:
● The gradient of the river is reduced, for
Boulders: Large rocks up to several metres
across.
example if it leaves a mountain range and flows
Alluvium: Loose material deposited by a river. The
into a flat lowland. Gravel, sand, and other word is often used for fine-grained deposits or
material are often deposited at the edge of a sediment, such as gravel, sand, silt, and clay.
mountain range. Gravel: Small stones more than 2.0 mm across.
● The volume of the river is reduced. This may
Sand: Coarse particles from 0.02 to 2.0 mm
happen during a drought, or if the river flows across.
into a dry area where evaporation is high and Silt: Gritty particles from 0.002 to 0.02 mm
no new water is added. across.
● The river flows into the sea or into a lake. Mud, Clay: Fine, smooth particles less than 0.002 mm
sand, and other material are often deposited at across.
the mouth of a river.

1 Large boulders are deposited first. They can only 4 Fine clay particles settle very slowly. There may
be moved when the gradient of the bed is steep be clay deposits on the bed of a lake, or mixed
and the river is full of storm water after a flood. with silt on the valley floor.

2 Gravel, small stones, 5 The salts that are carried in solution are not 3 Silt can be carried
and sand are next. usually deposited at all. They are carried into along, even when
Many rivers deposit the sea, where they remain. Salt is only the river is flowing
an alluvial fan of deposited when a river dries up completely in a quite slowly, but
coarse material when desert, or flows into an enclosed “salt lake” like most rivers deposit
they leave a mountain the Dead Sea in Israel, where the water some silt along
area and the gradient evaporates. their valleys. A silt
is reduced. deposit is usually
left on the valley
floor after a flood.

4.3.5 Rivers deposit material when they lose energy.

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 4.3.6 A mountain river in the Valley of Desolation, Dominica.

Diagram exercise
1 Copy the diagram below, adding these labels:
a) Suspension b) Saltation c) Traction d) Deposition.

2 Write a few sentences to comment on it.

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 4.4 River valleys

Key ideas ● Rivers erode valleys as they flow towards the sea.
● Distinctive landforms are expected in the upper, middle, and lower courses of a river.

As the slope flattens, the river loses

Erosion is the main job in the upper part energy – so deposition takes over.
of the river, where the bed is steepest and
roughest.
It deposits most of its load in the
flat floodplain, and the rest where it
enters the sea.

In this middle part, some material is

eroded and some deposited.

4.4.1 The course of a river.

Mountains 4.4.2 Features that can be expected in the upper,

Narrow V-shaped valley middle and lower courses of a river.
with interlocking spurs
Spring
Hills
Waterfall
Broad valley with Flat landscape
Rapids floodplain and meanders Wide floodplain
with levees Delta

UPPER COURSE MIDDLE COURSE LOWER COURSE

The upper course Spurs block view

along valley
Near their source in a mountainous area, many
rivers cut downwards as they erode the landscape. Spur
Spur
The rivers are small, and have only been able to Spur
erode a narrow valley. Some of the features that can Spur s
pe
be expected along the upper course of a river are: Spur slo
p
ee
● a narrow, steep-sided valley with a V-shaped St

cross section
● interlocking spurs – hillsides that project into the No floodplain.
River cuts downwards
valley, first from one side and then from the other
● a riverbed with many boulders and stones

● fast-flowing rapids and waterfalls, and pools of

relatively still, deep water between them.

In the upper course, mass movement brings

material rapidly down the steep valley sides. There
are many landslides and there is a plentiful supply
of material for transportation downstream. The
largest boulders remain on the riverbed, while silt
and clay are carried away more easily.
4.4.3 A V-shaped valley with interlocking spurs.
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 The middle course The lower course
When a river reaches its middle course, it has been In its lower course, a river has eroded downwards
swollen by many tributary streams and carries more and the valley floor is close to sea level. The river is
water. This means it has more energy and has carrying sediment from the whole of the drainage
carried out more erosion. The valley floor has been basin. Much of this sediment is deposited to form a
cut nearer to sea level and the valley has widened. wide, flat floodplain. When there are floods, some
Landforms that can be expected in the middle of the sediment from the whole of the river valley
course of a river are: is carried out to sea. On many Caribbean coastlines,
● a broader valley, with a cross section like an the sea is stained brown with silt and clay particles
open V after heavy rain. Features that can often be expected
● meanders – regular curves where the river in the lower course of a river are:
erodes the valley sides, first on one bank then ● a wide, flat floodplain

on the other ● many meanders

● a riverbed with silt and sand (and fewer large ● frequent changes of direction in the course of

rocks and stones than in the upper course) the river

● a floodplain – a strip of flat land on the valley ● a riverbed made of silt and clay

floor, where silt and other material are ● levees – riverbanks that are higher than the rest

deposited. of the floodplain.

Steep valley sides

River channel Broader valley

Narrow
Sediment forms Meandering river channel
valley River channel
floodplain
Sediment forms
wide floodplain
No floodplain Valley sides
slope gently
Levees

Sea level

Upper course Middle course Lower course

V-shaped valley small floodplain broad floodplain

4.4.4 River valley cross sections.

4.4.5 The Yaque del Norte River in the Dominican Republic.

Picture question
1 Look at the river in
Figure 4.4.5. Does it
appear to be in its
upper, middle, or
lower course? Look
for these indicators
to explain your
answer:
• V-shaped valley
• Meanders
• Floodplain
• Type of material
along riverbed
• Rapids.

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 4.5 Rapids, waterfalls, and gorges

Key ideas ● At waterfalls, rivers plunge vertically downwards.

● Waterfalls retreat gradually upstream, forming a gorge.
● In rapids, rivers flow steeply over rocks.

G Waterfalls
Waterfalls, where a river plunges vertically downwards
over a rock face, are spectacular landforms. Many of
them, such as the Niagara Falls on the US-Canadian
border, or Dunn’s River Falls in Jamaica, are well-
known tourist attractions. Waterfalls are found in the
following places:
● At the edge of a lava plateau. In central

Dominica, east of Roseau, a lava flow forms a

gently sloping plateau. Above the plateau there
are high volcanic peaks. The edge of this plateau
is at 500 metres above sea level; at this point
there is a steep escarpment. Some rivers cross
the escarpment as a waterfall. The largest and
most spectacular of these are the Trafalgar Falls.
● At the edge of a plateau that has been raised by

gradual earth movements. Examples are the

Kaieteur Falls in Guyana (see the cover photograph
of this book) and the Angel Falls in Venezuela.
● On the sides of a steep-sided valley that has

been eroded by glaciers, for example the

Yosemite Valley in California, USA.
● When a river crosses a band of rock that is

resistant to erosion, such as a sill or dyke.

4.5.1 The Concord Falls, Grenada.

At the edge At a band of resistant Where a tributary joins At rapids a river flows steeply,
of a lava plateau rock, such as a sill a deep glacial valley but does not plunge vertically

Waterfall on
tributary river

Sill

Lava flow Deep valley eroded

by former glacier

Main river

4.5.2 Where waterfalls are formed.

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 When a river plunges over a waterfall, potential Waterfall Gorge Escarpment
energy is released. The water at the bottom of the
fall is turbulent, and it causes rapid erosion through Plateau surface
hydraulic action when it hits the ground. It cuts a Original
deep plunge pool into the rock at the base of the More recent lava flow position
of waterfall
waterfall. It extends beneath the fall, producing an
overhang of rock. Eventually, the lip of rock at the
top of the waterfall will collapse. The waterfall then Older lava flow
retreats a few metres upstream. How a waterfall erodes a gorge
Waterfalls are often found in the upper course
of a river. Others are close to the river mouth, such
as Dunn’s River Falls in Jamaica or the Falls of Earlier
position
Baleine in St Vincent (shown in Figure 1.7.3, on the of waterfall

north-west corner of the island). Deep plunge

pool is eroded
here
Gorges Boulders fall Flow of river
into plunge
As the waterfall retreats upstream, a long gorge pool

develops below it. A river gorge is a very narrow, How a waterfall retreats upstream
steep-sided valley. The Victoria Falls on the border G
4.5.3 Erosion at a waterfall.
between Zambia and Zimbabwe have been
retreating for the last two million years, and the
gorge below the falls is now 110 km long. There is a
gorge 8 km long below the Kaieteur Falls.
River gorges may also be formed in other ways.
The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River in the
USA developed as the surrounding land was uplifted
over 12 million years to form a plateau. The river
cut downwards to compensate for it. The Grand
Canyon is 443 km long, 5–10 km wide, and up to
1,730 m deep. The erosion of the valley sides is slow
because the rocks are resistant to weathering and
the climate is dry.

Rapids
At rapids, a river flows very fast down a steep slope
and rocks are exposed at the surface, but the river
does not plunge vertically downwards. There are
many rapids on Guyanese rivers, for example at
Kurupukari, close to the Iwokrama Rainforest
Centre. Rapids are a barrier to river navigation.
Rapids may be formed in many ways. In some
places, a waterfall that has retreated a long way
upstream may be reduced in height until it is
replaced by a stretch of rapids.

Quick research
1 Name a waterfall in your own country. What
river is it located on? Has it been developed as
a tourist attraction? Does it have any associated
landforms, such as a plunge pool or a gorge?
4.5.4 Rapids in a river gorge: Firehole River, Yellowstone, USA.

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 4.6 Floodplains and meanders

Key ideas ● Meanders are smooth, regular curves in the course of a river.
● The outer bank of a meander is eroded, to form a river cliff. Deposition on the
inner bank forms a point bar.

4.6.1 Meanders and point 4.6.2 The Ulua River, Honduras. The floodplain
bars on the Orinoco is inundated after heavy rain.
River, Venezuela.

Floodplains
In the middle and lower course of the river,
alluvium is deposited on the valley floor, mainly
Floodplain
when the river floods. The wide, flat deposits that
result are the floodplain of the river. Floodplains
vary from a few hundred metres to tens of
River cliff
kilometres across. Close to the sea, the floodplains forms here
of several rivers may merge imperceptibly together,
as on the American coast of the Gulf of Mexico, or
in the coastlands of Guyana and Suriname.
Some floodplains are wetlands, with poor
Deposits of alluvium
drainage. Others are used for agriculture or urban Key
development. There is some risk of flood damage Lateral erosion of
valley sides forms
unless the river flow is controlled for flood a river cliff or bluff
protection, as with the Caroni River in Trinidad.
4.6.3 A floodplain.

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 How meanders are formed
When they flow across a flat valley floor or
floodplain, most rivers do not run in a straight line.
They naturally adopt a meandering course, with
regular, smooth curves. Meanders are produced like
this:
1 There is one part of a river channel where the
current is flowing fastest.
2 Where the course of a river is straight, the zone
of fastest flow follows a spiral pattern as it
moves downstream. The river is flowing fastest here
3 When the fastest flow is close to one bank of 4.6.4 How meanders develop.
the river, that section of bank is eroded more
quickly.
4 Because of this, the course of the river begins
to curve.
5 The curves become more pronounced until
there is a well-developed pattern of meanders
in the floodplain.
6 Meanders usually take a regular shape. As a rule,
Slip-off slope
the length of each meander is about ten times on meander core River cliff

the width of the river channel.

How meanders widen a river valley Slow flow deposition

forms point bar Fastest Rapid erosion
flow here
In a meander curve there is rapid erosion on the
outer bank, where the river is deep and the current
is strong. The slopes that form the valley side slopes
are undercut, or cut away from below. They form a
steep slope, which is called a bluff or river cliff.
There may be landslides if the slope becomes
Key
unstable. Fastest flow
Gradual erosion of the valley sides by the River cliff
meandering river widens the river valley and the Point bar

floodplain. Rapid erosion

on outer bank
On the inner bank, the current is much slower Deposition
and the river is shallow. The river usually deposits on inner bank

material here; the deposits at the water’s edge are 4.6.5 Erosion and deposition along a meandering river.
called a point bar. The gentle slope on the inner
bank of the meander is called a slip-off slope.
The valley sides are not so steep on the inner
side of the meander. They are not being undercut.
The slope is more stable and landslides are less
likely.

Diagram question
1 Copy the diagram on the right, adding these
labels:
a) Point bar b) Slip-off slope
c) River cliff d) Fastest current
e) Rapid erosion.

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 4.7 Oxbow lakes, levees, braided
channels, and deltas
Key ideas ● Meanders may change position, forming an oxbow lake.
● A river’s banks may be raised above the floodplain, as levees.
● Deposition may create a braided channel, with many islands.
● Deposition at the river’s mouth creates a delta.

Tributary with 0 1 km
Oxbow lake deferred junction Course of the river
in 1966
Levee Course of the river N
in 1977

Flood
plain

Edge of floodplain

4.7.2 How the course of the Roseau River in St Lucia

changed during the period 1966–77.
Point bar

4.7.1 Features that may form on a wide floodplain.

G

Oxbow lakes
A meandering river can change its course quite Erosion
rapidly, especially when it is in flood. An oxbow
lake is a small, curved lake formed from an
abandoned meander of the river.
Erosion of the banks on each side of the curve 1. Erosion on a 2. The neck of the 3. The river breaks through.
may result in a meander with a narrow “neck”. This meander meander is An island and cut-off
narrowed are formed
may then be cut off in a flood, as the river finds a
shorter and faster course.
When this happens, the following process
occurs:
1 At first, the core of the former meander forms
an island. The old meander becomes a crescent-
shaped channel of almost stagnant water, Deposition

known as a cut-off.
2 Silt is deposited at each end of the cut-off, so
that an oxbow lake is formed.
4. Deposition creates 5. The former channel is
3 Eventually, the oxbow lake is filled in with an oxbow lake filled with alluvium –
alluvium and other material. A slight depression abandoned meander

is all that remains. 4.7.3 How an oxbow lake is formed.

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 Levees Braided channels G
Along the lower course, the riverbank – and even A braided river has a very wide and usually shallow
the river itself – may sometimes be higher than the channel, made up of many interlaced branches,
floodplain. A levee is a raised riverbank built up which divide and rejoin each other. Between these
from alluvial deposits, and is formed like this: are shifting bars, usually of sand or gravel. These
1 After a period of heavy rain, the river is swollen may be stabilized as elongated river islands, which
with flood water, which contains sediment are covered with vegetation. Bars and islands
from higher up the valley. The river floods the migrate gradually downstream as they are eroded at
flat ground along the valley floor. the tip, with deposition taking place where there is
2 The flood waters move more slowly than the an area of sheltered water on the downstream side.
main channel and cannot carry as much
sediment. Most of the sediment is deposited Floodplain.
quite near to the main river channel. Sand and
gravel deposits
3 When the flood waters recede, a thick deposit of
mud is left along the riverbanks. After this process
has been repeated many times, a levee is formed.

After rain, the river floods the valley floor. A thin layer of fine sediment
covers the floodplain

Most material is deposited close to the channel Valley side

Older river sediments form the floodplain

Sand bar

Vegetated
After many floods, layers of alluvium cover the floodplain
island

Levees have formed along the riverbanks

A braided river channel with vegetated

islands and temporary sand bars

Material has also been deposited 4.7.5 A braided channel.

on the river bed. The surface of the river
is now above the level of the floodplain

4.7.4 How levees are formed.

Braided channels are formed where:
Where levees have been formed, tributary streams ● there is a plentiful supply of eroded material

cannot easily join the main river. They may run from upstream, particularly coarse material,
almost parallel to the river for some distance before such as sand and gravel
joining it, at a deferred junction. ● the discharge varies widely – between periods

There is also a high risk of flooding. When the of flood, when material is transported easily,
river bursts its banks, it does not easily return to the and periods of low water, when it is deposited
former channel. The Huang He River in China ● the river has a steep gradient.

shifted its course 300 kilometres to the north after a

major flood in 1851. These conditions may apply where a river is leaving
Artificial levees may be created, and strengthened, a mountain range and entering a flatter area, where
to protect the valley floor from flooding. There are deposition takes place.
artificial levees close to the River Cobre in Jamaica,
which can be seen on Figure 16.4.2, to the west of Bar: A deposit of alluvium in a river, or of sand
Easting 65; and on a smaller scale along the and other material in the sea. It may form an
Constitution River in Bridgetown, Barbados. elongated island.

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 Oxbow Lagoons and
Meander lake lakes form
cut-off in delta

Delta

Floodplain Distributaries

A delta

Floodplain Delta

Layers of alluvium
deposited in Thick deposits
floodplain from river delta

Cross section of a delta

4.7.7 How deltas are formed.

One of the world’s largest deltas is that of the

Mississippi, on the southern coast of the USA. Every
year, 590 cubic kilometres of river water flow down
the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico, carrying 450
4.7.6 A braided river channel, Puerto Rico. million tonnes of sediment. The sea here is relatively
calm, not too deep, and has a small tidal range. This
Deltas means that the river delta can build up quickly.
A delta is an area of flat land built up from silt and A delta may contain lakes and areas of wetland.
alluvium where a river flows into the sea or into a When drained, the soil is usually fertile, but there is
lake. Many deltas are approximately triangular in a high risk of flooding. The Nile Delta in Egypt and
shape. the Ganges Delta in India and Bangladesh are both
Deposition is aided when a river flows into the densely populated. However, the Orinoco Delta in
sea, because tiny clay particles clump together in the eastern Venezuela has large areas of undrained
salty seawater and sink. wetland and is thinly populated.
Distributaries are channels that branch off from
the main river on a delta. The distributaries usually Discussion points
make a fan-shaped pattern. 1 What can be done to reduce the risk of flooding
Deltas are formed most easily under the on a river where there are levees?
following conditions: 2 Why is a braided channel a problem for:
● The river carries a large volume of sediment. a) bridge building?
● The sea is relatively calm, so the sediment is not b) river navigation?
carried away by waves or strong currents. 3 Explain why deltas do not form very easily:
● The sea is fairly shallow. a) on coasts where there are large waves
● The tidal range is not too great.
b) where the sea next to the river mouth is deep.

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 Delta
Mediterranean Sea
Main river

Distributaries

Unable to maintain
Suez
Canal
a single channel, the
river breaks into Silt G
distributaries.

River
Cairo
Desert Desert
G

Nile
The Islands of silt
form a delta.

Distributary
forms birdsfoot or lobe.
0 100 km

4.7.9 The Mississippi Delta, a birdsfoot or lobate delta,

4.7.8 The Nile Delta, an arcuate delta with a smooth coastline, formed where there is a very large volume of
curving in an arc towards the open sea, and many sediment. The distributaries make a pattern like a
distributaries. Lagoons may form along the coast. The bird’s foot, each extending separately into the sea.
Orinoco and Niger are also rivers with arcuate deltas.

4.7.11 The green valley and delta of the River Nile contrast
with the surrounding desert.

4.7.10 The Essequibo River in Guyana has a wide mouth, or

estuary. Deposition of sediment has formed several
large islands, including Leguan and Wakenaam, which
are each around 15 km long, with productive farming
villages. Deposition is continuing farther out to sea,
and may eventually form a delta. 4.7.12 A satellite view of the Mississippi delta.

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 N

4.8 Caribbean rivers St Peter's

Mavis Bank

Key ideas ● Geology, climate, and vegetation influence river Mahogany Vale

landforms.
● Human activities also influence river landforms.
Ramble
● Caribbean rivers have been affected by
changing sea levels. (See also Section 8.4, The Llandewey
effects of deforestation, and Section 7.1, The
Earth’s changing climate.) Easington

Heartsease

1,600 metres 0 2 km 0 5 km
1,400
4.8.2 The Yallahs River Yallahs
1,200 basin, Jamaica.
1,000
800 Some of the rocks are resistant to erosion, but
600
400 in many places there are alternating layers of
200
Sea sandstone and shale, which become very unstable
level
817576

862576
893463

917487
920390

955390

St Peter’s Ramble Heartsease when they are wet. There are many landslides on
the valley sides after heavy rain.
4.8.1 Three cross sections of the Yallahs River valley. Quantities of soil and loose material are washed
into the river. In some places, the soil is protected
G The Yallahs River by forest. Where the land has been cleared for
Rivers do not always have the same set of features in cultivation, it has been estimated that run-off
their upper, middle and lower courses. Each river is removes 100 tonnes of soil per hectare every year.
influenced by the geological structure, climate, and After a storm, it is quite easy for the river to
vegetation of its basin. Rivers are also influenced by carry away fine silt particles. But the large boulders
human activities, such as agriculture, forest clearance, remain on the riverbed. They will not be moved
or water supply schemes. Below is an explanation of again until the next big flood, or until they are
how these have affected the Yallahs River in Jamaica. broken up by abrasion and attrition.
Some river boulders are many metres across.
The upper course of the river These could not be moved even in the largest floods
The Yallahs River runs through a mountainous area that have been recorded in recent centuries. The
south of the Blue Mountains, which has been present-day river valley still shows the effects of a
uplifted and faulted in geologically recent times. The historical rainfall pattern several thousand years ago,
river has not had time to make a wide, flat-floored when the climate was much wetter.
valley, and is eroding its bed downwards, in a
narrow, V-shaped valley. 4.8.3 The upper course of the Yallahs
The valley swings from side to side through the River, near Mavis Bank.
hills, following a zigzag course. There are interlocking
spurs, which block the view along the valley.
Near St Peters, the river runs along a major fault
line, where the rocks have been fractured and are
easily eroded. Faulting influences the course of the
river.
This is a high rainfall area, with annual rainfall
of more than 4,000 millimetres. When there is a
heavy rainstorm, the river erodes rapidly.

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 The middle course of the river
Further downstream, the valley is wider and its
sides are not so steep. There has been less uplift of
the land, while the river is larger and has been able
to erode more rapidly.
There is a small floodplain made up partly of
material that has been eroded in the upper course
and transported downstream. Near Ramble, there
are large meanders and, where the outer sides of
the meanders are undercutting the valley sides, there
is a steep river cliff, or bluff. There is some braiding
at this stage in the river’s course.

4.8.5 The lower course of the Yallahs River.

4.8.4 The middle course of the river at Ramble. 1:50 000.

The lower course of the river

Where the river emerges from the mountains, its
gradient is reduced and it has less energy for
transportation. Material eroded in the upper and
middle course is deposited as a wide floodplain,
4.8.6 The lower course and delta. 1:50 000.
with a high proportion of sand and gravel.
On its lower course, the Yallahs River has a
braided channel, broken up by islands of sand, removed the forest cover. Removal of the forest
gravel, and boulders. Some islands have vegetation; increases run-off and flooding after heavy rain, with
others are just shifting bars that move whenever the an increased danger of landslides and soil erosion.
river is in flood. There are no meanders. Less water is stored in the soil and river flow is
At the mouth of the river there is a delta. Unlike diminished in dry periods.
most river deltas, which consist mainly of silt and In 1986, a 27-km-long pipeline began to take
clay, the Yallahs Delta is made up mainly of water from the Negro River, a tributary of the
boulders, gravel, and coarse sand. Yallahs just above Ramble. The pipeline feeds the
Mona Reservoir, which supplies Kingston and the
How the river has been modified surrounding area. The flow of water in the river has
The Yallahs River valley has been altered by human been reduced. For much of the time the lower
activity. Steep slopes in the upper part have been course is completely dry. This reduces the energy
cleared for coffee and other crops. Fires have also available for erosion and transport.

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 The Roseau River: sea level changes
Many rivers in the Caribbean have been influenced Like many Caribbean river basins, the Roseau
by changes in sea levels since the last ice age. Valley in St Lucia has been influenced by rising sea
Twenty thousand years ago, ice sheets several levels. The upper part of the valley is narrow and
hundred metres thick covered much of Europe and steep-sided. There is a sudden transition to the lower
North America. When this ice melted, between course, where the river meanders slowly across a flat
G 15,000 and 6,000 years ago, worldwide sea levels floodplain. In the lower valley there is a sharp break
rose by over 100 metres. between the steep valley sides and the flat valley floor,
which consists of a thick deposit of alluvium.

1 When the sea level was lower than at present, 2 The sea level rose rapidly. The original river
the river cut a deep, steep-sided valley. valley was flooded by the sea, to form a long
narrow inlet, or ria.

1 2 3 4

3 The river deposited mud and silt in the calm 4 The ria has now been completely filled in, to
waters of the ria. form a flat valley floor.

4.8.7 How sea level changes have affected the development of the Roseau Valley.

4.8.8 The Roseau Valley, St Lucia. 1:25 000.

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 Guyanese rivers: uplift of the land
Guyana has by far the largest rivers in the English- When these rivers flow across an escarpment, there
speaking Caribbean. They have been influenced by is a waterfall or a steep, fast-flowing section of
geological history, vegetation, and human activities. rapids. At these points we say that the river has been
At the Kaieteur Falls (see cover photograph) the rejuvenated by the uplift of the old erosion surface.
Potaro River plunges down from a broad plateau Erosion is much faster at these points.
over a steep escarpment. (This waterfall is nearly Some rocks in western Guyana contain gold and
five times as high as Niagara, and falls 226 metres diamonds. When the rocks are weathered and
in a single drop.) There are other waterfalls eroded, small quantities of these minerals are
elsewhere in Guyana that are almost as spectacular. deposited on the riverbed. Dredging gravel to
The plateaux and escarpments of western Guyana, extract them is an important industry in Guyana.
which allow these waterfalls, were formed like this:
Escarpment: A steep, linear slope separating two
1 Over time, a wide area of ancient rocks was
areas of relatively flat land.
eroded down almost to sea level. This produced
a flat landscape – the erosion surface.
2 The erosion surface was uplifted by movements Map questions
of the earth to form a plateau. 1 Make a labelled sketch map of the valley of the
3 The surface of the plateau was relatively level Yallahs River at Ramble. You should show:
and has not been eroded very much, but the a) the river cliff
edge of the plateau was gradually worn back. b) the inner bank of the meander
4 A new erosion surface formed just above sea c) the floodplain
level. A steep slope or escarpment separates the d) any evidence of braiding.
two surfaces. 2 a) Use Figures 4.8.5 and 4.8.6 to make a sketch
5 After another phase of uplift, a third erosion map of the lower Yallahs Valley. Show the
surface was formed. Only small remnants of the braided river course.
b) Comment on land use in the river valley.
original surface now remain.
Refer to Figure 16.5.1, which is a key for
symbols used on maps of Jamaica.
3 Draw a cross section of the Roseau River Valley,
1 Original land surface 3 Zone near coast is eroded along the line from A to B on Figure 4.8.8.
Erosion
surface 4 Calculate the average gradient of the slope on
the northern side of the valley. The height of
2 Land is uplifted
point A is approximately 205 metres. The scale
4 Process is repeated
of the map is 1:25 000.
Erosion
surface
Quick questions
5 Describe the Yallahs Valley cross section at
4.8.9 How erosion surfaces are formed. Surfaces like St Peter’s, Ramble and Heartsease. Are these
these are large-scale features up to several hundred sections typical of the upper, middle and lower
kilometres across. courses of a river?
6 Write down one way in which the landforms of
the Yallahs River Valley have been influenced by
Scientists studying the rocks and landscapes of each of these factors:
Guyana have identified at least six erosion surfaces. a) Faulting b) Rock types
The oldest and highest was formed tens of millions c) Rainfall d) Human activities
of years ago and forms the summit of Mount e) Geological history.
Roraima, 2,770 metres above sea level. The youngest
and most recent is 75–90 metres above sea level. Comparisons
Rivers flowing across old erosion surfaces have
7 Describe three ways in which the Roseau River’s
wide, open-sided valleys. The rocks are resistant to
valley and landforms contrast with those of the
erosion and the soil is protected by thick forest.
Yallahs River.

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 4.9 Rivers and weathering: review
Review questions
1 Copy this table and complete it by putting the words below in the correct boxes. There may be
more than one entry for each box.
Wide, flat Narrow V-shaped Steep Begins to develop
Rapids Levees Sand, silt River cliffs or bluffs
Boulders, gravel Delta Less steep, smooth

Rivers and their valleys

Upper course Middle course Lower course
Valley shape Broad open V
River erodes Mainly downwards, vertically Mainly at valley sides, laterally Deposition exceeds erosion
Gradient of river Steep and irregular Very gentle close to sea level
Valley sides Less steep Gentle
River bed Silt, clay
Floodplain None Broad
Common features Waterfalls Meanders Meanders
Interlocking spurs

You should remember that not every river fits this pattern. Some, like the Roseau River in St Lucia,
move straight from the upper course to the lower course.

2 Describe three contrasts between the landforms found in the upper and lower sections of many
river valleys.

Landforms in a river valley

K

L J
G C
I F
G
G D A
D B
H
I C
G L E M
K J

4.9.1 Landforms in a river valley.

3 In Figure 4.9.1, which of the features listed below is indicated by each of the letters A to M?
Meander Spurs of high ground Confluence Distributary
Spring Contours close together at waterfall Floodplain
Lagoon Narrow V-shaped valley Delta
Bluff or river cliff Oxbow lake Tributary

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 Two rivers Weathering

4.9.2 The Arima River in Trinidad. Look at the material 4 9.4 Bands with quartz and other minerals resist chemical
deposited, the riverbanks, and the flow of water. weathering in rocks at Galera Point, Trinidad.

4.9.3 The Caroni River in Trinidad. Look at the flow and

colour of the water, the surrounding landscape
and the riverbanks.

4 For each of the rivers shown:

a) Is the river in its upper, middle, or lower 4.9.5 Oxidation and other chemical weathering
course? processes at work in metamorphic rocks at Galera
b) Give three reasons for your answer. Point, Trinidad.

Diagram exercises
1 Copy diagram A, adding these labels: A B
a) Atmosphere b) Land
c) Evaporation d) Precipitation.
2 Copy diagram B, adding these labels:
a) Run-off or overland flow The water
Ocean
b) Infiltration c) Groundwater cycle
d) Soil water e) Interception
f) Throughflow g) Permeable rock
h) Groundwater flow.
Water flows over and
through the land

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 5.1 Waves in action

Key ideas ● Waves shape landforms through

erosion, transportation, and deposition.
● Waves may be constructive or
destructive.
● Erosion is more powerful on high-
5.1.1 A surfer rides a breaking wave in
energy windward coasts. Barbados.

How waves break

Waves contain energy, which may: ● the front of the wave becomes steeper
● erode material from one part of the coast ● the water at the top of the wave starts to move
● transport it to a different place forward faster than the wave itself
● deposit it there to build a new landform. ● the top of the wave tumbles forward and the
wave breaks.
Most waves are formed by wind blowing across the
surface of the sea. Constructive and destructive waves
In deep water, waves seem to move forward; but If you stand in the surf where waves are breaking,
the seawater is not moving with them. Each particle you will feel the effect that the wave energy is
of water moves round in a circular pattern, having on the beach. A breaking wave churns up the
whenever a wave passes. loose sediments, so that they are suspended in the
Because the water is not being carried forward, turbulent water.
a surfer who is too far out to sea will not be carried When surf runs up the beach, it is called the
along by the waves, but will just bob up and down swash. The swash takes a cloud of sand particles and
in the same place. even small stones up the beach with it.
Waves break when they move into very shallow Then the water starts to flow back down the
water. When the wave is breaking, water starts to beach. This is the backwash of the wave; it drags
move forward. Surfers can ride a breaking wave. sediment from the beach back into the water.
When the depth of the sea is less than the There are many different types of wave. Waves
height of the wave: that have been formed by strong winds a long way
● friction with the bottom increases and the wave
out to sea usually have a long wavelength and a flat
moves more slowly profile. Waves that have travelled a long distance
● the waves “bunch up” because they are moving
across open water are known as swells.
more slowly (the wavelength becomes shorter)
● the pattern of water circulation in the wave is

now elliptical, not circular

In deep water, wave motion is circular. Waves begin to bunch The wave breaks. In the surf zone the Swash runs up the beach.
No water moves forward with the wave. together here. water is turbulent.
5.1.2 Waves break as they approach the shore.

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 Waves that have been caused by strong winds Windward and leeward coasts
within the local area have a steeper profile and a Marine erosion is most powerful on high-energy
shorter wavelength. They bring choppy conditions coasts, which are exposed to the full force of the
for small craft. waves. On the windward side of most islands in the
Waves do not all break in the same way. The two eastern Caribbean there are rough conditions and
breaking-wave types are: exposed high-energy coasts.
● Constructive waves: These are spilling breakers,
On the calmer, low-energy coasts of the leeward
which fall forwards as they break. The front of side, waves are less powerful and erosion is slower.
the wave is not too steep and the wavelength is Figure 5.1.4 shows the contrast in wave height
long. A mass of foaming surf rushes up the between the east coast and west coast in Barbados.
beach and then flows back again. These waves
build the beach up. The swash carries more A calm day
N

1.2 m 0.1 m
material than the backwash. Breakers formed by West coast

long-distance swell are usually constructive.

East coast
There may be six to eight waves per minute.

Eas
● Destructive waves: These are plunging breakers, A rough day
Little Bay

tc

0.6 m
Pico

oa
where the crest of the wave curls forward over a Teneriffe West coast

st
West coast – shelte

–
large air pocket and then vertically downwards.

hi

3.5 m
gh
These erode the beach. The backwash drags more

-e
er

n
gy East coast
material down the beach than the swash has At
la nt
carried up. These waves generally have a steep ic
wa
profile, a short wavelength, and a greater ve s
red, wit
frequency, with ten to fourteen waves per minute.
Ragged Point
h lo w

Constructive and destructive waves can change a

Batts Rock
beach very quickly. It has been estimated that as
-ene

Bridgetown Foul Bay

much as 15,000 cubic metres of sand may be
r
gy w

shifted in a few weeks on a fairly sheltered beach

ave

less than 1 kilometre long on the west coast of

s

0 5 km
Barbados.
G
5.1.4 Wave height on the east and west coasts of Barbados.
Constructive waves

Wave crests Breaking wave

far apart Gently sloping spills forward Quick question
wave front
1 Explain the meaning of these terms, using a
diagram to help you:
Gentle beach a) Swash b) Backwash
Strong swash pulls profile c) Windward d) Leeward.
sand up the beach

Map exercise
Destructive waves
Breaking wave plunges
2 Draw a map of your country, or of any
Steep wave downwards Caribbean island ( just the coastline):
Waves close front
together a) Add an arrow to show the direction of the
prevailing wind (usually the north-east
Steep beach
trades).
profile
b) Name the surrounding seas (e.g. Atlantic
Strong backwash Ocean, Caribbean Sea).
pulls sand out c) Show one stretch of high-energy, exposed
to sea
coastline, and one stretch of low-energy,
5.1.3 Constructive and destructive waves. sheltered coastline.

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 5.2 Cliffs and marine erosion

Key ideas ● Vertical cliffs develop on resistant rocks, with a notch at the base.
● A wide, wave-cut platform reduces wave energy and erosion.
● Landforms of wave erosion are influenced by rock type.
● A cave in a headland may develop into an arch, then a sea stack.

How waves erode Cliffs

Waves are powerful agents of erosion. In the Where marine erosion is powerful, the coastline is
Caribbean, hurricane waves may reach 8 metres eroded to form a cliff. Figure 5.2.1 shows a cliff
high, tearing down well-built coastal structures; and formed by marine erosion in coral limestone at
storm waves may be equally powerful in other Ragged Point on the east coast of Barbados. Coral
climates. At Wick in Scotland a block weighing limestone is a resistant rock, unlike clay or volcanic
2,600 tonnes was removed from the harbour ash.
breakwater during a storm; and at Cherbourg in 1 Marine erosion is concentrated at sea level. At
France another storm threw rocks weighing more this point there is often a notch where the
than 3 tonnes over an 8-metre-high wall. waves have eroded the rock.
Waves erode through these processes: 2 The rock above the notch has been undercut.
● Hydraulic action: The force of the water in the When it projects too far, a section of cliff will
wave itself erodes the shoreline. break off.
● Solution: Seawater dissolves soluble minerals in 3 Rubble accumulates at the base of the cliff. It
the rocks. protects the rock against further erosion for a
● Abrasion or corrasion: Waves throw sand and time, but eventually it will be broken down and
small stones against the shoreline and wear it removed by attrition.
back. 4 Some of the rubble helps to erode the cliff by
● Attrition: Sand grains and small stones are abrasion or corrasion.
thrown against each other in the breaking 5 As the cliff is worn back, a wave-cut platform
G waves. They are broken up and worn into a is developed underwater, a few metres below
rounded shape. the waves. As the cliff is cut back further, the
wave-cut platform becomes wider. Where the
tidal range is high, part of the wave-cut
platform may be exposed at low tide. This also
happens if there is a slight fall in sea level.
6 The cliff is steep because it is made of a well-
consolidated rock which will not collapse easily.
The base of the cliff is being eroded.
7 Sediment may accumulate on the seaward side
of the wave-cut platform.
8 Over a long period of time, erosion drives back
the cliff. The wave-cut platform becomes wider,
protecting the cliff from the full force of the
waves. Waves lose some of their energy as they
cross this belt of shallow water.

5.2.1 Ragged Point, Barbados: a coral limestone cliff.

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 Galera Point Key
This section of cliff
Galera formation,
will break off soon
resistant grit
Other metamorphic rocks
of the Northern Range
Steep cliff face Sedimentary rocks
of consolidated rock
Calcareous silt, with
resistant pebble bed
Matura
Nariva swamp: alluvium
Breaking waves In deep water
erode the cliff here waves do not erode Trinity hill sandstone
A notch forms
as the rock is
cut back Matura Bay Gros Morne sandstone

Wave-cut Manzanilla Point

Rubble at the
platform
base of the cliff
Cocos Bay
5.2.2 How cliffs are eroded by the sea.
r
ve
Ri Cocal Spit
Rock type and erosion N
ar
iva

Erosion is affected by rock type. Soft,

Point Radix
unconsolidated rocks, such as sand and volcanic ash,
can be eroded rapidly. On the island of Krakatoa in
Indonesia, volcanic ash was eroded from the
shoreline at a rate of over 50 metres a year in the Mayaro Bay
period after the 1883 eruption.
Rocks that resist erosion form headlands on
exposed coasts. Weaker rocks are more easily eroded
by the waves. On the east coast of Trinidad there are Galeota Point
Guayaguayare
four headlands. They are: Bay
● Galera Point, which is formed of resistant grit

● Manzanilla Point, which has a resistant pebble bed 0 10 km

● Point Radix, which is formed of sandstone

5.2.4 Coastal features in Trinidad.
● Galeota Point, which is also formed of sandstone.
G

Between these headlands there are long, sandy

Landslides on cliff.
beaches. Behind the beaches there are less-resistant Profile is not vertical.
sedimentary rocks and stretches of alluvium.
The shape of a cliff is influenced by rock type.
At Cove Bay on the north-east coast of Barbados,
cliffs are formed on the soft clays of the Oceanic Soft rock
Series. They are too weak to maintain a vertical collapses
easily
profile, but slump forwards into the sea. There is no
Rapid erosion – wide wave-cut platform
notch at the base of these cliffs.

5.2.5 A cliff on soft rock cannot maintain a vertical profile.

5.2.3 Oceanic Series clays at Cove

Bay, Barbados, have slumped
forward into the sea.

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 Caves, arches, and stacks
It is quite common to find an isolated pillar of rock,
or sea stack, forming a small island in the waves.
Figure 5.2.7 on the right explains how many sea
stacks are formed:
1 Many rocks contain joints and fissures. These
may be enlarged by hydraulic action to form a
PLAN VIEW SIDE VIEW
cave.
2 Caves can be extended by wave action until 1. Two caves in a headland
they run right through an exposed headland.
3 The cave becomes a natural arch. The roof of
the arch joins the headland to the shore.
4 The roof of the natural arch will eventually
collapse, leaving an isolated sea stack, which
will then be removed by erosion.

2. A natural arch: sea has cut through headland

3. A sea stack: roof of cave has collapsed

5.2.7 Caves, arches, and stacks.

Quick questions
2 Refer to Section 4.3. Compare the processes of
river and wave erosion.
3 The picture shows two small stones, or pebbles,
made of the same rock.
a) Which one has been affected by erosion for
longer? Explain your answer.
b) Name the process that has been at work.
5.2.6 A natural arch on the north coast of Trinidad.

Map exercise
1 On the map you drew for question 2 in
Section 5.1, show and name one coastal feature
formed by cliffs.
If there is an example of a cave, arch, or
stack in this country, you should show those
features as well. They need not all be in the
same location.

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 5.3 Bays and beaches

Key ideas ● Waves are refracted as they approach the shore.

● Sand is moved along the coast by longshore drift.
● Beaches may be formed in bays between two headlands.
● Beaches are affected by the marine and onshore environments.

Beaches Wave transportation

Constructive waves deposit material on the shore, When waves approach a beach at an angle, sand and
building a beach. Most Caribbean beaches are made other material are moved gradually along the shore:
of sand; they are a valuable resource for recreation 1 Swash moves a sand particle or a pebble
and for the tourist industry. Some beaches are made diagonally up the beach.
up of small stones, or pebbles. 2 Backwash moves it directly down the beach.
3 The sand particle or pebble is, therefore, moved
How waves approach the shore slightly along the beach from its original
When a wave moves into shallow water, friction position.
with the seabed slows the waves down. This affects 4 After this process has been repeated many
the motion of the waves. times, the material is moved much farther
In Figure 5.3.1 the wave at “C” has slowed along the beach.
down where it is passing through shallow water 5 Sand particles and pebbles are not moved singly.
close to the beach. This part of the wave lags behind Many of them are moved at one time by each
the rest. The wave is bent or refracted. The waves wave.
approach the shore at a slight angle. Over a long period of time, a large volume of
material can be moved in this way. This process is
called longshore drift. Material that has been eroded
by wave action may be transported by longshore
Beach
drift.
Shallow
water

D
C First position of
pebble B Second position
B
and so on...
A

A C Third position

Waves approach beach at an angle

5.3.2 Longshore drift.

5.3.1 Wave refraction.

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 Waves are refracted around the headlands. Most of
the energy of the wave is concentrated on the
headland. The profile of the waves is also altered as
they are refracted together. The distance between the
waves is reduced and they take on the steeper
profile of destructive waves. Powerful wave erosion
may produce steep cliffs.
In the bay, wave energy is dispersed, not
concentrated. The waves are farther apart and their
profile is not so steep. They are more likely to be
constructive waves. Sand and other material
accumulate in the bay, and a beach is formed.

Sand mining
Beaches have a sand budget. Sand is supplied from
several sources. It is:
● washed into the sea by rivers

● formed when cliffs are eroded

● swept in by the waves from sandbanks in

shallow waters offshore

● moved on to the beach by longshore drift.

+ Sand is added by … – Sand is taken away by …

+ River mouth deposition – Sand mining

5.3.3 A bayhead beach on the east coast of St Lucia.

+ Longshore drift

Bays and headlands A beach is a store of sand – Longshore drift

Bayhead beaches are formed when constructive

+ Eroding cliffs
waves deposit sand and other material between two
headlands, as at Maracas Bay and Tyrico Bay in
G + Constructive waves – Destructive waves
Trinidad.
5.3.4 How beaches are formed on a bay and headland coast. 5.3.5 A sand budget.

Resistant rock
Sand is removed from the beach by destructive
Refraction
concentrates
forms headland waves and longshore drift.
with cliffs
wave attack
on headland
If sand supply is greater than removal, the beach
becomes wider. If erosion is more powerful, the beach
becomes narrower and may eventually disappear.
On some islands there is a shortage of sand for
Refraction Sand is construction. Some builders take sand from the
disperses deposited beaches, even though beach sand contains salt and
Waves are wave energy to form
parallel in in bay bayhead therefore makes poor construction material. This is
deep water beach
sand mining. When many loads are taken, this alters
the sand budget and causes beach erosion.
On many islands sand mining is illegal, but
Headland prosecuting offenders is difficult. Developing an
with sea stack alternative supply may solve the problem. Tobago,
and cliffs
where sand mining has been a concern, now brings

Small
76 bayhead
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837456_ch05 indd 76 16/02/2016 15 13

 in sand by barge from Trinidad, where there are boulders of volcanic rock, from 50 millimetres to
inland sand quarries which do not affect the 500 millimetres across. These have been worn into a
beaches. Building material is also made by crushing rounded shape by attrition.
solid rocks. Ministre Point is exposed directly to high-
energy waves from the east. There is no beach. The
Two beaches in St Lucia headland is made up of steep cliffs and is formed
A beach is influenced by many factors, such as: by a resistant volcanic dyke, which is shown in
● the sand and sediment budget Figure 1.5.2.
● the direction of longshore drift The town of Vieux Fort is built on a sheltered
● the nature of wave action on the beach bay, protected from high-energy waves by the
● the type of rock in the surrounding area. headland to the east.
Quick questions
Burgot Point
N 1 The picture below shows a short stretch of

st
ts
coa
coast.
a) Name the features at A. Why would they be
tec
pro

found at this location?

f
ree

Pointe Maria b) Name the feature at B. Give reasons for its

ging

Islands
Sable location.
Frin

Vieux Fort
Key
c) Where may the sand at B have come from? G
Harbour Volcanic rock
Sheltered bay. Sand and alluvium
k

Low-energy
Map exercise
ta c

Wetlands
t

coast Caesar
ve a

Ministre Sandy beach

Point Anse
wa

Gallette
Point
to Fringing reef 2 On the map you drew for question 2 in
ed
Coast expos Cliffs Section 5.1, show and name a beach.
Major exposed
dykes
0 2 km

5.3.6 Coastal features in the south of St Lucia.

Figure 5.3.6 shows how beaches are influenced by

these factors on part of the south coast of St Lucia.
At Pointe Sable the coast is protected by a
fringing coral reef and by the small Maria Islands B
offshore. When the waves reach the shoreline, they
are low-energy constructive waves. There is a wide
sandy beach. The sand is made of coral, limestone,
and shell fragments, with some volcanic material.
At Anse Gallette the coast is exposed to high- A
energy waves, but receives some shelter from the
east. All the small particles have been washed away.
The beach is made up of pebbles and even large

Beach Wave action Rock types Material on beach Size

Pointe Sable Windward coast, but Offshore coral reef 80% shell and limestone 0.2 mm
protected by reef and Volcanic material nearby 8% quartz
offshore islands 12% other volcanic
Anse Gallette Exposed to storm waves Lava, conglomerate and Rounded pebbles and 50 to
and refracted waves from other hard volcanic rocks boulders of volcanic rock 500 mm
south. All small particles
washed away

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 5.4 Spits, tombolos, and bars

Key idea ● Spits, tombolos, and bars are depositional features formed by waves
and longshore drift.

Direction of longshore drift Direction of longshore drift

Spit Spit
Tombolo

Bay
River

A spit stretches part of the way across a bay or river mouth. A tombolo joins an island to the mainland.

ar
ore b
Offsh
Direction of longshore drift Offshore bar

Bay bar

Lagoon

Mangroves or swamp
Mangroves or swamp

The lagoon behind a bay bar is filled with sediment. An offshore bar runs roughly parallel to the coast.

5.4.1 Spits, tombolos, bars, and lagoons – features formed by coastal deposition.

Spits
“Spits are generally linear deposits of beach ● Waves must approach the coast at an angle, so
material attached at one end to land and free at that longshore drift moves material along the
the other.” coast.
Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Physical Geography ● For most spits, the sea is usually fairly calm,
with low-energy constructive waves.
Where the direction of the coast changes, sediment
carried by longshore drift may form a tongue of sand The Cocal spit at the mouth of the Nariva River on
and other material, which is called a spit. Spits are the east coast of Trinidad is shown in Figure 5.2.4.
often formed across a bay or at the mouth of a river. There are also spits at the mouths of the Barima,
The following conditions are also needed to Waini and Pomeroon rivers in north-western
form a spit: Guyana. These are formed by the action of an east-
● The sea must be relatively shallow. to-west marine current, as well as by longshore drift.
● There must be a good supply of sand and other

sediment.

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 Tombolos Bars
A linear deposit of sand or stones, formed by In the study of coastal landforms, a bar is a linear
longshore drift, which joins an island to the deposit of beach material running approximately
mainland, is called a tombolo. parallel to the line of the coast. Some bars are
Figure 5.4.2 shows Scotts Head on the south- submerged and others appear above the waves. They
western tip of Dominica. Waves from the east are may be stabilized by vegetation and grow large
refracted as they approach the south coast of the enough to form a barrier island.
island, and are coming from the south-east by the An offshore bar is not directly joined to the
time they reach the shore. coast. It is formed where a long tongue of sand is
Material that has been eroded along the south deposited parallel to the coastline by breaking waves
coast of Dominica is carried west by longshore drift. as they approach the shore. Offshore bars may be
Scotts Head was once a separate island of volcanic formed parallel to gently sloping coasts that are
rock, which is resistant to erosion. Longshore drift being gradually submerged. There are offshore bars
has built up a tombolo of sand and pebbles, which and barrier islands off the coast of Florida, Georgia,
now joins it to the rest of Dominica. the Carolinas, and Virginia in the USA. Miami Beach
Figures 16.4.1 and 16.4.2 show a much larger is on one of these offshore bars. G
tombolo – the Palisadoes in Jamaica. Kingston A bay-bar is a tongue of sand or other material
Harbour was originally an open bay of shallow that extends across a bay. Some are formed by
water containing some small islands. One of these longshore drift. Others are formed when an
islands is now the site of Port Royal. Material from offshore bar is moved towards the coast by wave
the Hope River and elsewhere on the south-east action.
coast of Jamaica began to build up a spit near
Harbour Head in the south-eastern corner of the
bay. This spit now reaches almost the whole way Sand washed Sand
across the mouth of the bay, and joins the former offshore accumulates
here Sand washed
island of Port Royal to the mainland. onshore

Offshore
bar develops
under water

Mangroves grow

Barrier island
Lagoon with calm is formed
muddy waters

5.4.3 How bars are formed.

Lagoons G
The still, sheltered water behind a spit or bar may
form a lagoon. Within a lagoon:
● there are no large waves

● mud and silt accumulate on the lagoon floor

● mangroves and other plants can grow

● open water is gradually replaced by a wetland

5.4.2 Scotts Head, Dominica. or swamp, and then by dry land.

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 N
Coves Former
lagoon

Tombolo
Bolans
village

Bayhead Beach

Key
Coral reef

Sandy beach Partly

filled
Land below 15 m – lagoon
recent marine and
river deposits

Land above 15 m –
mostly older rocks

Lagoons and
wetlands

Small bar
and lagoon

0 2 km

5.4.4 Coastal features in Antigua. Scale 1:50 000. 5.4.5 Sketch map showing coastal features in Antigua.
G
Figures 5.4.4 and 5.4.5 show a coastline in Antigua, 3 Look at the map of the Palisadoes and Kingston
with bays, lagoons, and offshore islands. This is a Harbour in Figure 16.4.2.
low-energy coast on the west of this island. a) How long is the tombolo?
Sediment is supplied by coral reefs, from offshore b) What difference in wave energy would you
deposits of sand and other material, and some is expect between the north and south side of
also washed into the sea from the land. There are the Palisadoes?
tombolos, where a former island of older rocks has c) Why have mud and other material started to
been joined to the mainland by recent marine accumulate at Gallows Point on the northern
deposits. There are also bayhead beaches and partly side of the tombolo?
filled lagoons. d) How has this tombolo been altered by human
activities?
Map and diagram questions e) From what direction do waves now enter
Kingston Harbour?
1 Draw a diagram to show Scotts Head tombolo
f) Draw a diagram to show how the smaller spit
and the direction of longshore drift.
which leads to Fort Augusta may have been
2 Make a copy of Figure 5.4.5. Add labels to show
formed.
one more tombolo, one more bayhead beach,
and two more partly filled lagoons.

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 5.5 Coral reefs

Key ideas ● Reefs are formed by coral polyps and other living creatures.
● Coral polyps need warm, clean, shallow, well-aerated water, with the right amount
of salt.
● Fringing reefs are close to the shore; barrier reefs are farther from the shore.
● Atolls are ring-shaped reefs surrounding a lagoon.

How coral reefs form

“An offshore ridge, mainly of calcium carbonate,
formed by the secretions of small marine
animals.”
Oxford Dictionary of Geography

Cliffs are formed by marine erosion; beaches and

spits are formed by deposition; but many tropical
coastlines are dominated by constructional
landforms where new rock structures are being
built – the coral reefs. G
The main frame of the reef is built up by coral
polyps. These are small, soft-bodied creatures which
use the calcium carbonate dissolved in seawater to
build up a hard “casing” of limestone to protect
themselves. These tiny polyps live in colonies, or
large groups. Layer after layer of limestone is added
to the colony as new polyps grow on top of the
structure. Each species of polyp builds a colony with
a distinctive shape. Elkhorn coral grows well in
shallow water. Other corals grow where the water is
deep.
Other organisms also live on the reef. These
include algae, fish, sponges, sea eggs, and shellfish.
There may be ten or a hundred times as much life
in the reef as there is in the surrounding open sea.
Many of the other creatures also produce hard
skeletons, which help to build up the structure of
the reef around the framework of the coral.
A coral reef provides a habitat for beneficial
algae. These algae supply carbon and nutrients,
which help the coral grow.
Only the surface layer of the reef is made up of
live coral. Between the reef and the shore there is
usually a shallow lagoon, the floor of which is
made up of dead coral, sand, and rubble. On the
5.5.1 A coral reef off the east coast of Carriacou in the seaward side, the reef slopes down more steeply; at
Grenadines.

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 the base of this slope there will also be an Fringing reefs
accumulation of sand and rubble. Figure 5.5.3 shows the structure of a fringing reef in
Most coral polyps will only grow well in certain the Caribbean. This type of coral reef is close to the
conditions: shore and separated from it by a shallow lagoon. There
● The temperature of the water should be
are fringing reefs off the coast of many Caribbean
between 21 °C and 30 °C. This is why there are islands, including Jamaica, Barbados, Tobago, and
few coral reefs outside the tropics or where Antigua.
there are cold sea currents. If the water is too
hot, coral expel the beneficial algae that supply White sand beach
Heads of live
nutrients and carbon. This is called coral coral growing Lagoon
in lagoon Reef crest
bleaching. Sea level
● Sunlight must be able to penetrate to where

coral is growing. Coral grows only in fairly

shallow water. The exact depth depends on the
clarity of the water.
● Coral grows where the water has the right Fore-reef
slope
salinity or proportion of salt. Few reefs are near Reef debris mixes
with sediment
the mouths of large rivers. produced in lagoon
Reef debris slides down
Coral colonies build up into deeper water
● Coral needs to grow in clean, well-aerated water. massive lime framework
Muddy or turbid water damages coral because 5.5.3 A fringing reef.
it shuts out sunlight and because silt particles
choke the coral polyps. Barrier reefs
● Organic pollution, for example from sewage or A barrier reef is a coral reef that may be many
fertilizers, damages coral. It promotes the kilometres from the shore. Barrier reefs are formed
growth of other organisms. Corals may be like this:
starved of oxygen or smothered with algae. 1 A fringing reef develops in the sea next to a
When the growth of the coral is held back, it low-lying coastline.
often becomes diseased and may eventually die. 2 Sea level rises. The coastal plain is flooded, but
the coral reef is able to grow upwards fast
enough to keep pace with the increasing depth
of the sea.
3 A barrier reef is formed at a considerable
distance from the new shoreline.
4 On the shoreward side of the barrier reef is a
wide lagoon, or in some cases a shallow sea.
5 Wave action on a barrier reef may pile up dead
coral to form a series of low-lying islands.
The world’s largest barrier reef is the Great Barrier
Reef, off the north-east coast of Australia. It is
1,800 km long and from 50 to 250 km offshore. The
second-largest barrier reef is off the coast of Belize.
There are also large barrier reefs off the coast of
Andros in the Bahamas and Anegada in the British
Virgin Islands.

5.5.2 Orange cup corals and purple tube sponges in Curaçao

underwater park.

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 Fringing reef
Narrow lagoon
Low sea level

Wide lagoon Reef grows upwards

to form barrier reef
Higher sea level

5.5.4 A barrier reef.

MEXICO
Ambergris
Caye

San Pedro

Caye Caulker
5.5.6 Aerial view of Marakei atoll, in the Pacific Ocean.
Turneffe
Islands
Belize City

Lighthouse
Reef 1. Island 2. Fringing reef
BELIZE
GUATEMALA

Placencia

Glover’s
Reef

Key
3. Barrier reef and lagoon 4. Atoll and lagoon
Offshore islands
Main barrier reef Subsidence
Subsidence continues
Atolls
Sapodilla
Cayes

5.5.5 The Belize barrier reef. 5.5.7 How coral atolls are formed.
G

Atolls
Atolls are ring-shaped coral reefs with low-lying barrier reef; finally, when the island is completely
coral islands surrounded by open sea and enclosing submerged, the coral forms an atoll.
a shallow lagoon. There are 425 coral atolls There are 15 atolls in the Atlantic and
worldwide; most are in the Pacific and Indian Caribbean. The Turneffe Islands, Glover’s Reef, and
Oceans. Many have formed on extinct volcanoes or Lighthouse Reef off the coast of Belize are atolls,
other islands, which have been slowly submerged. which were formed as coral grew around the
As the island sinks, the coral grows upwards to former coastline of large islands which were
compensate. Initially it forms a fringing reef, then a submerged many thousands of years ago.

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 5.6 The importance of coral reefs

Key ideas ● Coral reefs are important for coastal protection, fisheries, wildlife, and recreation.
● Human activities on land and at sea can damage coral reefs.

Coral reefs are important for the Caribbean and

other tropical marine environments in many ways:
● A well-developed fringing reef is a self-

constructed, self-repairing breakwater, which

protects the coastline and beaches from erosion.
Waves lose much of their erosive power when
they break on the reef.
● Much of the sand on many Caribbean beaches,

for example on the west coast of Barbados, is

derived from coral and other marine organisms
that have been broken up by the waves. Over a
long period, there is a balance between erosion
and new growth.
● Coral reefs provide a habitat for marine life,

including fish and shellfish. Species such as

conch and lobster are an important resource for
the fishing industry.
● Reefs are a recreational resource for local people

and for tourism. Scuba diving and snorkelling

are an attraction for visitors.

Figure 5.3.6 shows how a coral reef on the south-

east coast of St Lucia protects the shoreline from
high-energy waves, allowing a beach to be formed.

Land-based threats to the reefs

Reefs are formed by coral polyps and other
organisms, which are sensitive to environmental
conditions. Human activity on land has altered the
nearshore environment, threatening the reef. On
some estimates, live coral fell from 50 to
10 per cent of the total Caribbean reef area between
1977 and 2002. Around islands such as Barbados,
Jamaica, and Tobago, reefs have been damaged by:
● too much fresh water. Coral polyps need saline

conditions. They do not grow where rivers

5.6.1 Snorkelling over a coral reef in the Bahamas. bring fresh water into the sea. Human activities
increase the flow of fresh water after heavy rain,
for example when forests are cleared or land is
used for urban development.

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 ● too much sediment. Corals need sunlight and
clear water. They may be smothered when mud
and other sediment is washed into the sea
because of quarrying, construction of buildings,
or soil erosion.
● organic pollution. Where land is used for
agriculture or urban development, chemical
fertilizers and sewage may be washed into the
sea. The increased nutrient content of the
seawater encourages the growth of algae, or “sea
moss”. This can smother living coral. At certain
times of the year, sea moss is washed on to the
shore, causing further problems. Bacteria found
in human digestive systems have also caused
diseases in Caribbean coral.
● chemical pollutants. Herbicides and other
chemical pollutants may poison coral and
marine life when they are washed into the sea.

When a reef has been weakened by problems such

as these, other threats become more serious. There
have always been hurricanes in the Caribbean, and a
healthy reef will recover from storm damage after a
few years. However, recovery is more difficult if a
reef is already in a poor condition. Disease is also 5.6.2 Coral bleaching caused by higher sea temperatures.
more likely to strike coral polyps and other
organisms where a reef is already under stress.
● recreation. Visitors who come to enjoy the reef
Marine activities may damage it, for example by walking on
Coral reefs can also be threatened by large- and living coral or breaking off pieces to take home
small-scale marine activities, such as: with them. Dive boats may cause anchor
● shipping. Dredging the seabed to create a
damage. Buccoo Reef in Tobago has been
deep-water channel may cause problems. Part of seriously damaged in these ways.
a small island, Rackham’s Cay, was destroyed to
enlarge the shipping channel into Kingston Worldwide threats
Harbour. A section of reef may also be destroyed Coral reefs are also threatened by worldwide
if a ship runs aground. changes, which cannot be controlled within the
● oil spills. Oil and other chemicals can cause
region. Higher sea temperatures caused by global
permanent damage. Small- and mid-scale spills warming may bring “bleaching” of reefs. Increased
have occurred many times in the Caribbean. A levels of carbon dioxide in seawater slow coral
large tanker may be 450 metres long and carries growth and also make seawater more acidic.
up to 500,000 tonnes of oil, enough to pollute
an entire coastline.
● fishing. A well-managed fishing industry need
Quick research
not hurt the marine environment. However, 1 Draw a sketch map to show coral reefs in your
damage may be caused by anchors, by over- country or elsewhere.
fishing, or by badly placed or discarded fish 2 Explain why these reefs are important for:
traps and nets. A few fishers use bleach or a) coastal protection
b) fisheries and marine life
explosives, which cause serious and lasting
c) tourism.
damage.

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 5.7 Mangroves

Key ideas ● Mangrove vegetation can protect tropical coastlines.

● Mangroves are important for the marine ecosystem.
● In many areas, mangroves have been destroyed or are under threat.

Mangroves grow along tropical coastlines where Mangroves are also useful in other ways:
mud and silt are deposited, for example in ● Mangrove wood can be used to make charcoal.

lagoons, estuaries, and deltas. They flourish in When trees are cut, they grow back quickly.
places where most other plants could not grow, for ● Mangrove bark and roots can be used to extract

example where: tannin, for dyeing cloth and making leather.

● the soil is waterlogged ● Mangrove leaves can be used as feed for cattle

● mud is disturbed by tidal currents and other farm animals.

● the surrounding water is too salty (too saline) ● Like other forests, mangroves absorb carbon,

for most plants. reducing the risk of climate change.

Many different species are classed as mangroves. They

are from different plant families and are not closely
related, but all are adapted to tropical coastal wetlands:
● Black mangroves have separate breathing roots,

which project upwards from the mud. They

usually grow closest to the open sea, and may
be up to 25 metres in height.
● Red mangroves have stilt roots, which extend

above the waterline to breathe.

● The seeds of red mangroves germinate and

develop roots while they are still on the tree,

so they can grow as soon as they fall to the
mud below.
5.7.1 Stilt roots and young mangroves.

Why are mangroves important?

Mangroves are important for the coastal ecosystem, 5.7.2 Mangroves on the
Palisadoes, Jamaica.
because:
● they protect the shoreline from wave erosion

● their roots stabilize mud deposits

● dead leaves and branches fall into the water and

decompose, producing nutrients for plants and

small creatures, which in turn provide food for
shrimps, crabs and fish
● they provide a safe breeding ground for young

fish, with places to hide from large predators.

Crabs and birds, as well as oysters and other
molluscs, also thrive
● they can extract heavy metals and other

pollutants from the water.

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 Red mangrove
Black mangrove

Young
Seedlings on tree mangrove
Seedling
floats in
Seedling water

High-tide
level
Oysters grow Sponges
on stilt roots
Air-absorbing roots Low-tide
Mud is deposited level
exposed at low tide
among mangrove roots

5.7.3 Mangrove vegetation.

Mangroves and coastal protection 5.7.5 Planting mangroves for coastal protection, Lima on the
Essequibo Coast.
Along much of the coastline of Guyana, mangroves
were removed during the colonial period when Threats to coastal mangroves
land was reclaimed for agriculture. A total of Unfortunately, there are many areas where coastal
80 kilometres of earthen dykes, sea walls and other mangroves are threatened. They may be:
structures were built to protect the land from ● cleared for housing or hotel resort development
flooding. ● damaged through over-grazing by goats and
These structures have been damaged by marine other animals
erosion. Many coastal areas are more than a metre ● damaged by dumping of garbage and urban waste
below sea level. When the sea defences are ● burned by fires during periods of dry weather.
damaged, there is a risk of serious flooding,
The coastline can be protected by expensive
Quick research
engineering works. However, some areas can be
protected more effectively by planting and 1 Draw a sketch map to show an area of mangrove
protecting mangroves and other plants, with the in your country or elsewhere.
involvement of local communities. Mangroves are 2 How does this mangrove area benefit the
environment or support economic activity?
more effective than concrete structures in absorbing
3 Is it under threat in any way?
wave energy and stabilizing mud and silt.
4 Are any measures in place to protect it?

5.7.4 Coastal mangroves at Hope Beach, Guyana.

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 5.8 Coral reefs and beach erosion

Key ideas ● Coral reefs are under threat throughout the region.
● Beach erosion may be caused when reefs are damaged.

Berm or Swash from breaking Low-energy Waves break on

beach ridge waves builds beach constructive waves reef, losing energy

Vegetation
stabilizes sand

Beach rock forms Healthy

below surface coral reef

Wind erodes Backwash from breaking High-energy

beach sand waves erodes beach destructive waves

Beach is
Vegetation
narrowed
removed
Beach rock
is exposed
Reef damaged
and eroded
5.8.1 Beach erosion.

Coral reefs are under threat throughout the wider have been developed for tourism. Other coastal and
Caribbean. On some estimates, live coral fell from inland districts are now in residential or commercial
50% to 10% of the total Caribbean reef area use. Urban development increases the run-off of
between 1977 and 2002. But even where damage is fresh rainwater into the sea.
well advanced, measures can be taken to protect the Families use more water than before, with
coral reef and the coastline. improved water supply, bathrooms, and appliances
such as washing machines. They also use household
Beach erosion in Barbados chemicals, such as detergents. Businesses produce
Barbados was once almost completely surrounded wastewater and use industrial chemicals. At sea, there
by a healthy fringing reef. Now, much of the former are larger ships and an increased risk of oil spills.
reef is simply a ridge of dead coral, with other areas All of these factors have caused damage to the
still alive, but in bad condition. fringing reef. This, in turn, has produced serious
Damage to the reef began soon after the first beach erosion:
English settlement, almost four hundred years ago. ● Because the coral grows less rapidly, the reef

Before that date, the original forest cover protected the crest is eroded by the waves, and is, therefore,
soil during heavy rain. Then almost all the forest was further below the surface than before.
cleared, so the land could be used for growing sugar ● As a result, waves lose less energy on the reef

cane. After heavy rain, fresh water flooded into the sea, and still retain most of their erosive power
carrying mud and soil with it. Agriculture and soil when they reach the shore.
erosion continue today, with added problems from the ● Sand is removed from the beaches by these

use of fertilizers, herbicides, and other chemicals. destructive waves. On the south and west coasts
Since the mid-twentieth century there has been of Barbados, there are some places where the
increased urban development, much of it close to beach has virtually disappeared and houses along
the south and west coasts. Many beachfront areas the shoreline are being threatened by erosion.
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 5.8.2 Beach erosion in Barbados.

Beaches are an important recreational resource for

N Barbadians. The economy also depends on tourism,
and the island’s beaches are its most important
attraction.

Port St Charles Fishing resources

Speightstown
In many Caribbean countries, damage to coral reefs
has reduced the number of fish. In Jamaica, species
such as snapper, parrot fish and grouper have been
declining in numbers since at least the 1980s. With
Holetown
small fish populations, the danger of over-fishing is
greater, because there is a smaller breeding population.

Coastal mangroves
Besides coral reefs, other marine and coastal
Bridgetown environments are also under threat in the Caribbean.
Airport Mangroves provide a habitat for marine life and a
breeding ground for young fish. They stabilize
ch

coastal sediments, and protect the shoreline against

ea

ll

Oistins
Ha
aB
me

erosion, particularly in countries such as Guyana,

cr
Ac

ae
Gr

where many coastal areas are below sea level.

Key
Urban area and tourism
development
Quick research
Agriculture – fertilizers and pesticides
washed into the sea
0 5 km
1 Describe three land-based or marine activities
Soil erosion from Scotland district
Sewage treatment plant and outfall
in your country which are likely to affect coral
Breakwaters protecting beaches reefs.
2 Have any areas in your country been affected by
beach erosion?
5.8.3 Threats to the marine environment in Barbados.

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 5.9 Protecting reefs and beaches

Key ideas ● Careful environmental management is needed in coastal zones.

● Sewerage systems can help protect the marine environment.
● Engineering measures can protect or restore eroded beaches.
● (See also: Section 5.3, Bays and beaches; and
Section 5.4, Spits, tombolos and bars.) 5.9.1 Ways of protecting
the coastline.

A breakwater Mangroves and Rocks or irregular

protects the coastal vegetation concrete blocks
beach from high- provide natural absorb and disperse
energy waves protection wave energy
Breakwater

A groyne must be The base of a sea Roads and buildings

well designed or it wall may be should be well back
Groyne will create new scoured by from the shore,
problems breaking waves leaving vegetation
Direction in place
of longshore
drift

Coastal management
Partly because of the threat of beach erosion, the be a thorough study of possible effects on the marine
Barbados government set up a Coastal Zone and land environments.
Management Unit in 1983. Its work includes:
● studying the action of the waves, tides, and Pollution control in Barbados
longshore drift, and how these may affect the A wide range of measures is needed to help prevent
coastline; further damage to the fringing reef and allow
● monitoring water quality, and the state of the growing coral to recover.
offshore coral reefs; As an important part of its strategy, the government
● evaluating development in the coastal zone, of Barbados built a sewerage system on the south coast,
including any new building within 30 metres of which was completed in 2004. Pipes were laid beneath
the high water mark; the roads to collect wastewater from houses and
● educating the public about coastal problems, business places. A treatment plant removes all solid
and their solutions; material for safe disposal on land, and a pipeline takes
● advising on shoreline protection and the liquid waste 1,100 metres out to sea, where it is
management. discharged in water which is 30–40 metres deep,
beyond the fringing reef. From this point, the waste is
Many other Caribbean countries now have similar
rapidly dispersed by marine currents, and washed out
organisations. In most of the region, an Environmental
to sea.
Impact Assessment is needed when a large industrial or
The sewerage system reduces several problems:
tourism project is planned for a coastal site. There must ● Fresh water is discharged away from the shore.

Nearshore areas remain saline, allowing coral

growth.
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 ● Sediment is not discharged into the sea. 1
1 Bridge allows sand
● Most organic material and some chemicals are Artificial Island
and water to move
removed at the treatment plant. Other chemicals freely

are discharged in deep water, away from the 2

3
3 Sand dredged
and deposited
growing coral. on nearby
2 Breakwaters beaches
protect beaches.
Building the sewerage system cost US$80 million, Frequent dredging
and took more than five years. Construction caused of marina entrance

serious traffic problems, because roads were closed Direction of 4

N longshore drift
to lay pipes. But the investment was needed to
Marina
protect the coral reef and the coastline. Another
4 Artificial submerged
sewerage system is planned for the west coast. reef protects beach
0 100 m
Beach protection
5.9.3 Coastal protection measures at Port St Charles, Barbados.
The impact of reef damage may also be reduced by
well-designed artificial structures, which reduce Figure 5.9.3 shows a section of the west coast of
wave energy and protect beaches from erosion. Barbados. Longshore drift takes sand from north to
There are many types: south. This stretch of coast is sometimes eroded by
● Groynes run at right angles to the shoreline. strong waves, which come from the north. A
They trap sand, by blocking the action of structure which blocks the flow of sand could cause
longshore drift. They may save one stretch of serious beach erosion.
beach – but cause a worse problem farther In 1996, work started on a marina at Port St
along the coast. Charles. The Coastal Zone Management Unit adapted
● Breakwaters reduce wave energy. Some run the design to reduce erosion.
parallel to the shore, protecting it from ● An artificial island at the marina entrance is

approaching waves. Some are connected to the joined to the coast by a bridge, which allows
land, for example at a harbour or marina water and sand to move freely along the beach.
entrance. ● When the marina was first dredged, 40,000 m3
● Sea walls are built on the shore. Vertical walls of sand was placed on nearby beaches. Regular
are not usually effective, because they are dredging produces more beach sand.
undermined by the scouring action of the ● Two breakwaters protect beaches on each side
waves; other designs are more robust. of the marina.
● Earthen embankments protect the land but ● An artificial reef was built offshore, reducing
cannot withstand high-energy waves. wave energy and protecting the beach.
● A rip-rap structure of rocks or concrete blocks
● From 2011, a new marina and breakwater were
can disperse wave energy. developed at Port Ferdinand, just to the north. G
● Natural features, such as mangroves, provide
A short stretch of beach can be protected by
good protection.
engineering measures like these when new
structures are built. But to protect the whole
coastline, a healthy marine environment allowing
the growth of coral and coastal vegetation is needed.

Quick research
1 What organizations in your country are responsible
for coastal conservation/management?
2 Are there any coastal structures in your country
designed to protect the shoreline?
a) Draw a map to show their location.
b) Draw a sketch to show how the coastline is
protected from erosion.
5.9.2 Port St Charles.

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 5.10 Coastal features: review

Foul Bay, Barbados

5.10.1 Looking north-east across Foul Bay, Barbados.

1 Copy the map of Foul Bay in Barbados, and

Probable future Present position Former positions
position of cliff of cliff of cliff add labels to show:
a) the large bayhead beach of white sand
with coral fragments
b) a small beach or cove
c) steep cliffs of coral limestone
d) a block of unweathered limestone broken
recently from a cliff by wave erosion
e) vegetation growing where a cliff has been
Wave cut platform becomes wider as cliff retreats
stable for many years
5.10.2 How a coastline retreats as cliffs are eroded.
f) a small dry valley, providing road access to
18 the beach
24
g) a fringing reef, with breaking waves.
12 6
2 Using the contours, estimate the maximum
24

12 18

height of the cliff.

6

FOUL BAY

Key
Contours (6 m interval) Beach
Road Extent of beach in 1950s
30 0 100 200 m Cliffs Fringing reef

5.10.3 Map of Foul Bay, Barbados.

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 Pico Teneriffe, Barbados Batts Rock Bay, Barbados

5.10.4 Pico Teneriffe, Barbados.

5.10.6 Beach erosion at Batts Rock Bay.

5 a) Look at Figure 5.1.4.What are the

differences in wave height and wave
erosion between Batts Rock Bay and Pico
Teneriffe?
b) Describe two or more features in
Figure 5.10.6 that indicate that the beach
is being eroded.

5.10.5 Sketch of Pico Teneriffe.

At Pico Teneriffe in Barbados, softer oceanic Little Bay, Barbados

series rocks are exposed beneath the island’s
coral limestone cap. These rocks are easily
eroded and not strong enough to maintain a
vertical cliff face, as shown in Figure 5.2.5. The
cliffs formed on the oceanic series rocks are less
steep than the coral limestone cliffs shown in
Figure 5.2.1.

3 Copy the sketch of Pico Teneriffe in Figure

5.10.5, and add labels to show:
a) white oceanic series rocks
b) coral limestone cap (darker rock)
c) waves eroding the base of the cliff
d) that the angle of the cliff is not steep
e) coral limestone rubble at the base of the
5.10.7 Little Bay, Barbados.
cliff.
4 Add dotted lines to your sketch to show:
6 Describe three features of coastal erosion or
a) the possible former position of the cliff
deposition that can be seen in Figure 5.10.7.
b) the probable future position of the cliff,
Use a diagram to illustrate your answer.
after further wave erosion.

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 6.1 Weather and climate

Key ideas ● Weather describes atmospheric conditions at a particular time.

● Climate describes long-term atmospheric characteristics.
● Temperature, air pressure, winds, humidity, clouds, and precipitation are among the
elements of weather and climate.

6.1.1 Weather conditions over the Caribbean at 3.45 p.m.

Key
on 5 September 2004. A satellite image, with colour
Rainfall mm
added digitally. The highest cloud tops are white, red
is next, then green. Cloud-free areas are dark blue. 3,600
3,000
2,400
Figure 6.1.1 is a satellite image showing weather 1,800
1,200
conditions in the Caribbean on 5 September 2004.
Hurricane Ivan is bearing down from the east, and
Hurricane Frances has moved over Florida from the
Bahamas. Images like this tell us what weather
conditions were like on a particular day.
Climate maps, such as Figure 6.1.2, are based
on information collected at a large number of
weather stations over a long period. They show the
general pattern of temperature or rainfall, but not 6.1.2 Average annual
what the weather will be like on a particular day. rainfall in Belize.

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 There are some days in Weather Climate
July and August when
Rain Heavy rain is falling. The average annual rainfall is 1,740 mm.
Europe and southern
Temperature It is 29 °C. The average temperature for
Canada are much hotter
September is 28 °C.
than the Caribbean –
It was 23 °C last The average diurnal temperature range
but these places do not night. is 6 °C.
have a warmer climate
Wind direction The wind is from the The prevailing wind is from the ENE,
than the Caribbean. ENE. blowing 53% of the time.
Verkhoyansk in Siberia
Extreme events There is a hurricane A hurricane can be expected to affect
is the coldest inhabited
600 km to the east. this island eight times per century.
place in the world:
the average January
temperature is –50 °C and in July the average is only
15 °C. But the highest temperature ever recorded Temperature
there is 35 °C, which is 2 °C more than the record The Caribbean experiences a narrow range of
for Fort de France in Martinique. temperatures. The temperature on a hot day may
“Weather” describes the condition of the reach 33 °C, and on a cool night might fall to 18 °C.
atmosphere at a particular point in time. The climate It is never difficult for the human body to cope.
of a place is, in part, its “average” weather. A The human body temperature is approximately
description of the climate summarizes the weather 37 °C. When the air is hotter than this, it is very
conditions that can be expected in a normal year: uncomfortable. In parts of India, Africa, and the
● How much rain can be expected? What is the Middle East, daytime temperatures may rise above
average annual rainfall? 40 °C. In Death Valley in California, which is
● Which months are usually wettest? What is the 86 metres below sea level, the average daytime
seasonal distribution of rainfall? temperature is 46 °C in July.
● How much does temperature vary over the Air temperature increases during the daytime,
year? What is the annual temperature range? because the Earth is receiving energy from the sun;
● Are there any months when it is too cold for and falls at night, when the Earth is losing energy.
plants to grow? What is the growing season? The difference between daytime and night-time
● What is the prevailing wind? temperatures is the daily or diurnal temperature
range.
But these “averages” are not enough to give a real The annual temperature range is the difference
picture of what a climate is like. “Extreme” events that between the temperature of the warmest and
do not occur every year are also part of the climate. coldest months. In many climates there are warm
● Do hurricanes affect the area? and cold seasons. When it is below 0 °C, water
● What is the longest drought that can be expected? freezes. Snow can fall and lie on the ground.
● How much rain is likely to fall in a heavy storm?
Air pressure and winds
Among the elements of weather and climate are Unlike temperature, humans cannot feel changes in
temperature, air pressure, winds, humidity, clouds, air pressure. Air pressure is the total weight of the
and precipitation. atmosphere, measured in millibars. On average, air
pressure at sea level is 1,013 millibars, but the exact
“Climate: The long-term atmospheric characteristics figure varies from day to day and from place to
of a specified area. place. On a weather map, isobars are lines joining
“Weather: The overall state of the atmosphere on places with the same atmospheric pressure. They are
a timescale of minutes to months, with particular like contours on a relief map.
emphasis on those atmospheric phenomena that ● A depression or cyclone is an area of low

affect human activity.” atmospheric pressure.

Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Physical Geography ● An anticyclone has high atmospheric pressure.

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 In the northern hemisphere, winds blow...
Clouds
anticlockwise clockwise A rising current of air is called an updraught. In
around a around an
cyclone LOW anticyclone HIGH small aircraft, updraughts cause a bumpy ride – we
say that there is turbulence. Updraughts are
common in areas of low atmospheric pressure. They
Strong winds blow when Winds are gentle when
may form clouds, like this:
isobars are close isobars are well spaced 1 When a pocket of air moves up through the
LOW LOW atmosphere, there is less air above it, so the
pressure acting on it is reduced.
2 With lower pressure, the air expands.
3 Expansion uses energy. This cools the air.
4 Air cools by approximately 1 °C for each
HIGH HIGH
100 metres as it moves upwards.
6.1.3 Air pressure and winds.
5 Because the air is cooler, its relative humidity
When a cyclone is close to an anticyclone, the rises.
difference in pressure creates a flow of air, or a 6 If relative humidity reaches 100%, clouds form.
wind. If the Earth did not rotate, air would flow
directly into the cyclone. However, because the The opposite happens when a current of air moves
Earth rotates, the wind is deflected. In the northern downwards. There is more air above it, atmospheric
hemisphere, winds blow anti-clockwise round a pressure increases, and the air is compressed.
cyclone and clockwise round an anticyclone. Compression releases energy. This warms the air and
so its relative humidity falls. Descending air currents
Humidity are warm and dry. They are often associated with
areas of high atmospheric pressure, or anticyclones.
All air holds some water vapour. Air can hold more
water vapour when it is warm than when it is cold.
Tropical air with a temperature of 30 °C can hold
about seven times as much water vapour as cold air
with a temperature of 0 °C; and about 100 times
more than Arctic air with a temperature of –30 °C. 4
● Absolute humidity measures the amount of
3
water in the air. Condensation level
● Relative humidity compares this with what the

air can hold at a given temperature.

● Completely dry air has a relative humidity of 0%. 2
● Saturated air has a relative humidity of 100%. It 5

can hold no more water, and water droplets

form. At ground level, this forms a mist or fog;
above ground level, a cloud is formed.

In hot weather, it feels hotter and more 1 6

uncomfortable when the relative humidity is over
75%. Humid conditions are also unpleasant when it
is cold, because moist air conducts heat away from
the human body. 1 When air is heated, it begins to rise.
2 The air expands and becomes cooler.
Relative humidity is usually lowest in the 3 As the air cools, its relative humidity increases. Water droplets form at
afternoon, when the air has been warmed by the the condensation level, where relative humidity is 100%.
4 Clouds begin to form.
sun. It is highest just before sunrise, when the air is 5 A descending air current is compressed and warmed.
cool. 6 When it reaches the surface, it will feel warm and dry.
6.1.4 How clouds are formed.

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 ,

9,000
CIRRUS
(Ci)

8,000

7,000
CUMULONIMBUS
(Cb)

6,000

5,000
ALTO-CUMULUS
(Ac)
4,000

3,000 CUMULUS
(Cu+)

2,000

(Cu)
1,000 STRATUS
STRATO-CUMULUS (Cf)
(St)
(Sc)

Surface

6.1.5 Some cloud types.

Air currents at different levels in the atmosphere Atlas work

produce contrasting types of cloud:
● Air currents in the upper atmosphere produce 1 Look at Figure 6.1.1. Describe the cloud
conditions in:
thin, wispy cirrus clouds, which are made of
a) Jamaica b) Suriname
ice. Cirrus clouds do not produce rain.
c) the US state of Alabama.
● Updraughts in the lower atmosphere produce
2 Look at Figure 6.1.2, and at a map of Belize.
cumulus clouds. Seen from the side, these have a What is the average annual rainfall in:
white, puffy appearance. They may be arranged as a) Ambergris Caye?
a layer, all at the same height above the ground. b) the Maya Mountains?
When cumulus clouds are thicker, they produce
rain. Quick questions
● Powerful air currents that rise right through the
3 Which of the following people would be mainly
atmosphere form tall cumulonimbus clouds.
interested in knowing about the weather, and
These are very dark at the base and may
which would need to know about the climate?
produce torrential rain. The top of the cloud Which elements of the weather or climate would
may spread out to form an anvil shape. each of them be particularly concerned with?
● Stratus clouds are formed in layers.
a) An engineer designing a new fishing harbour
● Other clouds share features of these basic types.
b) A fisherman deciding whether to go to sea
c) A travel agency deciding whether to sell
Precipitation August holidays in the Caribbean
Cumulonimbus and some other types of cloud d) A family planning a picnic
produce rain. The world’s wettest places have over e) A pilot about to fly from Jamaica to New York.
11,000 millimetres of rain each year, while in 4 Describe one use of:
extreme deserts there may be a whole year with no a) a satellite image, such as 6.1.1
rain. Mountains in Dominica and Martinique have b) a climate map, such as 6.1.2.
more than 6,000 millimetres of annual rainfall. The
driest island is Aruba, with an annual rainfall of only
409 millimetres. In cold countries, precipitation may
fall as snow.

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 6.2 Influences on weather and climate

Key idea ● Weather and climate are affected by latitude, continentality (distance from the sea),
altitude, relief, and winds.

Latitude
Close to the Equator, the Sun appears to be almost
Long distance through overhead throughout the year. The Sun’s rays pass
the atmosphere almost vertically through the atmosphere; we say
Falls over a that tropical climates are strongly affected by
large area
insolation.
In temperate and polar latitudes, the Sun appears
Short distance
through the lower in the sky. Its rays lose energy as they pass
atmosphere
obliquely through the atmosphere. Each unit of
Equator Concentrated on solar radiation is also spread over a larger area of
a small area
land. There is less insolation for each unit of area.
In temperate and polar regions, day length and
insolation vary greatly throughout the year.
In temperate and polar regions, day-length
insolation varies greatly throughout the year. In
London, for example, the Sun does not set until
6.2.1 Latitude and solar radiation. 21.22 in midsummer and it rises at 04.43. In
midwinter the Sun sets at 15.51 and does not rise
Georgetown: tropical climate Toronto: cool temperature climate
Total precipitation: 2,260 mm Total precipitation: 831 mm
until 08.05.
Daily temp. range: 6° Daily temp. range: 7° In the Arctic and Antarctic, the Sun does not set
Altitude: 1 m Altitude: 113 m
°C mm °C mm
in midsummer; there is daylight for the full
40 400 40 400 24 hours. At midwinter the Sun does not rise and it
30 350 30 350
20 300 20 300 remains dark for 24 hours.
10 250 10 250 Because of the variation in day length and
0 200 0 200
–10 150 –10 150
insolation, temperature and polar climates have
–20 100 –20 100 strong seasonal variation. There is a summer season,
–30 50 –30 50
–40 0 –40 0
with long days and warmer temperatures; and a
J F M A M J J A S ON D J F M A M J J A S ON D
Month Month winter season, with short days and lower
temperatures.
6.2.2 Climate graphs: Toronto and Georgetown.
In tropical climates there are seasonal variations,
but these mainly affect rainfall and wind patterns,
not temperature. They are also less strongly marked
than seasonal variations in temperate and polar
0 1,000 km climates.

CANADA Continentality
The sea acts as a store of heat. In temperate and
Saskatoon
polar latitudes the sea retains heat during the winter
Victoria
Toronto
and remains cool during the summer.
USA

6.2.3 Canadian climate stations.

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 Victoria: marine climate Saskatoon: temperate At sea level in Venezuela, temperatures are similar
(cool temperate western margin) interior climate
Total precipitation: 883 mm Total precipitation: 354 mm
to those of the Caribbean islands, or slightly hotter. In
Daily temp. range: 9° Daily temp. range: 12° the city of Maracaibo, the average temperature is
Altitude: 20 m Altitude: 504 m
°C mm °C mm
33 °C during the day and 24 °C at night.
40 400 40 400 Pico Bolivar in the Andes mountains of Venezuela
30 350 30 350
is 5,007 metres high. Temperatures are below freezing;
20 300 20 300
there is snow and a small glacier close to the summit.
10 250 10 250
0
–10
200
150 –10
0 200
150
Rainfall and relief
–20 100 –20 100 When an air mass blows across a mountainous
–30 50 –30 50 island, it is forced upwards. This means that:
–40 0 –40 0 ● the air expands because there is less pressure on
J F M A M J J A S OND J F M A M J J A S OND
Month Month it from above
6.2.4 Climate graphs: Victoria and Saskatoon. ● expansion uses energy and the air is cooled

● air which is moving upwards cools by about

Islands and coastal areas are influenced by the
1 °C for each 100 metres of its ascent
sea. They are warmer than continental interiors in ● because the air is cooler, its relative humidity rises
the winter and cooler in the summer. They have a ● if relative humidity reaches 100%, clouds are
more moderate climate than areas far from the sea,
formed over the mountains and there may be
with a smaller annual temperature range. They also
heavy rainfall. This is called relief rain.
have a smaller diurnal temperature range – they
remain cooler during the day and warmer at night. N
Rising air cools by Unstable air Loss of moisture from air
1°C per 100 m Rain falls means condensation level

Altitude and temperature is higher downwind

Air warms up by
The Earth’s atmosphere prevents heat escaping into Above the condensation
1°C per 100 m over
greater distance
level, relative humidity
space. On high ground the insulating layer of air is is 100%. Water vapour
thinner and heat escapes more easily. Temperatures condenses to form
clouds.
are cooler. In most places the temperature falls by
around 0.6 °C for every 100 metres above sea level.
The Blue Mountains in Jamaica reach 2,229 metres Condensation
level
above sea level. At this altitude, we would expect
temperatures to be around 13 °C lower than at sea
level. High-quality coffee grows best at high altitudes;
Blue Mountain coffee is world-renowned.

6.2.6 How relief affects rainfall and temperature. Looking

south over a volcanic island in the Windwards. The
north-east trades are forced upwards when they cross
5,000 m 0 °C
the island from the Atlantic to the Caribbean coast.
There is a rain shadow on the Caribbean side.
4,000 m 6 °C
On the leeward side of the mountains the air moves
downwards. It contracts and becomes warmer. A
3,000 m 12 °C
warm dry wind may blow down the leeward side of
Above sea level, the
insulating layer is a mountain range.
2,000 m 18 °C
thinner. More
heat can
A dry area on the leeward side of a mountain
escape range is called a rain shadow. There is a rain
1,000 m 24 °C
Air and clouds above
Air forced shadow on the western or leeward coast of many
upwards cools
prevent heat from faster, at 1°C per Caribbean islands. Kingston has a relatively low
escaping 100 metres Sea level 30 °C rainfall because it is in the rain shadow of the Blue
Mountains.
6.2.5 Relief and temperature.

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 Rainfall in December N Near the coast, the south-east trades are the
prevailing winds for most of the year. Further north,
they blow only for a short period, The rainy season
Key is short and brings less rain.
mm
Prevailing winds also influence climate at a local
600
450 level, as with rain shadows on the leeward coast of
300
150
Caribbean islands.

Land and sea breezes

6.2.7 In December, winds known as northers bring rainfall
to the north-east coast of Jamaica and the Blue On a sunny day the air over an island heats up more
Mountains. Kingston is in a rain shadow. quickly than the air over the surrounding sea. When
this happens:
Prevailing winds ● there are strong updraughts over the island
In most parts of the world, the wind blows most ● a sea breeze develops as cooler air from around
often from one direction. This is the prevailing the island is drawn inwards from the sea
wind. In the Caribbean, the prevailing winds are the ● cumulus clouds are formed by updraughts over
north-east trade winds. They bring moist air into the centre of the island
the region from the Atlantic. We will see in the next ● around the island there is a ring of clear, dry air
section how weather systems associated with the moving downwards and very few clouds within
north-east trade winds bring rain to the Caribbean. 50 kilometres of the coast
In West African countries such as Nigeria and ● farther out to sea, there may be small cumulus
Ghana, the prevailing winds change with the season. clouds.
From June to September, the prevailing winds
are the south-east trades, which bring moist air At night, the land is cooler than the surrounding
from the South Atlantic. This is the rainy season. sea. There may be a land breeze if updraughts over
From November to March, the prevailing wind the sea draw cool air outwards. The land breeze is
is the Harmattan, which brings hot, dry air from sometimes called a night breeze.
the Sahara Desert in the continental interior. This is
the dry season.
20° 10° 0° 10° 20°
20°
20°
Harmattan wind
Dry tropical continental air Zinder

3 2 1 3
Kano 2
10° Jos 4 4
10°

January ITCZ Moist tropical maritime air

20° 10° 0° 10° 20° 1. The air over the centre of the island warms up quickly. There are updraughts.
Large cumulus clouds may form.
2. Air is drawn in around the coast. This is the sea breeze.
3. Here there is a current of dry, descending air. There are no clouds.
20° 10° 0° 10° 20° 4. Further out to sea, there may be small cumulus clouds
20° Dry tropical continental air
6.2.9 Land and sea breezes.
20°
ITCZ

Moist tropical maritime air

10°
10°

September South-east trade winds

20° 10° 0° 10° 20°
6.2.8 Seasonal wind systems in West Africa.

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 Winds and relief Quick questions
Mountain slopes on the windward side of an island 1 If it is 30 °C at sea level, what temperature
experience strong winds. Wind speeds close to sea would you expect:
level are slowed by friction. Winds may be twice as fast a) at 300 m?
at altitudes of a few hundred metres. On the leeward b) at 1,000 m?
side of an island, wind speeds are much lower. c) at the highest altitude in your country?
2 Look at these temperature figures for three
Jamaican weather stations:

Altitude Average
temperature
On the leeward side, wind
Exposed mountain
slopes feel the wind's
Palisadoes 3m 27.1 °C
speeds are less. Winds may
be warm and dry
full force
Empire Nursery 649 m 21.9 °C
Cinchona 1,493 m 17.4 °C
Friction slows Gardens
wind speeds
on flat land
a) What is the difference in average
temperature between:
Wind speeds
are high on
i) Palisadoes and Empire Nursery?
windward ii) Empire Nursery and Cinchona Gardens?
coasts
b) What is the difference in altitude between
6.2.10 Relief and wind speeds. each pair of weather stations?
c) Calculate the average fall in temperature for
every 100 m of altitude:
i) from Palisadoes to Empire Nursery
ii) from Empire Nursery to Cinchona
Gardens.

Atlas work

N Key
mm

6,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,500

6.2.12 Rainfall patterns in Martinique.

3 Figure 6.2.12 shows rainfall in Martinique.

Compare this map with a relief map in an atlas.
What is the rainfall:
a) near the summit of Mont Pelée?
b) on the low hills in the south of the island?
c) on the west coast?
6.2.11 Clouds over the Northern Range in Trinidad.

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 6.3 Caribbean weather systems

Key ideas ● Anticyclones bring dry, settled weather. Winds blow clockwise.
● The north-east trades are the Caribbean’s prevailing wind.
● The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) brings rain to the southern Caribbean
in some months.
● Cold fronts bring cool air and heavy rain in the northern winter.
● Tropical waves disturb the trade winds, bringing rain.

JANUARY JULY
Polar easterlies Polar easterlies

Low

Westerlies

High
Westerlies
High Low

Bermuda-Azores
Northers high
North-east Harmattan
trades North-east
trades
ITCZ
ITCZ
ITCZ

South-east
South-east trades
ITCZ trades

High High
High High

Westerlies

Westerlies
6.3.1 Prevailing winds and weather systems over the Atlantic change with the seasons.

Weather systems Anticyclones

A weather system is a linked pattern of winds, air An anticyclone is a large area of high atmospheric
pressure, humidity, and rainfall, which develops in pressure. Most anticyclones are associated with
part of the atmosphere. A weather system may last descending air currents, low relative humidity, and
for months, days, or a few hours. Many of the cloudless conditions.
weather systems affecting the Caribbean are several During the northern hemisphere summer, from
hundred kilometres across. The most dramatic are June to September, there is usually a large anticyclone
hurricanes, which are discussed in Section 6.5. over the mid-Atlantic. This anticyclone often extends
There are also smaller-scale weather systems, such as over part of the Caribbean region as well. It is
thunderstorms. sometimes known as the Bermuda-Azores high.

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 Winds circulate in a clockwise direction round They move farther south in the winter months,
a northern hemisphere anticyclone. Over the around January.
Atlantic, the Bermuda-Azores high produces winds In the Caribbean, high-level cirrus clouds can
from the north-east. When it moves close to the often be seen moving from the west, against the
Caribbean, winds in part of the region may blow direction of the trade winds. They are moving with
from the east or south-east. upper-level winds, the antitrades, which take heat
The air within the anticyclone is drifting slowly energy from the Equator towards the poles.
downwards. As it moves down, it is compressed by
the air above and is gradually warmed. Usually,
there is a layer of warm air between 2,000 and
3,000 metres above the surface. Updraughts cannot
usually penetrate through this layer of warm air. Sub-Tropical
Cumulus clouds may form below it, but they are High Pressure Zone High

scattered, fluffy, white “fair weather” clouds, which NE trades

cannot grow tall enough to produce rain. NE trades Antitrades
Anticyclones bring settled, sunny conditions to the
Caribbean, with a light breeze.
Inter-Tropical
Low ITCZ
Convergence Zone

Gently descending air is compressed and warmed

SE trades Antitrades
SE trades

Sub-Tropical
High Pressure Zone High

6.3.3 The trade winds, the antitrades, and the ITCZ.

The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone

Low-level cumulus clouds may form
Where the north-east and south-east trade winds
meet, atmospheric conditions are unstable. There are
strong updraughts, thick clouds, and heavy rainfall.
Warm dry air at surface
This is the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone or ITCZ.
On world maps, the ITCZ is often shown as a
continuous feature, running right round the Earth.
6.3.2 Anticyclones bring fair, settled weather. In reality, there are only unstable conditions and
heavy rain in some areas at any one time. In Figure
The trade winds 6.1.1, the ITCZ forms a broad belt with unsettled,
In the tropics, most winds blow towards the Equator. cloudy conditions running west from Trinidad over
They are deflected by the rotation of the Earth, so they Venezuela and Colombia.
blow from the north-east in the northern hemisphere The ITCZ affects Trinidad and the southern part
and from the south-east on the other side of the of the Caribbean during the northern hemisphere
Equator. These are the trade winds; they were summer. It usually moves farthest to the north in
important for world trade in the days of sailing ships. September, almost three months after the sun is
The north-east trades are the prevailing winds in the overhead at the Tropic of Cancer. At this time, it may
Caribbean. The trade wind belts are located mainly bring heavy rain to islands such as Trinidad, Tobago,
between 5° and 30°, north and south of the Equator. and Grenada.

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 The ITCZ usually passes over Guyana twice: Along the front, warm tropical air is pushed upwards.
There are strong updraughts, thick clouds and heavy rain.
once in June or July, when it is moving north, and
again in November, when it is moving back to the
south. Each time it passes, there is heavy rainfall.
During the northern hemisphere winter, from
January to March, the ITCZ is over the southern part
of the Amazon basin, in Brazil. This is the dry Cold continental air

season in the Caribbean. moving south

Cold fronts
In the northern winter, from December to March, Clear, cold, dry Some rain to Rainfall is Warm, dry
air moving south north of front heaviest here conditions
there is usually an anticyclone over North America.
6.3.4 A cross section through a cold front.
Cold air from the continent sometimes blows south
over the Caribbean.
Tropical waves
When this happens, there is a sharp boundary
between the cold, dry continental air moving in For much of the year, the trade winds that blow across
from the north and the warm, moist tropical air the Caribbean bring dry, settled conditions, but, from
over the rest of the Caribbean. This boundary is time to time, weather systems develop in the trade
known as a cold front. Cold fronts move to the wind belt that bring unsettled weather and rain.
south or south-east, away from North America. These low-pressure weather systems develop
A few hundred kilometres south of the more frequently in the rainy season, from May to
approaching cold front, there may be a light wind November. Tropical waves are one type of weather
from the east and bright sunshine. It is difficult to system; they are a wave-like disturbance in the
tell that there is a cold front approaching. north-east trades that takes several days to pass over
At the cold front, the cold continental air pushes the region.
south, underneath the warm tropical air. This makes Cross section through the wave
the air mass unstable. There are strong updraughts,
which form thick cumulonimbus clouds. The wave approaches an island.
8,000
As the cold front passes, the temperature may Dr
ir yu
6,000 ga Mo pp
fall suddenly by up to five degrees, the sky is often din ir Risi ist er
Metres

i ng
Su
b s ra a air low air
pe
ir

completely overcast, and there may be heavy rain. 4,000 up er er

Dr
y
t lo w Risi
ng air
is air
After the cold front has passed, there is a strong 2,000 Mo

northerly wind with continental air blowing from 0

North America. However, the cold continental air is Dry subsiding More Air pressure lower, Thick clouds, over
air, few clouds clouds, thick clouds, heavy cast SE winds,
warmed by the sea beneath it. The air still feels cold NE rain updraughts, same rain
winds convection
to a person who is used to tropical weather, but it is
much warmer than when it left the North American
continent. Plan view of the wave
In Jamaica, these outbreaks of cold continental Wind direction in the
E
air are known as northers. They bring several days wave – plan view from N
wind Beh
in d
a ve– wa
w
of high humidity, cloudy weather and heavy rain. Ahe
ad o f
Clouds m for
ay m inve
rte
ve
–w
dV ind f
rom S
The north coast of the island is most strongly E

affected, with strong north winds, heavy rain, and

rough seas.
Air pressure
Air pressure (mb) Low pressure in trough
1,010
1,000

The weather system is moving to the west,

taking up to four days to pass

6.3.5 A tropical wave.

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 Tropical waves affect the Caribbean in this way: 4 To the east of the “trough”, the wind blows
1 To the west of the approaching wave, the wind is from the south-east after the wave has passed.
blowing from the north-east and is subsiding There are also updraughts in this part of the
slowly downwards. The air is warmed and its wave. There is a thick cover of cumulus clouds,
relative humidity is falling. There are few clouds, and the sky may be completely overcast. There
or none at all. The weather is dry and sunny. is light rain in some places.
2 As the wave gets closer, the wind direction 5 Tropical waves are large-scale weather systems
moves round towards the east and there are up to 2,000 kilometres across. The wave trough
more clouds in the sky. moves from east to west across the region at
3 As the “trough” of the wave passes, the air is 20–35 km/hr, so the whole system will take up
unstable. There are strong updraughts, which to four days to pass any particular point.
produce thick cumulonimbus clouds and heavy
rain. Air pressure is a little lower than normal.

6.3.6 A cold front.

Atlas work Quick questions

1 On a map of the Caribbean, shade the area of 4 Why are northers a problem for:
cloud shown in Figure 6.3.6. a) farmers?
2 Describe cloud and weather conditions in: b) fishers?
a) Northern Florida b) the Bahamas c) tourism?
c) the Dominican Republic. 5 At what time of year is the Caribbean most
3 Figure 6.3.6 also shows an anticyclone over the affected by:
mid-Atlantic. a) cold fronts?
a) Draw arrows on your map to show likely wind b) tropical waves?
direction over the eastern Caribbean. c) the ITCZ?
b) What cloud patterns are associated with the 6 Which weather systems are likely to affect your
anticyclone? country?

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 6.4 Weather maps

Key idea ● Weather maps and satellite

images show weather systems.

6.4.1 Weather: a radar image of rain falling over

Weather stations, weather maps, and Puerto Rico: 16 May 2005.

satellites
Weather stations measure weather conditions several
times a day. The main Caribbean weather stations are
at airports, because pilots must know exactly what
is happening in the atmosphere. They transmit their
measurements to the US National Weather Service in
Maryland, near Washington.
This information is used to draw a weather
Key
map, recording weather conditions over a wide area Rainfall mm
to help with weather forecasting. Computer software Over 3,000 2,000–2,499 1,000 –1,499
2,500–2,999 1,500–1,999 Under 1,000
can generate a weather map automatically, but
weather maps are also still drawn by hand. 6.4.2 Climate: a rainfall map of Puerto Rico.
Weather stations also receive information from
b
weather satellites. Polar-orbiting satellites pass over Clouds, rain, and many of the weather systems that
the Caribbean every four to six hours and transmit affect us develop several kilometres above sea level.
pictures from a height of 300 kilometres. There is To measure conditions in the upper atmosphere, the
also a geostationary satellite (which is always over largest weather stations use Rawinsonde balloons.
the same place) 30,000 kilometres above the These are released twice a day and they can travel to
Equator (over Brazil), which transmits a small-scale a height of 25 kilometres. They take measurements
photograph of a much larger area. of humidity, temperature, wind speed, wind
These are the main types of satellite image: direction, and pressure. The readings are transmitted
● Visible light – daytime-only images, which
back to the ground by radio.
look like a black-and-white photo. To make
them easier to read, lines of latitude and Weather map exercise
longitude are added at 10° intervals, plus coasts,
1 Use Figure 6.4.4 to describe weather conditions in:
national boundaries, and US states.
a) northern Florida b) the central Bahamas
● Infrared – showing the temperature at the top
c) eastern Cuba d) the Dominican Republic.
of the clouds (Figure 6.1.1). Higher-level clouds 2 Add the isobars to the map you drew for
are colder and are shown red or white. Question 1 in Section 6.3. Draw a line to show
● Water vapour – humid air can be seen, even the position of the cold front.
where there are no clouds. Thick, heavy clouds 3 Use Figure 6.4.5 to describe weather conditions in:
show up strongly. a) the Dominican Republic, 1,000 km ahead of
● Microwave – these can show wind speed and the wave trough
rainfall. b) Dominica, very close to the wave trough
c) Trinidad, in the area affected by the ITCZ
Some Caribbean weather stations have radar equipment, d) Guyana, to the south of the ITCZ.
4 What can you learn about weather conditions
which shows rainfall within 500 kilometres. The radar
from:
image looks like a map, and shows the difference
a) satellite images?
between heavy and light rain. This can help to
b) weather maps?
forecast flooding.
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 WIND STRENGTH CLOUD
Each short barb = 9 km/h or 5 knots
Each long barb = 10 km/h or 10 knots
A filled triangle = 90 km/h or 50 knots
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
No cloud 1 8 or less 1 4 cloud 3 1 5 3 7 No
Symbol Speed Speed 8 cloud 2 cloud 8 cloud 4 cloud 8 cloud blue sky
km/h knots
This is how the symbols are arranged to show MAIN CLOUD TYPES
Calm Calm conditions at one weather station
High-level cloud High level
2–4 0.5 – 2 Temperature
28
Medium-level cloud Cirrus
5 – 13 3–7 Present weather
(thunderstorm
with showers) Cloud cover Cirrostratus
14 – 22 8 – 12 Low cloud Cirrocumulus
Wind direction
23 – 31 13 – 17
Wind speed
32 – 40 18 – 22
Medium level
41 – 49 23 – 27 Cold front

Altocumulus
50 – 58 28 – 32 Trough of Easterly Wave
Altostratus

59 – 67 33 – 37 RAINFALL AND Tropical storm

WEATHER SYMBOLS Nimbostratus

68 – 76 38 – 42 Hurricane

77 – 85 43 – 47 Light and intermittent Showers Low level

86 – 94 48 – 52 Light and continuous Snow Stratocumulus

Stratus
95 – 103 53 – 57 Moderate and intermittent Drizzle
Cumulus
104 – 112 58 – 62 Moderate and continuous Lightning
– little vertical development

113 – 121 63 – 67
Heavy and intermittent Thunderstorm – more vertical development

122 – 130 68 – 72 Heavy and continuous Fog Cumulonimbus

6.4.3 The main weather symbols.

8
102 11 24 N 30
101
32 6
4
102 22
23
1016 30 N
24 1024 31
0
102
23
27 26
25
23 1020
26 31
26 28 26
16
10 1012
28 32 101
2
1016

0 1000 km
29
30
0 500 km
6.4.4 A cold front and an anticyclone. See also Figure 6.3.6.
There is cold winter weather over North America.
Cold air is spreading south into the Caribbean and 6.4.5 A tropical wave. A tropical wave is moving across the
east over the Atlantic. There is an anticyclone over Lesser Antilles. Trinidad and northern Venezuela are
the middle Atlantic, to the north-east of the Lesser affected by the ITCZ.
Antilles.

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 6.5 Hurricanes

Key ideas ● Tropical storms and hurricanes form over warm tropical seas.
● Most hurricanes move away from the Equator.
● Strong winds circulate anticlockwise around a hurricane.
● The eye is a small area of calm at the centre.
● Winds are most intense close to the eye.

Hurricanes, storms, and depressions Where and when hurricanes form

Hurricanes are powerful weather systems, which We do not fully understand why some tropical
start as disturbances in the atmosphere over tropical disturbances develop into tropical storms and
oceans. There are many of these disturbances each why some storms develop into hurricanes. But we
year, but only a few become hurricanes. know that:
● A tropical depression is an area with disturbed ● all hurricanes develop over the sea

weather and low atmospheric pressure, usually ● the surface temperature of the sea must be at

around 1,005–1,010 millibars. Wind speeds are least 27 °C (evaporation from a warm sea surface
62 km/hr or less. is the main energy source for a hurricane)
● The Earth’s rotation creates a spiral wind ● hurricanes do not usually develop very close to the

pattern round low-pressure areas. The spiral is Equator (between 9° N and 9° S, there is no strong
anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and spiral wind pattern round an area of low pressure)
clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
● Some tropical depressions develop into a

tropical storm. A storm has lower atmospheric

pressure than a depression, often around
990–1,000 millibars. The drop in pressure
brings stronger winds, with speeds from 63 to
118 km/hr. A tropical storm may cause serious Equator

damage.
● Some tropical storms become hurricanes. In a

hurricane, atmospheric pressure is very low.

There are winds of 119 km/hr or more, and
Areas of sea with a temperature over 27 °C in summer
the effect can be devastating. Hurricanes have an
“eye” of calm weather at the centre.

When a tropical storm has developed into a

hurricane, it may continue to grow in size and pick
up strength. A fully developed hurricane may be an
Equator
enormous weather system, up to 1,500 kilometres
across, with winds of more than 250 km/hr. In
Hurricane Ivan, air pressure fell to 915 millibars.

Places where hurricanes have started

6.5.1 Where hurricanes start.

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 ● where a hurricane is developing, the winds at The structure of a hurricane
around 10 kilometres above the sea surface blow ● In the centre of the hurricane, air pressure is
outwards from the centre (they have a divergent low (usually below 985 millibars).
pattern), which draws air inwards at the base of ● Around the centre of low pressure there is a
the weather system, close to sea level. strong revolving wind system. In the northern
hemisphere the winds rotate anticlockwise.
Intense revolving storms that develop in the ● Wind speeds are high (near the centre of the
Caribbean and Atlantic are hurricanes. In the Pacific storm they are over 118 km/hr). In a strong
Ocean they are called typhoons, and in the Indian hurricane they may reach 260 km/hr, and
Ocean they are known simply as cyclones. There has occasionally higher.
only been one known hurricane to strike Brazil, in ● There are strong upwards air currents, or
the South Atlantic, because sea surface temperatures updraughts, over most of the weather system.
are not usually warm enough. ● There is a spiral pattern of enormous
Most Atlantic and Caribbean hurricanes start cumulonimbus clouds. Some of the clouds
between June and November, when seas are warm, tower up to a height of 16 kilometres. Where
but hurricanes have been known to occur in other the clouds are thickest, there is very little light,
months of the year. even at midday.
Number of hurricanes starting in each month 1881–1972
● At a high level there is a canopy of cirrus
160 clouds.
150
140 ● Above an altitude of 9 kilometres, the winds
130
120 spiral outwards from the centre of the
110
100 hurricane.
90
80
70
● In some hurricanes there is heavy rain. During
60
50
one hurricane in 1909, more than
40
30
2,400 millimetres of rain was recorded over
20
10
four days at Silver Hill in Jamaica.
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month

6.5.2 When hurricanes start.

Trough in Polar Jet to North aiding outflow

Motion UPPER
AIR FLOW
CIRRUS
CANOPY

Cb Cu
12 km Cu EYE Cb Oute
r
VORTEX Sp ra
l
Cu

Surface w
inds

Surface

0 600 km

6.5.3 The structure of a hurricane.

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 ● Right at the centre of the hurricane there is an ● After the eye has passed, the wind suddenly
eye of calm, usually 15–50 kilometres across. In starts again. To the east of the eye, it blows from
the eye, conditions are very different: there are the opposite direction – from the south.
light winds, blowing at perhaps 10–20 km/hr, ● As the eye of the hurricane moves away, wind
and there may be no rain falling. speeds gradually drop. Heavy rain may continue
● Temperatures in the eye are around 2 °C higher for some time.
than in the rest of the hurricane.
● Within the eye, there is a strong downwards How hurricanes move
current of air. There are no low-level clouds. Tropical depressions, tropical storms, and hurricanes
● Around the eye, there is a wall of dark clouds. do not stay in the same place. The weather system
This is where the winds are strongest and the moves gradually, often at 15 to 25 km/hr. Some
rain heaviest. well-known hurricane tracks are shown in
● Surrounding the hurricane, several hundred Figure 9.4.1.
kilometres from the eye, there is usually a zone Hurricane tracks are unpredictable. Forecasters
of cloudless, descending air currents. This can can say which coastlines are at risk, but not
be seen surrounding Hurricane Ivan in precisely where a storm will strike land. Some of
Figure 6.1.1. the principles guiding their movement are that:
● hurricanes and tropical storms do not usually
What happens when a hurricane move towards the Equator
passes ● approaching the Caribbean, movement is usually

● Ahead of a hurricane, there is calm weather. between west and north-west

● within the Caribbean, some storms curve
Humidity is high, so the air feels hot and sticky.
At sea there is a strong swell, as waves arrive towards the north-west
● further from the Equator, storm tracks often
before the storm itself.
● As the hurricane approaches, the cloud cover curve to the north, then to the north-east
● some hurricanes follow completely different
builds up and winds become stronger. There
may be rain showers. tracks (Hurricane Lenny in 1999 moved across
● Near the centre of the storm, winds are the region from west to east, hitting the eastern
strongest. To the west of the eye, the wind Caribbean from the leeward side).
blows from the north.
● When the eye passes, the wind drops suddenly. How hurricanes die
Many accidents are caused when people go Hurricanes derive their energy from warm tropical
outside at this time, thinking that the hurricane seas. They are weakened when they pass over land.
has passed. Even crossing an island the size of Jamaica will
reduce the strength of a hurricane. Hurricanes
Winds blow Winds blow which move on to North America quickly lose their
strongly from strongly
Wind north. Strong Eye. from south Wind
strength. Wind speeds drop, but there may be heavy
from Calm.
north.
updraught
Down-
from rain and flooding even in inland areas.
south.
Feeder draught Wind Some hurricanes do not hit the USA, but move
bands of warm speed
may bring air falling
north in the Atlantic. They may form intense and
heavy Cirrus clouds destructive mid-latitude storms, causing damage in
rain
Cumulonimbus eastern Canada, or in Britain. These storms are not
clouds hurricanes because they have no eye at the centre.
Some tropical storms and hurricanes lose their
strength while they are still over warm tropical seas
in the Caribbean or Atlantic. This may happen when
upper-level winds disrupt the outward spiral of air
6.5.4 A hurricane over a warm tropical sea. above the hurricane.

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 N
Atlas work

101
27

6
29
1 Look at Figure 6.5.1. Which of these countries 1020
are at risk from hurricanes? 26
a) Mexico b) Peru
c) India d) Australia 28
31
e) Guyana. 26
24
29 1016

25
Quick questions 26
10
12
2 In which month are hurricanes most likely to start? A
25
25
28 27 26
3 Look at Figure 6.1.1. Make a sketch of the area 92
6

affected by Hurricane Frances, showing the 66 1012

100 9869
4
spiral pattern of cloud. 26

08
27

10

1008
Weather map exercise 0 1000 km
4 Look at Figure 6.5.5. Describe the weather
conditions: 6.5.5 Hurricane Allen on 5 August 1980. The US National
Weather Service described Allen as “the most intense
a) in the mid-Atlantic, north-east of the
hurricane in the Eastern Caribbean this century”.
Bahamas Atmospheric pressure in the eye fell to 915 millibars
b) in the central Caribbean, 500 km west of the and there were winds of 257 km/hr. Allen hit St Lucia
eye of the hurricane and Mexico, and passed close to Barbados and
c) 50 km west of the eye Jamaica.
d) 200 km east of the eye
e) in Barbados (which was close to the centre
of the storm approximately 24 hours before).
5 The hurricane was moving west at this time,
by around 400 km in a 24-hour period. Give a
weather forecast for point A.

6.5.6 A hurricane north of the Leeward Islands, with eye and circulation pattern.

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 Hurricanes and tropical waves
Most hurricanes develop from tropical waves. Of the
tropical waves developing in the Atlantic Ocean,
around one in eight becomes a hurricane.
Forecasters monitor tropical waves carefully to look
for signs of trouble. One of the factors they look for
is wind shear – the difference between upper-level
and lower-level winds. A high wind shear disrupts 6.5.7 A forecaster in Barbados analyses the progress of a
the development of a hurricane. weather system.

The development of Hurricane Tomas

6.5.8 25 October 2010. A tropical wave has formed close to 40° W. There is convection along
the ITCZ in South America and the western Pacific.

6.5.9 28 October 2010. Convectional clouds have formed an inverted V shape as the wave
strengthens. The axis of the wave is close to 48° W.

6.5.10 30 October 2010. Tomas passes close to Barbados as a tropical storm.

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 24 October 2010: A tropical wave forms in the
Dominica
eastern Atlantic.
26 October: Clouds in the wave form an inverted V
pattern. Deep convection and updraughts produce
heavy rain in the trough of the wave. Martinique

29 October: The easterly wave becomes a tropical

depression. There is a definite centre of low pressure.
29 October: Around six hours later, the depression St Lucia
becomes Tropical Storm Tomas.
30 October: Tomas passes over Barbados, damaging Eye
1,200 homes, then becomes a hurricane. Barbados
St Vincent
30–31 October: Tomas passes over St Vincent and St
Lucia, with winds close to 160 km/h. Eight people
die and there is damage worth US$336 million in St 0 100 km
Lucia, with more than 650 millimetres of rainfall in
some areas. 6.5.11 Rainfall from Hurricane Tomas at 11:00 local time on
30 October. No rain is falling in the white areas. The
1–2 November: Tomas is weakened by wind shear yellow areas had the heaviest rain.
and an inflow of dry air, and is downgraded first to
a tropical storm, then to a depression.
5 November: Tomas regains hurricane strength, and 1,010

passes close to Haiti. Mudslides and flooding kill 35. 150

6–9 November: Tomas fluctuates in strength, then 1,000
Central pressure in millibars
125
weakens.

Wind speed in km/h

990 100

Map and picture questions 75

980
6 Make a sketch of weather conditions on 28 50
October 2010, showing the tropical wave that 970
St Vincent
Barbados

St Lucia

became Hurricane Tomas; and clouds and 25

Haiti
rainfall along the ITCZ over the Pacific Ocean.
0
7 Estimate the latitude and longitude of the 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
centre of Tropical Storm Tomas, as shown in Oct Nov

Figure 6.5.8. 6.5.12 Hurricane Tomas: wind speed and central pressure.
8 For 11:00 local time on 30 October, estimate When pressure is low, the wind speed increases.
wind direction at these locations:
a) On the west coast of St Vincent
b) 10 km north-east of St Vincent
c) On the north coast of St Lucia 8 9
7
d) On the west coast of Barbados. Key
Tropical depression
9 At which of these locations is the wind likely to Tropical storm
have been: Hurricane
6 Wave/Low
a) strongest? b) weakest? Extratropical
10 With the centre of the hurricane moving west, 5
what changes in wind conditions would you
4
predict for the west coast of St Vincent over the 3
2 1
following 12 hours? 31
11 What was the approximate reading and time for: 30
a) the highest wind speed? 982 mb

b) the lowest central pressure?

0 1,000 km
12 Name five countries that lay on or close to the
path of Tomas. For each, state whether the system 6.5.13 The track of Hurricane Tomas.
passed as a hurricane or as a tropical storm.

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 6.6 Tropical marine and
equatorial climates
Key ideas ● Tropical marine climates have a wet season and a dry season.
● Equatorial climates have high temperature and rainfall all year round.

Tropical marine climates

60°

Saskatoon Oxford
Toronto
Victoria
40°

Tropic of
Cancer
20°
Fort de France
Piarco PHILIPPINES

Georgetown Lagos
Equator Uaupés CONGO BASIN
AMAZON BASIN
INDONESIA
MADAGASCAR
20°
QUEENSLAND
Tropic of ~ Paulo
Sao COAST
Capricorn
Key
40° Equatorial
Tropical marine 0 5,000 km
Other climates
Weather stations

6.6.1 Tropical marine and equatorial climates.

6.6.2 Temperature and rainfall in a tropical marine climate:
Fort de France in Martinique.
Most of Ar
Ba king Do the Caribbean has a tropical marine climate. Fort de France Total precipitation: 1,840 mm
°C
Many other coastal and island regions at 10° to 20° 40
Daily temp. range: 6°
Altitude: 144 m
mm
400
from the Equator, such as eastern Brazil, the coast of
Queensland in Australia, and many islands in the Pacific 30 350

and Indian Oceans, also have a tropical marine climate.

20 300
Tropical marine climates are influenced by the
trade winds; these are moist winds that have passed 10 250

over a warm ocean surface.

0 200
In a tropical climate, day length and insolation do
not vary greatly over the year. A marine climate is –10 150
influenced by the sea, which also maintains steady
–20 100
temperatures. For these reasons, temperatures in
tropical marine climates do not vary greatly between –30 50
day and night, or according to the season. There is a
–40 0
low diurnal and annual temperature range. J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month

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 There is a wet season, when atmospheric There is little seasonal variation in weather conditions,
conditions are unstable. At this time the region is which are favourable for plant growth all year round.
affected by tropical waves and, more rarely, by Temperatures are generally around 27 °C and the air is
tropical storms or hurricanes. usually very humid, so it may feel extremely hot. The
There is a dry season with stable weather annual temperature range – the difference between the
conditions and much less rainfall. Much of the warmest and coolest months – is usually less than 3 °C.
region is influenced by anticyclones at this time. There is generally a greater contrast between
However, the contrast between the wet and dry daytime and night-time temperatures – this is the
seasons is not very sharp. Minor disturbances in the diurnal temperature range. But even the diurnal
atmosphere may produce rain at any time of year. range is quite small, because the high cloud cover
prevents heat from escaping at night.
Variations in tropical marine climates Rainfall is high at most times of the year. The
Within the Caribbean and other tropical marine annual total is usually over 1,500 millimetres and
regions, there are significant variations in climate. sometimes over 3,000 millimetres.
The northern Caribbean is affected by the Most equatorial areas are influenced seasonally
winter season in North America. Temperatures are by the ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone).
generally somewhat lower from December to When the ITCZ is overhead, there is heavy
March. Cold fronts may bring low temperatures, convectional rain with thick cumulonimbus clouds,
strong northerly winds, and heavy rain. often accompanied by thunder and lightning.
Islands such as Trinidad and Grenada in the The ITCZ changes position over the year; it
southern Caribbean are not often affected by cold moves north from June, when it is summer in the
fronts, but they are influenced by the ITCZ during northern hemisphere, and south from December,
the wet season. when the sun is overhead in the southern
There are also variations in rainfall. There is hemisphere. In some equatorial climates there are
generally more rain in mountainous areas and less two peak rainfall seasons. One is when the zone of
rain on low-lying islands such as the Bahamas and unstable weather around the ITCZ is moving north,
in rain shadow areas on leeward coasts. and another is when it is moving back to the south.
Lagos Total precipitation: 1,625 mm
°C Daily temp. range: 8° mm
40 Altitude: 3 m 400

30 350

20 300

10 250

0 200

–10 150

–20 100

–30 50

–40 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
6.6.3 Small cumulus clouds over the Caribbean during the 6.6.4 Temperature and rainfall in an equatorial climate:
dry season. Lagos, Nigeria.
Equatorial climates
Most parts of Guyana and Suriname have an Quick question
equatorial climate; so do many other regions close to 1 Look at Figure 6.2.2. Does Georgetown have a
the Equator, such as coastal areas of West Africa, the tropical marine climate or an equatorial climate?
Amazon basin in Brazil, and the islands of Indonesia. Give two reasons for your answer.

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 7.1 The Earth’s changing climate

Key ideas ● Climate has changed dramatically in the past.

● These changes affected the environment in many ways.

7.1.1 The Antarctic ice sheet.

Ice ages
The Earth’s climate has changed many times since The most recent ice age was at its coldest around
the planet was formed. During the past million 20,000 years ago, and ended in a gradual period of
years there have been several ice ages, or glacial warming between 15,000 and 6,000 years ago. As the
periods. At these times: climate grew warmer and the ice melted, many lands
● much of northern Europe and North America were flooded by the sea. Some changes were quite
was covered by ice sheets hundreds of metres rapid, while others took centuries or thousands of
thick, like those that still cover Greenland and years. Humans adjusted slowly to the changing
Antarctica today environment, and moved to new lands where they had
● most other areas in North America and Europe previously been unable to live.
were blasted by cold winds from the north
● in many tropical areas the climate was drier How ice ages affected the Caribbean
than it is now, and there were deserts or savanna ● Many areas that are now shallow sea were dry
in areas that now have rainforest land. Most of the islands of the Bahamas were
● some lands that are now very dry had high part of a single landmass 600 km long. The
rainfall during the ice ages, for example in what Pedro Banks, to the south of Jamaica, formed a
is now the south-western USA large island.
● glaciers in the Andes and other tropical ● There was a land connection between Trinidad
mountain ranges were larger and the South American mainland. Many land
● because so much water was locked up in ice animals were then able to cross to Trinidad.
sheets, the sea level was more than 100 m lower ● The barrier reefs of Belize and several Caribbean
than it is now. islands follow the line of ice age shorelines. The

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 Caves When the ocean off Peru is colder than usual, there
is a La Niña event, when:
Ice age: cave system ● it is very dry in coastal Peru
on limestone plateau
● rainfall is higher than usual in the Caribbean

● there is an increased risk of hurricanes.

Scientists drilling down to 3,300 m through

Blue holes
the Antarctic ice cap have extracted samples
of ice up to 900,000 years old. Analysis of
Cave systems
flooded by
gases trapped in the ice shows how the Earth’s
rising sea temperature has changed. Sediments from
the floor of the Caribbean can also be used to
analyse past temperature changes.
7.1.2 The formation of blue holes.

land behind the reefs was flooded as sea levels

rose after the ice ages.
● The blue holes of the Bahamas and Belize are
the entrances to large cave systems, which were
formed when sea levels were low. These cave
systems are now flooded.
● Many lands around the Caribbean were much
drier than they are now.

El Niño
There are also short-term climate changes. Every
few years the pattern of ocean currents in the Pacific
changes. Warm waters displace the cold current that
normally flows past the coast of Peru. This is an
El Niño event. It brings worldwide changes in
weather, including: Key
● heavy rain in desert regions of coastal Peru Ice Scrub
● drought in much of the Caribbean Tundra Cold forest
● fewer hurricanes. Semi desert Tropical rainforest
Grassland Caribbean islands and
coastlines during the
There was a strong El Niño event in 1997–8. As a ice ages

result, there were forest fires in Guyana and

Trinidad. Bananas and other crops suffered from dry 7.1.4 North America and the Caribbean during the ice ages.
weather throughout the Caribbean. There were also
El Niño events in 2006–7, 2009–10, and 2015. Quick question
1 Look at Figure 7.1.4. Briefly describe the ice age
Change in world temperatures

degrees C
1.0 environment in:
0.8 a) Canada b) California
LN LN LN
0.6 c) the Bahamas.
0.4
0.2
0.0 Quick research
–0.2
EN EN EN EN 2 When was the most recent El Niño or La Niña
–0.4
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 event? How did it affect your country?
EN = El Niño LN = LA Niña
7.1.3 Graph showing the temperature fluctuations of El Niño
and La Niña events.

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 7.2 Carbon and climate CO2 in the
atmosphere.

change
Key ideas ● Carbon dioxide helps the atmosphere to retain heat.
● Carbon dioxide levels have increased since 1900. CO2 released by CO2 absorbed
● Increasing carbon dioxide may change the world’s decaying plants, by growing plants,
burning fuels and marine life and in
climates. from the soil. the soil.

Greenhouse gases
The atmosphere contains small quantities of carbon dioxide, water vapour and
other “greenhouse gases”, which help to retain heat. The Earth’s average
7.2.1 The carbon balance.
temperature is 15 °C. Without these gases, it would be around –18 °C. The oceans
and seas would be permanently frozen.
Greenhouse gases operate like this:
1 The sun’s energy enters the atmosphere mainly

RE
as short-wave radiation, including light rays.

P HE
2 Greenhouse gases let the short-wave energy in.

S
ATMO
3 The Earth’s surface emits energy mainly as
Incoming solar
long-wave radiation, including heat. radiation (short wave)
4 Greenhouse gases trap some of the long-wave Sun
energy. This helps to warm the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse

gas. Some exists naturally in the atmosphere.
Animals breathe out carbon dioxide. Growing plants Energy reflected by Some reflected energy is
the Earth (long wave) absorbed by greenhouse
absorb the gas during the day. The soil and the gases, and heats the atmosphere
oceans absorb carbon dioxide in some conditions
and release it in others. 7.2.2 The greenhouse effect.
Until around 1800, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was steady,
at around 280 parts per million, or 0.028%. It was generally in balance. Since then,
humans have been burning coal, oil, and natural gas at an increasing
rate. This releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Fuel is used 450
Air samples collected at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii
for manufacturing, air conditioning, cars, and aircraft. Many forests
that formerly absorbed carbon dioxide have also been destroyed.
Parts per million CO2 in atmosphere

Since 1958 an observatory in Hawaii, 3,400 m above sea level,

400
has detected a steady increase in carbon dioxide. In 2015 this had
reached 403 parts per million, or 0.04%.

Global warming – what we know and what we

don’t 350

There is a lively scientific debate about global warming. This is

what we know:
● Carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases help to warm the
300
73 88 95 98 02 03
atmosphere. 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
15

● Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased. So have

7.2.3 Increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
other greenhouse gases. 1970–2015.

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 ● Average worldwide temperatures increased by
around 0.6 °C during the twentieth century.
● There were climate changes before humans

began cutting down forests and burning fossil

fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas.
Most scientists see clear evidence for a link between
increased carbon dioxide and global warming. But
there are unanswered questions.
We don’t have answers to these questions:
● Are other causes of climate change operating at

present?
● If carbon dioxide continues to increase, how

will it affect world climates?

● What will be done to reduce the risk of climate

change?
The main greenhouse gases
■ Carbon dioxide – mainly from oil and

other fossil fuels, and the most important

greenhouse gas
■ Chlorofluorocarbons – used for packaging

foam, some aerosol sprays, and refrigeration, 7.2.4 Greenhouse gases: some sources.
and subject to international controls
■ Methane – from animals as they digest food,
Global temperature °C
decaying plant matter, rice fields, and fuels
■ Nitrogen oxide – from motor vehicles, fuels,
0.5
and some fertilizers
Temperature °C

■ Water vapour – produced by evaporation and

Mean temperature 1940–80
occurring naturally in the atmosphere
0.0
Where carbon dioxide is produced

Predictions
■ Large countries produce more than small

countries. –0.5
■ Rich countries produce more per person than

poor countries.
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
■ Countries with energy resources produce

more than other countries. 7.2.5 Graph showing global temperature changes since 1860.
■ Some Caribbean countries produce a large

amount per head of population. Quick questions

■ No Caribbean country produces a large total
1 How many parts per million of carbon were in
amount.
the atmosphere in:
a) 1970?
Some carbon Amount per % of b) 1990?
producers person world 2 Describe three sources of greenhouse gases
2012 (tonnes/year) total shown in Figure 7.2.4.
China 6 25.9%
USA 16 16.0% Discussion point
India 2 6.0% 3 Why does the USA produce more carbon dioxide
UK 7 1.4% per person than India? Why does Trinidad and
Trinidad and Tobago 28 0.1% Tobago produce more than Jamaica?
Ethiopia 0.1 0.02%
Jamaica 3 0.02%
Haiti 0.2 0.006%

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 7.3 Climate change and the future

Key ideas ● Most scientists expect world temperatures to increase.

● Rainfall patterns may also change.
● Higher world temperatures will raise sea levels.
● Changes will be complex and far-reaching.

Environmental scientists do not know exactly what Wildlife

will happen to the world’s climate this century. Changing climates threaten ecosystems and wildlife
However, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate in all parts of the world. In Canada, cold-climate
Change, drawing on work by more than 800 wildlife has retreated; polar bear cubs are fewer.
scientists in 100 countries, expects temperatures to When temperatures reach 2 °C above normal in the
increase by between 2.6 °C and 4.8 °C. This is the Antarctic, the food sources used by penguins and
“business as usual” outlook if no action is taken to whales are threatened. Changing climates will also
control greenhouse gases. threaten ecosystems and wildlife in the tropics, and
in temperate countries.
Human health and comfort
In many parts of the world, daytime summer Rainfall patterns
temperatures are already much hotter than in the Rainfall changes are hard to predict. Some parts of
Caribbean, easily exceeding 40 °C. Extreme heat is a the world will become wetter. Elsewhere, droughts
health risk, particularly for the elderly. Increased use will be more common and deserts may spread.
of air conditioning will lead to greater energy use, Higher temperatures will increase evaporation,
which could increase carbon emissions. However, reducing water supply for vegetation, even where
many people in cold countries would prefer milder rainfall remains constant.
winter weather, and they could spend less on heating.
Agriculture
Changes to the Arctic
For plants in some temperate regions, warmer
Worldwide temperatures will not change evenly. The temperatures have already extended the growing
Arctic has warmed more rapidly than other areas. By season by up to two weeks. Slight warming would
2000 northern Canada was already 2–4 °C warmer benefit some temperate farmland. However:
than in 1950. The area of sea ice in the Arctic ● many cool areas in countries like Canada have
summer was reduced by 15–30% in the 30 years to poor soil, and could not grow crops even when
2010. There may be no ice left during the summer temperatures become warmer
months by 2050. In some summers, cargo ships can ● most farmland will suffer from increased
now navigate through the Arctic. Arctic oil and gas evaporation, and some areas will have lower
reserves have become more accessible. rainfall with severe droughts
● deserts could spread to productive agricultural
7.3.1 Polar bears scavenging for food at a dump
regions such as southern Spain
in Churchill, northern Canada.
● droughts, floods, and cold spells may lead to

food shortages and high prices, making food

imports more expensive and supplies uncertain.

Rising sea levels

Glaciers are melting in the Himalayas, the Andes,
and other mountain ranges. This will continue, and

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 the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica may 90N

shrink. Fresh water will be added to the world’s

oceans. At the same time, the water in the oceans 60N

will expand slightly in volume as it warms.

Worldwide sea levels rose by around 15 cm in the 30N
twentieth century. By 2100 the seas will probably rise
by between 28 and 98 cm, or possibly more. Further
0
in the future, sea levels could rise even higher if the
ice sheets shrink.
30S

Ocean currents
The Gulf Stream is a warm ocean current that flows 60S

into the Atlantic from the Gulf of Mexico and warms

Europe in the winter months. Some scientists fear that 90S
90W 60W 30W 0 30E 60E
melting Greenland ice could unleash cold water, which
7.3.2 Possible changes in January temperatures by the end
would interfere with the flow of the Gulf Stream. This
of this century. One of many alternative projections.
would make Europe much colder than it is now.
90N
Global temperature rises will be less than
predicted if:
60N
■ increasing cloud cover reflects more solar

energy, keeping the earth cool

■ land and sea plants grow faster, absorbing 30N
more carbon dioxide
■ Arctic and Antarctic ice remains in place,
0
reflecting back the sun’s rays.
Temperatures will rise faster than predicted if:
■ warmer and drier weather decomposes plant 30S

material held as peat in Arctic and wetland soils

■ higher temperatures reduce cloud cover,
60S
letting in the sun’s rays
■ Arctic and Antarctic ice melts, replaced by open
90S
sea and rocks, which absorb the sun’s rays. 90W 60W 30W 0 30E 60E
Key

Quick questions +750 +350 +200 +75 No change –75 –200 –350 –750
mm/yr
1 Look at Figures 7.3.2 and 7.3.3. Below are some
present-day climate statistics. Work out what the 7.3.3 Possible changes in rainfall by the end of this century.
climate would be for each of these places in 2080, One of many alternative projections.
if the changes shown in the maps take place.
January Annual
temp. rainfall
Barbados 25 °C 1,500 mm
Northern Canada –30 °C 250 mm
Amazon basin, Brazil 26 °C 2,850 mm
2 For the regions listed above, briefly describe
how each of the following might be affected by
climate change:
Discussion point
a) Agriculture 3 Which parts of the world are most at risk from
b) Wildlife global warming? Do any regions stand to gain
c) Human comfort. more than they lose?

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 7.4 Climate change and
the Caribbean
Key ideas ● We cannot predict climate change for a small area.
● The Caribbean will be warmer and drier than it is now.
● Rising sea levels will affect coastal areas.
● Wildlife and agriculture are vulnerable.
● Changes in hurricane frequency are uncertain.
● Tourism will be greatly affected.

The world’s climate system is complex. We cannot Coral reefs

say precisely how a region like the Caribbean will Coral is likely to be damaged in two ways:
be affected by climate change, still less a single ● An increase in dissolved carbon dioxide in
island. seawater increases its acidity and slows the
However, Caribbean islands and coastlands are growth of coral. Some scientists expect a
vulnerable to climate change. Most scientists expect 14–30% reduction in growth rates by 2050 for
the region to experience: this reason. Shellfish and other marine life are
● higher temperatures
also damaged by increased acidity.
● lower rainfall, especially from June to October
● Sea temperatures only 1–2 °C above normal can
● a rise in sea level.
cause “bleaching”, which kills the algae that
provide food for the coral polyps. Because of
Rising sea levels
climate change, bleaching will be more frequent.
Sea levels may rise by around one metre by 2100. Reefs can recover from occasional damage but
Even a small increase in sea level can be destructive. not from a permanent increase in temperature.
With deeper water offshore, waves approach the Recovery is more difficult when reefs suffer from
coast with more force and the rate of erosion other stresses, such as pollution.
increases.
Most Caribbean cities and smaller settlements Coral reefs provide a habitat for fish and other
are built on coastal or low-lying land and are at risk animals. If they are damaged, this will have a
from coastal flooding. Belize City and Georgetown serious impact on the marine ecosystem.
are particularly vulnerable. The Guyanese coastlands On many Caribbean coastlines, coral reefs break
are below sea level even today, protected by a sea the force of approaching waves. If reefs are
wall and other structures. Important industrial damaged, waves will approach the shore with more
estates are on low-lying land, for example Point energy, increasing the rate of erosion.
Lisas in Trinidad.
Most hotels are built next to the beach, very Storms and hurricanes
close to sea level. Roads close to the coast could Hurricanes gain their energy from warm seas. They
be flooded easily. Examples include the road from form only when sea surface temperatures are above
Kingston to Norman Manley Airport in Jamaica, 27 °C. Warmer seas may lead to a longer storm
and major roads near San Fernando and Port of season, with more powerful hurricanes.
Spain in Trinidad. Ports and airports may also be However, many other factors influence the
threatened by flooding. Coastal wetlands and formation of a hurricane. Winds in the upper
other low-lying wildlife habitats are also at risk atmosphere must be favourable, for example. We do
from flooding. not yet know how these would be affected by
climate change.

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 7.4.2 Hotels close to the sea, like these in
Mexico, may be threatened by erosion.
Calm waters
Small waves break
gently on beach Fringing reef
breaks force
of waves

Higher sea
Gently sloping coast – sea advances inland levels

Waves break with Rough waters

full force, eroding
new shoreline
Waves now
pass over reef

7.4.1 How rising sea levels would affect coastlines.

Agriculture
Most scientists predict lower rainfall and higher ● If summer temperatures are high, people may
temperatures in the Caribbean. Higher temperatures prefer cool-climate destinations such as Alaska,
will increase evaporation. Drier soil conditions will Scotland, or Norway.
hold back crop growth unless there is more irrigation. ● Skin cancer, often caused by sunburn, is an
Increased carbon dioxide also affects crops increasing concern. More than 70,000 cases are
directly, helping some to grow faster but reducing reported in Britain every year, of which 1,600
the yields of others. Studies show that doubling are fatal.
atmospheric carbon dioxide might reduce the yield ● Air travel is a heavy energy user. Many
of sugar cane and corn by 20–40% in the southern countries, such as Britain, have already imposed
Caribbean. Livestock and poultry may also suffer conservation measures such as taxes on aircraft
from heat stress. fuel. These may make people less willing to fly
long distances.
Water supply
Droughts will be more common, putting the water Research project
supply at risk. Lower rainfall also increases the risk 1 Look at Figures 7.3.2 and 7.3.3. If these
that salt water will displace fresh groundwater. This projections are accurate, what changes would
would be a problem for islands such as Barbados, there be to a) rainfall and b) temperatures in
which rely on groundwater for all purposes. your own country?
2 If there is significant global warming, how might
Tourism this affect your country? Use these headings for
your answer:
Changes in the Caribbean environment may make it
a) Coral reefs and other marine habitats
less attractive for tourists:
b) Hurricanes (If they are more frequent, how
● Beaches and coral reefs may be eroded.
would this affect your country?)
● Beachfront hotels and other coastal structures
c) Rising sea levels (What settlements and other
may be damaged as sea level rises. structures are on low-lying coastal areas?
● Higher temperatures may be uncomfortable.
Are sea defences in place? Are there plans to
extend or strengthen them?)
At the same time, worldwide changes may make d) Agriculture (How would crops and livestock
tourists less likely to visit the region: be affected by changing rainfall and
● With warmer winters in Europe and North temperatures?)
America, fewer people may wish to escape to e) Tourism (Could tourism in your country be
the Caribbean. adversely affected by global warming?).

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 7.5 Facing the challenge
in the Caribbean
Key ideas ● The Caribbean can reduce its greenhouse gas emissions.
● Advance planning can reduce the impact of climate change.

“Humans are not changing the climate. It is a natural “Global warming? We were snow-bound in New York.”
cycle.”

“If the weather gets warmer, we can use more air “My electricity bills are too high. The government should
conditioning.” make them cheaper.”

“Climate change is happening in other countries, not here.” “I have a new SUV. You want me to just park it up?”

There are many responses to concerns over climate ● alternative sources of energy: using energy
change. Three of them are: sources which produce less CO2
● Business as usual: taking no action; climate ● carbon capture: removing CO2 from the
change is not seen as a threat. atmosphere.
● Corrective action: for example, by reducing

greenhouse gas emissions. This is sometimes REDD+ agreements

called mitigation. Trees and other vegetation absorb and store CO2.
● Adaptation: preparing for climate change. Deforestation is responsible for at least 11% of
global carbon emissions.
Mitigation strategies Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and
Climate change is a worldwide problem. If there is Forest Degradation (REDD) agreements are intended
international action to reduce greenhouse gas to help developing countries protect rainforests.
emissions, climate change can be controlled. Guyana and Norway reached one of the first REDD
Caribbean countries can reduce greenhouse gas agreements in 2009. Norway agreed to pay up to
emissions. This will contribute to a worldwide US$250 million to Guyana by 2015; in return,
mitigation effort. Possible strategies include: Guyana pledged not to increase deforestation by
● forest protection: protecting and planting more than an agreed amount.
vegetation, which absorbs CO2
● increased energy efficiency: for example, using Reduced use of fossil fuels
energy-saving cars and appliances; small new Electricity generation from fossil fuels – coal, oil, and
cars use less than one-third as much fuel as natural gas – produces one-third of global greenhouse
older sports utility vehicles gas emissions. Use of fossil fuels can be reduced by:
● good building design: architectural designs that ● ending subsidies for gasoline and electricity

make use of shade and natural ventilation generation

reduce the need for air conditioning ● increased efficiency and fuel conservation
● reduced energy consumption: less travel, ● simple measures, such as drying clothes on a

manufacturing, and energy-using activities line instead of in a tumble drier

● use of alternative energy sources.

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 Renewable energy

7.5.2 Wigton Wind Farm, Jamaica.

World energy sources: 2014

Other renewables
Hydroelectricity

Nuclear 3%
7%
4%
7.5.1 The Chalillo Dam and hydroelectric plant on the Macal 32% Oil
River in Belize.

Electricity can be produced from renewable energy 30%

Natural gas
sources. In many cases, these produce electricity at 24%
less cost than imported oil. However, some renewable Coal
energy sources have negative environmental impacts.
● Hydroelectric power: Belize generates much of
Use of oil imports in Jamaica: 2008
its electricity from hydroelectric plants on the Other
Macal River. Large-scale hydroelectric generation Other manufacturing
4% Road transport
is also proposed for Guyana. Brazil’s rivers 2%

produce 80% of its electricity. Possible problems 21%

include disruption of river ecosystems, loss of

Bauxite 34%
land when dams flood river valleys and reduced and alumina 10% Shipping
electric power during droughts.
● Biomass energy: Plant material such as fibre 6%
Aviation
from sugar cane (bagasse) can be used to 23%
generate electricity, as at the Skeldon sugar
Electricity generation
factory in Guyana and the Belcogen plant in
Electricity in Jamaica was generated from:
Belize. The growing crop absorbs CO2 from the
Hydro-electric power
atmosphere. Sugar cane and maize can also be 3%
Wind

converted into ethanol, which is used for motor 2%

vehicle fuel, mainly in Brazil and the USA.

However, this means taking agricultural land out
of food production.
● Wind energy: Jamaica produces close to 3% of

its electricity from wind turbines on an exposed 95%

site 750 metres above sea level at Wigton, to the
Oil products
south of Mandeville. Further wind farms are
planned.
7.5.3 Sources and usage of energy.

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 Solar energy

7.5.5 Solar powered traffic lights in Guyana.

Photovoltaic panels can be:

● mounted in an array at a generating station

● installed on the roof of a building

7.5.4 Solar water heaters in Barbados.
● incorporated in an electronic device, such as a

calculator.
The Caribbean is well located for solar energy.
Available energy from sunshine is greatest: Batteries can store some power for night-time use.
● in tropical latitudes, close to the Equator Unlike water heaters, solar panels are not yet made
● where cloud cover is low. in the Caribbean. They require big manufacturing
plants and large-scale investment. However, Caribbean
In Barbados, more than one-third of households countries such as Jamaica plan large-scale photovoltaic
have solar water heaters, with tax incentives for generation projects.
installations since the 1970s. As a result:
● household electricity bills are reduced Geothermal power
● there is less need to import oil Geothermal energy uses heat from below the Earth’s
● the island’s CO emissions are 5% lower than
2
surface to create steam, which provides power for
they would be if electric water heaters were electricity generation. Hot rock is found close to the
used instead. surface along plate boundaries, as in the eastern
Caribbean.
Three Barbadian companies manufacture and export El Salvador in Central America generates
solar heaters. The largest employs 72 staff in one-quarter of its electricity from geothermal
Barbados and St Lucia; it began operations in 1973, power. Guadeloupe generates 10%.
with just US$4,200 in capital. In Dominica, plans for the generation of
Solar energy can also produce electricity, through geothermal energy were well advanced in 2015.
photovoltaic electricity generation, using solar panels. A 15 sq. km zone of hot sub-surface rock could
The cost of this power source was high until produce enough electricity to supply the island’s
recently, but is falling rapidly. Photovoltaics made up needs, with additional power to export by
1% of the world’s generating capacity in 2014, undersea cable to Martinique and Guadeloupe.
while Germany, Italy and Greece each produced There were also proposals for geothermal energy
more than 7% of their electricity from this source. in Nevis, Montserrat, St Lucia, Grenada, and
other islands.

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 Adaptation strategies
The greenhouse gases that have already been released ● coastal zone vegetation: ecosystems such as
into the atmosphere will cause significant climate mangrove wetlands often provide a more effective
change even if there is a serious international effort sea defence than costly engineering structures.
to reduce future carbon emissions. Measures to adapt They will need to be protected and enhanced.
to climate change will include: ● land-use planning: construction projects such
● sea defences: existing sea defences in countries as roads, airports, housing developments, and
such as Guyana will need to be strengthened or tourist resorts should not be built in low-lying
renovated, at great cost. They will need to be coastal areas, which are at risk from flooding.
extended to additional coastal areas. Some existing facilities may need to be re-sited
away from the shoreline.

Review questions Research

1 Copy the table “Ways of reducing emissions” and complete it by putting the words 3 Find out what has
below in the correct boxes. There may be more than one entry for each box. been done in your
Less air conditioning Tax incentives country:
a) to reduce
Hydroelectric power REDD+ agreements
energy use
Less wasteful packaging Energy-saving lighting b) to develop
Planting trees alternative
Dry clothes on line, not in tumble drier Emission standards for vehicles sources of
energy.
Ways of reducing emissions
Individuals or families Businesses or governments Discussion point
Reducing energy use 4 Discuss the
Fewer journeys Recycled materials advantages and
More efficient Buying energy efficient disadvantages of:
energy use cars a) nuclear energy
b) hydroelectric
Water-saving showers Better building design
power
Alternative sources Solar water heaters c) solar energy
of energy d) geothermal
Solar panels Nuclear power power
e) REDD+
Reduced Protecting vegetation
agreements.
deforestation Protecting environment
Which of these are
2 Describe two ways in which carbon emissions are likely to be reduced in a most likely to be
named Caribbean country: useful in reducing
a) through the use of renewable sources of energy carbon emissions in
b) by other means. your country? Give
your reasons.

7.5.6 Recycling glass, paper and plastic can reduce

carbon emissions.

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 7.6 Climate change and the UK

Key ideas ● Large countries are also affected by climate change.

The cool, temperate climate Threats from climate change

Britain has a cool, temperate marine climate, In Climate change in Britain during the next century is
contrast to the tropical marine climate of the expected to result in:
Caribbean. ● warmer summers with less rain

● Temperatures are lower. ● more intense, heavy rainfall in the winter

● Seasonal variation between winter and summer ● higher sea levels, which will result in coastal

months is greater than in the Caribbean, but less erosion and flooding.
than in continental climates such as those of
most of the USA and Canada. The British government has commissioned detailed
● The climate is influenced by the Gulf Stream, a scientific studies of the likely impact of climate
warm current in the Atlantic Ocean which keeps change, and publishes a Climate Change Risk
winter temperatures moderate. Assessment every five years. Developments such as
● Rainfall is less than in most Caribbean countries, these are expected:
but falls steadily over a long period. Intense ● Increased flood risk: heavy rain in the winter

rainfall is not common. months will bring more frequent flooding.

Many homes, roads, railways, and other

Montego Bay: tropical Total precipitation: 1,942 mm Oxford: temperate marine climate Total precipitation: 637 mm
marine climate Daily temp. range: 7° (cool temperate western margin) Daily temp. range: 8°
°C Altitude: 5 m mm °C Altitude: 72 m mm
40 400 40 400

30 350 30 350

20 300 20 300

10 250 10 250

0 200 0 200

–10 150 –10 150

–20 100 –20 100

–30 50 –30 50

–40 0 –40 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month Month

7.6.1 Climate graphs, UK weather station and Caribbean.

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 More positively, there could be some benefits to the
UK from climate change:
● There will be less need for winter heating and

fewer premature deaths from cold.

● Many people will enjoy the warmer summer

weather.
● Some crops, such as wheat, sugar beet, and

grapes, will grow more productively.

● Tourism may also benefit from a warmer

climate.

However, climate change may bring an increased

risk of very cold weather if a changed pattern of air
circulation brings cold air from the Arctic to the
UK, or if cold water from melting ice disrupts the
flow of the Gulf Stream.

International threats and the UK

7.6.2 Flooding of the Rivers Severn and Avon as they
Climate change in other countries will have an
converge at Tewkesbury.
international impact on the UK, on the Caribbean,
important structures are built on low-lying river and worldwide:
floodplains. Insurance cover will be more ● Crop failures in many countries are likely to

expensive and in some cases unobtainable. result in food shortages and higher prices. Food
● Rising sea levels: coastal areas will be at prices have risen sharply several times since
increased risk of flooding and erosion. 2000, partly because of climate-related
● Droughts and water shortages: lack of rainfall problems.
and increased evaporation in summer months ● Large-scale droughts, floods, and other disasters

will lead to water supply problems for would force people to flee their homes, with
agriculture, households and businesses. perhaps millions of climate refugees.
● Threats to wildlife: tree species such as beech ● Wealthier countries, such as the UK, will have

are at risk from drought in southern England; so to provide emergency assistance and support.
are mountain vegetation and animals in
northern and western Britain.

7.6.3 The railway line to south-western England was cut by 7.6.4 Weather-related disasters in other countries will affect
a winter storm in the town of Dawlish in 2014. It took the UK. Sheep on a sheep farm near Ballarat, Australia
two months to complete a temporary repair. during a summer drought.

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 Flooding and the Thames Barrier Mitigation strategies in the UK
Historically, Britain was the first country in the
world to burn fossil fuels such as coal on a large
scale. However, the UK is now committed to a
mitigation strategy which will contribute to
reducing worldwide carbon emissions.
● Carbon emissions were reduced by 17% from

1990 to 2012.
● In 2015 the UK produced 1.4% of the world’s

carbon emissions.
● Emissions should be reduced by a further

two-thirds before 2050.

Reducing energy consumption
There are several ways of reducing energy
consumption:
● Insulation: one-quarter of energy use is for

7.6.5 The Thames Barrier. heating homes and other buildings. This amount
can be reduced if walls, roofs, and windows are
insulated to reduce loss of heat.
The Thames is the largest river in southern England. ● Vehicle efficiency: more than one-third of
It flows through London into a wide estuary, which energy use is for transport. Small, fuel-efficient
opens into the North Sea. cars have a lower tax rate than large vehicles
In the North Sea, the difference between high with high fuel consumption.
and low tide is much greater than in the Caribbean. ● Businesses: by law, large businesses in the UK
The tidal range varies from 4 m to an extreme value must assess their energy use and energy-saving
of 8 m. opportunities at least every four years.
There is a risk of flooding in London when:
● heavy rain increases the flow of water in the

River Thames
● there is a high tide

● the wind blows from the north-east.

Climate change will increase these risks, with

heavier rainfall in the winter months and rising
sea levels.
A 520 m barrier across the river was completed
in 1982. At most times, the barrier is open, allowing
ships to pass and water to flow freely. When there is
a danger of flooding its gates are closed, to prevent
seawater from flowing into the river.
During the barrier’s first ten years of
operation, it was closed just ten times. In the ten
years following 2002, it had to be closed 57
times. With rising sea levels, a new and much
larger barrier may be needed. This will take more
than 25 years to design and construct, so a
decision will have to be made long before the 7.6.6 This thermogram shows heat loss from a building.
The temperature range goes from hot (white) to cold
improved barrier is needed, as part of an (blue). You can see that this house has a well-insulated
adaptation strategy. roof, but it is loosing heat from its windows and doors.

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 Alternative sources of energy would like new nuclear plants to be built. However,
In 2010 coal generated more than a quarter of the the Scottish government is concerned about the
electricity used in the UK. Coal is a “dirty” fossil safety risk and will not allow new nuclear plants in
fuel with relatively high carbon emissions. that part of the UK.
In the 1990s there was a switch from coal to Renewable energy
natural gas, which now produces almost half of Britain aims to obtain almost one-third of its energy
electricity generated. Use of natural gas helped the from renewable sources by 2020, an increase from
UK reduce its carbon emissions. However, most of just 6% in 2010. This target will be difficult to
the UK’s natural gas resources have been used; gas meet. These are three of the most promising
must now be imported. renewable energy sources:
To reduce carbon emissions further, alternative ● Wind power: the greatest potential is offshore,
energy sources are needed. where wind speeds are higher and the wind
Nuclear energy turbines are less visually intrusive than on land.
Nuclear power produces less CO2 than fossil fuels, In 2015 there were 27 offshore wind farms in
but it brings other dangers: operation. With additional wind farms in
● An accident can contaminate a wide area, with a development, offshore wind may supply 10% of
risk of cancer and other diseases. Britain’s electricity by 2020.
● Tidal energy: the seas around Britain have a
● Used nuclear fuel remains radioactive. Disposal

is expensive and difficult. high tidal range. If dams are built around coastal
● Some nuclear generation produces material that bays, the flow of water from the rising and
can be used to make nuclear weapons. falling tide can generate electricity. One
proposed project at Swansea in Wales could use
In 2011 an earthquake and a tsunami damaged a a 10-kilometre dam to generate power for
nuclear power plant at Fukushima in Japan; 177,000 155,000 homes. However, the cost of the
people living within 20 kilometres of the plant electricity generated would be high. There
were evacuated. Crops could not be harvested and would also be damage to marine wildlife.
● Solar energy: Britain does not have a sunny
fisheries were closed. Power supply for the rest of
Japan was disrupted. climate, but there are opportunities for
In France, around 80% of electricity generation photovoltaic power. For example, households
is nuclear. with a south-facing roof can install solar panels.
In Britain, around one-sixth of the electricity They use some of the power they generate and
supply comes from ageing nuclear plants which will sell the remainder to an electricity company, at a
soon have to be closed. The British government special rate known as a feed-in tariff.

7.6.7 An offshore wind farm in the North Sea.

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 7.7 Proposals for international
action
Key ideas ● International action is needed to cut carbon emissions.
● Achieving a binding agreement will not be easy.

The Kyoto agreement

Changes in the global atmosphere affect all nations A treaty negotiated at Kyoto in Japan in 1997
and continents. Every country contributes to carbon proposed international action on climate change.
dioxide and greenhouse gas emissions. The Republic of the Maldives Islands in the Indian
CO2 gas emissions
Ocean was the first country to commit to it.
Antigua-Barbuda and Trinidad and Tobago were
Latin America English-speaking Caribbean 0.2%
Africa among the next six. The agreement came into force
3% 6% in 2005, and 37 industrialized countries agreed to
USA and Canada
Rest of Asia
12%
19% cut greenhouse gas emissions to below 1990 levels
by 2012. Most countries in Asia, Africa, Latin
India 6%
America and the Caribbean did not have
21%
Europe
emissions targets.
27%
The USA, then the world’s largest greenhouse
China 4%
gas producer, did not join Kyoto. Canada
Australia, Pacific 1%
Japan withdrew in 2012. China increased its emissions,
as did Brazil, India, and other large developing
Population countries.
English-speaking
Caribbean 0.1%
Latin America
USA and Canada After Kyoto
Europe The Kyoto agreement covered the years from 1997
8.5% 5%
Africa 11%
Australia, Pacific to 2012. From 2012 a new agreement was needed.
0.5% Japan
15% 2% International negotiations, for example at Cancun in
Mexico in 2010 and in the French capital Paris in
20% China 2015, attempted to agree commitments. These were
Rest of Asia 21% some of the difficulties:
● Many people in successful economies such as
17%
the USA, the UK, and China believe that
India controlling carbon emissions will make their
Sources of greenhouse gas businesses less profitable.
Waste disposal ● Countries that have benefited from energy
Road transport
Agriculture exports, such as Saudi Arabia, Russia, and
Air transport
3% 11% Sea and other transport Australia, wish to continue to do so.
2%
17% ● Many people in wealthy countries do not want
3%
Heating, air to change their lifestyles, for example by driving
conditioning etc
Deforestation 11% 16% smaller cars or paying more for electricity.

7% 4%
Oil, gas, 2% 5%
coal production 4% Other fuel combustion
10% 5%
Electricity lost in Metals production
transmission
7.7.1 Population and greenhouse gas emissions.
Chemicals production
Other manufacturing Cement production

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 7.7.2 Delegates at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris, 2015.

● Many people in poorer countries want products Quick questions

they were previously not able to afford, such as
air travel or air conditioning. 1 Look at Figure 7.7.1. Name:
a) four countries or regions whose population
produces more than its share of carbon
All English-speaking Caribbean countries are among
emissions
the 42 members of the Alliance of Small Island b) four countries or regions which produce less
States, or AOSIS. They argue that: than their share.
● richer and larger countries have caused climate
2 Why do the countries and regions listed in (a)
change produce more than their share of emissions?
● small islands and poorer countries that will 3 Look at Figure 7.7.1. What percentage of
suffer its effects should receive funds to cut greenhouse gas emissions comes from
carbon emissions and reduce the effects of manufacturing?
climate change
● wealthy countries should sharply cut their Research
carbon emissions. 4 Research and find out about:
a) progress since the Paris talks
Most countries accept that greenhouse gases already b) AOSIS and its work on climate change
released will increase worldwide temperatures, even c) the Caribbean Community Climate Change
if emissions are now cut. They will have to adjust to Centre.
global warming. AOSIS would like a target upper
limit of 1.5 °C; many countries would accept a higher
limit, of 2.0 °C. Beyond this level, they hold that it The CCCCC
would be increasingly hard for humans to adapt. The Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre
At the Paris negotiations in 2015, countries that is a Caricom organization based in Belize that
were responsible for more than two-thirds of monitors climate change in the Caribbean. It is a
greenhouse gases set targets to reduce their clearing house for information and it offers:
emissions. However, the proposed reductions were • help with projects for communities at risk
not thought sufficient to hold global warming to • policy advice
2.0 °C. There were also proposals for large-scale • assistance with strategies for energy,
assistance to poorer countries, to help them reduce agriculture, tourism, and insurance
emissions while promoting their economic • training and consultancy services.
development.

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 8.1 The components of an ecosystem

Key ideas ● An ecosystem is a plant and animal community.

● Ecosystems are influenced by climate, soil, and human activity.

“Ecosystem: A community of plants and animals ● Two of these inputs – rainwater and nutrients
within a particular physical environment, which is – can be stored in the soil.
linked by a flow of materials through the non-living ● The producers are the green plants. They grow
as well as the living sections of the system.” through photosynthesis. They make direct use of
Oxford Dictionary of Geography rainwater, sunshine, and minerals.
“Biome: A naturally occurring community
● The primary consumers are animals, which feed
characterized by distinctive life forms which are directly off the plants, such as parrots, tapirs, bees,
adapted to the broad climatic type.” and monkeys. They are known as herbivores.
Oxford Dictionary of Geography
● The secondary consumers feed off the primary
consumers and off each other. They include
How ecosystems work lizards, jaguars, spiders, and birds of prey.
Plants and animals cannot exist on their own. They ● The decomposers feed off dead organic matter.
interact with other living things and with their They include fungi, termites, earthworms, and
non-living surroundings – atmosphere, water, bacteria.
sunlight, and soil. ● When organic matter has been broken down
The plants and animals of a forest or grassland into humus by the decomposers, it is stored in
relate to each other in an ecosystem: the soil until the nutrients it contains are used
● Inputs add nutrients, water, or energy to the again by the producers.
system. The main ones are rainwater, sunshine,
and minerals.
8.1.1 A forest ecosystem.

INPUT
Sunshine
INPUT
Rainfall

STORE
The soil

PRODUCERS PRIMARY
Green plants CONSUMERS SECONDARY
INPUT CONSUMERS
Nutrients
from the
rock DEAD ORGANIC
MATTER
HUMUS

DECOMPOSERS

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 A large biome, such as the Amazon rainforest, or a ● The soil: Some soils hold water and nutrients well,
small area, such as a single mangrove wetland, can allowing them to be taken up by plant roots. Most
be studied as an ecosystem. agricultural crops and fruit trees require a good
supply of plant nutrients. By contrast, Wallaba trees
Why ecosystems vary will thrive in acid soil where most other trees will
The world has a variety of biomes and ecosystems not grow. Casuarina trees can survive on beach
– deserts, Arctic seas, tropical rainforests, agricultural sand, which holds few nutrients.
land used to grow sugar cane, or a city backyard. ● Biotic conditions: Plants and animals affect the
Some biomes and ecosystems are complex and ecosystem. For example, goats eat the leaves and
productive, with a wide variety of plants and branches of small trees. Small, thorny plants can
animals, for example a rainforest or a coral reef. survive on islands with many wild goats.
Others are biologically less productive. These include ● Human activity: Humans are the most significant
deserts, polar ice caps, or the surface of a city street. biotic influence on ecosystems. There are no
One measure of the productivity of an untouched “natural” environments anywhere in
ecosystem is its biomass – the total weight of living the world. In many areas, wild plants have been
matter it produces every year. replaced by buildings and roads, or by crops. One
quarter of the Earth’s land surface is cultivated.
Even where there is “wild” vegetation, it is
Tropical rainforest 45
influenced by human activities. Uncultivated land
Coniferous forest 20
may be affected by soil erosion, fires, logging,
Savanna 4
Temperate grassland 1.5
pollution, or the introduction of new species. For
Tundra 0.6
example, coconuts were introduced into the
Desert scrub 0.7
Caribbean region by European settlers. They are
Extreme desert 0.02
part of the natural vegetation of the tropical
Units: kg of dry matter per m2 per year
coastlands of the Indian and Pacific oceans, but not
8 1.2 The average rate of plant growth in different ecosystems.
of the Atlantic or the Caribbean.

Ecosystems are influenced by the following factors: Some components of an ecosystem

● The climate: Plant growth is encouraged where
Living Non-living
Plants Atmosphere
there is a warm climate with high rainfall all year
Animals Water
round, as in a rainforest. When plants grow rapidly, Humans Soil minerals
there is plenty of food for primary consumers; Bacteria Climate
these in turn become food for the secondary
consumers. When the climate is too dry or too
cold, there is less plant growth. Photosynthesis is Quick questions
possible only when the temperature is above 6 °C, 1 List some species that are:
and it stops below this point. a) producers b) primary consumers
Individual species have their own climatic c) secondary consumers.
requirements – for example, breadfruit trees, like 2 What would happen to the producers in an
many tropical species, need warm weather all ecosystem if:
year round. They will die if there are even a few a) the climate became much cooler?
days with temperatures below 5 °C. Aloes, cacti, b) there was a long drought?
c) fewer minerals and nutrients were available?
and succulent plants will only grow where
3 Of the ecosystems shown in Figure 8.1.2, which
rainfall is low. They will rot in a wet climate.
two produce the most plant growth? Which two
In most parts of the world, plant growth
produce the least?
follows a seasonal rhythm. Conditions are 4 Explain why plant growth is restricted when
suitable for plant growth at some times of the there is:
year, but there is a season when it is too dry or a) a cold season b) a dry season.
too cold and little plant growth can take place.

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 8.2 Tropical rainforests and
other woodlands
Key ideas ● Equatorial regions have high temperature and rainfall all year round.
● Tropical rainforests grow in many equatorial regions.
● The forest ecosystem is structured in layers.
● Rainforests are easily damaged by human activities.
● Not all tropical forests are rainforests.

The tropical rainforest biome

In most regions with an equatorial climate, there
are tropical rainforests. There is more plant growth
or biomass productivity in the rainforest than in any
other type of plant community or biome. There is
also a greater variety of different species.
It has been estimated that there are between one
and two million different plant and animal species
in the world. About 40% of these species can be
found in the tropical rainforest – which covers only
about 6% of the Earth’s land surface. Most of the
smaller species have not yet been given a name. A
handful of surface soil or plant litter from a
rainforest is likely to contain at least one small
organism that is not yet known to science. The
larger plants and animals are also very varied. One 8.2.1 An aerial view of a rainforest.
hectare of rainforest may contain about 40 different
types of tree. Shiny surface keeps
leaf dry Dark green
The trees colour
Drip tip
The dominant plants in the equatorial forest are the
trees. They are able to grow upwards, towards the
light. There are many different tree species, but at
first glance most of them look quite similar: ● Most leaves have a drip tip, which helps them to
● The trees are evergreen. There is no season in
dry off quickly after heavy rain. A dry leaf is
which most of the trees shed their leaves. At any much more efficient for transpiration and
time of year, some trees may be in fruit and photosynthesis than a wet one.
some may be producing flowers.
● The trees have a tall, straight trunk, with no

leaves or branches for most of its length. Any

Drip tip helps
leaves near the ground would be useless for drain water
from leaf
photosynthesis, because it is so shady there.
● They have a well-defined crown, where all the

leafy growth is concentrated. ● The bark is usually smooth and thin. Some
● Their leaves are dark green and leathery. This trees, like cocoa, have fruit that grows straight
protects them from the intense sunshine. out of the trunk.

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 60°

40°

Tropic of
SOUTH-EAST
Cancer
ASIA
20°
PHILIPPINES
CENTRAL GU
AMERICA IA Lagos
NA NEW
Equator Uaupés S CONGO BASIN GUINEA
AMAZON BASIN
INDONESIA
MADAGASCAR
20°
QUEENSLAND
Tropic of COAST
Capricorn

40°
Key
0 5,000 km
Tropical rainforest
biome

8.2.2 The world’s tropical rainforests.

2 5
● Many trees
ng Dogt have “plank buttresses” growing out The other plants
from the lowest part of the trunk. These provide Most of the other plants in the equatorial forest
extra support for the tallest trees. They are also depend on the trees for support or nutrition:
known as buttress roots. ● Parasites get their nutrition by drawing on the

resources of the host plant. They will damage its

Well-defined growth.
crown ● Epiphytes live on another plant, but have their

own sources of nutrients and moisture. The

Bromeliads, for example, have thick leaves arranged
Tall, straight to form a container for water and nutrients. Insects
trunk
Plank help to bring nutrients into the container.
buttresses

8.2.3 The main features of a typical rainforest tree.

Bromeliad growing
Dead leaves and animal waste
as an epiphyte on
fall all year round
branch

The nutrients help the

● Stranglers begin their life as epiphytes and then
vegetation to grow send down long roots that reach to ground
level. These roots grow stronger and more
numerous until they form a tight noose around
Decomposers release the
The roots quickly take up nutrients from them the host tree, enveloping and killing it.
the nutrients again ● Lianas are climbing plants that begin their life
The soil down here is poor because in the shade of the forest floor, but grow right
the nutrients don’t get a chance to
sink in through the “B” and “C” layers (see below) so
8.2.4 The rainforest ecosystem. that their leaves are in full sunlight.

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 The structure of the rainforest
The rainforest has several layers:
● “A”-layer, or emergent, trees like Kapok and

Gommier are 30–45 metres high, and have

wide-spreading crowns. The tops of these trees
are exposed to the full force of the sun’s rays.
This is an open, windy environment with a
wide daily temperature range. Some epiphytes
and parasites, and many birds and insects, live
in the crowns of the emergent trees, but in this
part of the forest they must be able to cope
with strong sunshine and a limited water supply.
● “B”-layer, or canopy, trees are 18–27 metres

high. Their crowns are rounded or elongated

and packed more closely together to form an
almost continuous cover. They contain large
numbers of birds and insects, and also many
mammals (such as sloths and monkeys), which
do not often come down to ground level.
Epiphytes and parasites are very common. The
canopy is an open and sunny environment, but
it is more sheltered than the emergent layer and
more moisture is available.
● “C”-layer, or lower-storey, trees are

8–14 metres high. Their crowns are quite

closely packed together. There is much less light
at this level – most has been filtered out above.
There is much less wind and the air is humid.
Epiphytes and parasites here are adapted to a
shady and moist environment. Birds, insects,
and mammals are very common. Wild cocoa is
a “C”-layer tree, which is why cocoa grows best
in the shade when it is cultivated.
● In the shrub layer there is very little light. Only

about 1% of the sunlight reaches ground level. 8.2.5 Rainforest vegetation.

The air is still and humid. Temperatures are There is little organic matter on the forest floor.
steady. Moisture is plentiful, but there is not Plant litter is broken down quickly by the decomposers
enough light for photosynthesis. This is why and then taken up quickly by the plant roots. It is
there is very little undergrowth in a rainforest. recycled rapidly in this plant community. There is a
Young trees and other plants do not grow continuous supply of new plant litter.
quickly. Although the trees are tall, they usually have a
● On the forest floor a few plants manage to
shallow rooting system. Most of the nutrients from
grow among the tree trunks, plank buttresses, the organic matter are snatched up by the tree roots
and the stems of the lianas. Saprophytes are before they have a chance to penetrate the soil to
plants that get their nourishment with the help any great depth.
of root fungi. The fungi help them to use
organic matter in the soil. Some mammals, such Atlas work
as tapirs and deer, live at ground level. Their diet
1 Look at Figure 8.2.2. List three countries where
includes fruit and seeds, which fall to the
there are tropical rainforests.
ground, young plants, and roots.

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 Quick research
1 Explain how rainforest vegetation:
a) modifies the climate on the forest floor
b) maintains the fertility of the soil.
2 Explain why rainforest ecosystems are easily
damaged by human activities.

Graph question
3 a) Draw a climate graph for Uaupés in Brazil,
using the figures below.
b) What is the difference in temperature
between the warmest and coolest months
8.2.6 “A”-layer trees emerge above the canopy. (annual temperature range)?
c) What is the coolest month? Why is this
Tropical forests and the dry season month cooler than the others?
Ecosystems in a tropical marine climate must adapt d) What is the total annual rainfall?
e) The diurnal temperature range is 9 °C. In
to a dry season. In dry weather, plants must
January, what temperatures would you
conserve moisture. The extent of their adaptation
expect in the middle of the day and at night?
depends on the total annual rainfall and the length
and severity of the dry season. Temperature Rainfall
Hygrophytic ecosystems (from the Greek words (°C) (mm)
for wet plant) develop where there is a short dry January 26 284
season, broken by intermittent spells of rainfall. The February 26 261
soil always holds enough water for plant growth. March 26 284
These ecosystems are close to true rainforest, as in April 25 263
northern and eastern Trinidad, in many areas of the May 25 329
Windward Islands and Belize, and in the wettest parts June 25 244
of Jamaica. July 24 234
Semi-evergreen forest August 25 186
Mesophytic ecosystems (Greek for middle plant) September 26 160
are found where there is a longer dry season with October 26 164
fewer rainy spells. In these areas, the most important November 26 190
ecosystem is semi-evergreen forest, which can be December 26 270
seen in areas such as Turner’s Hall Woods in
Barbados. There is less plant growth than in
rainforest and the structure of the plant community
is simpler:
● There are usually only two tree storeys, not three.

● Many trees, such as the poui, flamboyant, and

immortelle, shed their leaves in the dry season

or have very small leaves. This helps them to
save moisture.
● There are fewer epiphytes than in the rainforest,

because the tree canopy is often very dry.

● During the dry season, the ground is covered

with fallen leaves. These do not decay until the

earth becomes moist again.

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 The main differences between dry woodland
and rainforest are that:
● the biomass of dry woodland is much lower

(lack of moisture limits plant growth)

● there are fewer species in dry woodland

● dry woodland trees are smaller (the tallest trees

are generally 15–25 metres high)

● there are few lianas and epiphytes in dry

woodland
● most dry woodland trees shed their leaves in the

dry season or have small leaves

● the bark of dry woodland trees is thick and

often cracked (thick bark helps the tree to retain

moisture)
● the trunks of dry woodland trees are often

crooked and start to branch out quite near the

ground.

Although plenty of light penetrates through the

trees during the dry season, there are few
herbaceous plants at ground level. The ground is
covered with old leaves, dead wood, and other plant
litter, which would decay quickly in a humid
rainforest environment.

8.2.7 A semi-evergreen forest in Barbados.

There is a seasonal rhythm to plant growth. Many

trees flower during the dry season, so their seeds
will be ready just as the rainy season begins.

Dry woodland
Xerophytic ecosystems (Greek for dry plant) or
dry woodlands are found on islands such as Antigua
and in rain-shadow areas of the Windward Islands
and Jamaica, where there is lower annual rainfall
and a long dry season with very little rain. They also
develop on soils that drain rapidly, where there is a
permeable rock such as limestone or volcanic ash.
In these conditions the vegetation is very
different from the rainforest. Rainforest plants have
plenty of moisture but they have to fight their way
up towards the sunlight; plants in the dry woodland 8.2.8 Scrub vegetation in Grenada in the dry season. Most
have plenty of sunlight but they need to make good of the trees have lost their leaves.
use of the available water.

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 Thorn scrub
There are few patches of undisturbed dry woodland Many dry areas of the Caribbean are now covered
left in the Caribbean. Most areas of dry woodland with dry scrub vegetation. Where dry woodland has
are near the coast, and at some point have been been cleared, there are small trees, shrubs, and cacti.
cleared because: The tallest plants are generally about 3 metres tall.
● some areas were once thought suitable for These plants are adapted to dry conditions:
cultivation ● Their leaves are small and often have a waxy or
● most areas have been used as a source of wood hairy surface to cut water loss.
and charcoal ● Some plants, like cacti, have no leaves at all.
● almost all areas have been used as grazing for ● Some, like aloes, are succulents, which can store

goats, sheep, and cattle. water.

● Some have very deep roots, which can reach

The dry woodland is a fragile ecosystem. When the water far below the surface.
tree cover is removed, there are few other plants to ● Some have spines or thorns to protect

protect the soil, so rainstorms quickly wash the soil themselves from grazing animals.
away. With a thinner layer of soil, less water is
retained after a rainstorm – more of the rainfall Graph questions
runs straight down the hillside or sinks into 4 a) Draw a climate graph for Piarco in Trinidad,
permeable rocks below. using these figures:
Temp Rainfall
(°C) (mm)
January 25 77
February 25 61
March 25 27
April 26 71
May 27 129
June 26 269
July 26 243
August 26 213
September 26 144
October 26 164
November 25 151
December 25 153

b) What is the difference in temperature

between the warmest and coolest months
(annual temperature range)?
c) What are the coolest months? Why are these
months cooler than the others?
d) What is the total annual rainfall?
5 Compare the climate graphs for Piarco with Fort
de France (p114) and Lagos (p115) under these
headings:
a) Temperature of the warmest month
b) Temperature of the coolest month
c) Annual temperature range
8.2.9 Candle cacti and other scrub vegetation, Arikok d) Total annual rainfall
National Park, Aruba. e) Number of months with more than 50 mm of
rain
f) Names of the four wettest months.

Types of forest Rainforest Evergreen seasonal Semi-evergreen Dry woodland

Rainfall (mm) Over 1,800 Over 1,800 1,300–1,800 800–1,300
Dry season None 3 months 5 months 5 months under 100 mm
50–100 mm 25–100 mm 2 months under 25 mm
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 8.3 Threats to the
forests
Key ideas ● The Caribbean has lost much of
its original forest cover.
● Forests are being destroyed
rapidly in many parts of the
world.
8.3.1 Deforestation in the Northern Range, Trinidad.

Deforestation in the Caribbean

When they were first settled by Europeans, most of gravel. Areas of forest throughout the
Caribbean islands were covered with forest. Much of Caribbean have been cleared for quarries, where
the forest cover has been removed over the centuries, stone and gravel are extracted for use in
and more is being destroyed today. These are some of construction.
the reasons for deforestation: ● Urban development: Many cities and suburban
● Commercial agriculture: European settlers areas have expanded onto land that was
cleared land for large agricultural estates, formerly forested.
growing tropical crops such as sugar for export. ● Squatting: In many Caribbean countries, people
Islands such as Antigua and Barbados were who do not own land clear a forested area to
almost entirely cleared but, on most islands, build houses or for small-scale farming. This is
mountainous areas in the interior were left as called squatting.
forest. It is not common to clear large areas for
commercial agriculture today. Some areas, such as the Northern Range in Trinidad,
● Small-scale agriculture: For many years, forests are subject to many threats, including small-scale
have been cleared to provide land for small agriculture, lumbering, quarrying, urban development,
peasant farms. Some are on steeply sloping land and squatting. At the same time, forest cover has
that was not used by large commercial estates. increased in some areas in recent years, for example
Fires that are started to clear land for farming where land formerly used for agriculture has been
may blaze out of control on a dry hillside. abandoned and left uncultivated.
● Lumbering: Forest timber is a valuable resource.

There is commercial lumbering in Guyana, N

Belize, and, on a smaller scale, in some

Caribbean islands. However, most Caribbean Northern Range

lumbering removes only valuable species, such

as greenheart in Guyana. Other trees are left Port-of-Spain
Arima
standing. The forest may be damaged but it is Caroni
Key Swamp
usually able to recover. Caroni Plain
Still mainly forest
● Mining: Forests are cleared for mining and Chaguanas
Threatened by
quarrying. In Jamaica, land used for bauxite deforestation
ge
mining must be restored for forest or Main urbanized area Ran
tral
Cen
agriculture; but in Guyana, former mining areas
are permanently scarred, for example close to
Linden. In western Guyana, vegetation has been 0 10 km
San Fernando
removed along the banks of many rivers, where
miners extract gold and diamonds from deposits 8.3.2 Deforestation in Trinidad.

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 The worldwide picture Tropical forest covered …
In much of Europe and eastern North America, 15% of the Earth’s land surface in 1950
forests were cleared many centuries ago to provide 12% in 1975
land for agriculture. 5% in 2010
Large areas of South America, Asia, and Africa
% of area still in forest (2010)
were still forested in the mid-twentieth century, but
Caribbean
are now being rapidly cleared. In a single year, an
Guyana 77%
area of forest twice the size of Jamaica may be
destroyed in the Amazon basin alone. Deforestation Dominica 59%
is on a much larger scale than in the Caribbean, and Trinidad and Tobago 44%
is caused mainly by: Jamaica 31%
● commercial timber extraction. Large lumber Barbados 19%
companies cut down all the trees in a wide area Worldwide
of forest. Few practise sustainable forestry. Brazil 62%
● large-scale agriculture. Large areas are cleared
USA 33%
for cattle ranching, or for commercial crops
UK 12%
such as soya beans. Some ranches cover several
hundred square kilometres. Quick research
● small-scale agriculture. As the population grows,

low-income families clear land for small farms. 1 Draw a location map to show an area where
there has been recent deforestation in your
country.
G “When I arrive, the river dweller is there. He has been there
2 Explain why deforestation has taken place in
for 80 years, but I have a land document. That means a
this area.
battle, sometimes to the death.”
Brazilian logger
8.3.3 Deforestation in Brazil.

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 8.4 The effects of deforestation

Key ideas ● Deforestation threatens wildlife.

● Deforestation may cause flooding and soil erosion.
● Forest can recover from small-scale clearance.
● Deforestation of a large area causes permanent damage.

Wildlife
Forests provide a habitat for many birds and be used to treat children suffering from leukaemia.
animals. Some Caribbean species – such as the Greenheart seeds, which grow in Guyana, can
parrots that once lived in Martinique, Guadeloupe, produce a contraceptive. The Amazon rainforest may
and Grenada – have become extinct because of contain the materials for many new medicines, some
deforestation. Others are endangered, such as the in plants that are in danger of extinction.
kouwès snake and zandoli tè ground lizard, which
are found only on the tiny Maria Islands off the Flooding and water supply
south-east coast of St Lucia. When forests are removed, floods are more
frequent, and rivers are more likely to run dry in a
period of drought.
In a forest, vegetation traps most of the
rainwater during a storm. A single tree can absorb
200 litres of rain in an hour. Water can sink slowly
into the soil. During a drought, forested land
remains moist for a long period, releasing water
gradually into rivers or streams.
When the forest is cleared, there is a sudden
rush of water after heavy rain. The maximum peak
flow of a river after a storm is twice as high when a
8.4.1 Wildlife, such as this three-toed sloth in Guyana, may forest is replaced by cultivated land, and four times
be threatened by deforestation. as high when it is replaced by bare earth.
Forest plants may provide important natural resources. A sudden flash flood may sweep down a narrow
These may be lost permanently with deforestation. river valley, destroying bridges and carrying away
Many cultivated plants, including rubber, bananas, everything in its path. On flat land, flood waters spread
yams, and cocoa, originated as rainforest species. Wild out over a wide area. Roads may be impassable, homes
varieties have useful characteristics, which will be lost flooded, and crops damaged or destroyed.
if they become extinct. A wild form of maize, which Deforestation in the Northern Range in Trinidad
grows in a forest in Mexico, is disease resistant and has increased the danger of flooding in narrow river
grows as a perennial. Two rice seeds found in central valleys and in the Caroni plain of central Trinidad.
India provided virus-resistant genes that are now On a larger scale, deforestation in the Himalaya
present in most modern commercial rice crops. Mountains has increased the flood risk in the
Research with Amerindian communities in Guyana has Ganges valley of northern India and Bangladesh.
identified 138 varieties of cassava. When a forest grows on permeable rocks such as
Other forest plants produce medical drugs. Many sandstone or limestone, these become saturated with
medicines which doctors now prescribe originated water. Wells can be used to extract this underground
from rainforest species. An extract of a plant called water. If forest cover is removed, less water is stored
the Rosy Periwinkle, which grows in Madagascar, can underground and more flows directly to the sea.

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 Soil erosion and landslides
Forests protect the soil from erosion. The force of Caribbean islands have many steep slopes, and rain
falling rain is broken by the trees. Fallen leaves cover falls in intense, heavy showers, which quickly create a
the soil and roots bind it together. flow of water across the surface. Areas where soil
When land is cleared for cultivation, soil is erosion and landslides have followed deforestation
eroded quickly. The top 5 centimetres of soil take include the Northern Range in Trinidad and the Yallahs
200 to 5,000 years to form, depending on climate, river valley in Jamaica, where steep slopes have been
rock type, and type of weathering. This much soil cleared for cultivation in a high-rainfall area. Some
can be removed in ten years or less if bare earth is land is used to grow coffee, which leaves most of the
left exposed on sloping ground. soil bare and exposed to rain action.

Sheet erosion

Rill erosion

8.4.2 Deforestation can cause rapid soil erosion.

The main forms of soil erosion are:

■ sheet erosion. Each storm takes away a thin

layer of soil over a wide area.

■ rill erosion. Rainwater flows downhill in a
Gully erosion
small channel, carrying soil particles with it.
■ gully erosion. Water flowing down a hillside

cuts a deep channel. Once a gully has formed,

it branches out and spreads uphill very
quickly. Soon a big area of land is useless.
■ wind erosion. In dry, flat land with no trees or

natural windbreaks, the wind blows away fine

soil particles in a “dust storm”.
8.4.3 Soil erosion.

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 Large- and small-scale forest clearance
When a small area of tropical forest is cleared, the
vegetation recovers. The surrounding trees provide
some shade and protect the soil. The clearing is
colonized first by fast-growing opportunist or
pioneer species. After a longer period, a true
rainforest plant community with tall, slow-growing
trees is re-established.
But when a big area is cleared, there is
permanent damage. There is an increased danger of
plant and animal extinctions because there are few
areas of wild forest left to provide a refuge.
There are no nearby trees to provide seeds for
new plants. There is no shade, so the air and soil at
ground level are baked by the sun. Evaporation
increases and the soil becomes dry. The humus and
organic matter, which retain plant nutrients, are
broken down and lost. Minerals and nutrients are
washed out of the soil.
The soil is quickly degraded. All that is left in
some areas is sand and gravel that cannot hold water
or nutrients. Ploughing and cultivating the land
makes matters worse, and fertilizers do no good
because they are washed away from the surface layers
of the soil in the first heavy shower of rain.
Many areas in Brazil and elsewhere that were
cleared for large-scale forestry or agriculture in the
twentieth century have already been abandoned. It may
take hundreds of years for the soil structure to recover. 8.4.5 Amerindians in Venezuela clearing land in the
rainforest for short-term cultivation.

8.4.4 Some riverbank deposits contain

traces of gold. Mining may be
destructive if not well managed.

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 The pattern of forest regeneration
The rainforest is capable of regeneration when gaps Bulldozing of all vegetation has serious
in the canopy occur. Certain pioneer species grow consequences. The soils may become irreversibly
first, but most die within 15 years. Gradually, mature- impoverished or eroded. In the end, all that may
phase species return and the forest is completely replace what was once spectacular forest is scrappy,
restored. low-grade scrub.

Low-grade scrub Total forest Uncut forest Uncut forest Forest Farm in use Two years later: After 15 years, After 60 years, After 100 years,
destruction cut and (2–3 years) pioneers small primaries primaries as uncut forest
burned established emerge dominate

8.4.6 The effects of deforestation on a large scale (left) and small scale (right).

Deforestation in Haiti Quick research

When Columbus discovered the island of 1 Describe ways in which deforestation in your
Hispaniola, he described the mountains like this: country has affected:
“All are most beautiful, of a thousand shapes… and a) wildlife
filled with a thousand kinds of tall tree, and they b) soil erosion and landslides
even seem to touch the sky.” c) water supply and flooding
As late as 1920, about 60% of Haiti was still d) other aspects of the land and marine
forested. A thriving timber industry exported environment.
mahogany for making furniture. Today, about 1% of
the country is covered with low-grade woodland. It
is hard to find a full-grown mahogany tree still
standing.
Haiti has a population of 10 million people,
increasing by 150,000 every year. Two-thirds live in
the countryside, as small-scale farmers, with more
than four people for each hectare of agricultural
land. They grow barely enough food to feed the
family. In 2001, 88% of the rural population were
living on less than US$2 a day. Even the smallest
trees are destroyed:
● to clear land for crops

● for firewood and charcoal, which supplies over

half the country’s energy

● by grazing goats.

8.4.7 When only a small clearing is made,

the forest can regenerate.

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 8.5 Land management strategies

Key ideas ● Land management can reduce the effects of deforestation.

● Conservation areas can develop sustainable use of forests.

Deforestation in St Lucia
In St Lucia, as in most Caribbean islands, Farther up the river valley, the results of
deforestation is a problem. Forest cover fell from deforestation were just as bad:
30% of the land area in 1973 to 23% in 1992. ● In the 1930s, St Lucia used to export timber.

However, conservation has been given a high Today, timber is a costly import.
priority and some problems are now under control. ● Some valuable tree species are now rare. The

The lower part of the Roseau Valley contains Laurier Canelle used to be one of the most
some of the best agricultural land in St Lucia, but valuable sources of timber, with wood that is
production fell sharply in the 1970s and early 1980s. durable and easily worked. It is now an
Forested hillsides in the middle part of the river endangered species. Gommier and Balata trees
valley were cleared by farmers and also by squatters. are also fewer.
The soil was not protected. In 1992 a study using ● The St Lucia parrot became a threatened species.

ground and helicopter surveys as well as satellite Trees that provided its food source were cut down.
images showed that 45% of the river basin was used Hunters also shot parrots for food, and killed
too intensively. This affected the flow of the Roseau many others while trying to catch them to keep as
River: pets. Numbers fell from over 1,000 in the 1950s
● Peak river flow in flood periods increased. Water to between 100 and 150 in the early 1980s.
rushed straight into the river down the valley
Key
sides. N
● Erosion of the valley sides was faster. The river Land above 200 m
St Lucia forest reserve
carried more sediment.
Other protected areas
● Flooding disturbed the flow of the river, and its

meandering course changed quickly. In the

Castries
1970s this caused the loss of 7 hectares of
agricultural land every year.
● In the dry season, river flow was reduced, just

when water is needed for irrigation. This also

threatened the water supply for households,
Roseau River

businesses, and tourism.

● The lower valley floor is flat, and has a heavy

clay soil. Field drains were choked with

sediment, increasing the risk of flooding.
Petit Piton 750

Bananas, once the main crop, are seriously affected Gros Piton 796
by poor drainage. If the top 60 centimetres of soil
are not well drained, bananas cannot grow strong
roots and are easily damaged by winds. If the fields
are flooded for several days, the plants may be killed
outright. 0 10 km
Vieux Fort Maria Islands
C. Moule à Chique

8.5.1 Forest conservation in St Lucia.

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 Land management in St Lucia
Many parts of central St Lucia now form a protected ● Production forests: These are mainly for timber
forest reserve. There is now no squatting within the production. Land is planted each year with Blue
reserve. Fertile land in the Roseau and Mabouya Mahoe, Caribbean Pine, or Honduras Mahogany,
valleys has been made available to small farmers species that provide valuable timber and grow
and, with the decline in banana production since quite quickly.
the 1990s, there is in any case less demand for
cultivated land. A dam has been built at Millet, Forest conservation benefits agriculture and water
which helps to control the river flow. supply, and also tourism. Visitors can use forest
A Forest Management Plan attempts to control trails, paying fees that earn more money for the
soil erosion and conserve the natural environment. Forestry Department than timber production, and
The plan classifies forest into three categories: also provide employment for tour operators.
● Protection forests: Protection of the natural The parrot population in St Lucia is increasing
environment is the first priority on steep slopes again. There were around 900 by 2003, many living
over 30°, wherever there are unstable soils, in in a 16 sq. km parrot sanctuary.
important water catchment areas, on riverbanks, Hunting has been prohibited since 1980. Most
and in the habitats of rare and endangered wildlife is now legally protected. Only rats, mice,
species. In these areas, timber should not be cut mongooses, and the dangerous fer-de-lance snake
down at all. can be killed without restrictions.
● Protection/production forest: Here there is Environmental legislation is most effective if it has
controlled harvesting of mature trees, if another public support. The St Lucia parrot is the country’s
tree of the same species is growing nearby. national bird, and it has been the focus of a successful
Tractors and heavy equipment are not used. campaign to make people aware of the need to protect
Logs are not dragged through the forest. Instead, the environment. The St Lucia Forestry Department
trees are converted to board where they are cut, runs an environmental education unit with an
using a portable sawmill. interpretative centre and a nature trail.

8.5.2 Using a portable

sawmill to cut boards
in St Lucia.

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 8.5.3 A tree nursery.

Reafforestation
Where forests have been removed, trees can be which grow quite quickly. After around 20 years
replanted. Trees can be grown like a crop. Seedlings they provide valuable timber, which can be used to
are grown in a tree nursery with the correct make furniture. In Haiti, where there is strong
weather and soil conditions, and protected against pressure to cut trees for fuel wood, charcoal, or
grazing animals and plant diseases. When they are construction, the following trees are commonly
large enough, they are replanted in a forest clearing. replanted as a crop:
Some use of fertilizer and protection against grazing ● Leucaena: this is a Mexican species, which can

animals may still be needed for the young saplings grow up to 10 metres tall in three years. The leaves
as they mature. and small branches can be fed to small animals,
In the taungya system, developed originally in and the roots fix nitrogen in the soil. The seedlings
Myanmar (Burma) but also used in the Caribbean, establish themselves very easily and the tree can
small farmers cultivate the space between the also be coppiced. This means that if it is cut back,
growing trees, providing fertilizer, pest control, and new shoots grow from the stump. Leucaena is a
crop protection. When the trees have grown large good source of fuel wood and charcoal.
enough to shade the ground and compete for ● Casuarina: this tree originated in Australia, but

nutrients, the farmers are allocated another plot. is now common in the Caribbean. It will grow
Species used for small-scale reafforestation on poor, sandy soil. The wood makes good
projects in Caribbean countries such as St Lucia charcoal and can be used for rafters.
include Blue Mahoe and Honduras Mahogany,

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 a wide range of forest products, and not only for
timber. Seeds from the Crabwood tree can produce
soaps and shampoos and a natural insect repellent.
Wild honey from the forest can be packaged and
VENEZUELA
Georgetown exported as a luxury product.
New Amsterdam Another aim is to show that timber can be
N Linden
extracted without damaging the environment, by
GUYANA extracting mature and valuable trees in a way that
Mabura Hill leaves others untouched and allows the forest to
regenerate.
Kurupukari One sustainable use for the forest is environmental
SURINAME
tourism. Accommodation for visitors is simple, and the
BRAZIL Lethem
overland journey from Georgetown takes five hours.
There are several hundred visitors each year, providing
more than a quarter of the Centre’s income.
Individuals and educational groups can explore the
Key
Mainly unexploited
forest canopy on an overhead walkway, or hike with a
Iwokrama reserve
area forests guide on forest trails. Wildlife includes brightly
Savannas Main roads 0 100 km coloured forest birds, tapirs, and six species of wild
Most commercial Unsurfaced
forestry is in this road
cat, of which the most spectacular is the jaguar. In the
area rivers live the world’s largest freshwater fish, the
arapaima, which are sometimes up to 3 metres long.
8.5.4 Forest areas in Guyana. Sustainable use of forest resources in Iwokrama
is intended to develop ideas that can be applied
The Iwokrama Centre, Guyana elsewhere in Guyana, and worldwide.
Forests can be managed as a renewable resource. In
a well-managed forest, the output of timber and
other products can be maintained over the long
term, and both the environment and local
communities can be protected.
Most of Guyana is still covered by rainforest.
Some areas have not been greatly altered by
commercial activities, but are now becoming more
accessible. At the 1989 Commonwealth Heads of
Government meeting, Guyana made 3,600 sq. km of
forest available for sustainable management, which
became the Iwokrama International Centre for
Rainforest Conservation and Development. It is
named after the Iwokrama Mountains; this is also an
Amerindian word meaning “place of refuge”.
The Iwokrama Centre works closely with the
University of Guyana and international research and
conservation organizations. Amerindian communities 8.5.5 The overhead walkway at the Iwokrama Centre.
participate in the research programmes, for example
by recording the traditional use of biological resources. Quick research
Half of the area is a wilderness reserve, which 1 Name a natural park or forest conservation area
will remain close to its natural state. The other half in your country.
is used to develop sustainable forest management 2 Draw a map to show its location.
techniques. One aim is to show that forests have 3 What measures are taken to protect the forest
varied resources that can be managed sustainably for and natural environment in the area you named?

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 8.6 Volcanic and limestone islands

Key ideas ● Volcanic islands form an arc in the eastern Caribbean.

● In an older island arc to the east, volcanic rocks are covered with limestone.
● Volcanic and limestone islands differ in their landscape, climate, and economy.

There is chain of volcanic islands, or an island arc, mountain in the eastern Caribbean. It last erupted in
close to the subduction zone that forms the eastern 1976–8. Tourists visit the volcano and explore the
margin of the Caribbean plate. All these islands have rainforest and waterfalls on hiking trails. Bananas
volcanic centres that could become active at any time. have been an important export crop.
To the east of these there is a chain of limestone
Anguilla
islands. They form a much older island arc, which St Martin Atlantic Key
was active tens of millions of years ago, when the Ocean Limestone islands
St Barthélemy
Volcanic islands
subduction zone was to the east of its present Saba Barbuda
0 100
position. The limestone lies on top of older volcanic St Eustatius
St Kitts- km
rocks. In some islands, such as Antigua, there are Nevis
areas where the ancient volcanic rocks can be seen Redonda Antigua
at the surface. Montserrat
To the south-east is Barbados, which was Grande Terre
formed on the fore-arc ridge. The island arc and La Desirade
Guadeloupe
fore-arc ridge are shown in Figure 1.2.2. Basse-Terre
Marie Galante
The table on the next page shows some of the Iles Des
contrasts between the two types of island. There are Saintes
Dominica
Vo

some exceptions to this overall pattern. For example,

lca

St Kitts is a volcanic island, but sugar was grown

there for export until 2005.
nic

The French overseas region of Guadeloupe is made Caribbean Martinique

island arc

Sea
up of several islands. The two largest, Grande Terre and
Basse Terre, are divided by a narrow channel, the
Rivière Salée, which is crossed by a bridge. St Lucia
Grande Terre means “big land”. It is a limestone
island slightly smaller than Basse Terre, but its name St Vincent Barbados
comes from the large waves on the east coast. Much
of the land has been used for growing sugar cane. It Bequia
Mustique
has white-sand beaches, with hotels and tourist
Union Canouan
resorts on the sheltered south-west coast. Carriacou
Basse Terre is a mountainous volcanic island Ronde
Grenada
with rivers, forests, waterfalls, and calm seas. The
main volcano, called La Soufrière, is the highest 8.6.1 Volcanic and limestone island arcs.
pe

us
t
ue

ra
nt
u

Sa tati
a

ou

ev a
o
a

iq

ic

er
a
ce

nd

St tts
ad

ac

el
ci
ia

in
tin

te

s
ts
in

is
d

Eu
Lu
ri

qu

do
n

om

ba
on

K
in

ua
ar
V
re

ar

Be

Re
Sa
St

St

St
M

N
G

G
D
C

G
8.6.2 A cross section through the volcanic arc.
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 Rock type Igneous Coral limestone
Landforms Mountainous No high
with volcanoes mountains
Steep slopes Gentle slopes
Sills and dykes Caves
Craters Dolines
Drainage Surface drainage Underground
drainage
Many fast- Few rivers
flowing rivers
Waterfalls
G Rainfall High Moderate or low
Soil Mainly latosol Mainly rendzina
Vegetation Hygrophytic Mesophytic
forest forest
8.6.4 La Soufrière, active volcano and highest peak of
Montane forest Dry woodland
Guadeloupe.
and elfin and thorn scrub
woodland in dry coastal
on mountains areas
Historic Bananas, cocoa Sugar, cotton
export
crops
Tourist Beaches –some White sand
attractions have black beaches
volcanic sand
Forests Dry, sunny
climate
Rivers and Surfing
waterfalls
Volcanic
features

GRANDE TERRE
8.6.5 Limestone cliffs at Pointe des Chateaux, Grande
High energy Terre’s eastern tip, Guadeloupe.
coast-rough
seas
BASSE TERRE Limestone Quick question

Riviére
1 Name three islands that form part of the volcanic
Sugar cane
Salée Airport arc and three that are part of the limestone arc.
Volcanic
mountains Few rivers
with forest es
Pointe- rist b
each Research
á-Pitre Tou
Calm low 2 Find out about one limestone island and one
energy volcanic island. Describe contrasts between the
coast
Radial drainage two, under these headings:
a) Landforms
b) Climate
Soufrière
Basse Terre volcano c) Vegetation
(capital) 0 10 km d) Agriculture
e) Tourism.
8.6.3 Grande-Terre in Guadeloupe is a limestone island.
Basse-Terre is volcanic.
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 8.7 The soil

Key ideas ● Soils are an important part of the ecosystem.

● Latosols are deep, red-coloured soils of the humid tropics.
● Intrazonal soils are influenced by drainage or parent material.

Soils and ecosystems Soil fertility

Soils develop on weathered rock, but the rock A fertile soil is suitable for the growth of a wide
particles are just the skeleton around which the living range of plants, including agricultural crops. Most
soil is formed. Soils also contain water; air; living fertile soils:
matter such as plant roots, insects, earthworms, and ● are deep enough for plant roots to grow

bacteria; and dead and decomposing organic matter. ● drain excess water rapidly after heavy rain (they

Soils are an important part of the ecosystem. In do not remain waterlogged or sodden)
some environments, there may be up to 5 tonnes of ● retain water for plant roots to extract in a dry

living matter in a hectare of soil. period

● Plants are stabilized by their roots, which grow ● hold plant nutrients, which can be taken up by

in the soil. plant roots

● The soil contains nutrients, such as nitrogen and ● are composed of a mix of sand, silt, and clay

potassium, which help to feed the plant. particles (clay helps to retain water and
● The soil stores water, which is taken up by nutrients, and sand helps the water to drain well
plant roots. after heavy rain)
● There is air in the spaces between the soil ● have a crumb structure, with spaces for air,

particles. This allows plant roots to breathe. water, and plant roots.
● Soil animals, such as earthworms, help to

maintain its structure and nutrient balance. Fungi Good farming promotes soil fertility. Some crops,
and other decomposers may also live in the soil. such as peas and beans, add nitrogen, a useful
● Humus is a dark, sticky substance, which is nutrient. Crops such as sugar cane protect the soil
formed when bacteria break down organic against erosion.
matter. It helps the soil to retain water and
nutrients and maintain the crumb structure,
which makes it easier for plant roots and soil
organisms to breathe and grow.

Soil forms within the regolith

Regolith

Unweathered rock
8.7.1 Soil contains inorganic matter, air, water, and both
dead and living organic matter, including bacteria. 8.7.2 Soil and regolith (the loose material above the solid rock).

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 Latosols
There are many types of soil. Mature soils, which Some latosols contain a layer of laterite – a hard,
have developed over a long period of time, are brick-like substance that makes plant growth
called zonal soils. They are strongly influenced by difficult.
climate and vegetation.
In the Caribbean and other humid tropical Intrazonal soils
environments, latosol is the most common type of Soils that are strongly influenced by drainage
zonal soil. Latosols may be very deep, with chemical conditions or the parent rock are called intrazonal
weathering extending to 10, 20, or even 100 metres soils.
below the surface. In many limestone areas such as Barbados, the
● Latosols are influenced by vegetation. The surface soil is not a latosol but a rendzina. This is a thin,
is covered with a thin layer of plant litter. dark-coloured soil with a high proportion of
● The upper part of the soil contains humus, organic matter.
derived from decomposing plant litter. This On many Caribbean islands, there are recent
stains the surface layer, giving it a darker colour volcanic rocks. These produce soils with a high
than the soil below. Nutrients in the soil are proportion of clay minerals, which hold water and
quickly taken up by plant roots. nutrients well. Fertility is higher than on most
● Latosols are influenced by climate. Most clay latosols.
minerals break down quickly in the warm, In Guyana, there are many areas of white sand,
humid environment. Those that do not break for example around the town of Linden. These
down are usually not good at holding nutrients. produce an acidic soil, which does not hold
● Latosols are influenced by water in the soil. nutrients well; these areas are often covered with
Nutrients and fine soil particles are washed out of Wallaba or Damara forest.
the soil very quickly by heavy rainfall. This is called
leaching. The soil retains iron and aluminium Some components of the soil
compounds, which give it a red or yellow colour. Living Non-living
● The lower part of the soil profile is quite acidic. Plant roots Sand, silt, clay
If the surface layer is eroded or damaged, the Soil animals Soil water
land will become infertile. Fungi Soil air

Quick questions
Forest or savanna 1 Explain these terms used for
vegetation
soils, in your own words:
Plant litter decomposes Very dark soil with a) Humus b) Zonal
quickly. Surface layer is crumb structure
dark with humus
c) Intrazonal d) Nutrient
e) Clay f) Sand
Deep cracks may
appear in dry g) Silt.
Plant roots take up
season 2 Describe three differences
nutrients
between soil and weathered
Upper part of soil is red rock.
or yellow with iron and
Unweathered rock
aluminium compounds
1–2 metres below
surface

Lower part of soil is

acid and may be
yellowish in colour

Chemical weathering
10–100 metres below
surface
8.7.3 Latosol (left) and rendzina (right).

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 9.1 Natural hazards and disasters

Key ideas ● Natural hazards threaten life and property.

● Hazards threaten the Caribbean and many other regions.
● Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and hurricanes are natural hazards.
● A disaster occurs when hazards cause serious damage.

What are natural hazards and

disasters?
Natural hazards are unpredictable threats arising When a natural hazard causes deaths, injuries, or major
within the physical, climatic, or biotic environment. damage to property, it becomes a natural disaster. With
Hazards may be associated with: careful planning and a well-organized response, a
● the lithosphere – that is, with the rocks of the hazard is less likely to lead to a major disaster.
Earth’s crust and the upper layer of the Earth’s Hazards and disasters may not come alone. A
mantle; e.g. earthquakes and volcanoes hurricane may cause flooding and landslides; floods
● the atmosphere; e.g. hurricanes and floods may spread disease.
● the biosphere – that is, living plants, animals

and other organisms; e.g. disease outbreaks Natural hazards in the Caribbean
affecting humans, plants, or coral reefs, or Caribbean countries are vulnerable to natural
sudden increases in insect pests or plants such hazards because:
as sargassum seaweed. ● they are close to plate boundaries – risk zones

for earthquakes and volcanic eruptions

Hazards ● they have hurricanes and intense rainfall

Climatic Geophysical Biotic ● most people live close to the sea

● many people live on steep slopes subject to

Hurricanes Earthquakes Epidemics
Droughts Volcanoes Plant disease landslides, or on flat land close to sea level
● humans have greatly altered the Caribbean
Snowstorms Tsunamis Forest fires
environment, e.g. forests and coastal mangroves
Floods Landslides Pests (e.g. locusts)
have been removed.
Which countries are threatened?
Hazard Caribbean No direct threat Other areas
countries threatened
threatened
Hurricanes Most of Guyana The USA,
Caribbean Suriname Mexico, Indian
Ocean (cyclones)
Pacific
(typhoons)
Volcanoes Eastern Trinidad, Mexico, Hawaii,
Caribbean Jamaica Japan, Andes,
Guyana, Central America
Suriname
Bahamas, Belize
Earthquakes Most of Guyana, California,
Caribbean Suriname Mexico, Japan,
9.1.1 Flooding in Georgetown, Guyana. Bahamas China

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 Why disaster risk is increasing Natural disasters in the Caribbean and
Since the 1950s, damage from natural disasters has Latin America
increased worldwide, because: Where Type Date Deaths Damage
● with economic development, more buildings, US$ million
roads, industrial plants, airports, and other Brazil Cold weather 1975 70 1,820
structures have been constructed Brazil Drought 1978 not known 5,745
● people build in hazardous places – on shorelines,
Colombia Volcano 1985 21,800 1,515
steep hillsides, or flat land with a flood risk (mudslide)
● most scientists believe that climate change is
Mexico Earthquake 1985 8,776 6,060
increasing the risk of extreme events, such as
Montserrat Volcano 19941 19 500
floods, droughts, and hurricanes.
Central Hurricane 1998 9,100 3,500
America Mitch
In 2013 an estimated 880 natural catastrophes
worldwide killed more than 20,000 people, and Venezuela Flood, 1999 30,000 1,955
mudslides
caused US$140 billion in damage.
Caribbean Hurricane 2004 94 17,000
Floods, droughts and hurricanes – worldwide Ivan
Period Number (major events) Cost (US$ billion) Haiti Earthquake 2010 220,000 8,000
1960–69 27 73
1970–79 47 131
1980–89 63 204
1990–99 89 629

Disaster risks and economic

development
Most financial damage is in wealthy countries. From
1985 to 1999, the more developed countries suffered
57% of the financial loss from disasters. They have
more property to lose. It is possible to do a million
dollars’ worth of damage to a million-dollar house,
but not to a makeshift shelter.
But poorer nations are less able to afford their
losses. From 1985 to 1999, the more developed
countries lost 2.5% of their combined GDP from
natural disasters. Less developed countries lost 13%.
Most deaths from natural disasters are in less
developed countries; they suffered 97% of these in 9.1.2 Mudslide damage in Caracas, Venezuela.
the 1990s. Buildings are weaker, infrastructures are
more easily destroyed, and help is harder to provide Quick questions
in an emergency. 1 Explain the difference between a natural hazard
Small countries are more vulnerable than large and a natural disaster.
ones. Hurricane Ivan, in 2004, hit Grenada from 2 Which natural hazards may affect Guyana and
coast to coast. The whole of Montserrat was Suriname?
wrecked by Hurricane Hugo in 1989, and again by
the volcanic emergency from 1994. Discussion points
Hurricane Andrew in 1992 cost the USA 3 Which natural hazards are a potential threat to
US$2 billion; but that was only 0.03% of its GDP. your own country?
Only one part of the country, southern Florida, was 4 Are any parts of your country particularly at
seriously affected. risk?

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 9.2 Hazard management and mapping

Key ideas ● Hazard management has four stages: response, recovery, mitigation, and preparedness.
● The Caribbean is at risk from earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, hurricanes, and
flooding.
● Hazard risks can be assessed and mapped.

Disaster management
Careful management can reduce the risk that a In an area at risk, there are four main stages to
natural hazard will result in a disaster. In some the disaster or hazard management cycle.
ways, we can now cope better with hazards than 1 Response: This is immediate emergency
was possible in the past: assistance, for example ensuring that people in the
● Scientific techniques for monitoring threats such disaster area have food, drinking water, shelter,
as hurricanes have improved. and medical care.
● With modern construction techniques, we can 2 Reconstruction and recovery: This takes place
design structures to withstand hazards. in the weeks, months, and sometimes years after
● Modern transport and communications allow a disaster; for example, repairing, restoring, or
help to be given quickly. replacing homes, water and electricity supply,
● There is a better understanding of how we can roads, and other services, Some response and
reduce hazard threats. reconstruction measures are described in
Section 9.14.
The disaster management cycle 3 Risk reduction: Forward-looking action is taken
Governments and other organizations should plan to prevent disasters or mitigate the effects of the
ahead so that hazards can be well managed. After a hazard in the future, for example by introducing
hurricane or an earthquake, planning and management improved construction standards. Some risk
can ensure that the next event causes less damage to reduction measures are described in Section 9.12.
life and property. 4 Preparedness: This is ensuring that all measures
are in place to reduce the risk that the hazard
will lead to a disaster. This may include public
education for a high level of awareness and
Preparedness
Risk reduction ensuring that emergency response equipment is
readily available. Some preparedness measures
are described in Section 9.13.

Areas at risk
Emergency Some areas in the Caribbean have a high degree of
management
risk. For example:
● Destructive plate boundaries, such as that close

to the subduction zone in the eastern Caribbean,

are at risk from volcanoes.
● All plate boundaries are at risk from earthquakes.
Recovery Response
● Areas within 9° of the Equator, such as Guyana

and Suriname, are not at risk from hurricanes.

The rest of the region is at risk.
9.2.1 The management cycle for natural hazards and disasters. ● Steep slopes on unconsolidated rocks are at risk

from landslides.
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 Careful disaster management is needed in areas at
risk. Some risks can be shown on a map.
Minor earthquakes, storms and other hazard
events occur frequently. Major events causing serious
damage are less common. For most risks:
● there is a high probability of a minor event

causing limited damage

● there is a low probability of a major event

causing serious damage.

Volcanic hazard mapping

9.2.3 Mount Liamuiga seen from Brimstone Hill. All now
The Seismic Research Centre of the University of appears quiet, but the surrounding area would be at
the West Indies has published a Volcanic Hazard risk during an eruption.
Atlas, showing areas at volcanic risk.
In St Kitts, for example, there is a risk of an
Dieppe bay eruption from Mount Liamuiga. Some of the
5 km
St. Paul’s
hazards that would result are:
● pyroclastic flows
Tabernacle
Mount ● lahars or mudflows in river valleys
Sandy 30 cm
Liamuiga ● ash falls
point
15 cm
● volcanic “bombs”, or large lumps of lava.
Brimstone
Hill 10 cm These hazards are described in Section 9.6.

G Hazard levels in Montserrat

Basseterre Montserrat has been affected by volcanic activity
since 1995. The volcanic hazards and the response
are described in Section 9.8. Volcanic activity is
carefully monitored. The hazard level varies from 0
0 4 km to 5, as shown in Figure 9.2.4. Depending on the
hazard level, zones on land and at sea are classed at
Key one of these levels:
At risk from… ● unrestricted – anyone may enter
Pyroclastic flows – high risk Moderate risk
● daytime access – certain hours only
Volcanic bombs (within 5 km) 10 cm Ash falls (likely depth in cm)
Lahars or mudflows (river valleys) ● controlled access – permit required

● essential workers – volcano observatory staff,

9.2.2 Hazards that could result from a volcanic eruption in
St Kitts. essential maintenance.
9.2.4 Hazard levels in Montserrat.
Hazard level 0 Hazard level 1 Hazard level 2 Hazard level 3 Hazard level 4 Hazard level 5

Daytime
transit
Daytime access
to some areas
Daytime
Daytime
transit
transit

More than one year with No surface activity for Low activity. No threat Mild surface activity with Large unstable dome to Threat of pyroclastic flows
no activity. extended period. to north or west. threat to west. north or west. or lateral blast.

Key
Unrestricted Daytime access Controlled access Essential workers

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 Earthquake hazard mapping
The US Geological Survey has prepared earthquake
hazard maps. Within the Caribbean, these cover Puerto
Rico and the Virgin Islands. There have been nine
major earthquakes here since 1520, the most recent a
magnitude 8.0 earthquake in 1946. Earthquakes in
1867 and 1918 generated destructive tsunamis. The
maps show the relative risk of a strong earthquake.

Tortola
St Thomas
San Juan
Puerto Rico St John
Mayaguez 9.2.6 Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat.
Vieques

St Croix
Floods and flood hazard mapping
Many parts of the Caribbean are at risk from
flooding. Areas at risk include:
0 60 km
● low-lying coastal areas, particularly those below

sea level, for example in Guyana and Suriname

9.2.5 Earthquake risk in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. ● floodplains adjoining the lower and middle
In the orange areas there is a high risk of a strong course of rivers
earthquake. In the green areas there is a moderate
● narrow V-shaped valleys adjoining the upper
risk. In the blue areas the risk is least.
course of rivers, which may be subject to
sudden flash floods.
Quick questions
1 Explain how hazard maps can help with: In Guyana, many coastal areas are almost completely
a) risk reduction flat, and are below sea level. They are protected by a
b) disaster preparedness. sea wall and drained by canals that flow into the sea at
low tide. These areas are at risk from flooding when:
Map questions ● there has been heavy rainfall

● high tides prevent water from the canals from

2 In a major volcanic eruption in St Kitts, name
one settlement which would be at risk from: flowing into the sea.
a) pyroclastic flows
b) volcanic bombs These risks are intensified if the drainage system has
c) mudflows or lahars been badly maintained. There may be extensive
d) ash falls between 10 cm and 15 cm deep. flooding in Georgetown and other coastal areas.
e) Which would be the safest part of the island? In many parts of the Caribbean, there may be
3 Which of the following is most at risk of a major flooding after heavy rain.
earthquake? Which is least at risk?
Figure 9.2.7 shows rainfall recorded in 2009 for
a) San Juan b) Vieques
different areas of Barbados. As in most years, rainfall
c) St Croix d) Tortola.
was highest in the centre of the island and on the
west coast, and lowest in dry, coastal districts such as
Research St Lucy, in the north of the island. Figure 9.2.8 shows
4 Look at the Montserrat Volcano Observatory year-to-year variations for rainfall in St Lucy, for the
website. What is the current hazard level shown? month of April. The average rainfall for April was just
5 Use an outline map to show areas in your over 60 millimetres, but the wettest year had more
country at risk from: than 150 millimetres of rain and the driest had less
a) flooding b) volcanoes c) landslides. than 10 millimetres.

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 In the morning of 12 April 2011,
178 millimetres of rain was recorded in a sudden
storm at Spring Hall in St Lucy. This was more than
the total for the whole month of April in any recent
year. Rain also fell in other parts of the island.
Coral limestone in Barbados absorbs water
quickly. Look again at Section 4.1 on the
hydrological cycle. After rainfall, the water cycle
continues with groundwater flow. There are few
permanent rivers and streams. However, on this
occasion, the rain fell too rapidly to be absorbed.
Intense rainfall caused a flash flood. The main areas
affected were:
● gullies draining areas of intense rainfall

● low-lying coastal areas.

9.2.9 Radar imagery can improve weather and flood

Key forecasts: a weather system approaches Barbados.
Rainfall totals (mm)
St Lucy N 650–900
Rain is falling most heavily in the red and yellow areas.
901–1,050
1,051–1,200 On the same night, this weather system brought a
1,201–1,350
1,351–1,500 rainstorm and flash floods to Grenada and St
1,501–1,650
1,651–1,800
Vincent, where:
1,801–1,950 ● landslides blocked a highway

● roads and bridges were damaged

● cars were swept away

● flood waters burst into houses and left a thick

deposit of mud
● some houses were damaged or destroyed

● farm animals were drowned.

Weather forecasters attempt to predict rainstorms

0 5 10 km Produced by: Hydrology section (CIMH)
Date: 19 April 2011 that carry a risk of flood damage. Researchers also
9.2.7 Barbados annual rainfall in 2009.
attempt to prepare maps that identify land at risk,
where roads and buildings need special design
features for protection, or where new construction
Monthly rainfall (mm) – Spring Hall Plantation
should not be allowed.
180
160
140
120
Rainfall (mm)

100
80
60
40
20
0
1989
1991
1992
1995
1996
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009

Year

9.2.8 April rainfall for Spring Hall, St Lucy, Barbados. 9.2.10 Flooding in Kingston, Jamaica.

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 9.3 Hurricanes:
the threats
Key ideas ● Strong winds cause widespread damage.
● Large waves erode coastal structures.
● Sea levels rise in a storm surge.
● Torrential rains cause flooding.
● Hurricanes may cause damaging landslides.
(See also Section 6.5, Hurricanes.)
9.3.2 A house in Jamaica, destroyed by the high
winds of Hurricane Ivan, September 2004.
Wind damage
Hurricane winds have great physical strength. A
40% increase in wind speed doubles its destructive
power; a 140 km/h wind is twice as powerful as a
● Flying debris, such as coconuts or sheets of
100 km/h wind. roofing material, may kill or injure people and
● Even a moderate wind can damage crops such as cause further damage to buildings.
bananas. Iris, a Category Four 2001 hurricane,
● Strong winds can demolish walls, particularly
destroyed 2,200 hectares of bananas in Belize; those in poor repair or with no reinforcing steel
the country exported no bananas for the bars.
following six months.
● Winds blow down trees, which can crush
Wave damage
buildings or block roads. Waves may reach 8 metres high. There may be severe
● Winds topple utility poles. Where electricity and beach erosion. Marine life can be damaged, and coral
telephone lines are down, it may take weeks or broken and killed. In Belize, lobster and conch fisheries
months to restore services. Masts that transmit took at least a year to recover after Hurricane Iris.
cellular calls may also be out of action. To avoid Coastal structures can be torn down. Hurricane
electrocution, electric power is shut off ahead of Lenny in 1999 came from the west, battering the
a major storm. sheltered leeward coast of the eastern Caribbean
● Roofs are vulnerable. Near the eye of a powerful islands and damaging ports, boats, coastal roads, and
hurricane, most roofs are torn off; some are hotels. In St Kitts, a new cruise ship facility, Port
damaged even in a tropical storm. Zante, was so badly damaged that it had to be rebuilt.
Ships and boats are at risk, whether they stay in
a sheltered harbour or choose to ride out a
hurricane at sea. In the seas off Belize, an 85-metre
cruise ship, the Fantome, disappeared in 1998 during
Destructive power

Hurricane Mitch. The crew of 30 were killed; the

100 passengers had been left on shore. During
Hurricane Iris, 17 passengers and 3 crew were
killed when a dive boat capsized in port; they had
not gone to a hurricane shelter.
Some survive at sea. Six days after Hurricane
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Mitch, one woman was rescued 130 kilometres
Wind speed km/h from land. Washed to sea by the floods, she survived
STORM I II III IV V mountainous waves by clinging to an uprooted tree;
Saffir-Simpson scale
her husband and three children were lost.
9.3.1 Wind speed and destructive power.

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 Landslides
When Hurricane Mitch devastated Honduras and
Nicaragua in 1998, most of the damage came from
landslides, which killed 9,100 people. Up to
500,000 people were left homeless. Landslides are
triggered where steep hillsides are sodden after
heavy rain, which increases the weight of the soil
and rock; the water lubricates the soil and rock
particles so that they can move more easily.
The danger of landslides is increased where
stabilizing forest cover is removed or where a
hillside has been steepened by excavation, for
example to construct a road.

Some Caribbean hurricanes

Hurricane Islands Date Category Deaths Damage
most (max.) (US$m)
affected
Gilbert Jamaica 1988 5 49 1,400
Luis Leewards 1995 4 16 2,500
Marilyn Leewards 1995 2 8 1,500
Mitch Nicaragua 1998 5 9,100 3,500
9.3.3 Venturing close to hurricane waves courts death by Honduras
drowning. Havana, Cuba, after Hurricane Ivan. Belize
Ivan Grenada 2004 5 94 17,000
The storm surge Jamaica
Caymans
Near the eye of a major hurricane, sea levels are
Jeanne Haiti 2004 3 3,000 6,900
several metres above normal. Low atmospheric
Dom. Rep.
pressure allows the water to rise. This storm surge is Bahamas
strengthened as it approaches the shore, and
low-lying coastal areas are flooded. Combined with
“At the marina, dozens of million-pound yachts,
strong winds and heavy rains, the effect is devastating.
laid up for the hurricane season, lay on top of
Flooding each other like toppled dominoes.”
Grenada after Hurricane Ivan, 2004
Hurricanes bring heavy rain over a wide area, up to a
quarter or a third of average annual rainfall. During a
Quick questions
hurricane in 1909, more than 2,400 millimetres of
rain fell over four days at Silver Hill in Jamaica. 1 Of the hurricanes shown in the table:
Intense rainfall in a short period causes flooding. a) Which caused most deaths?
● In flash floods, a torrent rushes down a river
b) Which caused most financial damage?
2 Which other natural hazards may be triggered
valley or a narrow gully. The power of the flood
by a hurricane?
may knock down buildings, wash away cars, or
3 List the ways in which hurricanes may affect:
drown those in its path. a) coastlines and coastal settlements
● On flat land, wide areas can be flooded by
b) inland districts.
slowly rising waters. Furniture may be ruined,
vehicles damaged, and crops destroyed. Flood Discussion point
water also threatens disease, by spreading
sewage and animal waste into the drinking 4 Have any changes in the Caribbean made
countries more vulnerable to hurricanes?
water.

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 9.4 Hurricanes: the warning

Key ideas ● Warnings are issued when a hurricane approaches.

● Warnings indicate risk, not certainty.

How hurricanes are tracked Tracking Ivan

The US National Hurricane Centre in Miami tracks The National Hurricane Centre was watching Ivan
tropical storms and hurricanes, working closely closely from 2 September 2004, when it formed as
with Caribbean weather services. Countries under a tropical depression. Predictions about its course
threat are warned when a hurricane or storm is and strength were constantly revised.
likely to strike. As Hurricane Ivan moved across the region, 17
Information about developing weather systems, countries were at some point issued with a watch
and hurricanes, is obtained from these sources: or warning. As the track shifted, some escaped
● Satellite images serious damage. A hurricane watch was issued for
● Hurricane Hunter aircraft, which fly directly Barbados on 5 September and a hurricane warning
into a hurricane. They release a dropsonde, a on 6 September. Ivan swung south and winds in
canister with weather instruments, which Barbados reached tropical storm strength.
transmits weather information by radio For Grenada, alerts progressed like this:
● Weather stations, which measure temperature, ● Tropical storm watch: 5 September, 20:00 hrs.

rainfall, air pressure, and humidity ● Tropical storm warning: 6 September, 08:00 hrs.

● Rawinsonde balloons, which are released twice a ● Hurricane warning: 6 September, 11:00 hrs.

day and can travel to a height of 25 kilometres. ● Ivan hits: 7 September, strong winds from

They measure humidity, temperature, wind 14:00 hrs. Eye over southern Grenada:
speed, wind direction, and atmospheric pressure 16.30 hrs. Strong winds continue through the
● Radar: Some Caribbean weather stations have night.
radar equipment, which shows rainfall within
500 kilometres. The radar image looks like a map. Many did not expect Ivan to hit; there had been no
hurricane in Grenada since Janet in 1955. Three
Meteorologists use computer models, and also make weeks earlier, Tropical Storm Earl had passed,
judgments based on knowledge and experience. The causing minimal damage. Some prepared early,
Hurricane Centre issues maps, usually every six others rushed at the last minute. When the storm
hours, showing the most likely course of a storm. did strike, most people were shocked by its
Warnings and watches are issued when necessary: unexpected force.
● Hurricane warning: Hurricane winds expected On 11 September the eye of Hurricane Ivan was
within 24 hours. expected to pass across Jamaica, almost directly over
● Hurricane watch: Hurricane winds possible Kingston and Montego Bay. Instead, the eye passed
within 36 hours. 55 kilometres south of the island. Jamaica was
● Tropical storm warning: Tropical storm winds spared the worst of the storm.
expected within 24 hours. Warnings were issued for many parts of Cuba.
● Tropical storm watch: Tropical storm winds At one point, the eye seemed likely to pass over
possible within 36 hours. Havana. As the predicted course shifted, a million
people were evacuated from the extreme west of the
island. There were no deaths.

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 How Ivan developed Quick research
2 September Tropical depression Nine in 1 Which countries were affected by each of these
mid-Atlantic. hurricanes?
3 September Becomes Tropical Storm Ivan. a) Ivan
5 September Becomes a hurricane.
6 September Direct hit expected for b) Jeanne
Barbados, but Ivan swings south. c) Mitch.
7 September Grenada devastated. 2 Which countries received a watch or warning for
8–9 September Ivan moves across the Ivan?
Caribbean. 3 Why is it important to prepare when a watch or
10–11 September Eye passes 55 km south of warning is issued?
Jamaica.
12 September Eye passes south of Cayman
Islands.
13 September Ivan passes western tip of Cuba.
16 September Ivan hits the American coast in
Alabama.
17 September Ivan gradually breaks up over
the USA.

Key Key
Depression Tropical storm
Tropical storm Hurricane
Hurricane Breaking up
Breaking up

Mitch Jeanne

Key
Tropical storm
Hurricane
Breaking up
Watch or
warning issued
6 September
forecast

Ivan

9.4.1 Hurricane tracks: Mitch, Jeanne, and Ivan.

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 9.5 Ivan and Jeanne

Key ideas ● A powerful hurricane can devastate a small country.

● The Saffir-Simpson scale grades wind speed in a hurricane.
● Even a less powerful storm can devastate vulnerable communities.
(See also Section 8.4, The effects of deforestation.)

Ivan in Grenada
No Grenadian will forget Hurricane Ivan, which Agriculture: Tree crops – the main focus of
devastated the island on 7 September 2004. It was the Grenadian agriculture – were hit hard. Nutmegs are
island’s first hurricane since Janet in 1955 and one of the main farm export and 90% of the trees were
the most powerful ever to strike the Caribbean. Every felled or badly damaged.
aspect of life was affected. Grenadians worked hard to Farmers were encouraged to plant fast-growing vegetable crops, followed
rebuild, but full recovery took years. Hurricane Emily by bananas; some were assisted with labour and fertilizers. However,
in 2005 brought an unexpected setback. elderly farmers were slow to clear damaged nutmeg plantations and
plant new trees. Two-thirds of farms ceased nutmeg sales, and in 2009
Housing: On some estimates, 80–90% of houses production was still only 12% of its level before Hurricane Ivan.
were damaged or destroyed. Many lost their roofs Environment: Trees were blown down over wide
and some were completely flattened. An estimated areas. Elsewhere, they were stripped of their leaves.
5,000–8,000 people slept in emergency shelters The loss of the tree cover increases run-off after
after Ivan, and many more stayed with neighbours heavy rain, with a risk of flooding and soil erosion.
or relatives. New leaves greened most hillsides within weeks, but tree cover remained
Almost all families were out of shelters within weeks, but some sparse on some mountainsides. Forests will take years to recover fully.
were still in rented accommodation or with relatives in early Transport: Roads were blocked and the airport was
2005. Some roofs were repaired quickly, but other families lived closed. The runway lighting was damaged.
for months under tarpaulins – which leak in rainy weather. Most Within days, most roads were reopened and daytime flights from
housing was repaired or rebuilt in 2005; 1,125 vulnerable the airport began again. There were some night flights by October.
families were given building materials. The government had built
1,200 new homes by the end of 2006.
Electricity and water: Power lines were brought
down in most communities. The water supply
intakes at reservoirs were clogged with debris. There
was also a water contamination risk.
The water supply for 80% of the island was restored within two
weeks, and for the remainder within five weeks. Power was
reconnected in some areas within days or weeks, and island-wide
by mid-2005. Many houses needed rewiring.
Other structures: The recently built national
stadium was wrecked. Most schools were damaged
or destroyed. The main hospital suffered some
damage, but most areas were still operating.
Students were back at school by November, some in temporary
classrooms – varying from tents to hotels. Most repairs were
completed in 2005, and some schools were rebuilt. A new 9.5.1 The destroyed headquarters of the Grenada Broadcast
stadium was ready for the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Network, and its transmitter, after Ivan.

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 Communications: Most landline telephones were
put out of action. Most cellular service continued.
Radio transmitters were blown down.
There was some broadcasting and a full cellular service within
days. The landline service was restored in 2005.
Tourism: Of the 1,700 hotel rooms, only 300 were
still in service after Ivan.
Cruise ships returned quickly, from November 2004. By 2005,
1,000 hotel rooms were available but tourist spending was 23%
below normal. Recovery was complete by 2006.
Law and order: Looting created further disruption
after the hurricane, which the police were slow to
9.5.3 A Grenadian building a temporary shelter from the
control. The prison roofs were blown off and most wreckage of his house after Ivan.
prisoners left the compound.
A state of emergency was declared after Ivan, with a 6.00 a.m. Total cost: A total of 39 people were killed and
to 6.00 p.m. curfew. However, order was restored within days. hundreds were injured. Estimated damage was
Many prisoners returned voluntarily; 40 were taken to St Lucia US$815 million – 200% of GDP or eight times the
and 32 were still at large by mid-October. government’s normal tax revenue. (See Section 12.2
for a definition of GDP.)

“As far as my eye can see, every building has lost

its roof, including mine.”
Grenadian

“I stopped the car to move a fallen tree. I could

not get back in. The wind pinned me against the
door of a house.”
Grenadian

“I hear trees start breaking and everything just

pelting. I see everything just moving in the air. I
was very, very scared. I thought I was going to die.”
Guyanese resident, Grenada

Ivan in other countries

9.5.2 Soldiers from Trinidad and Tobago provide security Cayman Islands: Despite strict building codes, most
for an electricity repair truck in St Georges, Grenada houses were badly damaged or destroyed; 900
on 10 September.
people were still in shelters two weeks later. Storm
Economic damage: Agriculture and tourism, the surge with battering waves up to 6 metres high and
main sources of foreign exchange, were badly rain flooded a quarter of Grand Cayman. There was
damaged. Many farmers and hotel staff lost their a three-week state of emergency; damage was
livelihoods. The government had to deal with US$1,850 million, 100% of GDP; two died.
hurricane relief and reconstruction, but its tax Jamaica: An estimated 47,000 houses were
revenue was down because of the damage. damaged and 5,600 destroyed. Power and telephone
International assistance and insurance payments helped cover the lines were brought down in many areas. There was
cost of relief and reconstruction. storm-surge flooding along the south coast and
Trauma: The power of the storm, lost homes and elsewhere – some communities were cut off and
possessions, and a devastated island were a powerful received relief supplies by helicopter. The banana
emotional shock. Time was needed to recover. crop was wiped out in some areas. Damage was
Counselling was made available for children and adults. US$585 million, 7% of GDP; 18 were killed.

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 Hurricane Jeanne
Cuba: There was a mass evacuation from the Hurricane Jeanne was less powerful than Ivan. It
threatened western tip. There was flooding, roof passed close to Haiti as a tropical storm on 17
damage, and mudslides, but no deaths. September 2004. Wind speeds were 80 km/h, but
The USA: Several thousand homes were destroyed Jeanne killed many more people than Ivan – in a
and 11,000 sq. km of forest were damaged. country with many poor and vulnerable communities.
Offshore oil production was shut down and seven
platforms were destroyed. There was US$800 0 100 km
million in damage to a naval air station at Pensacola, Track of Jeanne
N
Florida. Damage was US$14,200 million, 0.1% of
GDP; 26 were killed. R. Quinte
Barbados, Tobago, St Lucia, St Vincent: There were Gonaives
strong winds and several hundred houses lost their
roofs. Some power lines were brought down. HAITI
RA
Landslides were caused. Damage was up to US$80 r tib
oni
te
million; one person died in Tobago from a falling tree.
“The winds snapped the apartments like matchsticks. Port-au-Prince

Cars and trucks were floating away like toys.”

Cayman Islands radio reporter
9.5.4 Hurricane Jeanne and northern Haiti.
“My laptop was on the living room table. After
the storm, I dug it out of the sand.”
Caymans resident
● Up to 325 millimetres of rain fell in the mountains
of northern Haiti. This is more than 20% of average
“Me lose alot of weight and my blood pressure annual rainfall in just one day.
start go up, and me cry all the time. People say ● The forest had long since been cleared from
me shouldn’t cry but me can’t help it.” those mountains by poor farmers who needed
Elderly woman, Rocky Point, Jamaica, after Ivan land for crops and livestock and wood to make
charcoal for fuel.
The Saffir-Simpson Scale
Wind (km/hr) Example
● Much of the soil had been eroded, leaving bare
Tropical depression up to 62 Numbered, rock in some areas.
not named ● The rainwater rushed down the bare hillsides,
Heavy rain, flooding possible, some damage to into the River Quinte near the city of Gonaïves,
bananas and other crops.
which had more than 200,000 inhabitants.
Tropical storm 63–118 Earl (2004)
Flooding, some damage to trees, crops
● The flood waters drowned an estimated 3,000
(especially bananas) and weak structures. people and left many thousands homeless.
Category I 119–53 Danny (1997) ● Relief could not easily reach the city because the
Some damage to trees, crops, (esp. bananas) and roads were flooded.
weakly constructed buildings, storm surge 1.5 m. ● In street markets, where most Haitians buy
Category II 154–77 Bonnie (1998) groceries, prices doubled.
Roof, door and window damage, some trees
down, storm surge 2 m.
● People were desperate for food and drinking
Category III 178–209 Jeanne (2004) water. Some rioted and looted relief supplies.
Some buildings badly damaged, storm surge 3 m One doctor reported treating 30 people for
or more. gunshot wounds.
Category IV 210–49 Luis (1995) ● United Nations peacekeepers were already on
Extensive building damage, many roofs blown
off, many trees down, storm surge 4 m or more.
the island because of a political crisis. They
Category V 250 or more Ivan (2004)
attempted to restore order.
Severe and extensive building damage, storm ● Sewage washed through the city, bringing
surge 6 m or more. On average, the Caribbean can disease. The bodies of people and animals lay
expect 20 Category V hurricanes per century. unburied in the hot sun.

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 Country people lost their crops – their food supply
and source of cash income. The government of Haiti
has few resources at the best of times; aid agencies
were overstretched even before the disaster. Charities
such as the Red Cross and Oxfam sent emergency
help, but there was not enough for so many people
to rebuild their shattered lives.
There have been many flood disasters in Haiti and
the neighbouring Dominican Republic. Four months
before Jeanne, floods killed several thousand people.
Jeanne went on to hit the northern Bahamas
and Florida as a damaging Category III hurricane.

“My husband died while trying to save the

children. At one point there were 80 of us on the
roof. We could see people struggling to stay alive
and not drown, children crying and women
screaming. It was a nightmare.”
Louna Registe, who survived Jeanne with her
six children (BBC radio)

9.5.6 Survivors living on roofs in Gonaïves to escape the

flood waters after Jeanne.

Quick questions
1 In Hurricane Ivan:
a) Which country had the most deaths?
b) Which had the most financial damage?
c) Which had the most damage in relation to
GDP?
2 What types of hurricane damage can be
dealt with quickly during reconstruction and
recovery? Which take much longer?

Quick research
3 Has your country been affected by a hurricane?
Write a description. Note these points:
• When did the hurricane strike?
• What was its wind speed?
• What damage was caused?
• Were there any deaths?
• How long did it take to repair the damage?
• Are there any signs of the hurricane damage
9.5.5 A deforested and eroded hillside and farm in Haiti. today?

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 9.6 Volcanoes: the threats

Key ideas ● There are volcanic centres in many Caribbean countries.

● Threats include lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ashfalls, and mudflows.
(See also Section 1.6, Extrusive volcanic features.)

Worldwide, there are over 500 active volcanoes. In Lava flows

the Caribbean, the hazard zones are: Lava is hot, molten rock that flows to the surface
● the island arc running from Grenada in the
from a volcano. There are two main types:
south to Saba in the north, which has 19 ● Basic or basalt lava flows freely, usually close to
volcanic centres divergent plate margins, as in Iceland. It can
● Spanish-speaking countries in Central America.
spread over a wide area.
● Acid or viscous lava does not flow freely. It is
Since 1900, five volcanoes in the eastern Caribbean produced by volcanoes close to convergent plate
have erupted: margins, as in the eastern Caribbean. It may
● Mont Pelée on Martinique: 1902–3, killing
explode violently into the air, extrude upwards
30,000; and again in 1929 as a lava dome, or flow very slowly.
● Soufrière on St Vincent: 1902, with 1,600 dead;

and again in 1971 and 1979 Lava flows destroy everything in their paths – houses,
● Soufrière on Guadeloupe: 1976–7
roads, and vegetation. However, people usually have
● The submarine volcano of Kick ‘em Jenny,
time to flee. In Iceland, the Laki fissure eruption of
8 kilometres north of Grenada: 13 times from 1783 covered 558 sq. km, an area larger than
1939 to 2015. The summit is now 180 metres Barbados. There were floods from melting ice; crops
beneath the waves. Volcanic activity in 2015 and farm animals were poisoned by ash and sulphur
damaged underwater fibre-optic cables, fumes; and 20% of the population drowned or
disrupting Internet traffic on some islands starved to death. With sailing ships the only outside
● The Soufrière volcano on Montserrat, since 1995.
link, the islanders had to cope on their own.
The name ‘Soufrière’ comes from the French word Pyroclastic flows
for sulphur, which emerges around many volcanoes.
Viscous lava may burst from a volcano in a mass of
gas, ash, and lava fragments, which rushes forward at
9.6.1 A lava eruption up to 700 km/h, with a temperature of 300–800 °C,
in Hawaii.
killing everything in its path. This is a pyroclastic
flow. It leaves a thick and slowly cooling deposit of
ash and rocks.
St Pierre on Martinique was destroyed by a
pyroclastic flow at 7.50 a.m. on 8 May 1902. A
dense violet-grey cloud of superheated gas and
glowing ash appeared from the crater of Mont Pelée.
Within minutes the town was on fire, and its people
suffocated in the blast of hot gas. The force was
enough to knock down walls a metre thick; the heat
melted glass and fused piles of plates together. Only
two people survived the disaster. One was a convict,
in a thick-walled prison cell.

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 9.6.2 Ashfalls kill the vegetation and bury the village of Salem on Montserrat in 1997.

Ashfalls Mudflows and lahars

In violent eruptions, lava is thrown high into the When volcanic ash is wet, it can flow rapidly
air, breaks up, and solidifies. It falls back to earth as downhill as a volcanic mudflow, or lahar, burying
fine, dark grey glassy particles of volcanic ash or as everything in its path. In Montserrat, mudflows have
large “bombs” weighing several tonnes. Most of this been triggered by heavy rain during hurricanes.
material falls close to the volcano. However, some In November 1985, the Nevado del Ruiz
fine ash travels a long way. Montserrat eruptions volcano erupted in Colombia, producing an ash
have left a thin deposit on neighbouring islands. cloud. The heat of the eruption melted the volcano’s
Heavy falls of ash are destructive. The Roman city ice cap and sent torrents of water down the
of Pompeii was wiped out by an ashfall in 79 CE, when mountainsides. A mudflow 40 metres deep hit the
the nearby volcano Vesuvius erupted. Archaeologists town of Armero at 50 km/h; 21,800 people were
have excavated houses and streets that were buried killed and more than 60,000 left homeless, with
almost 2,000 years ago, finding the contorted bodies of US$1,500 million in property damage. Most people
people and animals buried by hot volcanic ash. had ignored an evacuation warning five days earlier.
Ash is a hazard because:
● a thick ashfall can bury buildings and roads
Quick questions
● wet ash 10 centimetres deep is enough for 1 Draw a map to show islands in the eastern
many roofs to collapse; people who are trapped Caribbean which:
may be burned or suffocated. Even a thin layer a) could be threatened by volcanoes
can damage crops and poison farm animals b) have experienced major eruptions since 1900.
● breathing ash for an extended period is a health

hazard Quick research

● ash can short-circuit power lines and damage 2 Research one of these historic eruptions. Write
machinery a brief description of the disaster. On a world
● jet aircraft can lose power if they fly through an map, locate the volcano and adjacent crustal
ash cloud. When a volcano in Iceland erupted in plates. State what has happened to the site
April and May 2010, up to 100,000 flights over today.
Europe were cancelled. Airlines lost more than a) Vesuvius, 79 CE b) Krakatoa, 1883
US$1 billion. c) Mont Pelée, 1902.

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 9.7 The 1995 Montserrat eruption
Key ideas ● Volcanoes that have been quiet may become active.
● Eruptions can devastate an island for many years.
(See also Section 1.6, Extrusive volcanic features.)

The volcano
Montserrat is a volcanic island. Before the current phase of
G activity started in 1995, we knew that:
● the rocks were of volcanic ash and lava

● the Soufrière Hills in the south of the island sloped up

to the rim of a volcanic crater

● in some places, called fumaroles, sulphurous steam

came to the surface

● rivers and watercourses carved steep-sided valleys, known as

ghauts (pronounced guts), down the side of the mountain.

Until 1995 there was no sign that Montserrat’s Soufrière Hills

posed more of a threat than volcanoes on other islands. There
had been series of small earthquakes, or “swarms”, in the
1890s, 1930s and 1960s but no recent eruptions. The
fumaroles became more active at these times, but that was all.

The eruption 9.7.1 Ash deposits in Plymouth. This church is now

completely buried.
A new phase of volcanic activity started on 18 July 1995.
Next day, the Seismic Unit at the University of the West
Indies in Trinidad sent a team of geologists to the island. The
volcano has been closely monitored since then and there is
now a purpose-built volcanic observatory.
During the eruption:
● a dome of viscous lava was extruded slowly from the crater

● when it became unstable, the dome collapsed

● the dome collapsed and grew back several times

● the volcano was most dangerous when the dome was

unstable
● the south of the island was devastated by ashfalls and

pyroclastic flows; many of these ran down the ghauts to

the sea.

The south of the island has been evacuated. Ash falls have even
affected the “safe zone” in the north. In July 2003 some roofs
there collapsed from the weight of the ash. In some areas the 9.7.2 The Soufrière Hills volcano in Montserrat. The new
lava dome is surrounded by older peaks. Pyroclastic
ash turned to mud in heavy rain, then solidified and had to be flows of ash, hot gas, and other material down the
chipped away. Elsewhere, the ash stayed dry; thick dust blew Tar River valley have left thick deposits and created a
everywhere. Ash fell on islands as far away as St Croix. strip of new land up to 1 km across.

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 Key
“It’s as if a cement truck has emptied its load over Exclusion zone
everything. Rocks as big as golf balls have fallen Safe zone unrestricted
Direction of pyroclastic
in my yard.” flows
A resident in the safe zone, July 2003 New land formed by
pyroclastic flows
Daytime transit
“St Pierre, on the flanks of Mont Pelée, is seen to Little Bay No access without
approval
be a location at great potential hazard from Geralds Unrestricted
pyroclastic flows. A similar conclusion can be airport

reached for other major towns in the Lesser

Antilles, such as Plymouth in Montserrat, and
Old
Basse Terre in Guadeloupe.” airport
From a geological paper published in 1994 Belham Valley
mining area
Tar River
The Montserrat eruption
1992–5 Swarms of small earthquakes. We now Plymouth
Soufrière Hills

know that these were caused by magma rising

towards the surface.
18 July 1995 Earthquakes, a rumbling noise and 0 5 km
smell of sulphur, and a slight fall of ash. Next day,
seven new vents open in the crater. No immediate
threat to life. 9.7.3 Montserrat: safe zone and exclusion zone, in 2015.
21 August 1995 An ash cloud 2,000 m high. For
Quick questions
15 minutes the south of the island is in darkness.
3
Most people evacuate to the north, where many 1 How
rt many times was southern Montserrat
stay in tents. Several thousand travel to friends evacuated?
and relatives overseas. 2 What were the dates of the evacuations?
September 1995 Viscous lava starts to form a 3 What was the date of the first:
dome in the crater. a) mudflow?
September 1995 Plymouth declared safe. Most b) pyroclastic flow?
people return. c) major ash eruption?
December 1995 Second evacuation. d) formation of the lava dome?
January 1996 Plymouth again declared safe.
March 1996 First pyroclastic flows. Revision
April 1996 Third and final evacuation.
4 Explain the meaning of these terms:
May 1996 Pyroclastic flows reach the sea.
a) Fumarole Section 1.7
September 1996 Ash cloud 12 km high dumps
b) Viscous lava dome Section 1.6
600,000 tonnes of ash on the south.
c) Mudflow Section 9.6
June 1997 Pyroclastic flows devastate villages in
d) Pyroclastic flow Section 9.6
the centre. These have already been evacuated,
e) Extrusive Section 1.6.
but 19 people who refused to leave are killed.
1997–2003 Extrusion of viscous lava. The dome
collapses several times. Heavy ash falls and Research
pyroclastic flows in the south. 5 Has the Montserrat volcano been active since
1999 Mudflows from Hurricanes Floyd, Jose and 2010?
Lenny. 6 Have any other Caribbean volcanoes shown
July 2003 Two-thirds of the dome collapses – 120 activity since then?
million cubic m of rock. Mudflows and pyroclastic
flows. Ash cloud 15 km high.
2004–January 2010 Continuing episodes with
Discussion point
earthquakes, dome growth and collapse, ash clouds 7 Why do people continue to live in areas that may
up to 12 km high, pyroclastic flows and mudflows. one day be destroyed by a volcanic eruption?
February 2010–15 Small earthquakes. Some 8 Should islands avoid areas of volcanic risk when
continuing volcanic activity, but at a reduced level. planning new investments?

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 9.8 Montserrat: warning
and reconstruction
Key ideas ● Caribbean volcanoes are carefully monitored.
● Danger areas are evacuated when a volcano threatens.
● Montserratians have built a new life in the safe zone.
● Forward planning can reduce the risk of damage.

Warning signs
Because their volcano was monitored, Montserratians
had time to evacuate. Volcanoes in the eastern
9.8.1 Monitoring the Montserrat
Caribbean are watched for seismic activity. If an volcano in April 1997.
eruption seems likely, monitoring is stepped up. If it
were threatened again today, St Pierre would be Evacuation
evacuated in time. When a volcanic eruption threatens, people must be
These are some signs of an impending eruption: evacuated. Sometimes the evacuation is short term.
● The growth of an underground mass of molten
Before the St Vincent Soufrière erupted in 1979,
rock pushes the surface up slightly. A tiltmeter 14,000 people left the north of the island. There
can detect movements of as little as 1 mm per were no casualties, although there was US$5.3
km. Electronic distance measurement with a million in damage to crops and livestock within the
laser beam and Global Positioning Systems evacuation zone.
(GPS) linked to satellites are also used. During a short-term evacuation, people live in
● A small increase in temperature, detected by
shelters for several weeks, leaving homes and
infrared equipment. There may also be changes possessions unattended. Many are reluctant to go –
in the magnetic pattern of the rocks. but, as in Montserrat, those who ignore the advice
● A “swarm” of small earthquakes as the magma
may be killed.
rises. However, these do not always mean that In Montserrat, the volcanic emergency lasted
there will be an eruption. many years. People had to abandon their homes,
jobs, and possessions, and start a new life elsewhere.
It is possible to predict some eruptions, but not all: Of the 10,500 people on the island in 1994, most
● Many volcanoes are thought to be extinct. Not
lived in the danger zone.
all are monitored. When Mount Lamington in ● Many moved to the safe zone. Some were in
New Guinea erupted in 1951, nobody even emergency shelters for months or years, with
knew it was a volcano. few comforts and little privacy. By 2001,
● Precise prediction remains impossible. At the
everyone was in permanent housing.
American volcano of Mount St Helens, in 1980, ● More than half the population went overseas,
vulcanologists knew an eruption was imminent, most to Britain or to neighbouring islands, such
but they could not predict the exact day or its as Antigua.
destructive power. We do not know how long ● In 1998 there were only 2,700 people living on
Montserrat’s eruptive phase will last. the island. There were rumours that it would be
abandoned. But some people have started to
Danger levels may change rapidly. The St Vincent return.
Soufrière progressed in 18 hours from mild activity ● In 2004, the safe zone was extended slightly.
to a full-scale eruption in 1979.

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 The government encourages income-generating
activities such as:
● Tourism – Montserrat is not a good place for

beach holidays, but the adventurous can view

the volcano from mountain trails. Some visitors
come on one-day excursions from Antigua and
other islands. G
● Study – an interpretation centre at Little Bay

allows scientists and visitors to learn about the

volcano, its geology and its history.
● Mineral extraction – volcanic sand is mined in
9.8.2 New houses built in northern Montserrat, in the safe the Belham Valley and exported to the Virgin
zone, to house islanders from the exclusion zone.
Islands for use in construction. More than 100
people are employed, and the government earns
revenue for public services.
Reconstruction
Volcanoes and resources
In Montserrat, the danger zone included:
● the capital, Plymouth
In the long term, volcanic activity can create
resources:
● the port and airport
■ Volcanic ash will eventually produce a rich soil.
● the hospital
■ There may be deposits of gold, copper, and
● the only secondary school
other minerals.
● the electricity plant and telephone exchange ■ Volcanic features that are safe can be
● all the hotels developed as tourist attractions. The St
● most of the farm land Lucia Soufrière has a visitors’ trail and an
● the main manufacturing plant, a rice mill interpretation centre.
● the main retail outlets, banks and government ■ Hot rock beneath the surface can be used to

offices. generate geothermal electric power.

All of these are now deep in volcanic ash. The new

capital is at Little Bay, in the north. There are
schools, a hospital, electricity, water and telephone
systems, government offices, and a housing estate.
One of the most difficult problems was
international transport. At first the old airport could
be used, but from 1998 it was too dangerous. For
the next six years, the only connections with the
outside world were a ferry and a helicopter service,
both to Antigua. By 2005 a new jetty was
completed at Little Bay and a new airport at Geralds.

Earning a living 9.8.3 The St Lucia Soufrière is now a tourist attraction.

Montserrat is a UK Overseas Territory. Many
government expenses have been met by Britain. There Quick questions
have sometimes been differing views about how
1 Explain carefully why people are reluctant to
much money is needed, and how it should be spent.
leave their homes when disaster threatens.
Most jobs on Montserrat are now in
government services or construction. However, there
are some private businesses, e.g. in retailing. Quick research
2 Are any resources in your country derived from
volcanic activity?

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 9.9 Earthquakes: the threats

Key ideas ● A major earthquake causes devastating damage.

● The power of an earthquake is measured by its magnitude.
● Damage is measured on the modified Mercalli scale.
(See also Section 1.4, Plate boundaries: volcanoes, 9.9.1 A seismograph
folding and faulting.) reading for the
2004 Indonesian
earthquake.

In the Caribbean, major earthquakes are less common Buildings may sink into the ground, or overturn.
than hurricanes, but they can cause devastation and ● Landslides – Landslides may be triggered on

strike without warning. These are the main dangers: steep slopes, particularly if the ground is already
● Tremors – The ground vibrates during an wet or unstable.
earthquake. Push waves travel outwards from the ● Floods – Earthquakes may burst a dam, with a

focus of the earthquake, and shake waves travel rush of raging water down to the valley below.
from side to side. Walls may crack and windows ● Fires – In earthquakes such as Tokyo in 1923

may break. Some buildings could collapse under and San Francisco in 1906, cooking fires set
the strain. Utility poles may fall, leaving live wooden buildings alight. This caused more
wires exposed. damage than the earthquake itself. Pipes
● Ground fissures – In a powerful earthquake, carrying gas may burst, adding to the danger.
the ground splits and cracks. ● Tsunamis – A powerful submarine thrust-fault

● Liquefaction – Reclaimed land or loose earthquake of magnitude 7.0 or more can

sediments that are saturated with water may produce a giant wave or tsunami, devastating
behave like a liquid during an earthquake. low-lying coastal regions.

9.9.2 The wreckage of a town in Japan after the earthquake and tsunami in 2011.

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 Earthquake magnitude
The power of an earthquake depends on the energy A Mexican earthquake in 1986 had a magnitude of 7.8.
released. This is its moment magnitude. A Its epicentre was under the Pacific coast, but it did not
two-point increase in magnitude means that 1,000 cause much damage there because the coastal towns are
times as much energy has been released. The built on hard rocks. But Mexico City, 500 kilometres
moment magnitude scale has no maximum point, from the epicentre, is built on an old lake, filled in with
as there is no upper limit to the power of a possible mud and other sediments. These shake like a bowl of
earthquake. The Richter scale is an older measure no jelly on a table when subjected to a sudden shock.
longer in scientific use.
● The smallest tremors detected with scientific The Mercalli scale
instruments have a magnitude of 2.0. The effects of an earthquake are measured on
● The 1993 Kingston earthquake had a magnitude the modified Mercalli Scale:
I Detected only by scientific instruments.
of 5.4.
II Noticed by sensitive people; hanging objects
● The 1907 Kingston earthquake had a magnitude
swing.
of between 6.0 and 6.5. It was up to 30 times III Parked cars rock slightly, like the vibration
more powerful than the 1993 earthquake. from a passing truck.
● The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 had a
IV People sleeping are awakened; walls make a
magnitude of 8.3. It released about 1,000 times cracking sound.
more energy than the 1907 Kingston V Dishes and windows are broken.
earthquake. VI Felt enough to frighten many people.
● The most powerful earthquake since 1900 VII Badly built structures are damaged (Kingston
struck Chile in 1960, with a magnitude of 9.5. 1993).
● Small earthquakes are very common. In VIII Many buildings are damaged; heavy furniture
Montserrat, 30,000 were recorded between is overturned.
1993 and 2003. IX The ground cracks conspicuously; pipes
● In an average year, there are 18 earthquakes of
burst (Kingston 1907).
X Most buildings are destroyed; there are many
at least magnitude 7 somewhere in the world,
landslides (Port Royal 1692, Haiti 2010).
and one with a magnitude greater than 8. XI Few buildings remain; there are broad cracks
The most powerful earthquakes are not always the in the ground.
most destructive. Damage caused by an earthquake XII Total destruction; the ground appears to be
depends on the underlying rocks and its energy. liquid and visibly rolls like waves.

Quick questions
1 What are the differences between the
magnitude scale and the Mercalli scale?
2 What point on the Mercalli scale would be used
for a magnitude 2.0 earthquake?

Research
3 Research one of these earthquakes. Write a brief
description of the disaster. On a world map, locate
the earthquake and adjacent crustal plates. What
was the earthquake’s magnitude? Estimate its
destructive power on the Mercalli scale.
a) San Francisco, 1906
b) Tokyo, 1923
c) Sumatra, 2004 (showing countries affected
by the tsunami)
d) Any recent major earthquake.
9.9.3 A wrecked church in Dominica after the 2004 earthquake.

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 9.10 Earthquakes in the Caribbean

Key ideas ● Most Caribbean countries are threatened by earthquakes.

● A major earthquake causes devastating damage.

Jamaica
Most Caribbean countries are close to a plate Kingston and Port Royal are vulnerable because they
boundary. They are at risk from earthquakes. Most are built on soft coastal sediments, saturated in places
are too small to be felt. Some can be felt, but do not with seawater, which can shake violently. There was
cause serious damage. Very large earthquakes are liquefaction of the ground in both major earthquakes.
uncommon, but devastating. Many Caribbean settlements are built on soft alluvial
Jamaica has been hit by several major and coastal sediments, and would be at similar risk.
earthquakes:
● In 1692 the city of Port Royal on the Palisadoes Dominica
to the south of Kingston Harbour was There have been earthquakes on many other islands,
destroyed. More than 3,000 people were killed, although none in the English-speaking Caribbean
and much of the land on which the town was have been as damaging as Jamaica’s.
built slumped into the sea. Ruins can be seen At 7.41 a.m. on 21 November 2004, a
on the seabed today. magnitude 6.3 earthquake shook Dominica, with its
● In 1907 Kingston was devastated by a powerful epicentre 10 kilometres north of the island. It was
magnitude 6.0–6.5 earthquake, and a fire which also felt on other islands. Three historic churches
then started in the ruins. More than 800 people were badly damaged, as was the hospital in the
were killed and 85% of the buildings were northern town of Portsmouth. Landslides were
damaged or destroyed. Ground fissures triggered, blocking several roads. A collapsing wall
15 centimetres across were reported. in a house on Guadeloupe killed a small child.
● A magnitude 5.4 earthquake in January 1993

killed two and triggered landslides. More than Some Caribbean earthquakes
500 houses were damaged or destroyed. Date Magnitude Deaths Countries affected
1690 Antigua, St Kitts,
Nevis, Montserrat
1766 7.9 Trinidad (former capital
San Jose destroyed)
1839 400 Martinique
1843 2,000 Antigua, Guadeloupe,
Dominica, St Kitts,
Nevis, Montserrat
1946 8.0 100 Dominican Republic
1953 7.7 St Lucia
1954 6.5 1 Trinidad
1997 5.9 80 Venezuela (where all
the deaths occurred);
also Tobago, Trinidad
2004 6.3 1 Dominica, Guadeloupe
9.10.1 Kingston, Jamaica, after the 1907 earthquake. 2010 7.0 316,000 Haiti
The magnitude of some historic earthquakes is not known.

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 20˚N
64˚W 62˚W 60˚W 58˚W
20˚N
Tsunamis and the Caribbean
Key An earthquake beneath the seabed may trigger a
Depth (km) Mag giant wave, or tsunami. In deep water a tsunami is
0–15
+6
barely noticeable, but it increases rapidly in height
Anguilla 15–35
18˚N 35–70 18˚N as it approaches the shore, and may devastate
5
Saba 70–100
Barbuda 100–150 4
low-lying coastal areas.
St Kitts
Nevis Antigua
150–300 3
2 In a magnitude 9.0 earthquake, on 26 December
Montserrat 2004, close to the Indonesian island of Sumatra,
16˚N Guadeloupe 16˚N there was a 10-metre movement on the sea floor
Dominica
between the Indian and Eurasian plates, causing a
giant tsunami. Travelling at up to 800 km/h, it took
Martinique four hours to reach Sri Lanka, and eight to the
14˚N 14˚N
African coast, in Kenya. An estimated 225,000
Saint Lucia
people were killed across the region.
St Vincent
Barbados
The Pacific Ocean has a warning system, with
pressure recorders and buoys to detect tsunamis at
12˚N Grenada 12˚N
sea. A system was established for the Indian Ocean
in 2006, and one is planned for the Caribbean.
Tobago ● A tsunami caused by a magnitude 8.1

Trinidad
submarine earthquake to the north of Puerto
10˚N 10˚N
Rico in 1946 killed 100 people in the
Dominican Republic. A magnitude 7.5
64˚W 62˚W 60˚W 58˚W earthquake near the Virgin Islands in 1867
9.10.2 Earthquakes in the Caribbean during two weeks in produced a tsunami that killed 20 and reached
2011. Their colour indicates their depth below the
as far as Grenada.
surface.
● The Lisbon earthquake of 1755 caused a

“There were people running up and down the tsunami that reached the Caribbean, but not as a
streets because they were frightened and didn’t powerful or destructive wave.
● Regional geologists do not believe that there is a
know what was happening.”
Dominica, 2004 high risk of a very powerful Caribbean tsunami.
A rare thrust-fault submarine earthquake of at
“Without a warning the earth began to shake and least magnitude 7.0 is needed.
● The submarine volcano at Kick ‘Em Jenny near
tremble at 3:30 Monday afternoon. The shock
lasted exactly 36 seconds. The whole city was like Grenada could one day cause a tsunami, but at
a ship in a choppy sea and buildings reeled and present it is too far beneath the surface.
● There is a risk that, during the coming
fell. Eastward a dense cloud of dust rose and
enveloped Kingston in semi-darkness. The shocks centuries, the collapse of a volcano on La Palma
were most destructive along the harbour front, in the Canary Islands could cause a major
where entire streets were levelled and crowds of tsunami, devastating the North Atlantic and
frightened, shrieking people streamed northwards adjoining seas. It would take around eight hours
towards the racecourse, hundreds with heads and to reach the Caribbean.
bodies cut and bruised, streaming with blood. Quick questions
As the dust lifted, pillars of smoke arose in
1 Study Figure 9.10.2. Which islands are most at
Harbour Street, near the parish church, and soon
risk from earthquakes?
afterwards flames shot into the sky. In half an
hour, the flames were spreading from block to
block in the business section.” Discussion point
Daily Telegraph, 17 January 1907 2 Why should the Caribbean develop a tsunami
warning system?

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 9.11 The 2010 Haiti earthquake

Key ideas ● In 2010 an earthquake devastated Haiti’s capital Port-au-Prince.

● Poverty and poor construction increased the damage.
● Lack of infrastructure and institutions makes reconstruction difficult.

“Parliament has collapsed. The tax office has ● Another 300,000 were seriously injured.
collapsed. Schools have collapsed. Hospitals have ● 105,000 houses collapsed.
collapsed.” ● Perhaps 1.8 million were left homeless.
René Préval, President of Haiti However, nobody will ever know the exact
numbers.
“We have smashed heads, internal bleeding, broken
bones. But we have no real medicine, no anti- Among the buildings destroyed were:
inflammatories and very few needles. We have no ● the Presidential palace
information, no one is telling us anything.” ● 1,300 schools and 50 health clinics
Medical aid volunteer ● most ministries, schools, and hospitals.

“I don’t even know if my sons and daughter are Faults and plate boundaries
alive; I haven’t heard a word about them. Since I Haiti lies just south of the transform plate boundary
got the news, I can’t sleep.” between the North American and Caribbean plates,
Haitian resident in Jamaica; four other family which runs through the Septentrional or “northern”
members were known to be dead fault zone. Haiti had already suffered major
earthquakes in 1751, 1770, and 1842.
The Haiti earthquake
The North American plate moves west at an
At 4.53 p.m. on 12 January 2010, a magnitude 7.0 average rate of 20 millimetres a year. However, there
earthquake struck Haiti. Its epicentre was 25 kilometres may be little movement for a long period; then a
west of the capital, Port-au-Prince. burst of energy is released in a major earthquake.
These are some estimates of the damage: The 2010 earthquake was on the Enriquillo-
● 220,000 people were killed, out of three
Plantain Garden fault, which runs parallel to the main
million living in or close to the capital. plate boundary, through Jamaica, Haiti, and the

Key
Epicentre

Earthquake felt:
North American Plate Mercalli VI to X
CUBA

Septentrional Fault Zone

HAITI
Caym Ridge

DOMINICAN
REPUBLIC
an Is

Port-au-Prince
land

n Garden Fault
JAMAICA
- Plantai
s

illo
Enriqu

9.11.1 Tectonic plates and the Haiti earthquake.

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 Dominican Republic. Figure 9.11.1 shows that Port-au-
Prince is built in a rift valley just north of this fault
zone. Stress along the fault had been building up for
close to 250 years before the 2010 earthquake.

Why the damage was severe

The Haiti earthquake was strong, but not
exceptional. In the 14 months after January 2010
there were:
● 22 earthquakes around the world of magnitude

7.0 to 7.7
● one of magnitude 8.8 (Chile, February 2010)
9.11.2 Earthquake damage in Haiti.
● one of magnitude 9.0 (Japan, March 2011).
● Many countries have a building code, so that new
The Chilean earthquake released 500 times more
buildings are designed to withstand earthquakes
energy than Haiti’s, and the Japanese earthquake
or hurricanes. Haiti had no building code. Even if
released 1,000 times more. Only two earthquakes
there had been a code, few families could afford
since 1900 have been stronger than magnitude 9.0.
an earthquake-resistant structure.
There are physical reasons why the Haiti
earthquake was so destructive:
● Its focus was only 13 kilometres deep.
“I added extra concrete and steel for the
● Its epicentre was 25 kilometres from Port-au-
11-storey building. This increased the cost by
US$150,000. My clients were upset. But their
Prince.
● The capital is built on unconsolidated rocks,
building is still standing.”
Haitian engineer who built to earthquake standards
which shake violently in an earthquake.
before 2010
There were also human, social and economic
reasons why the disaster was so severe. The immediate response
● Haiti is the poorest country in the western After the earthquake, there were pressing tasks for
hemisphere. Even before the earthquake, life for immediate action, such as:
many was a struggle to survive; Section 11.2 ● rescuing survivors trapped beneath the ruins
describes living conditions in the city. ● retrieving and burying the bodies of the dead
● There had been no major earthquakes for 60 ● giving medical treatment to the injured
years before 2010 and so there was little public ● providing water, food and short-term shelter
preparedness. ● maintaining public security and preventing looting.

Three earthquakes compared

Haiti Chile Japan
Magnitude 7.0 8.8 9.0
Displacement of fault 1.8 metres 10 metres 30–40 metres
Depth of focus 13 km 34 km 32 km
Epicentre 25 km from capital 100 km from major cities 80–100 km from major cities
Mercalli scale Up to X Up to IX Up to IX
Major tsunami No No Yes – up to 38 metres
Deaths 220,000 562 Up to 26,000
Cost of damage US$8 billion Up to US$7 billion Up to US$300 billion
Per capita GDP US$646 US$9,644 US$18,400
Building code? No Yes Yes
Main source of assistance International National National
Return to normal Many years Weeks Years

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 There have for many years been problems with
inefficiency and corruption in Haiti. Many
competent Haitian professionals have migrated
overseas – an example of the “brain drain”. Section
11.2 describes some of the problems facing Haiti.
A national response was not adequate. However,
regional and international assistance during the
response phase was difficult.
● The airport could take only 90 flights a day. Its

control tower was destroyed and two of the

three runways were unusable. Some flights with
urgent medical aid were unable to land.
● Cargo handling equipment at the port was out

of action.
● Transport by road from the Dominican Republic

takes up to 18 hours.
● The headquarters of the UN assistance mission

was destroyed and many of its staff were killed.

Caribbean governments offered funds. Individuals,

voluntary organizations and private businesses gave
cash, food, and equipment. Larger-scale assistance
9.11.3 Children at play in a tent city near the crumbling came from countries across the globe. The difficulty
National Palace in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. The Palace was in translating donations into practical assistance
was later demolished.
on the ground. This was the outcome:
● Rescuing survivors: For those who were
These essential steps were difficult, because:
● there was no advance planning for disasters
trapped, the estimated survival time was 72
● many officials and emergency workers were
hours. At least 134 were rescued. One survivor
dead, injured, or struggling to survive was taken from the ruins as late as 8 February.
● Burying the dead: Some bodies were never
● even the president had nowhere to live and

work, and the government was ineffective recovered. Thousands were taken to mass graves.
● roads were blocked by debris.
Few received a ceremonial burial. This added to
the trauma for survivors.

9.11.4 Residents return to their damaged homes after the earthquake in Haiti.

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 ● Food, water, medical treatment: Local and Donors pledged US$12.5 billion in assistance over
international agencies tried to distribute food several years; much of this was used to cancel the
and water, and gave medical support, but the government’s earlier debts.
needs were enormous. More than 4,000 people The aim of reconstruction and recovery was to
lost an arm or a leg. leave Haiti in better condition than before the
● Shelter: More than 1.3 million were housed in earthquake, and better able to survive future hazards
tents or under tarpaulins in temporary camps. such as hurricanes. These were some of the
Another 500,000 left the capital. proposals; sadly, they proved difficult to achieve:
● Security: There were only 2,000 police in ● Invest in education, health and water supply.

Port-au-Prince; 3,000 convicts escaped from the ● Construct new roads, irrigation projects, port

prison. The USA sent 10,000 troops to help and airport facilities, and the power supply.
maintain order, supplementing UN forces, and ● Encourage the growth of other cities, so that

was given control of the airport. fewer people live in Port-au-Prince.

● Removing debris: There were 20 million cubic ● Increase agricultural production: Haiti spends

metres of rubble, enough to fill 2 million US$550 million a year on imports of rice,
trucks. New trucks were delayed at the port. It sugar, chicken, and other foods, which could be
took several years to remove the debris. locally produced.
● Increase the quotas for duty-free exports of

“Money is worth nothing right now, water is the clothing and textiles to the USA, to encourage
currency.” manufacturing investment.
Foreign aid worker ● Develop tourism.

“We’ve had no water for the past four days, and Tourism and disasters
no food. Even the river is dry.” A week after the earthquake, cruise ships visited the
Survivor resort of Labadee, on the north coast, and away
from the affected area. Was this right?
Reconstruction and recovery
“I can’t see myself enjoying a cocktail while the
Moving from disaster response to reconstruction earthquake survivors are looking for food and
and recovery was challenging. Even in normal times, water.”
Haiti lacks human and financial resources for
effective planning and management. International “Our cruise ships will also bring relief supplies
agencies also had only limited success. for Haitians. And if we keep visiting, local people
A year after the earthquake, even the immediate can earn money from tourism.”
response tasks were not complete. A million people
were still living in temporary camps, most of them Research
without electricity, running water, or sanitation. Five 1 Does your country have a building code? Is it
years on, in 2015, 85,000 were still in camps; many carefully enforced?
more were living elsewhere, but in poor conditions 2 At the time you read this, how far have
and without basic services. conditions in Haiti improved since the
An epidemic of cholera started in October 2010; earthquake? Has reconstruction been completed?
this is a dangerous disease, spread by contaminated
drinking water. More than 8,000 died. In December Discussion points
2012 Haiti was struck by Hurricane Sandy. 3 Would a magnitude 7.0 earthquake in your
country be as devastating as the 2010
“It looks like the quake just happened yesterday.” earthquake was for Haiti?
TV reporter, July 2010 4 Should the USA freely admit refugees from
Haiti? Should Caribbean countries operate a
“The volunteers travel down looking enthusiastic. similar policy?
They come back discouraged – they can do so little.” 5 What can Caribbean countries do to assist
Observer, Miami airport, 2010 reconstruction in Haiti?

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 9.12 Hazard risk management

Key ideas ● Mitigation measures can reduce damage.

● These measures include siting, construction, and building design.
● Environmental engineering may mitigate disaster risk.
● Insurance is one form of hazard risk management.

9.12.1 The sea wall near Georgetown, Guyana.

The natural environment

Landforms and vegetation can provide protection which protect low-lying coastal areas from storm
against hazards: surges, or good siting and building design.
● Forested hillsides absorb rainwater. Where ● Low-lying floodplains and coastal sites are subject

vegetation is cleared, flood risk is increased – as to flooding from rainfall or storm surges.
in Haiti during Hurricane Jeanne. ● There is a risk of liquefaction on alluvial deposits

● Mangroves protect coastlines by absorbing wave and reclaimed land during a powerful earthquake.
energy. When they are removed, rapid erosion is ● Steep slopes carry a landslide risk, particularly

more likely. In Thailand, coastlines that retained after heavy rain or during an earthquake.
a fringe of mangroves received some protection ● If a volcano erupts, settlements on its slopes are

from the December 2004 tsunami. at risk from ashfalls and pyroclastic flows, as at
● Beaches provide a natural buffer against marine Plymouth in Montserrat.
hazards. Structures built close to the waterline
are more at risk. Many settlements, airports, roads, and hotels are
built on land that carries a hazard risk. It would not
Land at risk be possible to resite all of these on safer ground.
But in some countries there are controls that
Long-term mitigation measures reduce the risk that
prevent new building on some high-risk sites. In
a hazard will damage life or property. They may
Barbados, construction is restricted in the Scotland
include engineering measures such as sea defences,
district, where there is a landslide risk.

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 Building design In many Caribbean countries, traditional building
Good building design can reduce hazard risk. For designs reduce hazard risks:
● In Barbados, most older houses have a steeply
hurricanes, features are needed such as:
● hurricane straps, which fix a roof securely to
pitched hip roof, a wind-resistant shape.
the rest of a structure Buildings are also compact, with narrow eaves.
● In Guyana, where there is a flood risk, many
● steel rods to reinforce masonry walls

● a reinforced concrete tie beam at each storey

houses are built on stilts. There is no hurricane
and at roof level. risk, so eaves can be wider and shady verandas
added.
Ways to reduce earthquake risks include:
● strengthening and compacting reclaimed land,
Insurance
so that tall buildings can have reinforced Insurance is one form of hazard risk management.
concrete piles driven deep into the ground Many homes, and most private businesses, are
● reducing the likelihood of masonry buildings
insured against hurricanes, floods, landslides, and
collapsing by using steel beams in building other hazards. But there are points to watch:
● Many insurance policies exclude some types of
construction (which can sway, stretch, or vibrate
without breaking) risk.
● Insurance means forward planning. When a
● attaching a building to its foundations with

anchor bolts hurricane is approaching, insurance companies

● strapping water heaters to walls with steel bands
will not issue new policies.
● The cost of insurance increases when the risk is
and bolting cupboards to walls.
high. In some cases, cover is not available. From
Most Caribbean countries have a building code for 1997, insurance companies would not renew
hazard-resistant design. However, codes do not policies in Montserrat’s exclusion zone.
always have legal force. Even when legally backed, Buildings were left uninsured.
● Insurance payouts may take months after a
they are not always enforced, whether for squatter
settlements, rural low-income housing, or in some disaster, particularly if there is a dispute or if
cases for buildings that to the untrained eye look buildings are not covered for the full
well constructed. replacement cost.
● Most government buildings, schools, and
In the Bahamas, the building code has legal
force and is strictly enforced. Buildings must be hospitals are not insured.
● Some insurance companies reduce their
designed to withstand winds of 240 km/h.
Standards were strengthened after recent hurricanes. premium for buildings with a hazard-resistant
Maintenance is important. Doors, windows, and design. They may offer advice on how to adapt
roofs must be in good condition. Older buildings an existing structure.
can also be strengthened.
“We would like to insure the school buildings, but
the premiums would cost millions every year. We
need that money to keep up with regular repairs.”

Map question
1 Look at Figure 16.4.2. What hazards might affect
Norman Manley International Airport (73 42) and
its road link to Kingston?

Discussion point
2 What can be done to mitigate the threat of
natural disasters to your country?

9.12.2 A hurricane-resistant hospital building on St Kitts.

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 9.13 Warnings and preparedness

Key ideas ● For some hazards, warnings are issued.

● No warnings are possible for earthquakes.
● National and regional organizations assist with response, recovery, risk reduction,
and preparedness.

When a warning is issued

Hurricanes and volcanic hazards are monitored. “I boarded up the house, bought water, canned
Warnings are issued when disaster threatens. With a goods, gas, made sure that my family is okay. I
volcano, evacuation may be required. For bought two five-gallon bottles and eight
hurricanes, some of the precautions needed are: one-gallon bottles. I already bought my bread and
● checking hurricane supplies, e.g. canned food, everything from long time. When I shop, I shop.”
bottled water, candles, flashlight, radio, batteries
● putting up hurricane shutters to protect
“I am trying to find a five-gallon bottle of water.
windows Apparently I can’t find none. I travelled all over.”
● securing loose objects which might be picked
“It’s been helter-skelter all day and by early
up by the wind and cause damage afternoon, we’ve sold more than 4,000 sheets of
● going to a hurricane shelter if there is risk from
plywood.”
storm surge flooding or weakly constructed Bahamians in Nassau, ahead of Hurricane
buildings Frances
● remaining in a safe place until the danger has

passed. Earthquakes
The Seismic Research Unit of the University of the West
Some families prepare in advance, keeping their Indies maintains 56 seismographic stations to detect
houses in good repair, with hurricane shutters stored, earthquakes as they happen, with 11 on Dominica
trees outside well trimmed, and new hurricane alone. These form part of a Caribbean-wide network.
supplies at the start of each season. These preparations Earthquakes cannot be predicted. The probability
are more difficult for people with low incomes. of an earthquake can be estimated, but this is not a
prediction. For example, there is believed to be a
60% chance of an earthquake of at least magnitude
6.7 near Los Angeles within 30 years.
With no warning possible, there is no chance for
last-minute preparations. But advance planning may
lessen the impact. Emergency supplies should always be
to hand. These are similar to the hurricane essentials.
During an earthquake:
● stay calm and protect your head and face

● stand in a strong doorway, or go under a desk

or table
● do not run outside, where you may be hurt by

falling debris
● if outside, stay away from buildings, trees and

power lines
● if driving, stop in a safe place and stay in the
9.13.1 Boarding up shop windows in Bridgetown, Barbados,
against Hurricane Ivan. vehicle.
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 After an earthquake: “The town’s emergency operations centre had its
● check for fires roof blown off. So did a hurricane shelter where
● collect water for later use 1,200 people were huddled.”
● leave a building if it has been badly damaged Charlotte Harbor, Florida, Hurricane Charley,
● be prepared for further tremors or aftershocks 2004
● listen to the radio for emergency bulletins

● leave the streets clear and do not go sightseeing. The Caribbean Disaster Emergency
Management Agency (CDEMA)
National disaster response organizations
In 1991 Caribbean heads of government established
Caribbean countries each have a national a Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency,
organization to deal with hazards. to coordinate regional disaster response for a
An example is the National Emergency wide range of natural and human-origin threats.
Management Organization (NEMO) in St Lucia, In 2009 it was renamed to reflect its full range
which works with 17 district committees to serve of responsibilities in comprehensive disaster
local communities across the island. It aims to management. With a headquarters in Barbados, its
ensure that St Lucia is well prepared for a wide functions include:
range of threats, including hurricanes, volcanic ■ mobilizing and coordinating disaster relief
eruptions, earthquakes, and other natural hazards, ■ mitigating the immediate consequences
and also human-origin threats, such as oil spills. of disasters
Activities include: ■ providing immediate and coordinated response
■ developing contingency plans, so that by means of disaster relief
government and private-sector bodies know ■ providing reliable and comprehensive
in advance how they should respond to major information on disasters
threats ■ encouraging disaster loss reduction and
■ simulation exercises, to practise the responses mitigation at the national and regional level
that would be needed in an emergency, such as ■ coordinating the establishment, enhancement,
an aircraft crash or a flood and maintenance of emergency disaster
■ public education and volunteer training. response capabilities.

Quick question
1 Describe an example of:
a) mitigation
b) risk management
c) preparedness.

Quick research
2 What is the name of the disaster response
agency in your country? Where is it based, and
what have its recent activities been?

Discussion point
3 Is your country well prepared for natural
hazards? What improvements could be made?

9.13.2 A disaster simulation exercise at Hewanorra

International Airport, St Lucia.

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 9.14 Response and reconstruction

Key ideas ● When disaster strikes, an immediate response is needed.

● Reconstruction requires long-term effort and careful planning.

9.14.1 Relief workers distribute fresh water supplies in Gonaïves, Haiti, after Hurricane Jeanne.

Disaster response
In response to a disaster, the first need is for ● governments have limited financial resources and
immediate relief. This may take many forms. Some so private businesses may struggle to rebuild.
of Grenada’s needs after Hurricane Ivan were for:
● emergency food supplies After Hurricane Ivan, Caribbean neighbours helped
● bottled water Grenada with immediate relief. There was help from
● tarpaulins for emergency roofing regional governments, from religious and voluntary
● construction materials and wood organizations, and from private businesses. Individuals
● emergency electric generators for essential services gave generously. Trinidad and Tobago and other
● efficient distribution, to get relief to those countries sent defence force personnel and workers to
needing it. help with clearing debris and immediate repairs.
Electricity and telephone companies sent teams to help
Relief is harder to provide in Caribbean islands than restore power and communications. There was also
in larger countries, such as the USA, because: help from many governments from outside the region,
● after a major disaster, the whole country may be and from international voluntary organizations such as
suffering, not just one district the Red Cross.
● stocks of food and building materials will be Most of all, those Grenadians who were able to
limited, with no giant warehouses to draw on helped each other, both through voluntary organizations
● airports may take some time to reopen for relief and as an individual effort.
supplies and personnel

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 Belmopan
“The upstairs part of my house was blown away, Belize City, on a low-lying coastal site, was
but the downstairs still stood. In the weeks after devastated by Hurricane Hattie in 1961. In 1970,
Ivan, 23 neighbours were living with me; their the government moved to a new capital, Belmopan.
houses were destroyed. More people came to use Parliament and the main public offices are now
my water supply.” safely located. But most commercial and cultural life
Elderly Grenadian, after Hurricane Ivan stayed in the old capital, in spite of the hurricane
threat. Many government workers still commute
Reconstruction from the coastal city, with an hour’s drive each way.
When life has begun to return to normal, the next
stage is reconstruction. In Montserrat, it took more Coastal villages in Jamaica
than ten years to build a new capital and During Hurricane Ivan, storm surge flooding killed
infrastructure in the safe zone. Reconstruction eight in Jamaican south coast villages such as Rocky
should also ensure that a country is better prepared Point and Portland Cottage. Immediate relief
for future hazards. provided food and hurricane shelters. For
For reconstruction in Grenada, there was reconstruction, the government chose a safer
international help, from global organizations such as location. Homes were built 10 metres above sea
the World Bank, and from Britain, Canada, and other level for 500 families, at a cost of US$33 million.
countries. The largest pledge was from the USA, However, many chose to stay where they were.
which promised US$40 million to Grenada for: Portland Cottage was damaged again by Hurricane
● housing and community projects Dean in 2007.
● water supply, sanitation systems, and roads

● agriculture, fisheries, and small businesses “Everything I work for is right here. I can’t pick
● school repairs and reconstruction up myself and leave just so.”
● funds to cover regular government expenses, Portland Cottage resident
making up some of the government revenue
lost after the hurricane “If dem can get a better place for we, we will go.
● technical assistance for national development. No problem.”
30-year-old man, Rocky Point, Jamaica, after Ivan

“I think I’ll just go out and shoot one more roll

of film.”
The last words of a photographer killed in the
Mount St Helens eruption, USA, 1980

Quick research
1 What is the difference between relief and
reconstruction in disaster response?

Research
2 For any recent natural disaster, what has been
done for:
a) relief?
b) reconstruction?
3 Which national, regional, and international
agencies took part in relief and reconstruction
efforts?

9.14.2 Building new homes in northern Montserrat in 1997

to house people evacuated from the exclusion zone.

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 10.1 Population distribution

Key ideas ● Population density is the number of people per sq. km.
● Population distribution is influenced by physical, socio-economic, historical, and
cultural factors.

Contrasts between countries in population density

Population density measures the number of people in each unit of area. It is
usually stated as the number of people per sq. km. The average population
density varies greatly among Caribbean countries.
● The mainland countries have lower population densities than the island countries.

● Guyana has a low population density of four people per sq. km. It is a large

country, and much of the interior is uninhabited.

● Some islands have a very high population density.

● Barbados has a high population density of 636 people per sq. km. It is a

small country with a prosperous economy. Every part of the island is settled.
Population density in some Caribbean countries To work out population
Population Area (sq. km) Density (per sq. km) density, divide population
Mainland countries with a low population density by area. Round off to the
nearest whole number.
Belize 357,000 22,960 16
Guyana 750,000 214,970 4 So, for Belize:
Suriname 542,000 163,820 ? Population 357,000
= = 16
Islands with a moderate population density Area 22,960

Dominica 71,000 750 95

N
Jamaica 2,710,400 10,991 ? Key
500 people
St Vincent-Grenadines 109,000 388 281
Trinidad and Tobago 1,345,000 5,128 ?
Islands with a high population density 2
4
Barbados 280,000 431 650
Bermuda 65,000 55 1,164
3

Contrasts within countries

Population density also varies greatly within each country. Population
distribution is influenced by:
● Physical factors: for example, mountainous areas and swamps usually have a
5
low population density.
● Socio-economic factors: for example, prosperous areas with many jobs 6
attract migrants and often have a high population density.
● Historical factors: cities and other areas that have attracted a high population in 1

the past usually remain densely populated. Most Caribbean capital cities were
established on sites suitable for trade with sailing ships during the colonial period. 0 5 km
● Cultural factors: cultural preferences vary: many Amerindian people in Guyana

and Suriname are accustomed to living in small, isolated villages, while in cities 10.1.1 Dominica: population
such as New York, many people live in densely packed apartment buildings. distribution.
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 Guyana
1 Population density is greatest in Georgetown and its N
suburbs. This is the main economic centre for government
services, retailing, manufacturing, and the main port.
The Georgetown region is also the main cultural and 1 2
5
educational centre for Guyana.
2 New Amsterdam and Corriverton are the main population, 4
economic, and service centres for eastern Guyana. 3

3 Most of the rural population lives close to the coast. There

is good agricultural land, growing rice, sugar, and other
crops. A road runs close to the coast. Villages have shops 0 80 km
and other services.
4 Many people live close to Linden, a bauxite mining centre.
5 In the interior, there are a few Amerindian farming Key
6
settlements, and small towns serving the gold mining 10,000 people
(310,000 people live
industry. There are few roads, and most villages must be in the Georgetown
reached by air. Population density is very low. Much of the area)
land is not suited to agriculture.
6 The south-east of Guyana is almost uninhabited. 10.1.2 Guyana: population distribution.

Dominica
1 Population density is greatest in and around the capital, Roseau. There are jobs in government offices,
retailing, and the port. Roseau is also the main cultural and social centre.
2 Portsmouth is the main population and service centre for the north.
3 Much of the interior is uninhabited. There are steep mountains, thick forests, and few roads.
4 Many people live near the coast. There is agricultural land and road access. In the villages, there are
shops, schools, and other services.
5 On the west coast, population is concentrated in nucleated settlements, such as Mahaut and St Joseph.
6 On the east coast, population is scattered or dispersed. Historically, people were able to settle on small,
scattered farms, away from the village centres.

Quick question
1 Look at the table on the facing page. Work out the population
N Key
density of:
2,000 people
a) Suriname
b) Jamaica
c) Trinidad and Tobago. Georgetown

Apply the ideas

2 Describe one way in which population distribution in Guyana and
Dominica has been influenced by:
a) physical factors
b) socio-economic factors
c) historical factors
Kingstown 0 4 km
d) cultural factors.
3 Look carefully at figure 10.1.3 and an atlas map of St Vincent. Calliaqua
Draw an outline map of St Vincent. Add labels to locate areas of
10.1.3 St Vincent: population distribution.
high, moderate and low population density. What factors have
influenced population distribution in St Vincent?

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 10.2 Population maps

Key idea ● Dot, choropleth and isopleth maps can show population distribution.

Population maps Key

No map can show population distribution exactly. 5,000 people
7
2
There are three main types of population map. 0 25 km
1

6
Dot maps: The maps in Section 10.1 are dot maps. 4
One dot may represent several thousand people. Dot
maps give a good visual impression of population
density. However, it is difficult to show population 3
density in areas such as southern Guyana, where a few N
8
dots must represent a thin and scattered population. It 5
is also difficult to show areas such as the Georgetown
region, where population density is much higher than
in the rest of the country. 10.2.1 Trinidad population density: a dot map.
Figure 10.2.1 is a dot map showing population
San Juan/ Bor. of Arima
density in Trinidad. Key Diego Laventille
Persons per km2 Martin
Over 1,000
Tunapuna/
Choropleth maps: These show the average 400–999 Piarco
City of Sangre
population density in each administrative area. In 100–399 Port of Spain Grande
some countries they are not very useful, because Under 100
Borough of
administrative areas include both densely and Chaguanas
Couva/Tabaquite/
0 15 km
sparsely populated districts. City of
Talparo
Mayaro/
Figure 10.2.2 is a choropleth map showing Borough of
San Fernando
Rio Claro
population density in the different administrative N Point Fortin Princes
Penal/ Town
areas of Trinidad. Siparia Debe

Isopleth maps: An isopleth map looks rather like a

10.2.2 Trinidad population density: a choropleth map.
contour map with layer colouring. Lines are drawn
to indicate places of equal population density, in the San Juan/ Bor. of Arima
Key Diego Laventille
same way as lines on a weather map join up places Martin
Persons per km2
with the same atmospheric pressure or temperature. Over 1,000 Tunapuna/
These maps can give a good visual impression of 400–999 Piarco
City of Sangre
population density. However, there are often wide 100–399 Port of Spain Grande
variations within areas with the same shading on Under 100 Borough of
Chaguanas
the map. Couva/Tabaquite/
0 15 km Talparo
Figure 10.2.3 is an isopleth map showing City of
Mayaro/
population density in Trinidad. San Fernando
Rio Claro
N Borough of
Point Fortin Princes
Penal/ Town
Siparia Debe

10.2.3 Trinidad population density: an isopleth map.

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 Trinidad
1 Port of Spain has been the capital of Trinidad 4 Population density is high in west-central
and Tobago since colonial times. It is the Trinidad. There is good agricultural land.
main economic centre for government and Chaguanas is a service centre and Point Lisas
commercial offices, and retailing. It is also an has manufacturing jobs.
important cultural centre. People from other 5 Population density is moderate in south-
parts of the country travel to work in the city, western Trinidad. There is agriculture and work
which covers only a small area. in the energy industry. There are manufacturing
2 Half the population lives in the east–west and service centres, such as Point Fortin.
corridor, which runs from Chaguaramas in the 6 Few people live in the Caroni and Nariva
west to Arima in the east. There are jobs in swamps.
manufacturing, retailing, and other services. 7 Few people live in the mountains of the
There are schools, hospitals, and social Northern Range.
facilities. 8 Few people live in south-eastern Trinidad. This
3 San Fernando is the commercial cultural and is a forested area with large areas of poor soil
service centre for southern Trinidad. There are and few agricultural areas or villages.
manufacturing jobs nearby, for example in the
oil refinery at Pointe-à-Pierre.

10.2.4 Trinidad’s east–west corridor has a high population 10.2.5 The Northern Range in Trinidad has
density. a low population density.

Quick questions
1 Name two areas in Trinidad with a population density of:
a) more than 1,000 per sq. km b) less than 100 per sq. km.
2 Describe one way in which population density in Trinidad is influenced by:
a) physical factors b) socio-economic factors
c) historical factors d) cultural factors.

Discussion point
3 Which map do you think is most effective for showing population distribution
in Trinidad?

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 10.3 Population growth

Key ideas ● The world’s population has grown rapidly.

● Population growth is affected by births and deaths.
● Population growth is affected by migration.

World population growth

● In 5000 BC, the world’s population was probably
close to 5 million. That is about the same as the
population of the English-speaking Caribbean today.
● The population of the world increased slowly until
around 1900, when it reached around 1.6 billion.
● In 2011 the world’s population reached 7 billion.
● The rapid population increase after 1900 is
sometimes called the population explosion.
7 10.3.2 A Pakistani family with seven children.
Green revolution: development of new varieties
of cereals, such as rice, wheat and maize; food

6
production increased in many countries ● To protect the environment and our way of life,
we must use resources carefully. Renewable sources
5
Revolutions in medicine and sanitation: of energy, such as solar power, will be used more
Thousand million people

many diseases eliminated or reduced

widely. Forests should be used sustainably, to
4 Industrial and agricultural revolutions in protect them for future generations.
Europe and North America: technological

3
advances in food production, distribution
and exchange for industrial goods Population dynamics
Population growth rate: The rate at which the
2
Black Death: bubonic
population grows each year. In some countries the
plague from Central Asia population is now declining.
devastated the populations
1 ● With a 0.5% growth rate, the population
of China and Europe
increases by 13% in 25 years.
0 ● With a 1% growth rate, it increases by 28%.
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2005
● With a 2% growth rate, it increases by 64%.
Year
● With a 3% growth rate, it increases by 109%.
10.3.1 World population growth.
● With a 4% growth rate, it increases by 167%.
● So far, improved technology has allowed
production to increase even faster. In most Fertility rate: The number of children an average
countries, the average family has better access to woman will have in her lifetime.
food, clothing, education, and health care, ● If the fertility rate is around 2.0, the population

despite increasing population numbers. will replace itself each generation.

● Rising population and rising incomes are ● If it is larger than 2.0, the population will grow.

straining the Earth’s resources. We cannot go on ● If it is smaller than 2.0, the population will

extracting oil from the ground or destroying decline.

forests at an increasing rate. ● The fertility rate is often high in low-income,
● Most people expect the world’s population to rural farming communities. Children help with
stabilize during this century. The final figure farm work, do not cost much to feed, and can
may be from 9 to 12 billion. help to support their parents in their old age.

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 ● The fertility rate is usually low in modern Increase in
Population: start of year 1,000
25 years
urbanized communities. Most families prefer to Add births + 25
have only a few children, because childcare is
Subtract deaths – 10
seen as a major responsibility. Many women
Natural increase +15
have jobs outside the home. People expect
Adjust for migration – 4
pensions to provide for their old age.
Population increase + 11
● In most countries the fertility rate has fallen
Population: end of year 1,011
sharply in recent years.
Population growth rate 1.1%

Birth rate: The number of births per 1,000

population. The birth rate is high when:
● there are many women of child-bearing age
13% 28% 64% 109% 167%
● the fertility rate is high.

Annual
Life expectancy: The number of years the average increase
person can expect to live. It varies from 84 years in
Japan to only 46 in Sierra Leone.

Infant mortality: The proportion of babies dying

before they reach one year old. This varies from 2
per 1,000 in Japan and Sweden to 107 per 1,000 in
Sierra Leone.
Fertility rate = 2.0
0.5% 1% 2% 3% 4% Population stable
Death rate: The number of deaths per 1,000
10.3.3 Population growth rates.
population.
● In a young population, the death rate is usually

low.
● If there is a high proportion of old people, the
Drawing graphs
death rate is high – even in countries with good
1 Draw a bar graph to illustrate these data:
health services and high life expectancy.
Fertility rate (2010–15)
● Many poor countries have a low death rate
Japan 1.4
because they have a young population. Jamaica 2.3
Afghanistan 5.0
Natural increase: The difference between birth and
(Source: UN Statistical Yearbook)
death rates. If the birth rate is 30 per 1,000 and the 2 Draw divided circles to illustrate these data:
death rate is 10, then natural increase is 20 per % of population (2015)
1000, or 2%. 14 or 15–59 60 or
under over
Migration: Movement of people to a new area or
Japan 13 54 33
country.
● Where many people leave a country through St Vincent 24 65 11
out-migration, this reduces population growth. Nigeria 44 51 5
● Migration into a country increases population (Source: UN World Population Prospects)
3 Draw a line graph to illustrate these data:
growth.
Jamaica: Birth rate per 1,000 population
1992 24.3
Many migrants are young adults. If they start
1996 22.3
families soon after migrating, they have a strong
2000 21.1
effect on the birth rate. 2004 17.9
2008 16.7
2012 14.5
(Source: Economic and Social Survey of Jamaica)

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 10.4 The demographic transition

Key ideas ● The demographic transition has four stages.

● In Stage One, the population is small and fluctuating.
● In Stage Two, the death rate falls and the population grows rapidly.
● In Stage Three, the birth rate declines but rapid growth continues.
● In Stage Four, the population numbers are large but stable.

The world’s population is passing through a four- population, with high and fluctuating birth and
stage demographic transition. death rates.
● For most of human history, population was low ● Most women had many children – often more

and fairly stable. than ten.

● Starting in Europe, population increased rapidly ● The infant mortality rate was high. Many babies

from around 300 years ago. died before their first birthday.
● Population growth has now slowed, first in ● The death rate was high. There was no effective

Europe and then elsewhere. way of treating most diseases.

● Many countries now have a stable population. ● Most communities depended on local food

supplies, and risked famine if crops failed from

Each country has moved through the stages of the flood, drought, or plant disease.
transition at its own pace. ● The population fell sharply if there was a war,

famine, or a disease epidemic.

Stage One
Before modern medicine and secure food supplies, Small groups of people remain in Stage One today,
most communities had a low and fluctuating for example in remote areas of Amazon rainforest.

Epidemic Famine War

g
risin
n still High and stable population
ulatio
Pop
Population growth
Fa rate increases
Maximum growth rate

llin
Fa

gd
llin

ea
th
gb

ra
irt

te
h
ra
t e

Population growth
rate declines
Low birth rate
ion
u lat
pop
Small fluctuating population ing Aging population
Ris

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

Britain before 1750 Britain 1750–1900 Britain 1900–1950 Britain since 1950
Caribbean before 1900 Caribbean 1900–1950s Caribbean from 1950s and 1960s Much of Caribbean today

Birth rate Death rate Total population

10.4.1 The demographic transition.

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 Stage Two
In Stage Two, death rates and infant mortality fall Life expectancy continues to increase as medicine
sharply. This is the early expanding stage. improves. However, the death rate may be quite
Sanitation provides clean water and infectious high because the population contains a high
diseases such as smallpox are controlled. Improved proportion of old people.
transport allows food imports if crops fail. Many countries in the English-speaking
Fertility rates and birth rates remain high for the Caribbean are now in Stage Four.
following reasons:
● Birth control may not be easily available. After Stage Four
● Most babies survive to become adults, and have As Stage Four progresses, the outlook varies:
children of their own. ● In Russia and Eastern Europe after 1990,
● Many women marry and have children before poverty, alcoholism and suicide increased as
they are 20. socialist economies failed. The population
● There is no attempt to limit family size. Many declined.
families still work on small farms, where ● Western Europe and Japan are prosperous, but

children can help with daily tasks. many women choose to have one child, or
● There are no retirement pensions. Parents hope none. In some countries the population is
their children will support them in their old age. declining.
● In the USA, Canada, and Australia, the

Most English-speaking Caribbean countries entered population continues to increase quite rapidly;
Stage Two more than 100 years ago. Some African there are many migrant families with young
and Asian countries are now in this stage. children.

Stage Three In the past, predictions about population growth

Next is the late expanding stage of population growth. have often been proved wrong. We do not know
The death rate and infant mortality rate continue to how human populations will change. The United
fall, but the fertility rate and birth rate also start to Nations has estimated world population for 2050. It
decline. This may be for the following reasons: has published:
● Birth control is readily available. ● a “central estimate” of 9.7 billion
● Many women are well educated and have ● a “low variant” of 9.4 billion, if more countries

productive careers. They may have children later move to Stage Four
in life than in Stage Two. ● a “high variant” of 10.0 billion, if growth is
● Fewer people work in agriculture. For wage or rapid.
salary earners in offices and factories, a large
family is expensive to maintain.
● Retirement pensions provide some financial

security for the elderly.

Most countries in Asia and South America are now

in Stage Three. Much of the Caribbean was in this
stage around 40 years ago.

Stage Four
In the fourth stage there is a high and stable
population, while the birth rate and fertility rate are
low. Many families have only one or two children;
they may feel better able to give care and support to
each of them if the family is small. Most women do
not start families until they have completed their 10.4.2 As the Caribbean moves through the demographic
transition, families have become smaller.
education and worked for a few years.

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 Population pyramids Eritrea 2005
Males 90+ Females
Population pyramids are diagrams that show the age and gender groups in the 85–89
80–84
population. A pyramid with a wide base shows a young and rapidly growing population. 75–79
70–74
The population pyramid changes with the demographic transition. 65–69
60–64
Stage One Stage Two Stage Three Stage Four 55–59
50–54
Top: Narrow. Narrow. Less narrow. Broader. 45–49
40–44
Over 60 Few surviving Elderly outnumbered More surviving 35–39
elderly. by new babies. elderly. 30–34
25–29
Centre: Narrows rapidly Narrows less rapidly. Narrows slowly. Straight sides or 20–24
15–19
15–60 from base. outward bulge. 10–14
High childhood More survive to be Most children 5–9
0–4
mortality. adults. survive.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Base: Broad. Broad. Less broad. Narrow. % of total population
0–14 Many young High birth rate Birth rate Low birth rate. Brazil 2005
children. continues. falling. Males 90+ Females
85–89
Eritrea 2005 Brazil 2005 Japan 2005 80–84
75–79
Population 4.5 million 186 million 127 million 70–74
65–69
Median age 19 27 43 60–64
Infant mortality rate 54 per 1,000 24 per 1,000 3 per 1,000 55–59
50–54
Fertility rate 4.7 1.9 1.3 45–49
40–44
Birth rate 37 per 1,000 16 per 1,000 8 per 1,000 35–39
Death rate 9 per 1,000 6 per 1,000 9 per 1,000 30–34
25–29
Growth rate 3.1% 1.0% 20.1% 20–24
15–19
Quick questions 10–14
5–9
0–4
1 Look at the population pyramids for 2005 in Figure 10.4.3. What stage of the
5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
demographic transition had been reached by each of the countries shown? Give two % of total population
reasons to explain your answer in each case. State the continent in which each country Japan 2005
is located. Males 90+ Females
2 Look at Figure 10.4.4. What proportion of the world’s population is shown for 85–89
80–84
Europe, the USA and Canada: 75–79
70–74
a) in 1950? b) in 2010? c) in 2050? 65–69
3 At each of these dates, what percentage live in: 60–64
55–59
a) Africa? b) Asia? 50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
1950 2010 2050 25–29
20–24
English-speaking English-speaking 15–19
English-speaking Caribbean 0.1% USA and Canada Caribbean 0.1% 10–14
Caribbean 0.1% USA and Canada Latin 5–9
Latin America America 0–4
USA and Canada 8% 5%
5% Europe 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
Latin 9%
Europe % of total population
America
7% 7% 8%
11% 10.4.3 Population pyramids for
Eritrea, Brazil, and Japan.
22% 55% 60% 57%

Europe Asia 15% Asia 22% Asia

9%
Africa Africa
Africa

Total 2.5 billion Total 7 billion Total 9 billion (projected)

10.4.4 Divided circles; the changing percentage of world population on each continent.

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 Graphs and diagrams 2.0

Divided circles: Also known as pie charts, these are

1991–2003 Annual rate of growth (%)

useful for showing proportions and percentages. To 1.5
calculate the angle used for each sector of the circle,
multiply the percentage by 3.6. You should either
label each sector or show each category with a 1.0
distinctive colour, with a key inside the frame.

0.5
Age groups in the population of Jamaica (2009)
Age Number Percentage Angle used
0–19 989,000 36.7% 132° 0.0

Th w
Po as

St nd
y

St ny
H es

or r

iz d
ch h
r
on

e
e

C este
ar

rin
An

t
St elan
20–39 876,500 32.5% 117°

e
om

M abe
es nov
Jam
w
la

St end
dr

he
ela
rt

St
An

lar

at
Tr

El
an
tm

C
St
St
40–59 535,200 19.8% 72°

&

W
n
s to
60 or over 298,100 11.0% 39°

ng
Parishes

Ki
Total 2,698,800 100% 360° Source: Economic and Social Survey of Jamaica

60 or over Hanover St
James Trelawny St Ann St
11.0% Westmoreland Mary
St St
Elizabeth Catherine St Portland
40–59 0–19
Manchester Andrew St
19.8% 36.7% Clarendon Kingston Thomas

32.5%

20–39 10.4.7 Bar graph – population growth rate in Jamaica by parish.

Source: Economic and Social survey of Jamaica
10.4.5 Divided circle – Jamaica: age structure.
Quick questions
Line graphs: These are often used to show change
1 Estimate the year in which the population of
over a period of time. They are useful for showing Jamaica reached:
population growth. Both horizontal and vertical axes a) 1,500,000 b) 2,000,000.
should be clearly labelled. 2 In which two parishes was the population of
3,000,000
Jamaica increasing:
a) most rapidly? b) most slowly?
2,500,000
Discussion points
Population total

2,000,000
3 Would a line graph be suitable for showing age
1,500,000
groups in the Jamaican population? Explain why.
4 Would a divided circle be suitable for showing
1,000,000
population growth in Belize? Explain why.

500,000 Drawing graphs

1921 1943 1960 1970 1982 1991 2003
Years 5 Draw a divided circle to illustrate these data:
Source: Census data
Jamaica, population in selected parishes, 2009
10.4.6 Line graph – Jamaica: population growth.
Kingston and St Andrew 667,800
St Catherine 499,600
Bar graphs: These can be used for many types of Other parishes 1,531,400
data. Each bar must be clearly labelled. Total 2,698,800

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 10.5 Population in the Caribbean

Key ideas ● Caribbean population growth rates vary widely.

● Falling fertility rates have reduced population growth.

Contrasts in the Caribbean

In every Caribbean country – and worldwide – the ● The proportion of families in agriculture has fallen
fertility rate has declined since the mid-twentieth from over 35% in 1965 to 18% today. The number
century. In most countries, the rate of population living in cities has increased.
increase has slowed. But population trends vary.
Birth rate. Refer to the line graph you drew for
2.0 Question 3 in Section 10.3. With the lower fertility
Annual population growth (% )

rate, the birth rate has been falling.

1.5 Life expectancy. As living conditions and medical care
have improved, life expectancy has increased since the
1.0 early 1970s, from 69 to 76. Infant mortality has
decreased by two-thirds.
0.5 Death rate. The death rate has remained about the
same. Medical care has improved, but there are
0.0
1921–43 1944–60 1961–70 1971–82 1983–91 1992–99 2000–09 more elderly people.
10.5.1 Jamaica: annual population growth. Natural increase. The rate of natural increase is lower
because of the falling birth rate.
These have been some of the factors influencing Migration. Jamaicans migrate to the USA; many
population growth in the Caribbean: also go to Canada, Britain, and other Caribbean
Fertility rate. The average number of children in a countries. There is a smaller inflow of overseas
family has halved in 30 years. There are many Jamaicans returning home and overseas nationals
reasons for this. coming to work in Jamaica (see Section 11.9).
● Birth control is now readily available. Government policies. All Caribbean governments
● More women work, giving greater freedom to plan promote public health to increase life expectancy and
independently. In Jamaica, two-thirds of women reduce infant mortality. In the mid-twentieth century
have jobs, one of the highest ratios in the world. and afterwards, many Caribbean governments
More women than men enter higher education. promoted family planning to reduce the birth rate.
Government policies also affect migration.
10.5.2 A science teacher in Jamaica.
How the population of Jamaica changed in 2013
Calculating natural increase … Rate per 1,000 %
Births +36,700 13.5 1.35
Deaths −15,400 5.7 0.57
Natural increase +21,300 7.8 0.78
Calculating population growth …
Natural increase +21,300 7.8 0.78
Migration balance –13,700 5.0 0.50
Population growth 7,600 2.8 0.28
Population change …
Population at start of year 2,710,400
Population growth +7,600
200 Population at end of year 2,718,000

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 Caribbean population trends In Belize:
● the population has
Birth rate Death rate Natural Migration Population
increased rapidly
per 1,000 per 1,000 increase per 1,000 growth
● the fertility rate has come
per 1,000 rate
down, but is still high
Barbados 11 (1.1%) 8 (0.8%) 3 (0.3%) 0% 0.3%
● the birth rate is high
Belize 25 (2.5%) 4 (0.4%) 21 (2.1%) +15 (+1.5%) 3.4% ● the death rate is low, as there
Cayman 14 (1.4%) 3 (0.3%) 11 (1.1%) +17 (1.7%) 2.8% is a young population
Jamaica 13 (1.3%) 6 (0.6%) 8 (0.8%) −5 (0.5%) 0.3% ● inward and outward

Fertility rate Fertility rate Population Population migration are approximately

1970–75 2010–15 1984 2014 in balance.

Barbados 2.7 1.9 252,000 280,000 In the Cayman Islands:

Belize 6.3 2.7 156,000 357,000 ● the population is growing

Cayman no data no data 19,000 58,000 very fast

● the death rate is low, because
Jamaica 5.0 2.3 2,290,000 2,710,000
2015 (% of population) 2030 (projected % there are few old people
● the birth rate is quite low
of population)
● many people migrate to the
under 15 15–64 65+ under 15 15–64 65+
Caymans, because it has low
Barbados 19 67 14 18 61 22
unemployment and high
Belize 33 64 4 27 67 6
salaries. Almost half the
Jamaica 24 67 9 21 65 14 population is non-Caymanian.
Life expectancy (years) Infant mortality (per 1,000)
1970–75 2010–15 1970–75 2010–15 In Barbados:
Barbados 69 75 40 10 ● the population is growing

Belize 68 74 56 13 slowly
● the fertility rate has been
Jamaica 69 74 49 21
declining for many years,
and is now below 2.0
● the birth rate is low

● the death rate is high, as

there are many elderly people

● there is some outward

migration.
Jamaica 2003 Barbados 2003
75+ 75+
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0–4 0–4

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
% of total population % of total population
Males Females Males Females

10.5.3 Elderly residents in Barbados. 10.5.4 Population pyramids: Barbados and Jamaica.

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 10.6 Nigeria, India, and China

Key ideas ● Nigeria has a rapidly growing population.

● Population growth in India is slowing.
● In China, government policy has sharply reduced the population growth rate.

Population trends: China, India, and Nigeria

Birth rate per Death rate per Natural increase Migration per Population
1,000 1,000 per 1,000 1,000 growth rate
Nigeria 40 13 27 −0.4 2.7%
China 12 7 5 −0.3 0.5%
India 20 7 13 −0.4 1.3%
Fertility rate Fertility rate Population 1975 Population 2014 Projected
1970–75 2010–15 (million) (million) population 2030
(million)
Nigeria 6.6 5.7 64 177 263
China 4.9 1.6 906 1,369 1,416
India 5.4 2.5 622 1,295 1,528
2015 (% of population) 2030 (projected % of population)
under 15 15–64 65+ under 15 15–64 65+
Nigeria 44 53 3 40 57 3
China 17 73 10 15 68 17
India 29 65 6 24 68 9
Life expectancy (years) Infant mortality PER 1,000
1970–75 2010–15 1970–75 2010–15
Nigeria 42 52 147 76
China 61 75 72 12
India 49 67 136 41
Nigeria 2015 China 2015 India 2015

85+ 85+ 85+

80–84 80–84 80–84
75–79 75–79 75–79
70–74 70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9 5–9
0–4 0–4 0–4
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
% of total population % of total population % of total population
Males Females Males Females Males Females

10.6.1 Population pyramids: Nigeria and India and China.

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 Nigeria: a rapidly growing population
Nigeria has a larger population and economy than
any other country in Africa. It is one of the world’s
leading oil producers. Nigerian literature, films,
and music have a worldwide reputation. However,
average incomes are not high. Total economic
output per person (per capita GDP) is slightly
lower than Guyana’s and around one-fifth that of
Trinidad and Tobago. Standards of health and
education are much lower than those of most
Caribbean countries.
Nigeria’s difficulties stem in part from its
troubled history:
● More than 200 years ago, communities living in

what is now Nigeria were devastated by the

slave trade.
● From 1901 to 1960, Nigeria was ruled by

Britain as a colony.
● In the years after independence, there were several
10.6.2 Lagos, Nigeria’s largest city, has more than 15 million
damaging internal conflicts, with widespread people.
corruption and periods of military rule.

Nigeria has more than 500 ethnic groups, each

with a distinctive language and culture. In southern
Nigeria most of the population is Christian, while
the north is mainly Muslim. Abuja, in the central
part of the country, was established as the capital
city in 1991. The largest city and commercial centre
is Lagos, which is on the southern coast and has
more than 15 million inhabitants.
Nigeria’s population is younger than that of
most Caribbean countries, and is growing more
rapidly. Compare the data for Nigeria in this section
with the Caribbean data shown in Section 10.5.
● The fertility rate in Nigeria is higher than in the

Caribbean.
● The birth rate is also higher.

● Almost half of the population of Nigeria is aged

under 15. Only 3% are aged over 65. 10.6.3 Nigeria’s fertility rate is more than twice that of most
● Life expectancy has improved, but it remains Caribbean countries.
lower than in the Caribbean.
● The Nigerian infant mortality rate has been ● Many Nigerians migrate to Europe and North
reduced with improved health care for mothers America, and a few come to the Caribbean.
and their babies, but it is still much higher than ● People from less prosperous neighbouring
in the Caribbean. countries migrate to Nigeria.
● The population of Nigeria is increasing by more ● However, the number of migrants is low when
than 2.7% every year. There are an additional compared to the total population. The migration
4.8 million people to feed and house – twice rate per 1,000 people is low, with net outward
the total population of Jamaica. migration of 4 per 1,000 people.

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 China and the “one-child policy” In 1978, the Chinese government introduced a
“one-child policy”.
● Early marriages were discouraged.

● Most families were told to have only one child.

● Financial penalties were imposed on those with

more than one child.

This policy was unpopular with many people, but

was successful. The fertility rate decreased from 5.9 in
1970 to 1.7 in 2010. China had almost 1.4 billion
people in 2015. Without the one child policy, there
would have been an additional 400 million.
The “one child” policy was effective in China
because the government had close control over
people’s lives. In the 1970s and 1980s, most people
were government employees.
However, it led to some problems:
● Some children are the only child of two parents,

and the only grandchild of four grandparents.

10.6.4 A poster promoting China’s child policy.
Supporting grandparents in their old age may
become a burden. This is called the 4-2-1
China has a larger population than any other problem.
country; it has more than four times the population ● At a national level, the government became

of the USA. concerned that the working population would

China is an increasingly prosperous country. It is have to support an increasing number of elderly
by far the most important economy in the world for and retired people.
manufacturing. Incomes have increased rapidly, ● Some children may be over-indulged. Some

particularly in the cities; however, there is still media reports call them “little emperors”.
significant poverty in some parts of the countryside. ● Most families in China would prefer to have a

Many people migrate to the cities in search of work. son, rather than a daughter. Some mothers had
In 2014 total economic output per person (per abortions to avoid giving birth to unwanted
capita GDP) was slightly more than that of daughters. There were more baby boys than
Grenada or St Lucia, and less than half of Trinidad baby girls.
and Tobago’s. ● This led to an imbalance in the adult

China has moved rapidly through the second population; young men out-number young
and third stages of the demographic transition, women by more than 20 million.
because of action by the government.
In the 1950s and 1960s, the government The one child policy was successful in reducing
encouraged people to have large families. Improvements China’s birth rate, but was gradually eased; for
in public health in the mid-twentieth century reduced example, many couples could have a second child if
the infant mortality rate and the death rate. The the first was a girl.
population increased rapidly. In 2015, the policy was changed. All couples are
now allowed to have two children.
However, the government was concerned that:
● China did not have funds to pay for imported
Discussion point
food. There was a danger of food shortages 1 Should governments be able to regulate family
● there would not be enough jobs for the size? What kinds of population policy are
growing population appropriate:
● if young people migrated to the cities, the a) in China?
b) in the Caribbean?
urban population would grow too fast.

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 India: the demographic transition

10.6.5 In India reduced infant mortality rates have helped to reduce the fertility rate.

The population of India is second-largest in the government compulsion. The average fertility rate
world after China’s. More than one-sixth of the has fallen, in part because more women have the
world’s population lives in India. Because India has opportunity to pursue their education or to work,
a higher growth rate, its population is expected to and because fewer people live in remote agricultural
exceed that of China by 2025. villages. In many parts of India, the fertility rate is
Like Nigeria, India has many ethnic groups. now less than 2.0, and this figure is expected to be
There are more than 2,000 different languages. the national average by 2020.
Like both China and Nigeria, India has suffered
Comparisons
from conflict and poverty, but now has a rapidly
growing economy. There are many successful businesses 2 Compare the population of Nigeria, India, or
in information technology and manufacturing, and China with one Caribbean country, under these
India’s film industry is the largest in the world, headings:
producing more than 1,000 full-length features each a) Birth rate
b) Death rate
year.
c) Natural increase
In 2014, total economic output per person (per
d) Migration
capita GDP) was about the same as that of Nigeria. e) Fertility rate
There is a wide gap between rich and poor. To f) Life expectancy
prevent unemployment from increasing, India needs g) Government policy.
10 million new jobs every year.
The government has introduced public health Discussion point
measures to increase life expectancy and reduce
infant mortality. It has also attempted to encourage 3 What stage of the demographic transition has
been reached by:
smaller families. In the 1970s there were financial
a) Nigeria?
incentives for women and men to be sterilized;
b) China?
with reports that consent was not always obtained,
c) India?
this policy was extremely unpopular. d) the Caribbean country you used for your
Women and men are now able to make their comparisons in Question 1?
own decisions about family planning. There is no

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 11.1 Urbanization

Key ideas ● Urbanization occurs when an increasing percentage of

the population lives in towns and cities.
● Cities have grown worldwide, and in the Caribbean.
● People migrate to cities for employment, and for other
11.1.1 Most rural settlements have
reasons.
few employment opportunities.

■ The urban population lives in towns and cities.

and manufacturing. Internationally, some cities have a
■ The rural population lives in villages and larger population than the whole of Caricom. Most of
scattered settlements. the largest and fastest-growing cities are in Asia, Africa,
■ Urbanization is growth in the urban population, and Latin America.
often through migration from the countryside.
The world’s largest cities in 2015
■ A suburb is a built-up area close to a large
city, but away from the city centre. Suburbs These cities had more than 20 million people:
have grown around Caribbean cities since the Tokyo-Yokohama Seoul New York
mid-twentieth century. Jakarta Shanghai Guangzhou
■ Urban sprawl is the expansion of cities into the Delhi Karachi São Paulo
countryside through the growth of suburbs.
Manila Beijing Mexico City
■ Urban growth is an increase in the size of
a city. It is often, but not always, linked to Urban population as a percentage of total population
urbanization or urban sprawl. 1980 2014
Caribbean countries
100
Bahamas 73 83
% of population living in towns

80 Belize 49 44
Jamaica 47 55
60
Haiti 21 57
40 Other countries
USA 74 81
20
China 19 54
0
India 23 32
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
Nigeria 22 47
Year
Estimates by World Bank; other agencies have
11.1.2 Worldwide urban growth.
different data, based on varying definitions of
“urban”.
Worldwide urban growth
Urbanization is a worldwide trend. In the
mid-twentieth century, Europe, Japan, and North
Urban growth in the Caribbean
America had a mainly urban population, but most Most cities in the Caribbean have been growing, but
people in South America, Africa, and Asia lived in not as rapidly as in some other parts of the world.
rural settlements. At that time, the world’s largest Caribbean cities have grown because of:
● natural increase: in most cities, the birth rate
cities were London and New York.
Since then, people worldwide have moved to exceeds the death rate
● migration: people move to cities from rural
towns and cities, in the hope of new opportunities.
Employment has shifted from agriculture to services areas.

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 People migrate to cities for many reasons:
Employment. Fewer people now work in agriculture,
as you will see in Chapter 13. Most jobs are now in
urban areas, for example in construction, retailing,
offices, and manufacturing.
Social services. There are educational opportunities
in urban areas, and some people move there to
study. Health care is also better. This is important for
families with young children.
Utilities. Some rural areas do not have a piped water
11.1.3 Opportunities are greater in busy urban centres:
supply, electricity, or other basic services. Most urban
Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.
households have these facilities.
Recreation. Many people are attracted by opportunities Urban–rural differences in St Lucia
for entertainment and recreation. Cities have less open Urban Rural
space, but may have better sports facilities. There are Youth unemployment 37% 43%
cinemas, nightclubs, and opportunities to meet people.
Safe water source 95% 89%
Problems of rural areas. In some countries there are
Has been crime victim 8% 4%
few jobs in rural areas. Crops such as sugar and
bananas are less profitable than before. Many younger Percentage of population in each area, 2004
people do not want to work in agriculture, even if farm
work is available. There may be fewer opportunities for Atlas work
education, medical services, or entertainment. 1 On a blank world map, mark the cities with more
Migration is movement to a new home. Most than 20 million people.
migrants move short distances within their own
country. A smaller number move to another country; Quick research
this is international migration (see Section 11.8).
2 What is the largest city in the Caribbean?
Push and pull factors 3 What is the population of the capital of your
Push factors encouraging people to leave rural areas: country?
■ Not enough jobs 4 Talk to someone who has migrated from a rural
■ Difficult to earn a good living in agriculture area to a city, or in the reverse direction. Find
■ Lack of schools and health services out why they moved, and what the advantages
■ Restricted social life. and disadvantages of their new location are. Do
Pull factors attracting people to urban areas: they intend to return home?
■ Jobs in services or manufacturing
■ Better health and education
■ Varied social life and entertainment
Quick questions
■ Friends and family who have already moved. 5 Of the countries in the table:
Barriers to short-distance migration to cities are few: a) Which two were most urban in 1980, and in
■ Cost of travel is not high for a single journey
2014?
■ No legal restrictions or language problems
b) Which two were least urban?
■ Friends and family can usually help with settling in.
c) In which two did the proportion in cities
Some people still prefer a rural life:
■ More peaceful
increase most rapidly?
■ Less risk of crime and disorder 6 Comment on urban–rural differences in St
■ More spacious living conditions Lucia. What does the table tell you about the
■ Lower rents and living costs advantages and disadvantages of urban life?
■ Familiar surroundings, with family and old friends
■ Less dirt and pollution
Discussion point
■ Even without a job, food and shelter are available.
There is a return flow: 7 Would you prefer to live in an urban or a rural
■ Many migrants return home, permanently or for area? What points would be important to you in
short periods. making your decision?

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 11.2 Urban growth: Port-au-Prince

Key ideas ● Haiti’s capital, Port-au-Prince, has grown rapidly with migration from rural areas.
● Much of the population is extremely poor.

Mountains ● Farm families cannot live from the land. They

need other income, but there are few jobs.
Fault
line ● Government offices and private businesses are
concentrated in Port-au-Prince. The city has
Haiti’s main port and airport and the main
Less dense
urban manufacturing centre.
Manufacturing
R i f t Va l l e y
● Young migrants move to the city seeking a new
future.
Market
● When migrants have settled, most start a family.
Presidential palace as
are 0 5 km Migrants have a high birth rate. In-migration
ban
Dense ur Pétionville
G Enriquillo–Plan
tain Gard
en Fault leads to a high rate of natural increase.
Mountains
Urban poverty in Haiti
11.2.1 Port-au-Prince. Rapid urban growth in Haiti has led to urban
G
poverty. Most migrants cannot find jobs in formal
sector organizations such as banks or government
ministries. Instead, they earn an insecure living in
the informal sector – on construction sites, as
domestic workers, or as street traders.
The gap between Haiti’s rich and poor is widest
in Port-au-Prince. The low-income majority –
60 per cent of the population – receives only
4 per cent of the income earned in the city. The
richest 10% receive 75% of the income.
Many high earners live in the breezy hilltop
suburb of Pétionville, overlooking the city. The poor
11.2.2 Port-au-Prince: low-income housing. suffer severe housing problems. They live in
crowded low-income districts or bidonvilles, most of
which lack proper roads or utilities; some have
Urban growth in Haiti more than 25,000 people per sq. km.
Port-au-Prince, the capital of Haiti, has close to 2 There are environmental problems in these
million people, more than any country in the districts. Most lack a reliable, clean water supply and
English-speaking Caribbean other than Jamaica. The they have no sewage or garbage disposal systems.
city has grown rapidly because of both natural The poor spend two-thirds of their income on
increase and in-migration: food, but on most days they cannot buy meat or
● Haiti is passing through Stages Two and Three of milk. Instead, they eat bread, rice, sugar and foods
the demographic transition. From 1975 to with a low protein and vitamin content. Charcoal is
2010, the national population doubled. the usual cooking fuel, and candles are the main
● Most people in rural Haiti are poor. Farms are source of light. Schools are privately owned; many
small, with land damaged by soil erosion. families cut back on food to pay school fees.

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 Urban and rural employment in Haiti Travel, phone cards
Education,
Port-au-Prince Rural Haiti school supplies
6%
Agriculture Government
1% 0.2% Other 14%
Other Manufacturing
Retail, transport 6% 36%
6% Rice, corn, bread,
16% Rent
25% flour, beans etc.
Construction 24%
4% Clothes 3%
64%
6%
Construction
48% Agriculture 15%
2%
20%
Retail, Manufacturing Candles, soap, water,
Government transport 4% charcoal etc. Other food

11.2.3 Employment contrasts. 11.2.5 A typical budget for a low-income family in

Port-au-Prince.

Living standards in urban and rural Haiti

% of population with … Port-au-Prince Rural Haiti
Indoor piped water 11% 2%
Spring or river water 1% 65%
Flush toilet 14% 1%
Electricity in home 92% 11%
Robbery, past 2 years 17% 6%

Quick questions
1 Give three reasons why Port-au-Prince grew
11.2.4 Street traders in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. more rapidly than Kingston, Jamaica or
Kingstown, St Vincent. G
2 What percentage of the rural population
Finding solutions worked:
Haiti has suffered from problems such as: a) in agriculture?
● agricultural decline – more than half the b) for the government?
country’s food is imported 3 What were the two main sources of employment
● unemployment in Port-au-Prince?
● inefficient government

● corruption. Discussion points

4 For a young person from rural Haiti, what
Some small progress had been made before 2010 by would be the advantages and disadvantages
voluntary and government organizations, which of migrating to Port-au-Prince? Consider the
helped social and economic development by: “push” and “pull” factors listed in Section 11.1.
● building paved roads in bidonvilles 5 Discuss the Haitian family budget with an adult
● providing standpipes for water supply in your family. What are the differences in:
● making loans to small businesses a) food expenditure?
● building schools and health clinics.
b) other spending?
6 What could be done to improve life for low-
income people in:
To reduce the pace of urbanization, there have been a) rural Haiti?
attempts to develop tourism and other industries b) Port-au-Prince?
elsewhere in Haiti, to attract migrants. 7 Why do so many Haitians wish to migrate?
The earthquake of 2010 destroyed much of this Should neighbouring Caribbean countries and
hard work. Its impact is described in Section 9.11. the United States allow Haitians to settle?

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 11.3 Settlement in St Vincent

Key ideas ● Caribbean cities were originally developed as trading centres.

● Cities have grown as employment and services have developed.
● Rural settlement may be nucleated, linear or dispersed.

Kingstown, St Vincent G
Like most Caribbean capitals, Kingstown was
established as a colonial trading port more than 200
years ago. This location was chosen for these reasons:
● It is on the south-west or leeward side of the

island, sheltered from the north-east trade winds.

● Kingstown Bay provides a natural harbour.

● There is flat land for building.

● Roads were built to bring sugar and other

products from rural areas.

● Small rivers provided a water supply.

● Fort Charlotte was built on high ground close to

the city, to protect it from attack.

Georgetown on the windward side was closer to big

sugar estates, but did not have a good harbour.
The early colonial city had around 300 houses.
It was built on a regular plan, with three streets
parallel to the coastline. Today, these are Bay Street,
Long Lane, and Grenville Street. This area is now the
central business district, or CBD.
The city grew during the twentieth century.
People from rural St Vincent migrated to Kingstown
11.3.1 Kingstown: Scale 1:50 000.
for these reasons:
● There were jobs with the government, retailing,

manufacturing, and the port.

● There were social services, such as schools,

colleges, and hospitals.

● There were opportunities for entertainment.

● Some rural areas lacked these advantages.

Employment in agriculture declined. In St Vincent,

the percentage of workers in agriculture was:
● 53% in 1946

● 29% in 1980

● 11% in 2001.

Since the 1970s, the population of the crowded city

centre has declined. Urbanization has been controlled.
11.3.2 Looking north over Kingstown. People have migrated to the suburbs, where land is

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 N

Soufrière

Georgetown

Barrouallie

North
Union

Kingstown

Argyle
0 5 km

11.3.3 Barrouallie: Scale 1:50 000. 11.3.4 North Union: Scale 1:50 000. 11.3.5 St Vincent location
map.
available for development as urban sprawl, and to the ● Small rivers provided a water supply in the past,
nearby district of Calliaqua on the south coast. There when piped water was not available.
are also other changes: ● The Leeward Highway now provides good road
● Two large supermarkets have been built outside connections to Kingstown and to villages
the CBD, one north of the city, one to the south. located further north.
● A manufacturing centre has been developed at ● Minor rural roads and footpaths provide access
Campden Park, north of the city. to nearby farming land.
● The airport is to be moved from its present site,

close to Kingstown, to Argyle in the south-east. Close to the east or windward coast, there are many
scattered or dispersed settlements, for example
1980 1991 2001 % change around North Union.
1980–2001 ● The land slopes more gently, providing many
Kingstown 16,532 15,466 13,212 –20% suitable sites for building.
Suburbs 8,609 10,757 12,508 +45% ● The coastline is exposed to large waves and has

Total 25,141 26,223 25,720 +2% few natural harbours.

% of St 26% 25% 24% ● A network of secondary and minor roads

Vincent provides access to scattered locations.

● There are many rivers and streams, which
The CBD still has the main government and private
provided a water supply in the past.
sector offices; retail stores and banks; parliament
and the law courts; and the public market.
North of Kingstown there is a linear settlement
Reclaimed land on the seafront next to the CBD
stretching from Lowmans through Camden Part to
provides sites for newer government offices, a car
Questelles. It is located along a road, which provides
park, the bus station, and cruise ship facilities.
easy access to employment and services in Kingstown.
Rural settlement
Quick research
On the west or leeward coast of St Vincent, there are
1 Compare any Caribbean capital city with
large villages or nucleated settlements.
Kingstown, under these headings:
Look at Figure 11.3.3. These are some of the
a) Original advantages of the site (harbour, flat
factors that influenced the location of Barrouallie:
land, roads, rivers, defence, etc.)
● There is a natural harbour or anchorage for
b) Reasons for growth of the city
fishing boats and other vessels. c) Services provided in the CBD
● A small area of flat land provided a good site for
d) Location of new residential areas
the settlement. To the east, there are steep e) Services provided outside the CBD
mountain slopes. f) Distance from the city to the airport.

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 11.4 Population changes in Kingston

Key ideas ● In most capitals, the population of the central area is declining.
● The population of many suburban areas is increasing rapidly, leading to urban sprawl.

11.4.1 A satellite image of Kingston.

G
Date Kingston St Andrew Portmore Total Whole of % in Kingston and
(parish) Jamaica surroundings
1921 64,000 54,000 118,000 858,000 14%
1943 110,000 128,000 238,000 1,237,000 19%
1960 123,000 296,000 419,000 1,609,000 26%
1970 110,000 421,000 5,000 536,000 1,848,000 29%
1982 104,000 483,000 73,000 660,000 2,190,000 30%
1991 97,000 534,000 94,000 725,000 2,395,500 30%
2001 96,000 556,000 160,000 812,000 2,608,000 31%
2011 89,000 573,000 182,000 844,000 2,698,000 31%
Average yearly growth rate in 2001–11 was …
–0.8% 0.3% 1.3% 0.4% 0.4%

Kingston and urban sprawl

In Jamaica, Kingston and its surroundings have Since then, people have left, because:
almost one-third of the total population. Although ● some land has been redeveloped for business, so
the percentage of Jamaicans who live in cities is no there is less room for housing;
longer increasing, the urban area has spread ● many people have gone to less crowded areas in
outwards from its original core as urban sprawl. the suburbs, where living conditions are better.
The parish of Kingston, the oldest part of the
urban area, reached its peak population in 1960.

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 KINGSTON & ST ANDREW OTHER PARISHES
Red
Hills

New Kingston
Lo
ng U.W.I. Dallas
M
Spanish Hunts ou
Downtown nt Mountain
Town Bay ain
Portmore Port
Kingston Harbour
Shooters Airport
s
Hill adoe
Port Royal Palis

Great Key
Salt Pond Key Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing

Original site of Kingston, 1692 Mining, Refining and Quarrying Transport, Communications and Utilities
Hellshire Hills Manufacturing Wholesaling, Retailing, Hotels and Restaurants
Built-up area, 1930s
Construction Government, Finance and other services
Built-up area, 1995
Wetland reclaimed for urban use 11.4.3 Employment in Jamaica.
Other wetland
Hills and mountains
0 5 km Road completed by 2005
Projected road

11.4.2 The growth of Kingston.

Using graphs
At first, people moved to the parish of St Andrew. 1 Draw a line graph to show population growth in
Kingston and St Andrew together form one “corporate Kingston, St Andrew, and Portmore.
2 Figure 11.4.3 shows employment differences in
area”. Busy commercial districts such as Cross Roads,
the 1980s, a time when there was rural–urban
New Kingston and Half Way Tree are in St Andrew. So
migration. Which employment types were:
are the Mona University campus and most of the
a) concentrated in Kingston and St Andrew?
residential suburbs. Look at Figure 16.4.2, which is a b) located mainly in other parishes?
map showing most of Kingston and St Andrew. c) shared equally between urban and rural areas?
Since 1980 there has been little spare land for
development in St Andrew. Most land to the north and Mapwork
north-east is too mountainous for dense, urban
development. Population growth has been to the west, 3 Look at Figure 16.4.2. Each of these sentences
fits one of the grid squares listed below. Match
in the parish of St Catherine. New suburban areas have
each sentence with one of the four-figure grid
been built in Portmore and around Spanish Town.
references.
Portmore now has a larger population than St Lucia.
65 49, 74 50, 71 46, 75 48, 67 51, 67 48, 71 50.
Urban growth and urban sprawl a) The original city of Kingston had an area
Caribbean urbanization is not always easy to of less than 1 km2. It was laid out on a
measure. Some urban areas have grown far beyond rectangular grid plan.
their legally established city limits. In many cases, b) This suburban area was developed in sections,
the urbanized area has no clear boundary. with a planned layout. Many roads are curved.
■ The city of Port of Spain has only 49,000 c) This upper-income suburban area is built on
people. However, close to 500,000 people live a hilly site. Many roads follow the contours
in the urban and suburban east–west corridor. to make driving easier. The density of
■ The city of Bridgetown has a population of housing development is low.
only 6,000, but more than 100,000 people live d) The city has not expanded in this direction
in built-up areas around the capital. because the land slopes steeply.
In most Caribbean countries, some people prefer e) Many main roads meet here, near the middle
to live outside the city, travelling each day to of the built-up area. This is an important
work in an urban area. This is called commuting. office and commercial centre.
In smaller islands, distances to the capital are f) The land here is too wet for development.
short. Most of the country lies within commuting g) Land has been reclaimed to make a deep-water
distance of the city. harbour and provide sites for manufacturing.

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 11.5 Benefits and problems of
urbanization
Key ideas ● People and businesses may benefit from being in a city location.
● Downtown areas have decayed as other areas have prospered.
● Problems include land shortages, housing, transport, and water supply.

Benefits of urbanization Slowing growth

Section 11.1 described how people may benefit Like many cities in the English-speaking Caribbean,
from life in a city. There are also benefits for Kingston is growing more slowly than in the
businesses. A city location offers: mid-twentieth century, for these reasons:
● a plentiful workforce, with a greater choice of ● National population growth is slower. Jamaica has

skills than in a rural area moved into Stage 4 of the demographic transition.
● customers to buy goods and services ● Some rural areas and smaller towns have

● suppliers of materials and other inputs prospered, with industries such as tourism.
● port and airport facilities. ● People have migrated from Kingston and St

Andrew to Portmore, Spanish Town, and

For governments and utility companies, it is easier to neighbouring areas.
provide services such as schools, hospitals, water and ● Some people have migrated overseas.

electricity in a densely populated urban area. It is

G more difficult to serve a scattered rural population. Downtown and New Kingston
Contrasts between Kingston and rural Jamaica
Kingston Rural National
(KMA) Jamaica average
Family spending: % of 123% 77% 100%
national average
Below poverty line 13% 23% 17%
Go to school by car 16% 5% 10%
With indoor flush toilet 87% 48% 68%
Piped water in home 97% 46% 73%
Wood or charcoal for 3% 26% 15%
cooking 11.5.2 Busy Beckford Street, downtown Kingston.
Computer and Internet 21% 4% 12%

100
KMA
80 Rural
Percentage

60

40

20
1990 1995 2000 2005 2008
Year
11.5.3 New Kingston.
11.5.1 Population with indoor toilet, Kingston
and rural Jamaica.
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 downtown area has become run-down. This is not
desirable, because:
● the historic centre is home to national

institutions, and should be a focus of pride

● businesses operating downtown find it hard to

attract customers
● dilapidated buildings and empty lots are a

breeding ground for crime

● a well-maintained downtown could attract

tourists and other customers to retailers,

restaurants, and cultural attractions
● a thriving downtown would create jobs in

construction and other businesses, benefiting

the nearby low-income areas.

11.5.4 New housing replacing old in downtown Kingston.

There are plans to revive the downtown area:
● The government wants ministries and other

offices to locate there.

The downtown area at grid reference 72 46 on ● Tax concessions have encouraged some large
Figure 16.4.2 includes the old historic city of companies to build downtown offices.
Kingston, laid out more than 300 years ago with a ● The government and private business are
regular grid plan. Until the mid-twentieth century, this working to improve the Coronation Market.
was the central business district (CBD), with retail ● New houses can be built on empty lots.
stores and government and private sector offices.
From the 1960s, there was commercial Research
development at New Kingston, on the site of an old
racecourse at grid reference 72 50. This is now the 1 What was the population of the largest city in
your country:
main centre for:
● banking, insurance, and other business offices
a) at the most recent census?
b) approximately 20 years earlier?
● hotels for business travellers and other tourists.
2 What was the national population at these dates?
3 Did the proportion in the largest city increase,
Large retailers and supermarkets are no longer decrease, or remain about the same? What were
concentrated downtown. They have moved to the reasons for this trend?
shopping malls, which:
● are close to suburban residential areas
Discussion points
● have plentiful sales and storage space

● have good parking and delivery facilities.

4 In what ways are living conditions better in
Kingston than in rural Jamaica? Are there ways
in which conditions are better in rural areas?
There are examples at grid references 71 51 and
Where are conditions improving most rapidly?
750 520. There is a transport hub at Half Way Tree, 5 Has the downtown area of your national capital
at grid reference 713 510. This is a terminus for bus developed positively in recent years, or become
routes, with shops and a food court for waiting run-down?
passengers. 6 Which businesses and institutions are located
Parliament and the Bank of Jamaica are still downtown, and which have moved to the
downtown. So are the law courts, the prison, many suburbs?
lawyers’ offices, and businesses such as the Gleaner 7 What problems are experienced in the
newspaper. The Coronation Market, a lively centre downtown area, and what should be done to
for small retailers, lies to the west. However, the solve them?

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 Problems of urbanization
Many areas in Kingston and other cities provide Portmore is now a fully fledged community,
pleasant living conditions, with a wide range of with 13 schools, a health centre, a library, a cultural
social services and jobs. However, rapid urban centre, a police station, and shopping centres. Banks
development may create problems, such as: and insurance companies have opened large
● a shortage of land for development branches. Now that Portmore is fully developed,
● a congested transport network new construction has moved further west. Suburban
● development of low-quality housing communities are being built around Spanish Town,
● overcrowding and a lack of public services which by 2010 had more than 160,000 people.
● water, land, and air pollution.
Transport
Urban crime rates may be higher than those of Suburban development can create its own problems.
rural areas, and some people prefer the peace and Many people travel long distances to work in
quiet of a rural environment. Kingston. Traffic is heavy. Some commuters spend
Many people benefit from life in a city, with jobs up to two hours a day going to work, with another
and access to services. Businesses may also find a long journey home in the evening. Within St
plentiful workforce, and access to customers. Andrew, a journey that takes 15 minutes at quiet
periods may take over an hour in peak traffic. There
Land for building: Portmore are few places where existing roads can be widened
There is a shortage of building land. This has been or new ones built. Congestion is heavy on the
relieved in part by developing areas such as causeway from Portmore to Kingston.
Portmore, which was linked to Kingston by a
causeway in 1969. This district is on reclaimed
wetland and land previously used to grow sugar.
New housing has been built in planned estates.
One company, West Indies Home Contractors, built
25,000 prefabricated units. Low-interest loans have
helped people buy their own homes.

11.5.6 Heavy morning traffic from Portmore to Kingston.

Buses are crowded. There are also luxury “executive

class” buses, but these are too expensive for many
people. There is a shortage of parking spaces in busy
commercial districts. Some businesses rent or buy
land for parking, but this is an added cost.
A six-lane road, Highway 2000, runs for
50 kilometres from Kingston through Portmore to
11.5.5 Greater Portmore in the 1990s. The older settlement
of Braeton contrasts with the rows of prefabricated Sandy Bay and May Pen, west of Spanish Town. The
houses. The Great Salt Pond, Shooters Hill and the tip first section opened in 2004, making some journeys to
of the Palisadoes are in the background. work much faster. Road users must pay a toll to cover
construction costs. Faster travel is expected to
encourage further suburban development, up to
30 kilometres from Kingston. The highway will
eventually be extended to Ocho Rios and Montego Bay.

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 Bad housing conditions
Poverty and bad housing can be serious problems in ● Low-interest housing loans are available from
a densely populated city. There is good-quality the government’s National Housing Trust.
housing in Kingston, but also some bad slums. The ● Families living in tenement yards and squatter
worst areas are: settlements may want to improve their homes; but
● tenement yards, where cramped and badly built first, they need security of tenure, access to clean
houses are squeezed on to a strip of private land water, and an electricity supply. In some areas,
● squatter settlements, where houses are built on government agencies have bought land from
unoccupied land without permission from the private owners, put in roads, footpaths, water
landowner, for example on Hope Estate (at grid supply, and improved drainage, and then sold lots
reference 77 52 on Figure 16.4.2). There are to families who live there. When this happens,
larger squatter settlements near Spanish Town. people often improve their houses quickly.

Key
Gastroenteritis cases 2002
% households with no indoor plumbing
0–6.4 30– 49
6.5–16.4 50 or over
0 2 4 5 km
16.5–29

11.5.8 Health problems and water supply in Kingston

Metropolitan Area.
11.5.7 Squatter settlement at Riverton City: grid reference
66 51 on Figure 16.4.2. Quick question
8 Name an area of suburban housing development
Most people in these areas do not have electricity, in your own country, and an area where housing
running water, or a bathroom. New houses are conditions should be improved.
needed to replace unacceptable and overcrowded
dwellings and provide for the growing population.
Sketch map
Some areas with poor-quality housing have been
redeveloped. These are some ways to provide new 9 Look at Figure 11.5.8, and draw a sketch map to
show the areas with the worst housing conditions.
housing:
● Private developers build houses for sale, but

these are too expensive for many families. Discussion points

● Government agencies also build houses and 10 Is there a traffic problem in the area where you
apartments for sale, but there are not enough to live? If so, what could be done to relieve it?
meet the demand. 11 What are the advantages and disadvantages of
● Land is provided with roads and utilities, and living in a planned suburban area like Portmore?
building lots are offered for sale. The purchaser 12 When a new highway is built, should drivers pay
builds a house on the site. a toll?

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 11.6 Urban pollution problems

Key ideas ● Urban areas may develop environmental problems such as air, land,
and water pollution.
● Sewage treatment can help to reduce water pollution.

Air pollution Water pollution in Kingston Harbour

Where vehicle exhausts accumulate, sunlight Kingston Harbour is a valuable resource:
triggers chemical reactions, which produce ozone. ● It is the world’s seventh-largest natural harbour.

This is a form of oxygen that is beneficial in the More than 2,500 ships use the port every year.
upper atmosphere but produces problems at ground ● It is a centre for the fishing industry.

level. The resulting “heat haze” or “smog” reduces ● It is a recreational amenity with two marinas.

visibility and may cause asthma attacks and other However, swimming is no longer allowed.
health problems. The sky appears white, not blue. ● Much of the shallow water around the harbour

Mexico City has still air, is surrounded by has been used for land reclamation.
mountains, and suffers serious air pollution. ● It has been a dumping ground for industrial,

Caribbean cities such as Kingston are also affected. domestic, and commercial waste.
Smog can be reduced by improved vehicle
design and maintenance, and by using reformulated In the past, there were few problems. Kingston was
gasoline that contains additives such as ethanol. a small city and produced only a limited amount of
waste. The harbour was safe as a source of food and
Solid waste and land pollution for swimming. Gunboat Beach was popular until the
Families and businesses produce increasing quantities 1980s, when it was officially closed.
of solid waste – kitchen garbage, paper, plastics, glass, Kingston is now a large industrial city and
and other material. Some waste is hazardous, for pollution of the harbour has become a serious
example if it contains poisonous materials such as problem:
lead. ● After older sewage treatment plants stopped

Some solid waste is taken to dump sites. This working, around 40 million litres of untreated
creates problems. Decomposing organic matter and semi-treated sewage were pumped into the
releases sulphur and gases with an unpleasant smell, harbour every day.
and methane, a gas that creates a fire hazard. ● A study in 2004 found 127 industries causing

Hazardous waste may release chemicals that some pollution. Food-processing industries
contaminate the public water supply. produce organic waste. There are oil spills at the
Careful management can reduce the solid waste oil refinery and from ships. Some industrial
problem. Landfills are specially designed disposal chemicals are poisonous to marine life.
sites where waste is compressed and covered. ● Land reclamation and engineering works have

Landfills are designed to prevent contaminated interfered with tidal currents. Since 1969 Hunts
water from seeping downwards. Bay has been virtually cut off from the rest of the
The volume of waste can also be reduced by harbour by a causeway, reducing water circulation.
composting plant waste to make fertilizer, sterilizing ● Rainwater washes fertilizers, herbicides, and

and re-using glass bottles, and recycling materials pesticides from agricultural areas into the harbour,
G such as scrap metal, paper, and plastics. mainly through the Rio Cobre and Hunts Bay.

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 How pollution has been reduced
As a result of these activities, the harbour has been A large sewage treatment plant was opened in 2008
polluted with organic matter. A certain amount of at Soapberry, close to Hunts Bay. It treats effluent
organic matter provides useful nutrients for marine from most of Kingston and St Andrew, and will
life, but too much is disastrous. Bacteria that feed eventually serve Portmore and Spanish Town as well.
on decomposing organic waste may use up all the Bacteria and algae break down organic matter in
oxygen in the water. When this happens, fish and oxidation ponds. After treatment, the waste can be
other marine life die from asphyxiation, and the safely discharged into the Rio Cobre.
water smells very bad. Meanwhile, sewage from recent housing
Tidal currents are not powerful enough to flush developments at Portmore to the west of Kingston is
out the quantity of waste that now pours into the properly treated. After initial treatment, effluent
harbour. The water looks dirty, but this is only a flows into reed beds, mangroves, and the Great Salt
small part of the problem. Figure 11.6.1 shows Pond to the south. Wildlife in this water body is
some of the effects of pollution by sewage. It shows flourishing.
the distribution of faecal coliform bacteria, which There have been attempts to stop people using
originate in the digestive system. watercourses to dump garbage and old appliances.
Swimming now carries a risk of skin, stomach, Industries have been encouraged to treat their waste
and ear infections. Shellfish from the harbour are or dispose of it elsewhere. Ships are no longer
unsafe to eat. They may contain chemical pollutants allowed to flush out their oil tanks or release
as well as harmful bacteria. pollutants.

Soapberry sewage
treatment plant
Fishing
beach
Rio
Cob

NEWPORT
re

Hunts Bay WEST

Fishing Docking
Causeway Oil Refinery
Fishing
beach NEWPORT
Docking EAST
Ship
Portmore channel Docking
Docking
Boating
Fishing
Shipping anchorage beach Docking

Inner Harbour
Fishing Fishing
beach Docking
Shipping Boating
Boating

Fishing Fishing
beach Swimming The Palisadoes spit
Outer Harbour 0 1 2 km
Swimming
Swimming

Boating Key
Ship
channel Coliform contours Water and land uses
Swimming
Over 2,400 Industrial
100–2,400 Commercial and residential
10–100 Reclamation and fill
Less than 10

11.6.1 Pollution in Kingston Harbour.

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 11.7 Controlling urbanization
in the Bahamas
Key ideas ● New centres can be developed for services and employment.
● This relieves pressure on the capital city and helps control urbanization.

G
Grand Urban growth has created problems in Nassau:
Bahama 0 50 100 km ● There is traffic congestion; it may take 90

Freeport Abaco N minutes to cross the city by car.

● The island has outrun its water resources; fresh

water has to be shipped in from Andros or

Eleuthera
Nassau
Caribbean Sea obtained expensively by desalination. Most
New
Providence families buy bottled water to drink.
● There is little open space for recreation.
Andros
San
● There have been disputes over beach access.
Salvador
● Rents and house prices are high.
Exuma
● There is a high crime rate.

Mayaguana
The Family Islands
Most of the Bahamian islands are called the Family
Islands. Some are almost empty. Andros has 7,400
CUBA Inagua
people on an area larger than Trinidad, with a
population density of only 1.2 people per sq. km.
11.7.1 The Bahamas.
It is difficult to create jobs on the Family Islands.
The growth of Nassau With a dry climate and thin soil, small farmers
Nassau, the capital of the Bahamas, is on New cannot compete with commercial imports from
Providence, one of the smallest islands, with a Florida. There are long beaches and clear waters for
density of more than 1,000 people per sq. km. Most sailing and water sports such as scuba diving; but
of the island is used for buildings, roads, and the
airport; much of the rest is wetland.
The population of Nassau has grown because it
is the main centre of economic activity, with:
● hotels and tourist facilities

● private businesses

● international finance and banking

● the main airport

● government ministries.

It is also the main service centre for Bahamians. It has:

● the widest choice of entertainment and

shopping
● the College of the Bahamas, the main centre for

post-16 education 11.7.2 Bay Street, Nassau, bustles with tourism and local
● the main hospital. businesses.

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 the lack of air connections has held back the To encourage tourism, the government has built
development of tourism. Many people have left the international airports on some islands, and invested
Family Islands for these reasons: in electricity and water supply. San Salvador, with a
● There are few jobs other than fishing or small- population of 1,000, has a large tourist resort and an
scale farming. international airport with flights to France and the
● There are no opportunities for education after 16. USA. The aim is for a major resort on each island.
● Shopping and services are limited.

● There are few facilities for entertainment and Grand Bahama

recreation. The island of Grand Bahama has also been developed,
relieving pressure on Nassau. It has 15% of the
As well as creating congestion in Nassau, urbanization population. Freeport on Grand Bahama is the nation’s
also creates problems for rural communities. When second city. Besides tourism, private business has
population declines: developed an international port and airport, and
● it is expensive to provide schools for only a few other industries such as shipyards, which repair and
children recondition cruise ships and large yachts.
● private businesses have few customers

● younger people move away to look for work

Some Bahamian islands
● older people, who need health care and other Population Change in
services, remain. 2010 population
2000–2010

However, many people appreciate the slower pace of Nassau 248,950 +18%
Capital city, overcrowded
life on the Family Islands, the strong sense of
community and family life, and the beauty of the Grand Bahama 51,750 +10%
Second city, at Freeport
marine environment. Some of those now in Nassau
Abaco 16,700 +27%
would like to live on a less congested island, if they
Agriculture, tourism, fast
could be sure of a job. growth
The government has improved services and
Exuma 7,300 +105%
encouraged development on the Family Islands. This International airport,
is a way of controlling urbanization. tourism
● Air services are subsidized. There is also a boat
Andros 7,400 –4%
service. Big island, stagnant
● Electricity and telecommunications have been economy
improved. Inagua 910 –6%
● Many islands now have cable television. Dry, remote
● Health clinics and schools have been improved.

● Since the 1990s there has been an elected local

Using maps
government in each island, providing 1 Look at Figure 11.7.1. What is the approximate
community services. distance from Nassau to:
● There are tax concessions on some islands for a) Abaco? b) Inagua?
businesses and residential construction.
Using photographs
11.7.3 San Salvador, one of the 2 Look carefully at each of the photographs in
Family Islands.
this section. What do they tell you about the
islands shown?

Comparisons
3 In your own country:
a) What problems are caused by the growth of
the capital city?
b) What has been done to develop rural areas?

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 11.8 International migration

Key ideas ● Many people migrate in search of employment.

● Some migrate for other reasons.
● Migration may be within the Caribbean, or beyond.
● There are barriers that restrict migration.
● Some migrants eventually return home.

11.8.1 Miami now has a big Caribbean population.

Migration from the Caribbean

From most Caribbean countries, there is a flow of 800,000
international migrants to the USA, Canada, Britain,
700,000
and elsewhere. There are many types of out-migration
Caribbean population in the USA

from the Caribbean. For example: 600,000

● There is short-term migration. People go overseas 500,000

for career-related reasons, such as education,
400,000
training, and work experience, staying a few
300,000
years. Other short-term migrants want to save
money, to use when they return home. 200,000
● Some go to make a permanent home in a new
100,000
country, with a long-term career in mind. This
0
is long-term migration. Jamaica Haiti Trinidad Guyana Other
and Caribbean
● Some move for family reasons. If people of
Tobago
working age have made a success in a new 11.8.2 There were more than 2 million people in the USA
country, they may send for parents, children, or with Caribbean ancestry in 2000.
other relatives to join them.

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 Most countries have restrictions on in-migration. Push and pull factors
They are willing to admit those who have an
Push factors encouraging people to leave their
education and work skills, and are in a good state of
own country:
health. Family members and dependants are often ■ Not enough jobs
allowed to follow. There are tight restrictions on ■ Low wages
would-be migrants with a criminal record. ■ Lack of educational opportunities
There are no restrictions on migration: ■ Fear of crime and insecurity
● to the USA from Puerto Rico ■ Natural disasters.
● to anywhere in the European Union from the Pull factors attracting people to a new country:
British, French, or Netherlands overseas territories. ■ Hope of finding a job
■ Higher wages
■ Better health and education services
Migration flows are not one-way. There is also
■ Friends and family who have already moved.
in-migration into the Caribbean, for professional or
personal reasons. Barriers to international migration are important:
■ High cost of travel

Migration within the Caribbean ■ Legal restrictions

■ Cultural and language differences.
There are also regional migration flows among Most people prefer their own country:
Caribbean countries: ■ Existing job and work contacts
● People go to countries where work is available,
■ Friends and family nearby
such as Barbados, the Bahamas, and Trinidad ■ Familiar surroundings, language and culture
and Tobago. These may include highly paid ■ Lower living costs.
professionals, construction workers such as Return flow; reasons migrants may return home:
masons and electricians, and traders. ■ With capital to start a business

● There are strong regional migration flows into ■ With new skills and qualifications
■ If they have difficulty in settling overseas
small countries with a labour shortage, such as
■ On retirement from work
the Cayman Islands, the Turks and Caicos
■ If they are forced to return for legal reasons.
Islands, and Aruba. Some migrants come from
outside the Caribbean.
● Many people from Haiti and the Dominican
Quick research
Republic migrate to islands in the northern
1 Talk to someone who has migrated from one
Caribbean.
country to another. Find out why they moved,
● There are legal restrictions on most migration
and what the advantages and disadvantages of
flows within the Caribbean. Work permits are the country they now live in are. Do they intend
usually needed. However, Caricom members have to return home?
agreed free movement for some groups, for
example for many university graduates and people
working in the media, entertainment, or sports. Discussion point
2 Do you intend to live overseas at some point in
“My mother is in New York. Next year, I will go your life? Explain why. And, if you would like to
to join her. I want to study fashion design.” migrate, how long would you expect to stay in
the new country?
‘”I used to grow bananas in St Vincent, but they
pay too little for the fruit now. I work as a mason
in Trinidad. My wife is a Trini, but her parents
are from Grenada.”

“I am from the Philippines, but now I am a

cleaner in a hotel in Aruba. My home feels far
away.”

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 11.9 Caribbean migration flows

Key ideas ● Out-migration reduces population growth.

● Talented and energetic people leave the Caribbean.
● Most migrants send money home to their families.
● Some migrants return home with skills and capital.
● Natural disasters or extreme poverty may increase migration.
(See also Section 9.7, The 1995 Montserrat eruption.)

Migration and Jamaica

More than 951,000 people in the USA were either ● Some went to other countries outside the region.
born in Jamaica or have Jamaican ancestors. There are ● Over 10,000 Jamaicans went on short-term
also large Jamaican-origin communities in Britain and contracts to work as seasonal migrants on farms
Canada – and smaller groups in many other countries. and in hotels in North America.
New migrants settle overseas every year, but the exact ● There were 4,500 returning nationals registered
number is difficult to estimate, because not all are as moving back to Jamaica.
officially recorded. The flow of migrants is two-way. ● Just over 1,800 work permits were issued to
● In 2009, 21,600 Jamaicans received migrant non-nationals moving to Jamaica, most of them
visas to the USA, Canada, and Britain. Others for well-qualified professionals and managers.
left without a migrant visa. More than half were from India or China, 23%
● Jamaicans also migrated to other Caribbean from Europe or North America, and 21% from
countries, such as the Cayman Islands. Latin America or the Caribbean.

UK Key
Canada 6% Outward migration
8% Return migration

USA
From
Nort

86%
h Am

To Canada
erica

Migrant visas issued To USA

To Caymans From UK

JAMAICA From India

65 or over
and China
3% 0–17
45–64
24%
20%

To other Caricom
14%
18–24
39%

25– 44

Age of migrants to the USA

11.9.1 Migration from Jamaica, 2011.

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 The effects of migration
Slower population growth. If there is net outward Remittances. Most migrants send money home to
migration, population growth is reduced. Look back their families. These payments are called remittances.
to Section 10.3. In 2013, Jamaica’s natural In some years, they are enough to pay for one-third
population increase was 21,300. There was net of Jamaica’s imports. Remittances bring in as much
outward migration of 13,700, so population growth as tourism or export earnings from bauxite and
was only 7,600, just over one-third of the natural alumina. Migrants also send back gifts to family
increase. members. There may be a “barrel” at Christmas, or a
Lower birth rate. Many migrants are young people. specific purchase when the need arises.
If they did not migrate, they would have children in
their home country. Because they leave, the birth “I am told that one school will be losing as many
rate is lower. as 27 teachers.”
Further migration. Children, parents, and other Caribbean education ministry official, September
family members follow the first wave of migrants. 2004
Possible “brain drain”. Migration flows are
selective. Young and ambitious people are more
likely to want to migrate. At the same time,
countries that receive migrants prefer to admit those
who are well educated, young, and healthy. Some
actively recruit Caribbean teachers and health care
workers. They reject those with criminal records.
Tourism. Overseas Jamaicans who return to visit
friends and relatives are officially counted as
tourists, and support an important part of the
tourism industry. In Jamaica, they made up
8 per cent of tourist arrivals in 2009. They may stay
in hotels or with their relatives. They spend money
on rental cars, restaurant meals, and shopping. In
other countries, they are even more important. In
11.9.3 Migrants’ remittances play an important part in the
Trinidad and Tobago, returning nationals make up economy.
55 per cent of tourist arrivals.

11.9.2 Home for Carnival: returning nationals are an important part of the tourist market.

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 The return flow
Migration leads to a return flow of re-migrants who “It is good to be back, but the country has
return home. They may return: changed since I left. I have built a fine house, but
● after some years. Short-term migrants may come I miss my grandchildren and the health service.”
home after a few months or years. They may have
acquired useful skills and qualifications while “I went to America as a young boy, but returned
working overseas. They may have savings to start when I qualified as an architect, to work with my
a business, build or improve a house, buy a car, uncle. I earn less here, but the work is exciting.”
or pay for their children’s education.
● on retirement. After spending their working The host country
lives overseas, some migrants return home on Jamaican and other Caribbean communities have an
retirement. They may spend some of their impact on the culture and economy of the USA,
savings on a substantial house, spend their Canada, and Britain:
pension locally, and help their relatives move ● Caribbean migrants to the USA are concentrated

forward with their own plans. However, not all in districts in New York and southern Florida.
returning residents settle back successfully after Communities such as Flatbush in Brooklyn and
perhaps 40 years overseas. Little Haiti in Miami have a distinctive
● as deportees. Some migrants are deported and Caribbean flavour.
sent home, either because they were found to ● Many migrants establish successful businesses.

have migrated illegally or because they are ● Caribbean music and carnivals reach all

convicted of criminal offences. population groups, as well as migrants.

11.9.4 A returned migrant building a new house in Jamaica.

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 Migration from Montserrat
Because of the volcanic emergency, the population Many have left both of these countries and there
of Montserrat fell from 10,600 in 1995 to only are thriving Haitian and Cuban communities in
2,700 in 1998. North America and elsewhere.
The push factors were strong. People lost their Both countries face strong barriers to migration:
homes and their jobs and saw much of their ● There are legal restrictions on Cubans who want

country blanketed in volcanic ash. The barriers to to leave. Those who reach the USA are usually
migration were lowered in Britain, many Caribbean allowed to stay.
countries, the USA, and Canada, which allowed ● The Haitian government does not stop people

people from Montserrat to enter and work. Even so, leaving, but they are frequently sent home if
many people did not want to leave Montserrat and they reach another country.
after 1999 there was a slow return flow. By 2011 ● Some people pay to make an illegal and

there were more than 4,900 people on the island. dangerous sea crossing to Florida or to
Some construction workers came from other neighbouring Caribbean islands. Many of these
Caribbean countries to take jobs on Montserrat. migrants are turned back or deported on arrival.

Migration from Haiti and Cuba Quick question

Push factors are strong for people in Haiti and 1 Look back to Section 10.5. How does migration
Cuba. affect population growth in:
Haiti is the poorest country in the western a) Barbados?
hemisphere. It suffers from high unemployment, b) Belize?
c) the Cayman Islands?
extreme poverty, political instability, and the
ongoing effects of the devastating 2010 earthquake.
In Cuba, most people have a job, with basic foods, Discussion point
clothing and housing. There is education and health 2 What are the advantages and disadvantages for
care; but luxuries are in short supply. The government your own country of:
is stable, but many feel that they are not free to express a) outward migration?
their opinions or run their lives as they choose. b) inward migration?

11.9.5 Cuban migrants on home-made rafts trying to reach Florida.

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 11.10 Population and settlement: review
Population pyramids The demographic transition
Compare the two population pyramids for In most countries, the population growth rate is
Trinidad and Tobago for 1960 and 2005. highest at the transition point between Stage
1) What stage of the demographic transition is Two and Stage Three of the demographic
shown in each of the pyramids? Give two transition. The death rate falls rapidly during
reasons to support your answer in each case. Stage Two and the birth rate does not decline
1960
90+
2005
90+
until the beginning of Stage Three.
85–89
80–84
85–89
80–84
The table shows the rate of population
75–79
70–74
75–79
70–74
increase for five countries from 1950 to 2010.
65–69 65–69 1) In which five-year period was population
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59 increase most rapid for:
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49 a) Haiti?
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39 b) China?
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29 c) Trinidad and Tobago?
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19 2) Which stage of the demographic transition
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9 had been reached in 1950–55 by:
0–4 0–4
9876543210 01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 01234567 a) Haiti?
Males Females Males Females
b) Trinidad and Tobago?
11.10.1 Population pyramids. 3) Which stage had each of these countries
2) What changes took place in Trinidad and reached by 2005–10?
Tobago between 1960 and 2005, for each of 4) Give one reason why the rate of population
the following: increase is higher in the USA than in Japan.
a) Size of population? 5) Draw a line graph to show changes in the
b) Median age of population? rate of population increase for:
c) Infant mortality rate? a) Japan b) Haiti c) China.
d) Fertility rate?
e) Birth rate? Rate of population increase
f) Population growth rate? Japan USA Haiti Trinidad China
& Tobago
3) Draw bar charts to compare Trinidad and
Tobago in 1960 and 2005 for: 1950–55 1.45 1.62 1.75 2.51 1.87
a) infant mortality rate 1955–60 0.91 1.70 1.91 3.13 1.53
b) fertility rate. 1960–65 1.02 1.36 2.00 1.23 2.07
1965–70 1.26 0.98 1.95 1.60 2.61
Trinidad and Tobago
1970–75 1.33 0.90 1.75 0.83 2.21
1960 2005
1975–80 0.91 0.92 2.02 1.34 1.48
Population 843,000 1,318,000
1980–85 0.69 0.95 2.30 1.67 1.42
Median age 19 29
1985–90 0.37 1.15 2.15 0.71 1.62
Infant mortality 48 per 1,000 29 per 1,000
rate 1990–95 0.36 1.20 2.01 0.74 1.17
Fertility rate 5.0 1.6 1995–00 0.20 1.23 1.91 0.48 0.90
Birth rate 38 per 1,000 15 per 1,000 2000–05 0.12 1.01 1.69 0.36 0.70
Death rate 8 per 1,000 8 per 1,000 2005–10 –0.07 0.96 1.59 0.38 0.63
Growth rate 1.2% 0.4%

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 Worldwide links

11.10.2 Worldwide links on Facebook networks.

Figure 11.10.2 is a map of worldwide links between Quick questions

Facebook friends, developed by the researcher and
1 List five countries that are shown in white,
designer Paul Butler. Facebook is a widely used social
indicating a high level of Facebook activity. For
network in some countries. In others, there are fewer each, suggest a reason why activity is high.
users for one or more of these reasons: 2 List four countries or regions of the world that
● There is a sparse population.
show a lower level of Facebook activity. For
● Few people have computers with Internet access.
each, suggest a reason why activity is low.
● Other social networks are used, such as 3 Why does the western USA have a lower level
Russia’s VKontakte, or Orkut in parts of South of activity than the east of the country?
America. 4 Name two countries that have strong Facebook
● Governments block access to the Internet, or links to:
to Facebook. a) the USA b) the Caribbean.

Urbanization
Urbanization and living conditions 1 Which three countries had the greatest
% of population % urban % urban proportion of their population in urban areas
in urban areas pop. with pop. with in 2010?
1981 2010 sanitation car (1) 2 In which three countries did urban population
increase most rapidly?
USA 74 82 100 81
3 Suggest two reasons why these countries were
Japan 60 67 100 59
experiencing rapid urbanization.
Jamaica 47 54 82 20 4 In which country was the proportion of the
Guyana 30 28 85 10 population in urban areas decreasing?
Brazil 68 86 87 20 5 In which two countries were the urban poor
Haiti 21 48 24 no data least likely to have good sanitation?
Nigeria 29 49 36 3 6 Draw a bar chart to show car ownership for
(1) % of people with car − % of families with car is higher. the urban population in the seven countries.

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 12.1 Economic activities in the
Caribbean
Key ideas ● Primary activities make direct use of natural resources.
● Secondary activities make manufactured goods.
● Tertiary activities produce services.
● Agriculture has declined in importance.
● Most people now work in tertiary industries.

Economic activities 12.1.1 Extracting oil in Cuba.

Natural resources are important for economic
activity. They include:
● minerals, such as gold, bauxite, oil, and iron ore

● agricultural resources, such as productive soil,

rainfall, and warmth, allowing crops to grow

● biotic resources, such as wood from forests or fish.

Primary activities make direct use of the Earth’s

natural resources. They include agriculture, mining,
forestry, and fishing. Primary industries produce
goods that can be used directly as they are, such as
fruit or fresh fish; they may also produce raw
materials for other industries.

Secondary activities include manufacturing industries,

which produce processed and assembled goods.
Some manufacturing industries use raw
materials that have been produced by primary
industries – canning fruit, freezing fish, or making
cement from limestone and other minerals. Others
assemble or reprocess goods made by other
manufacturing industries. A garment factory uses
cloth that has already been through several stages of
manufacturing and processing. A car factory
assembles components such as wheels, gearboxes,
seats, and electronic components. Construction and
utilities, such as electricity and water supply, are
12.1.2 Making cement in the Dominican Republic. usually classed as secondary activities.

Tertiary activities produce services. They do not 12.1.3 A waiter at work on

produce anything you can pick up and take away. Grand Bahama.
Transportation, hospitality (hotels and restaurants), and
retailing are service industries, which make sure that
goods are available in the right place and when they are
needed. Tourism is another tertiary industry.

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 The changing economy % of jobs in ... Trinidad Jamaica St Lucia
In the middle of the twentieth century, the Caribbean and Tobago
depended on primary industries, mainly agriculture Agriculture 3.5 18 12
and mining. People used to say that “Sugar is King”. Mineral extraction 3.5 0.5 0
Other primary products for export have been: Manufacturing 8 6 5
● bananas from Jamaica, the eastern Caribbean,
Construction, utilities 17 8 10
and Belize
Transport,
● nutmeg from Grenada
communications 7 6 8
● bauxite from Jamaica, Guyana, and Suriname

● oil from Trinidad and Tobago.

Hotels and restaurants 1 7 16
Other services 60 54.5 46
Now secondary and tertiary activities are also
Quick questions
important. These include:
● manufacturing 1 What natural resources are used for the
● tourism following?
● health services and education a) Growing sugar cane
● banking and financial services. b) Fishing
c) Mining bauxite.
2 What secondary industries would make direct or
In the Caribbean today there are changing
indirect use of the following?
employment patterns: a) Sugar cane b) Fresh fish c) Iron ore.
● The number of people working in agriculture is
3 Classify this list into primary, secondary and
falling. Few young people look for careers on tertiary activities:
the land. Most farmers are over 50 years old. Hairdressing Gold mining
● Few people now work in fishing or forestry, or Shipbuilding Air traffic control
in mining. These activities are still important for Selling clothes Making clothes
earning foreign exchange and government Dairy farming Making butter
revenue, but direct employment is low. Fashion design
● Employment in manufacturing grew in the

twentieth century, but it is now stagnant. In Using graphs

many factories, increased automation means that
4 Use Figure 12.1.4 to write a few sentences
fewer workers are needed.
about changes in the employment structure of
● Most people work in tertiary industries, in the
Barbados from 1946 to 2014. What do you think
service sector. Government services and retailing were the two most important developments?
are major employers.
Percentage of jobs Percentage of jobs
in 1946 in 2014
Economic activities are important because they: Other Other Agriculture
services Agriculture services
● provide jobs 3% 8% Manufacturing (1)
Construction,
● earn foreign exchange, to pay for goods and 32% 12% utilities
41%
services from overseas 47%
● earn government revenue, to pay for schools, 4%
17% Retailing
9% Manufacturing (1)
hospitals, roads, and other services. 14% 13%
Construction,
Retailing utilities Hotels,
restaurants
(1) excluding sugar factories
In each Caribbean country, the mix of activities is
different: 12.1.4 How employment in Barbados has changed.
● In Trinidad and Tobago, oil and natural gas provide 5 a) Draw divided circle diagrams to show the
85% of exports, half of government revenue and proportion of jobs in major economic groups
3.5% of employment. in Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, and St Lucia.
● In the Bahamas, tourism provides two-thirds of b) Compare the employment structure of these
foreign exchange earnings and 15% of countries. List two similarities and two
employment. contrasts.

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 12.2 Development: key concepts

Key ideas ● Renewable resources can be preserved for the future.

● Non-renewable resources will at some stage be exhausted.
● GDP measures total economic activity in a country.
● Human development is a broader definition of progress
than GDP.
● Sustainable development considers future generations.
● Globalization includes interactions on a worldwide scale.

Gross domestic product 12.2.1 A renewable

Gross domestic product, or GDP, measures the total energy resource: a
value of the goods and services a country produces. A hydroelectric power
station and dam in
country with a large GDP is an important industrial Mexico.
economy.
If a nation has a small population, it does not need
Sustainable development
such a large GDP. To estimate the wealth of a nation,
“Sustainable development meets the needs of
we need to look at GDP per person, or per capita GDP. the present without compromising the ability of
In countries with a high per capita GDP, the average future generations to meet their own needs.”
person can buy many goods and services. Bruntland Commission on Environment and
Development (named after Gro Harlem Bruntland,
Human development a former Norwegian prime minister)
Development includes human and social progress, as “Not simply the use of resources at a rate which
well as economic wealth. The United Nations could be maintained without diminishing future
prepares a Human Development Index. As well as levels, but development which also takes social
GDP, it looks at education and health, use of the implications into account.”
environment, and whether wealth is shared fairly Oxford Dictionary of Geography
between rich and poor.
The world is often divided into three groups of
Globalization
countries: more developed, middle income, and less
developed. Many Caribbean countries are in the “Globalization is the interaction of natural and
middle-income group. Most were poor in the first human phenomena on a worldwide scale.”
half of the twentieth century and most expect to be Oxford Dictionary of Geography
fully developed by the middle of this century.
Globalization of human activities has increased in
Non-renewable resources: Mineral resources, recent years:
such as oil, natural gas and bauxite, are non- ● People from many countries eat the same foods
renewable. For example, as fuel is extracted, an and watch the same television programmes.
oil or gas field will eventually run out. At some ● There is more international travel, for leisure or
future date – we cannot say when, and it may migration. Tourism is a globalized industry.
be in the distant future – the world’s oil and gas ● Barriers to international trade are being
resources will be depleted.
removed.
Renewable resources will not be exhausted, but
● Large companies plan activities on a worldwide
may be mismanaged. They include soil and biotic
resources; as well as energy sources such as basis. Production is increasingly international.
● The Internet and telecommunications allow
hydroelectric power, solar energy, wind and wave
energy. low-cost worldwide communication.

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 ● A war or disaster in one country may have % of GDP which goes to the wealthiest 10%
worldwide impact. of the population
Japan 22% USA 30% Jamaica 36%
Small countries have always depended on international
Trinidad and Tobago 30% Brazil 43%
trade and other worldwide links. They have never been
self-contained. But today all countries are more
interdependent than ever before. 2014 GDP (US$ Population Per capita Human
billion) (million) GDP (US$) Devt Index
Globalization has both positive and negative
Developed countries
effects for the Caribbean:
● Caribbean economies benefit from global
USA 17,400 322 54,600 5

tourism. Canada 1,800 36 50,400 8

● Industries such as oil and natural gas in Trinidad Singapore 310 5.5 56,300 9
and Tobago depend on global investment and Caribbean countries
sell their products on the global market. Barbados 4,350 0.3 15,200 59
● The Internet and global media give Caribbean Trinidad 28,800 1.3 21,300 64
people access to a wealth of information, ideas, and Tobago
entertainment, and social contact. Jamaica 13,800 2.7 4,900 96
● Global communications and media provide the Other middle-income countries
basis for knowledge-based industries such as Brazil 2,350 205 11,600 79
international finance. India 2,050 1,277 1,650 135
● People in the Caribbean have access to goods
Nigeria 575 182 3,300 152
and services of international quality. World 77,300 7,250 10,650
● However, traditional agricultural export

industries such as sugar cane and bananas have Quick questions

lost their protected European market as a result
1 Of the countries in the table:
of trade globalization.
a) Which two have the highest per-capita GDP?
b) Which two have the highest human
development?
2 Why does Singapore have a smaller GDP than
Canada, but a higher per-capita GDP?

Quick research
3 Briefly describe one example of
a) sustainable development
b) non-sustainable development.

Discussion points
4 The world is sometimes called a “global village”.
What is meant by this phrase?
5 Why do some people regret increased
globalization?

12.2.3 International observers

monitoring logging
operations in Gabon.

12.2.2 Global disaster response: a Swiss military helicopter

in Indonesia delivers relief supplies from the United
Nations, days after the 2004 tsunami, which left
225,000 dead in many countries across 6,500 km of
the Indian Ocean.

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 12.3 Resources in the Caribbean

Key ideas ● Caribbean countries have many natural resources.

● Among the renewable resources are forests and marine resources.
● Among the non-renewable mineral resources are petroleum, natural gas, bauxite,
gold, and limestone.

Biotic resources Bauxite resources

The countries of the Caribbean have biotic Bauxite is a mineral used to produce aluminium.
resources. Among them are: Jamaica, Guyana, and Suriname have bauxite
● marine resources, such as fish and coral reefs resources, which are described in Section 12.6.
● forest resources, such as trees and wildlife.
Petroleum and natural gas resources
These are renewable resources, whose value will be Petroleum (or crude oil) and natural gas have
preserved if they are used sustainably. transformed the economies of many countries.
Marine resources are important for economic In the Caribbean:
activities such as tourism and fisheries, which are ● the economy of Trinidad and Tobago is based on

sometimes known as the blue economy. The green oil and gas resources, described in Section 12.7
economy includes forestry and other activities that ● Guyana announced a large offshore oil find in

depend on land-based biotic resources. 2015

Every Caribbean country has marine resources ● Suriname has small onshore oil fields, and

offshore. The marine resources and fishing exploration offshore is in progress

industries of Belize are described in Section 12.4. ● Barbados produces small quantities of oil and

natural gas onshore. Offshore exploration is

Forest resources planned
Forest resources are valued for many reasons. Forests ● Belize has two small oil fields, which were

can: approaching depletion in 2015. Further

● add to the beauty of the landscape exploration is planned
● provide space for hiking and outdoor activities ● Jamaica, the Bahamas, and other Caribbean

● provide a habitat for wildlife countries plan oil and gas exploration offshore.
● protect the soil from erosion

● absorb water and reduce the risk of flooding Gold resources

● release a steady flow of water to rivers Guyana and Suriname have gold resources. Small-
● provide small quantities of timber for local use, scale miners extract gold from sand and gravel
which can be extracted sustainably. deposits along rivers in the interior. Large-scale
commercial gold mines mine solid rock that
The sustainable use of forest resources in St Lucia is contains a small proportion of gold, and then crush
described in Section 8.5. it to extract the precious metal.
Guyana and Suriname have larger-scale forest
industries, which extract timber for processing and Limestone resources
export. The forest resources and industries of Limestone is a rock composed mainly of calcium
Guyana are described in Section 12.5. carbonate, which is described in Chapter 3. It can
be used:

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 ● for making cement; limestone quarries supply Quick research
cement plants in Jamaica, Barbados, and
1 Draw a map of your country, to show:
Trinidad
a) a fishing port
● to supply groundwater for drinking and other
b) waters offshore that are used for fishing
purposes; this provides the main water supply
c) the main areas of forest.
in Barbados and some other islands
● as a building material; this use of limestone is
shown in Figure 2.2.6.
Georgetown
VENEZUELA Aurora Linden
Karouni
Paramaribo
Omai

Guyana Exclusive Gross

Economic Zone 0 100 km Rosebel
GUYANA
Liza-1 SURINAME
VENEZUELA (oil discovered
2015)
Key
Georgetown Most small-scale mining
Guyana Exclusive Calcutta Tambaredjo within these areas
Economic Zone
GUYANA Large-scale mine
0 200 km Paramaribo
Worked out

Key
SURINAME 12.3.2 Gold resources in Guyana and Suriname.
Gas

Oil

Oil and gas

Port of Spain

0 25 km TRINIDAD
MEXICO
Mayo
Cement limestone
plant quarry
Belize San
Turner’s City Fernando
Hall Spanish
Lookout Never Dela
Fisherpond Belmopan

GUATEMALA
BARBADOS Quarry JAMAICA
Arawak Quarry
BELIZE Kingston
Woodbourne cement Scotland Cement
plant district 0 40 km plant
0 50 km Black
rocks
Bess
0 10 km quarry

BARBADOS
Key
12.3.1 Oil and gas resources in Guyana, Barbados, Belize, and Bridgetown
Main limestone areas
Suriname. (simplified)
Cement plant
0 10 km

ng gA t
12.3.3 Limestone resources in Barbados, Jamaica, and
Trinidad.

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 12.4 Fishing in Belize

Key ideas ● Belize has rich coastal fishing grounds.

● Human and economic factors have aided the growth of fishing.
● Belize must compete with other international producers.
● Conservation measures are needed to sustain the industry.
● Aquaculture has grown rapidly in importance.

MEXICO
Ambergris
Caye

Key
San Pedro
Area with shrimp
Caye Caulker farms
Fishing
co-operatives
Belize City Receiving stations
for catch
Turneffe
Islands Marine reserves
Wildlife sanctuary
GUATEMALA

BELIZE
Coral reefs
Placencia

Marine reserve:
80% general use
15% conservation areas
5% research only
Sapodilla Wildlife sanctuary:
Cayes No extraction of
marine life
0 10 20 30 km

12.4.2 Fisheries in Belize.

● There are barrier and island reefs where living

coral,
10.03. fish, andG crustaceans
Car b ean og thrive. The barrier
ki
reef is over 280 kilometres long.
● There are fishing grounds in deeper water,
beyond the barrier reef.

12.4.1 Tailing lobster in Belize. In 2014 fisheries made up 5% of Belize’s GDP but
contributed 18% of its exports. The most valuable
Resources and location marine catch is shellfish, caught mainly by trapping
Belize has productive fishing-grounds. and diving, followed by conch. Some scale fish are
● Rivers bring nutrients to the sea. caught, mainly in deeper water. In Belize, coastal
● Shallow waters offshore hold nutrients for fishing is located where there are:
● productive fishing grounds offshore
marine life.
● Mangroves and seagrass beds in shallow water ● sheltered harbours for fishing vessels

● communities organized for commercial fishing.

provide food and shelter for young fish.

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 Organization and marketing
The fishing industry is well organized and it makes
good use of marine resources. There are close to
2,000 fishers, and many shore-based jobs in
processing and administration. About 60% of the
fishers belong to a fishermen’s co-operative.
A well-run co-operative has several advantages.
● Produce can be marketed on a larger scale. A big

co-operative can negotiate an export price for

conch or frozen lobster tails with a large
overseas buyer.
● The co-operative buys the catch, processes it,

and exports it by sea to the USA, with some

also to Europe and Japan. At the end of the year,
the profits are distributed to the members as a
“second payment”.
● The co-operative can make loans for the

purchase of items like outboard motors.

● Some co-operatives have funds to pay for
12.4.3 Weighing lobster tails for export in a fisheries
education, pensions, and sick pay. co-operative.

12.4.4a Trawling is banned in Belize to 12.4.4b Long-lining with sonar waves 12.4.4c Trapping a lobster.
protect the seabed. can cause overfishing.

Conservation and sustainability species such as marlin, grouper, and some types of
1 . 3.0 aribb n Geog.
Managing fish stocks is one of the challenges for the tuna are threatened with extinction. Some Asian-
b ki Do A t
fishing industry. If a fish population is over- owned factory ships fish in Caribbean and nearby
exploited, young fish will not be able to mature and Atlantic waters. Some governments now control
breed. The size of the catch will fall rapidly. fishing to protect stocks.
Sustainable fishing protects fish stocks, so that Managing a successful fishing industry requires
marine wildlife, and the fishing industry, can an understanding of:
● fish populations – food sources, breeding patterns,
survive for the future.
Before 1990 the number of fishing vessels and time needed for numbers to recover
● the oceans – marine pollution and nutrients
worldwide increased rapidly. Factory ships more
● the economic and technical environment –
than 100 metres long can remain at sea for two
months, catching 100,000 tonnes of fish. They have fishing techniques, processing and storage,
satellite and sonar equipment for tracking fish, and marketing and international trade
● other industries, such as tourism, which also
use lines 50 kilometres or more in length, with
several thousand hooks. Where there is overfishing, use marine resources.

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 In Belize there has been some overfishing. Conch attraction, as is scuba diving, and can create jobs for
catches have fallen by two-thirds since the early small Belizean businesses.
1970s. Recovery is slow because conch take These tourists also depend on a healthy marine
between four and six years to reach maturity. environment. Sport fishers, and divers, can hurt
In 2010 Belize banned trawlers from its fishing marine habitats, for example if boat anchors damage
grounds. Trawlers drag a weighted net across the coral reefs. But if these potential problems are
seabed, damaging coral reefs, seagrass, and other properly managed, marine tourism can have little
habitats. The nets catch fish too small to eat, which environmental impact. In “catch and release”
are then wasted. Venezuela also bans trawling, but fishing, species such as bonefish are not killed or
most other countries still allow it. eaten once caught but thrown back into the sea.
Other threats to the marine environment
include:
● the removal of mangroves for housing and

tourism development
● pollution, for example from pesticides or

domestic sewage.

The following approaches are used to conserve

stocks:
● There is a closed season for conch from July to

September, and for lobster from February to

June, when most breeding takes place.
● Young lobster and conch below a minimum

size are not used. This gives them a chance to

mature.
● Scuba diving for conch and lobster is not

allowed. This prevents diving in water over

15 metres deep.
● Each co-operative has an annual quota.

● Fishing for grouper is prohibited in most places,

because overfishing has damaged stocks.

Conservation of individual species is not enough.

Each species depends on a whole ecosystem,
including habitats, vegetation, and other species.
Belize now has a network of protected areas and 12.4.5 A sport fisherman and his guide show their catch.
marine reserves. Some are internationally recognized
world heritage sites. Aquaculture
National governments have the right to control
Aquaculture is fish farming under controlled
fisheries within an Exclusive Economic Zone, up to
conditions in enclosed tanks and ponds.
370 kilometres from shore. Many try to conserve
Internationally, aquaculture production increased
fish stocks, but it is hard to control foreign vessels.
from 4% of fisheries production in 1970 to 42% in
Poachers from other countries sometimes fish in the
2012.
closed season, or catch under-sized conch.
Fish and shrimp are hatched from eggs and
Fishing and tourism released in ponds, where they are supplied with
high-protein feed and grow to maturity. G
Tourism has grown rapidly in Belize. There were
Aquaculture is a technology that requires careful
320,000 tourists in 2014, up from 176,000 in
management to avoid environmental problems. The
1998. Sport fishing with rod and line, usually with
water must have the right oxygen content and
a rented boat and a guide, is an important tourist
temperature. Fish must not be over-fed, or there

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 will be too much polluting organic waste. Most ● A shrimp farm needs a good labour supply and
farms use antibiotics to control disease, as well as access to road transport.
other chemicals, but they must not be overused. ● For exports, there must be access to a port or an
Health and safety standards should protect the local airport.
environment and satisfy health requirements in
export markets. Shrimp are exported by road to Mexico, or by sea
In Belize there are several large shrimp farms. in frozen containers to the USA, Europe, and other
Each covers several sq. km. Most have hatcheries, Caribbean countries. Some markets, such as the
ponds for growing shrimp, reservoirs to provide a European Union, have strict health rules for fish
constant water supply, and roads and buildings for imports; Belize producers have been licensed for
storage. A shrimp farm costs several million US exports to the EU since 2005. They do not use
dollars to establish, and employs over a hundred antibiotics or chemicals, which could threaten
people, with more when harvesting is in progress. human health.
The Caribbean is well suited to aquaculture: One problem is international competition. The
warm temperatures allow a year-round operation. world’s largest shrimp exporters are in Asia and on
Two or three crops can be produced each year, with the Pacific coast of Mexico and Central America.
two or more tonnes of shrimp for each hectare of They pay lower wages, which makes it hard for
pond. Belizean producers to compete. However, Belize
● The best locations are on clay soils, so that does not suffer from white spot disease, which
ponds retain water more easily. attacks Asian and Pacific shrimp farms.
● A good supply of water is needed. One benefit of aquaculture is that coastal
● For shrimp, which need salt water, the location mangroves are preserved, improving water supply
should be close to the sea. and giving protection from hurricanes.
Quick questions
1 List the factors in Belize affecting the location of:
a) marine fishing b) aquaculture.
2 For the Belize fishing industry, outline:
a) two threats to sustainability
b) two ways in which sustainability can be
protected.
3 Describe two technologies used in the fishing
industry.

Comparison and research

4 Compare fishing in your own country and
in Belize. What are the main similarities and
differences? Use these headings:
a) Resources b) Organization
12.4.6 A shrimp farm in Belize seen from the air. c) Marketing d) Conservation
e) Tourism f) Aquaculture.
12.4.7 Harvesting mature shrimp
– a low-stress method that Discussion point
improves shrimp quality.
5 How has globalization affected the fishing
industries in Belize?

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 12.5 Forestry in Guyana

Key ideas ● Guyana has extensive forest cover.

● Forest conservation is important for environmental reasons.
● There are opportunities for sustainable production of timber and forest products.

Key
● Loggers are interested in only some of these tree
Forest species.
Protected areas ● Transport in the interior is difficult. There are
Forestry concessions few roads, and most of them become almost
Exploration permit impassible in wet weather. The rivers are
Export port – Georgetown
interrupted by rapids and waterfalls, so long-
Sawmilling centres
Large-scale logging centres
distance river transport is not easy.
VENEZUELA
Buck Hall
● There are few manufacturing industries which
Georgetown
Parika use timber as a raw material.
GUYANA New Amsterdam

Corriverton
Forest industries play only a small part in the
Guyanese economy. They account for:
● 3% of GDP;

Mabura Hill ● 5% of exports.

Bissaruni

However, forest industries are important in parts of

Iwokrama the interior, where they provide employment.
SURINAME Guyana has been spared the large-scale
deforestation that has damaged the environment in
many Asian and African countries, and in Brazil.
Norway has agreed to pay Guyana to preserve its
forests as a way of controlling carbon emissions, as
described in Section 7.5.

Trees and their uses

There are more than 1,000 tree species in Guyana,
0 100 km
of which around 30 are commercially exploited.
12.5.1 Forest industries in Guyana. Some types of wood have special uses. They fetch
high prices and are easy to sell on the export
Forests and forest industries
Barking Do Art
market. In the most accessible areas, most of the
More than 80% of Guyana is covered in forests. valuable species have already been extracted.
Only a narrow strip of coastal land has been ● Wallaba has a straight grain and can be split

cleared for cultivation, and there are areas of easily. It resists rot. It is used for making utility
savanna in the Rupununi in the south-west, as poles, posts, fences, and shingles.
well as near the coast. Most of the interior is ● Crabwood and purple heart are decorative

forested. woods that are easy to work. They are used for
However, Guyana is not a major international high-quality furniture.
timber producer for the following reasons: ● Greenheart is a dense wood that sinks in water.
● Guyanese forests are mixed tropical rainforests, It does not rot, and resists termites and marine
with few large stands where a single type of borers. It is used for flooring, building, and
tree is dominant. marine construction.

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 ● Letterwood is a high-value wood that is felled
in small quantities. It is used to make violin
bows and cues for playing pool and billiards.

Forestry in Guyana operates by selective logging: single

high-value trees are extracted; there is no clear felling
or deforestation of a large area. When an area is
logged, up to 15% of the timber is removed.
Trees are cut with a chainsaw. Once a tree has
been felled, the trunk is cut just below the crown,
to produce a single log that can be dragged to a
forest road.

Transport and accessibility

Over time, improved transport has allowed
commercial forestry to expand over an increasing
area:
● More than a century ago, logs were pulled to

the riverbank by groups of men using ropes and

rollers. Only land within one kilometre of a
river could be exploited.
● With the use of oxen, this distance could be

extended to 3 kilometres.
12.5.2 Workers felling a tree in the rainforest in Guyana.
● From the 1920s, loggers used winches and wire

ropes, and they could pull logs for up to Guyana is covered by concessions. However, it is
10 kilometres. difficult for the Commission to supervise forestry
● Today large logging companies build forest
operations in the large area of Guyana’s interior.
roads and use machinery such as bulldozers, Some very large concessions have been awarded
loaders, and heavy trucks. Timber can be to overseas companies. One Malaysian company has
transported for more than 100 kilometres. a concession larger than the combined area of
Jamaica and Trinidad.
Most of northern and central Guyana is accessible Many overseas companies with forest
for logging. However, the south of the country is concessions prefer to export large logs for
still inaccessible. processing in Asia or elsewhere. However, the
government would like to encourage the use of
Forest management
timber to support local industries such as furniture
The government owns most of the forested area of making, which create employment and provide
Guyana. Forests on state land are managed by the high-value exports.
Guyana Forestry Commission, a state agency. Some An area of 3,600 sq. km in central Guyana is
areas of forest are owned by Amerindian communities managed sustainably by the Iwokrama Centre; its
or by private companies. work is described in Section 8.5.
The national forest policy aims to achieve the
“conservation, protection, management, and Discussion points
utilization of the nation’s forest resources”, 1 In what ways may the aims of the Guyana
combining economic and environmental goals. Forestry Commission differ from those of large
The Forestry Commission awards forestry overseas companies?
concessions to private sector companies and 2 Why is it difficult for government agencies to
individuals. They are allowed to extract timber but supervise the operations of forestry companies
they must maintain environmental and conservation in the interior?
standards. More than half the forested area of

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 12.6 Bauxite mining

Key ideas ● Bauxite is an important resource, used to make aluminium.

● Caribbean bauxite must compete on the world market.
● Good management of bauxite mines can reduce environmental damage.

Bauxite and aluminium ● Most bauxite-mining countries are not major

Aluminium is a lightweight metal. In the home, it is aluminium producers.
used for foil and in cooking utensils. Cars, aircraft and
● Aluminium is used in countries with many
many other products are made partly from aluminium. manufacturing industries.
Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the
● Canada and many Middle Eastern countries
Earth’s crust, but it is hard to extract and purify. A export aluminium.
practical industrial process was first discovered in
● The USA and Western Europe import
1886. World production was only 8,000 tonnes in aluminium.
1900; by 2014 it was over 53 million tonnes. The Produced (2014) Used (2013)
process is as follows: Rest of the world
Rest of the China
1 Bauxite, a mineral that contains aluminium world China Rest of 3%
Asia
oxide, is mined. 24% 48% 16% 48%
Japan
2 Bauxite is refined to make alumina, or pure Australia 3%
4%

aluminium oxide. This is a white powder. USA 3%

USA and
13%
India 4%
3 Using a powerful flow of electricity, alumina is United Arab
5% Canada
16%
6%
7%
smelted to make the metal aluminium. Emirates
Canada
Europe and
Russia Russia
55
12.6.2 Aluminium production and use.
50
45
40 Caribbean bauxite and the world
35
Million tonnes

Bauxite has been mined in Jamaica, Guyana, and

30
25
Suriname.
● In 1965, these produced 44% of the world’s
20
15 supply.
10 ● They are close to the USA, which was then the
5 major aluminium producer.
0 ● In 2013, they produced only 5%.
1900 1939 1960 1970 1980 1990 2004 2014
Years
1965 2013
12.6.1 World aluminium production.
Rest of the Rest of the Jamaica
There is an international supply chain for this world world Guyana
Jamaica Suriname
globalized industry, organized mainly by large India 3%
5% 7% 1%
international companies which have a worldwide 22% Brazil 1% Australia
11%
network of mines, alumina plants, smelters, and 48%
29%
11% Guyana
metal processors. One of them, Alcoa, employs 16%
59,000 people in 30 countries. 11% China 7%
20%
5% 3% Guinea
● Aluminium is smelted in countries with a Suriname

plentiful energy source for electricity generation, Guinea Australia Indonesia

such as hydroelectric power or natural gas. 12.6.3 Where bauxite was mined.

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 12.6.4 Bauxite mining in Jamaica.

Bauxite mining has helped the economic Marketing bauxite and alumina
development of these countries, for example by: Large international companies play a leading role in
● earning foreign exchange, which can be used to
the bauxite and aluminium industries. They use
buy imported goods and services Caribbean bauxite and alumina for their smelters in
● providing revenue to assist the government in
other countries. Marketing is straightforward. But if
providing public services Caribbean bauxite is expensive they will switch to
● creating jobs, including some that are highly
other mines instead.
skilled and relatively well paid. International aluminium prices fluctuate with
supply and demand. When they are high, the price of
It is now more difficult for the Caribbean to compete bauxite and alumina also increases, and companies
on the world market, because: make plans to expand their operations. The opposite
● bauxite producers, such as Australia, China,
occurs when aluminium prices are low.
Indonesia, and Brazil have grown in importance Guyana produces very pure bauxite, which
● China, not North America, now has the most
can be used to make:
aluminium smelters ● firebricks for lining kilns and furnaces
● shipping costs are lower so that low mining costs
● special cement to withstand high
are now more important than a location near a temperatures
smelter. ● high-strength porcelain for electrical insulators

● anti-skid surfacing for roads, factory floors,

The Caribbean is still a mining region, not a and airport runways
processing one. ● aluminium sulphate and other chemicals.
● Guyana has no alumina plant. A former plant

closed in 1981. This “chemical” and “refractory” grade bauxite sells

● Jamaica refines most of its bauxite as alumina and
at a premium price. But with these products, too,
exports the remainder unrefined. Guyanese producers must compete internationally
● There is no aluminium smelter in the Caribbean.
for a market. Guyana produced 80% of the world’s
● A few manufacturing industries use aluminium,
special-grade bauxite in the 1970s. In the 1980s
but they import the metal from outside the region. and 1990s, many customers switched to Australia,
Brazil, and China, which had lower-quality bauxite,
There have been proposals to build smelters in but cheaper and sometimes more reliable supplies.
the Caribbean: Guyana’s share of the market fell to below 25%, but
● in Trinidad, using natural gas to generate
then recovered because the industry was made more
electricity, and importing alumina efficient.
● in Suriname, using hydroelectric power.

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 G Location of the bauxite industry. The future for Caribbean bauxite
Jamaica: There are mining areas in western and Jamaica: With new investment, alumina plants
central Jamaica. Bauxite is taken by truck to the increased their capacity after 2000. Reserves are
alumina plants close to the mines. These are enough to last, at present rates of use, for at least 50
connected by rail to export ports. Port Rhoades in years. Jamaican bauxite is soft and relatively easy to
northern Jamaica has no alumina plant; bauxite is extract. It has few impurities. With rail routes and
exported for processing to Louisiana, a short sea ports in place, transport costs are relatively low.
journey across the Gulf of Mexico. Jamaica is well located for aluminium smelters in
North America but not China.
Output per worker in Jamaica is lower than in
Montego Bay Port Rhoades 0 30 km the USA and Australia, and wage rates are higher than
in Indonesia or China. High energy costs for
Ewarton electricity generated from imported oil have been
Kirkvine another problem. However, there are plans to reduce
Nain Kingston
Port Esquivel costs by using natural gas or other sources of energy.
Port KaiserHalse Hall Rocky Point Three mines and alumina plants were shut
Key
down in 2009 when world demand for aluminium
Alumina plant Red mud – wet disposal and metal prices fell, but one has since reopened.
Alumina export port Red mud – dry disposal
Bauxite and alumina in Jamaica produces:
Bauxite drying plant Bauxite bearing areas
Bauxite export port Railway
Alumina plant out of operation in 2015
48%
0.5% 1% 9%
12.6.5 Bauxite and alumina in Jamaica.
... of employment ... of GDP ... of exports ... of foreign
exchange
Guyana: The mines are near Linden on the 12.6.7 Bauxite in the Jamaican economy.
Demerara River and at Aroaima on the Berbice. The
bauxite is high quality, but transport costs are high. Guyana: Mining costs are high because the bauxite lies
The rivers are too shallow for large ships. Smaller beneath a thick overburden of white sand, which must
ships are used on the Demerara. On the Berbice, be removed. Transport costs are also high. In some
barges transport bauxite to a point near the river years the industry has been unprofitable. Since 2003
mouth where ocean-going ships can be loaded. the workforce has been reduced, with severance
These shipping methods raise transport costs and payments and retraining for former workers. Mining
make Guyanese bauxite less competitive. companies now believe they can make the industry
profitable. They will be aided by the special markets for
high-quality bauxite.
Key 0 100 km
Bauxite mining centres
Suriname: The non-renewable bauxite deposits in
eastern Suriname were depleted in 2015 and the
GUYANA alumina plant was closed. The future of the industry
Georgetown depends on the development of new mines in the
New Nassau Mountains or western Suriname.
Amsterdam
Bauxite belt
Linden Bauxite mining and the environment
Essequibo

ra
Demera

Land reclamation: Vegetation and soil must be

ce
rbi
Be

Aroaima removed before mining can take place. However,

Jamaican regulations ensure that:
● the land remains in agricultural use until
12.6.6 Bauxite in Guyana.
mining begins
● after mining, the land is restored.

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 When land is cleared for mining, the top 15–30 There has been some progress in dealing with
centimetres of soil are removed with a bulldozer. red mud:
This layer contains most of the soil’s nutrients and ● Improved technology in alumina plants produces

organic matter. It is preserved for later use. a more concentrated mud. There is less to
After mining, the land is smoothed and dispose of.
reshaped. Limestone outcrops are removed by ● Drains underneath red mud ponds extract caustic

blasting. Then the soil is replaced and the land is soda, which is recycled in the alumina plant.
fenced and planted with grass. Weeds are controlled ● There have been proposals to process red mud

and fertilizers applied. to extract valuable minerals such as palladium

Much of the reclaimed land is used as pasture. for use in the electronics industries.
Some is planted with trees; re-afforestation protects
the land against soil erosion. Some is used for “Bauxite is an important raw material for our
housing and small-scale farming. When houses are smelters. We want a reliable, low-cost source of
demolished for bauxite mining, they are replaced by supply.”
new ones on nearby sites.
“Bauxite mining will develop our economy. We
need to improve our transport system and
agriculture, build hospitals and start new
industries.”

“Working in the mine is not easy. But I earn

much more than I could in farming, with a steady
income all year round.”

“I don’t like the dust, or the blasting. But I get

compensation, and the men from the mine have
money to spend in my shop.”

Quick questions
1 Which country:
a) produced the most bauxite in 1965?
b) produced the most bauxite in 2013?
c) produces the most aluminium?
d) uses the most aluminium?
12.6.8 Bauxite mining in Jamaica.
2 How were the location and development of
the bauxite industry in Jamaica and Guyana
Red mud: Alumina plants use caustic soda to remove
influenced by:
impurities from bauxite. The process produces “red
a) the nature of the bauxite deposits?
mud”, which is 20% solids and 80% liquid. For each b) transport routes?
tonne of alumina there are up to 5 tonnes of red c) competition with other suppliers?
mud, which is dumped in “ponds” covering up to 1 3 Explain why bauxite and alumina are important
sq. km. Caustic soda in the red mud may kill nearby to the economy of Jamaica.
vegetation. In dry weather, crystals form on the
surface; when these crystals blow away the dust Discussion point
makes the air unpleasant to breathe. If it escapes,
4 How can the Caribbean bauxite industry deal
contaminated water from red mud ponds can pollute
with the following problems:
springs and wells. Water sources are carefully
a) High production costs?
monitored. b) Environmental damage?

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 12.7 Oil and gas in Trinidad and
Tobago
Key ideas ● Oil and gas are non-renewable resources.
● Transporting and marketing gas are more challenging than for oil.
● Gas usage has developed rapidly in Trinidad and Tobago.

Oil and natural gas

Oil and natural gas are formed from plant and animal Careful work by geologists can identify rock structures
matter that was deposited in sediments beneath the sea where there may be an oil trap. One method is a
millions of years ago, and gradually buried beneath seismic survey. Shock waves are created, for example
other rocks. Heat and pressure transformed the organic by a high-pressure air gun. These are reflected by rocks
matter into crude oil and natural gas. Most of Trinidad beneath the surface. A computer processes the
and Tobago’s oil and gas is found in sandstone formed information to produce a three-dimensional image of
between 3 and 20 million years ago. the geological structures. Thin layers of sand several
Oil and gas are less dense than rock. If there are kilometres below the surface can be identified.
no obstructions, they seep right to the surface. Gas However, the only way to be certain that a structure
seepage helps to form the “mud volcanoes” of contains oil or gas is to drill a well.
southern Trinidad. Most oil wells in Trinidad are over 1,100 metres
Oil and gas cannot pass through rocks such as deep; some are up to 6,000 metres deep. Drilling a
clay. Oil and gas fields are found where these rocks well on land may cost around US$5 million; at sea, it
create a trap, preventing seepage to the surface. may cost up to US$100 million or more. Many wells
do not find commercial quantities of oil or gas.
epa
Oil If oil and gas are found at sea, a production
seepage
Fault platform is built. Ten or twenty wells may be drilled
from one platform; these are carefully targeted to
exploit the energy reserves beneath. A pipeline is
Key
used to pump oil and gas to land.
Impermeable rock Heavy equipment for oil and gas extraction,
L f b
Layers of permeable rock with ... including production platforms, can now be built in
a a
Natural gas
l
Trinidad and Tobago. The government also encourages
Oil
W energy projects which produce materials for local
Water manufacturing industries.

Shock waves are created by geologists

12.7.1 Using a seismic survey to find a possible oil trap. 12.7.2 A drilling rig in place on the Immortelle platform
off the east coast of Trinidad.
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 Where oil and gas are produced
In Trinidad and Tobago in 2014: Exploring for oil in deep water and extracting it are
● 29% of the oil was produced on land, in costly and challenging tasks.
southern Trinidad. This was the original centre The east coast production and drilling platforms
of the oil industry. The remaining oil is in small can be reached by helicopter or by barge from
traps and is expensive to extract Galeota in south-eastern Trinidad. Pipelines from
● some of the oil and some of the gas came from offshore oil and gas fields converge here. Oil is
fields in the calm, shallow waters of the Gulf of stored in tanks for export. Gas is pumped to
Paria, to the west of Trinidad western Trinidad, to be processed or used as fuel.
● most of the oil and gas was produced off the Oil from the east coast and onshore oil fields is
east and north coasts, most of it extracted from pumped to a refinery at Pointe à Pierre, close to San
rocks beneath water 60 to 180 metres deep. Fernando in southern Trinidad. Crude oil is
With new techniques, drilling in water up to processed to produce gasoline, diesel, kerosene, and
1,500 metres deep is now planned. other products.

VENEZUELA 200 m 0 50 km

TOBAGO

Atlantic Ocean
Northern Range
VENEZUELA
Port of

200
Spain

m
TRINIDAD
Point Lisas
Gulf of Paria
Pointe à Pierre R
San Fernando Key
L L LNG plant
Point R Oil refinery
Fortin Galeota
Oilfield
TRI Beachfield Gas field
NID
A Da
nd TOBAGO Gas pipeline
Sea over 200 m deep
VENEZUELA

12.7.3 Oil and gas in Trinidad and Tobago.

International markets and location

Oil:
10 0 0There is Geog
Caribbean a global market for oil, but the price
barking Dog rt
varies depending on location. Oil from Trinidad and
Tobago is close to the world’s largest market, the
USA, and can easily be shipped there by tanker.
Because transport costs are lower, it fetches up to
10% more than oil from the Middle East.

Natural gas: There is no single world market for

natural gas, because unprocessed gas cannot be
shipped internationally by tanker. It takes more than
950 cubic metres of gas to provide as much energy
as one cubic metre of oil. Location is important in
fixing the price of gas. 12.7.4 International oil trading in New York.

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 ● Gas in a very remote location has no use unless Most gas is used to make products for export
a pipeline or processing facility is built. It is markets:
called stranded gas. ● Propane and butane, for cooking gas and other

● Gas in a developed country with a large market, uses.

such as the USA or the UK, is valuable. ● Iron and steel, with gas used as an energy source.

● Trinidad and Tobago has developed a market by ● Methanol and ammonia. These are chemicals used

processing gas and using it to make products to make plastics, fertiliser or other products.
for export. Trinidad and Tobago is the world's leading
● Since 2000 the USA has developed new sources exporter. G
of oil and gas in its own territory. Because of ● Other more complex chemicals are also produced.

processing and transport costs, gas in Trinidad

fetches a lower price than gas in the USA. The country is also a leading producer of liquefied G
natural gas (LNG). Gas is chilled to –161 °C,
Trinidad and Tobago’s resources condensing to form a liquid. This takes up a much
Trinidad and Tobago is not a major international oil smaller volume than the gas, and it can be shipped
producer. It has only 0.06% of the world’s known to export markets by tanker.
oil reserves and 0.2% of world production. Oil
output reached a peak in 1978; by 2014 production
had declined by two-thirds.
Trinidad and Tobago’s gas reserves are also small
by world standards. However, they have been
developed vigorously. In many gas-based exports,
Trinidad and Tobago is a world leader.
Energy industries have helped develop a prosperous
economy. They provide the country’s major exports,
and are the most important source of government
revenue, paying for education, other services, and
infrastructural development. Low-cost fuel has
encouraged the development of manufacturing and
other activities.

How natural gas is used

The National Gas Company buys gas from energy
companies, and owns pipelines that deliver it to other
users. Some of these produce mainly for local markets:
12.7.6 The Atlantic Liquefied Natural Gas plant at Point Fortin.
● Generating stations use natural gas to produce

electricity. LNG is sent to regasification plants in South America

● Some manufacturing companies use gas as a fuel, and elsewhere, where a network of pipelines
for example in the production of cement or glass. connects gas users and suppliers. Within the
Caribbean there are regasification plants in Puerto
Other uses Electricity generation Rico and the Dominican Republic, and proposals for
5%
Jamaica and the Bahamas.
8%
Uses for natural gas have been developed
successfully in Trinidad and Tobago for the
29% Chemicals following reasons:
● Trinidad and Tobago is an island nation, with access
58%
to shipping. Inland gas sources are more difficult to
LNG develop for export.
● There is an educated labour force, able to build and

operate large-scale energy industries.

12.7.5 How natural gas is used.

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 ● Infrastructures such as roads, airports, “The geology shows that major new discoveries
telecommunications, and water supply are in place. can be expected. We should encourage exploration
● The government has encouraged overseas and new drilling.”
companies to invest. It is considered a reliable
investment partner. “The best investment is to spend oil revenue on
● Local companies have also invested successfully in education, health, and infrastructures, so that we are
gas-based industries. equipped to build new industries for the future.”

The main processing plants for oil and gas are on the Elsewhere in the Caribbean
west coast of Trinidad. These are: Venezuela, Mexico, and Colombia are large oil and
● the oil refinery at Pointe à Pierre; gas producers. They have greater resources than
● petrochemical plants at Point Lisas;
Trinidad and Tobago.
Oil
● the LNG plant at Point Fortin.
… % of world total Reserves Production
These are good locations because: Trinidad and Tobago 0.05 0.1
● the calm waters of the west coast are suitable for Venezuela 17.5 3.3
export shipping USA 2.9 12.3
● there is flat land, which is suitable for large Saudi Arabia 15.7 12.0
industrial plants
Natural gas
● natural gas and oil can be transported from the east
… % of world total Reserves Production
coast by pipeline
● there are roads and other infrastructures for
Trinidad and Tobago 0.2 1.2
industrial development Venezuela 3.0 0.8
● this part of Trinidad is densely populated and can USA 5.2 21.4
supply a large and skilled labour force. Russia 17.4 16.7
In 2014, energy industries in Trinidad and Tobago
Providing for the future provided:
Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources. At the 2014 ● 3% of employment

rate of use, Trinidad and Tobago’s known natural gas ● 42% of GDP

reserves should last until around 2030. But the rate of ● 85% of exports
● 48% of government revenue.
depletion is impossible to predict. Gas use is likely to
increase; but new gas fields will be discovered. All we
know is that, at some future date, this non-renewable Quick questions
resource will run out. 1 Of the countries in the table, which has the
Worldwide, new oil and gas fields have until greatest reserves of:
now been found faster than old ones are depleted. a) oil? b) gas?
Known oil reserves today are greater than they were 2 Which countries produce the most oil, and the
50 years ago. Exploration techniques are more most gas?
accurate, and drilling is now possible in very deep 3 Explain why oil and gas are important in the
water – but exploration and extraction costs have economy of Trinidad and Tobago.
also increased. 4 Find the meaning of the word “fossil”. Why are
oil and gas sometimes called fossil fuels? Are
there any other fossil fuels?
“The government should bank its energy revenue,
to use for future generations.”
Discussion points
“Oil and gas industries can encourage new 5 What problems are energy industries in Trinidad
manufacturing and service industries.” and Tobago likely to face in the future?
6 How can these problems best be dealt with?
“We should not be using our energy resources so 7 Look again at Chapter 7. Will increased concern
fast. There will soon be none left.” over climate change affect energy industries in
Trinidad and Tobago?

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 13.1 Agriculture in the Caribbean

Key ideas ● Agriculture was once the economic mainstay of the Caribbean.
● Agriculture has decreased in importance in many countries.
● Traditional export crops have lost protection in export markets.
● Some farmers have diversified to other crops.
● Caribbean economies have diversified away from agriculture.

Why agriculture has been important

Traditionally, agriculture has been important in the ● Sugar production fell from 191,000 tonnes in
Caribbean: 1950 to 15,745 tonnes in 2014.
● It provides employment. ● Employment fell from 25,000 jobs in 1946 to
● Agricultural products provide exports. fewer than 2,000 in 2010; less than 2% of the
● Locally produced food reduces the need for workforce is employed in sugar.
imports. This saves foreign exchange. ● There were 60 sugar factories in 1944, six in
● Local production improves food security. A 1986, and only one in 2015.
country that depends on imports is at risk if ● In 1946 the sugar industry earned 55% of the
international food prices increase, or if disasters island’s foreign exchange, but only 0.5% in
such as floods and droughts in a major supplier 2010. Tourism is now the main source of
create international shortages. foreign currency.
● When agriculture prospers, it benefits rural areas ● Foods made up 18% of total imports in 2009.
with few other industries. Food imports were worth more than 11 times
● Local agriculture can provide fresh food; many as much as sugar exports.
imported foods are frozen, canned or processed.
● Agriculture protects the landscape, if it is well Sugar has become less important partly because
managed. other industries have grown. Commercial tourism
● Agriculture provides the raw materials for many did not exist until the 1950s. Most economic
manufacturing industries. For example, sugar growth has been in services, not agriculture. Few
cane is processed to make sugar. Sugar factories young people choose a career in farming.
also produce molasses, which can be used to Sugar has also become unprofitable. Wages and
make rum, another important export. other costs have increased. The amount of sugar
produced from each hectare has fallen, from ten
The changing role of sugar in tonnes in 1963 to less than five tonnes in 2013.
Barbados
Agriculture has now lost much of its importance in 13.1.1 An abandoned sugar factory in the parish
many Caribbean countries. Driving around Barbados, of St Lucy, Barbados, with the former
plantation house, a field of mature cane,
a visitor might think that the island still depends on and fields which have been harvested.
sugar because much of the land is still planted with
cane. Nowadays, however, the industry is no longer
the centrepiece of the island’s economy:
● Sugar made up 41% of economic output (GDP)

in 1950, 6% in 1980, and 1% in 2010.

● The area used for growing cane fell from 200

sq. km in 1970 to 42 sq. km in 2013.

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 In some Caribbean countries, such as Antigua,
there is little agriculture today. Antigua’s sugar
industry was closed in the 1970s. Much of the land
is now unused or in urban development. There is
some small-scale cattle farming and cultivation of
fruits and vegetables for the local market.

Traditional export markets

Britain and other European countries were
traditionally the main export markets for Caribbean
agriculture. Historically, agriculture was developed
to supply Britain with tropical produce. Since 1973
Britain has been part of the European Union (EU),
which has a common agricultural policy. For many
years, the EU gave a special position to many
Caribbean agricultural exports:

Total population 510 million

FINLAND 13.1.3 Sugar cane being loaded by tractor onto trailer in a field
N
in Jamaica.
SWEDEN

ESTONIA
How export rules have changed
LATVIA
DENMARK Since the 1990s European trading rules have
LITHUANIA
changed, reducing benefits for Caribbean exporters:
IRELAND UNITED ● Europe is reforming its agricultural policy to
NETHERLANDS
KINGDOM POLAND
BELGIUM GERMANY reduce subsidies.
LUXEMBOURG CZECH REPUBLIC ● International trade is now governed by the
SLOVAKIA
AUSTRIA
World Trade Organization (WTO), whose rules
0 500 km
FRANCE SLOVENIA
HUNGARY
ROMANIA
make it difficult to give Caribbean countries a
special market position.
ITALY BULGARIA

SPAIN
Since 1992 the British market has no longer been
PORTUGAL GREECE protected for Caribbean bananas. The WTO has
ruled that Latin American producers, who produce
low-cost fruit, should have access to the European
13.1.2 The European Union in 2016.
market.
● Until 1992 Caribbean bananas had priority in The EU removed price guarantees for sugar
the British market. Other countries could export from 2010. From 2017, further changes are
to Britain only when no Caribbean fruit was expected to reduce international sugar prices.
available. Since 2003, European duties on rum have been
● Caribbean sugar exporters were paid the same low for all countries. The Caribbean’s special status
special guaranteed price as European sugar is no longer useful.
growers for their exports to Europe. In some Caribbean rice exporters now have unlimited
years, this was more than three times the world duty-free access to Europe. However, duties on rice
sugar price. from other producers have been cut, and they can
● A fixed amount of Caribbean rum could be compete more easily with Caribbean rice.
exported to Europe duty free.
● Caribbean rice could be exported duty free to
Europe if it was milled in an EU overseas
territory, such as Montserrat or Curaçao.

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 factory is now a scenic ride for tourists. Much of
the sugar land is being developed for tourism.
Trinidad’s sugar industry was closed in 2007.
In the 1980s there were 15,000 small banana
growers in Dominica, St Lucia, and St Vincent. They
made up one-sixth of the labour force. Because of
the EU’s changing banana regime, export prices
have fallen since the early 1990s.
As the industry became less profitable, many
small farmers found other work, or migrated. By
2004 there were only 5,000 banana growers; now
there are still fewer. In spite of investment in
irrigation, planting material, packing, and
marketing, production continued to fall. Plant
13.1.4 Caribbean bananas compete with other fruit in British
diseases such as black sigatoka created further
supermarkets. problems. Jamaica stopped growing bananas for
export in 2008 after Tropical Storm Gustav.
At the same time, Europe has made special grants to However, some larger growers whose land is well
Caribbean sugar- and banana-producing countries, suited to bananas remain profitable in Belize and
to help them restructure their rural economies and elsewhere.
provide help for low-income families. The Caricom market has become more
important for regional agriculture. The common
The future for sugar and bananas external tariff is charged at a higher rate for
Since 2008 there have been only four Caricom imported agricultural products that could be grown
sugar exporters: Guyana, Belize, Jamaica, and within the region, such as sugar and rice.
Barbados. With no guaranteed sugar price, they
must restructure to cut costs. These are some of the “Now that European prices have fallen, we need to sell more
possibilities: of our crop to our Caricom partners. Last year I bought a
● The government could subsidize sugar growers. load of Caricom cement. It’s a two-way trade, we all
This would be expensive, so there would be benefit.”
either higher taxes or less money for the
government to spend on services such as health “Buying sugar from Brazil would be much cheaper, now that
and education. we no longer grow our own. US rice is subsidized, so it
● The industry could be closed. Several thousand would cost us less, too.”
people would lose their jobs. Land now in sugar
could be used for other types of farming, 13.1.5 Harvesting bananas.
housing, or for hotels and golf courses to boost
tourism. Some land might just be abandoned.
● The government could borrow money to make

sugar growing more efficient.

● Cane might be used as an energy source or

biofuel. Cane can be used to generate electricity

and to make ethanol, which countries such as
Brazil mix with gasoline in vehicle fuel.
● Extra money can be earned by exporting

value-added products such as packaged and

branded sugar.

The sugar industry on St Kitts was closed in 2005.

The railway that used to take sugar cane to the

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 The new rural economy
Many rural communities have been damaged by the city-bound can be carried out in the
problems of traditional agriculture. In some cases countryside. Internet and telecommunication
there has been assistance, with retraining, investment allow close contact with suppliers, customers,
in infrastructures, or alternative employment. These and co-workers. Working like this from a rural
are some possible strategies: location is sometimes called telecommuting.
● New products and diversification: Crops, such

as flowers, fruits, and foliage plants, can be

grown profitably for the local market and for
export. However, most require careful
cultivation, and some need expensive
equipment. Livestock farming is also possible,
but it is a demanding occupation.

13.1.7 Working electronically from home in Guyana.

St Vincent St Lucia Dominica

1990 2007 1990 2007 1990 2007
Agriculture 21 8 15 4 25 17
as % of GDP
Banana 45 7 70 16 31 4
exports
(US$ million)
13.1.6 Commercial floriculture in Martinique: growing
anthuriums in a shade house, which provides
protection from strong sunlight, excess evaporation, Using graphs
winds, and some agricultural pests.
1 Construct divided circles to show agriculture as
● Tourism: There are many possibilities for a percentage of GDP in St Vincent in 1990 and
2007.
small-scale rural tourism, with small hotels, and
2 Draw a bar chart to show the value of banana
hiking, birdwatching, and nature trails.
exports in each year.
● Commuting: Some people travel each day to
3 Explain why divided circles are suitable for
jobs in a town or city. They may keep some land question 1 but not for question 2.
in cultivation as a part-time activity.
● Small-scale manufacturing: Processing locally
Research
grown foods creates jobs and provides a market
for small farmers. Other products can also be 4 What are the traditional agricultural exports of
manufactured in rural surroundings if roads and your own country? How has their importance
infrastructures are in place. changed in recent years? Have they been
affected by changing rules on international
● New technology: With advanced
trade?
communications, many desk jobs that were once

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 13.2 Small-scale farming in Guyana

Key ideas ● Small farmers produce many crops and animal products.
● They use both modern and traditional farming methods.
● They produce for their own use and for sale.
● Influences include the physical, social, and economic environment.
● Specialized and organic crops may reach wider markets.
(See also Section 10.1, Population distribution.)

Large- and small-scale farming N

Most of the world’s agricultural output comes from

Lake Mainstay
large commercial farms, which are run as businesses.
However, many families in middle- and lower-income VENEZUELA Georgetown
countries live on small-scale commercial farms. The Bush Lot
New Amsterdam
Caribbean has both types of farming.
Linden Skeldon
GUYANA
Differences between large- and small-scale
farming FRENCH
GUIANA
Large scale Small scale
SURINAME
Size of farm Usually over Usually under 10 ha
100 ha Lethem
Farm work Wage labour Mainly family St Ignatius

Specialization One or two Many crops BRAZIL

crops
Livestock Not usually Often both
versus crops mixed
Fertilizers Chemical Chemical
Manure and compost Key
BRAZIL
Technology Scientific Scientific and traditional Coastal belt Main roads Rupununi savannas:
Scattered Amerindian Unsurfaced scattered farming
Equipment Large-scale Hand tools
forest farming road Port used to export sugar
machinery Cutlass and hoe
Most peasant and commercial farming is in the coastal belt 0 100 km
Small-scale machinery
Markets National, Family, local, national
international 13.2.1 Agriculture in Guyana.

Many small farms use some modern methods

and link to wider markets. A farm in the Guyanese coastlands
Small-scale farmers face many difficulties: Look back to Section 10.1. Most of the Guyanese
■ Limited land area and uncertain weather population lives in a narrow strip of fertile land close
■ Little access to capital for improvements to the coast. Most villages are located on a road that
■ Small size makes it hard to get the best runs parallel to the coastline. In this part of Guyana
terms of sale for crops. there are two rainy seasons and two drier seasons.
Most Caribbean small farmers work hard, and Most of the coastlands lie below sea level. They
they develop a strategy that allows them to feed were drained around 250 years ago by settlers from
their family and earn an adequate cash income. the Netherlands and England, who used the land for
They adapt to the natural environment and to sugar and other commercial crops. There are
economic and social conditions. In many farm drainage canals and irrigation canals to supply water
families there are other sources of income: either in dry periods. In many areas small farmers instead
running a business such as a shop or minibus, or of large estates now use the land.
being in paid employment outside the farm.

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 A typical small farm in the Guyanese coastlands
There are many small farms in the Guyanese Fertilizers: For vegetables, manure and compost.
coastlands. No two are the same, but this one is Crops are rotated after each harvest.
typical of many. Beans add nitrogen to soil. For rice,
Location: Bush Lot, 7 km east of Port Mourant, chemical fertilizers are used.
between Georgetown and New Technology: Strong family and village farming tradition.
Amsterdam. Some new methods are used where they are
Size: 12 hectares beneficial. Guyana’s coastal land-drainage
Farm work: The owner is in his fifties. His system and sea defences are essential, and
family help with the farm, but they must be regularly maintained.
also have other jobs. Workers are Equipment: Tractor; sprinkler to irrigate vegetables;
sometimes hired at busy times. sprays for chemicals. For rice, a combine
Crops: Eight hectares are used for harvester is hired when needed. Each rice
vegetable crops, such as tomatoes, harvest lasts two to three days.
G
bora beans, seasoning, cabbage, Markets: The coastal road and dense local
celery, and tomatoes. Several crops population provide good access to
can be produced each year on each markets. Traders buy vegetables to sell
plot of land. Four hectares are at a higher price in Georgetown. Some
used for rice: two crops a year. The vegetables are used by the family or sold
land is ploughed and sown before in the village. Poultry is sold locally or used
each of the two rainy seasons, and by the family. Rice is sold as unprocessed
harvested in the dry seasons. The “paddy” to mills for processing. There are
canals irrigate the rice lands. two rice mills in the village. Rice is also
Livestock: Eighty chickens, grown for meat; grown on large commercial farms. Rice
around 100 ducks. prices depend on global market conditions
and Guyana’s trading terms.

13.2.3 The land-drainage

system in Guyana.

13.2.4 Vegetable farming at Bush Lot.

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 13.2.5 Harvesting rice.

Amerindian farming
Many Amerindian farmers in Guyana produce most The first harvest is generally good, but fertility
of their own food. Cassava is the most important declines rapidly as nutrients and organic matter are
food crop, but maize, bananas, yams, and sweet leached out of the soil. Weeds also begin to grow,
potatoes are also cultivated. Several crops are usually and compete with the crops for nutrients.
grown on one piece of land. After around two years, the land is abandoned
Shifting cultivation is a common farming and a new area cleared. Abandoned clearings revert
method. Farmers clear a small area of forest when to forest, because they are small and because some
the weather is dry, then burn the vegetation. This of the original vegetation remains. After 15 years
kills the weeds, and the ash that is left adds soil fertility has been restored.
nutrients to the soil. Then the crops are planted.

13.2.6 An Amerindian family harvesting

and planting cassava in a rainforest
clearing. 13.2.7 Kamaka market at Moruka in north-western Guyana.

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 Where land is plentiful and the population low, Hectares
this is a sustainable farming system: One hectare is about 2.5 acres.
● Little capital is needed; there is no fertilizer or
100 hectares make one sq. km.
farm machinery. A football pitch measures one hectare.
● Little labour is used; there is no ploughing or

hand weeding. 400 Georgetown

● There is no permanent damage to the forest.

300
Subsistence farms are those that produce food
mainly for family and community use, not for sale.
200

Growing peanuts for sale

100
The Rupununi savanna is a seasonally dry area in
southern Guyana. The journey to Georgetown, on
0
an unsurfaced road, takes around ten hours. J F M A M J J A S O N D
Population density is low but there are several
Amerindian villages. 400 St Ignatius

The soil and tropical continental climate are

suitable for growing cashew nuts and peanuts. The 300

ground is cultivated and the crop is sown and

harvested with hand tools, as the farmers own no 200
machinery. This is hard work. Yields are much lower
than on commercial peanut farms. Some farmers in 100
the northern Rupununi use chemical fertilizers and
pest control; yields are better but still low by 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
international standards. Some villages manufacture
13.2.8 Rainfall patterns in Guyana.
peanut butter for local use.
Wholesalers buy most of the crop and truck it
to Georgetown for sale. Prices are low because the Comparisons
Rupununi product must compete with imports 1 Describe the contrasts between small-scale
from China and the USA produced on large-scale farming in the coastlands and the Rupununi
mechanized farms. Amerindian farmers earn only a savannas, under these headings:
small income. a) Climate and rainfall
b) Main crops
Organic farming
c) Technology and equipment
Organic farmers do not use chemical fertilizers
d) Access to markets
or pesticides. An increasing number of people
e) How crops are sold
believe that organic products taste better and
f) Chances to work outside farming.
carry health benefits. They are prepared to pay a
premium price, with extra profits for supermarkets,
distributors, and farmers. This is an important Quick research
niche market. 2 Is there any organic farming in your own
Amerindian farmers near Lake Mainstay in country? What crops are grown, and where are
western Guyana grow pineapples without using they sold?
chemicals. These are sold to a French company, 3 Are any organic products sold in supermarkets
which prepares and packages the fruit in jars for in your country? Does your family ever buy
export markets in France and the USA. The same them?
company gathers and packages wild hearts of palm
in north-western Guyana, employing Amerindian
Discussion point
staff. This is another organic product. Organic
cocoa is also grown in Guyana. Some farmers in the 4 What are the advantages and disadvantages of
Windward Islands grow organic bananas. small-scale farming as a way of life?

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 13.3 Sugar growing in Guyana

Key ideas ● Sugar is an important commercial crop in Guyana.

● It is difficult for the industry to remain profitable.

Guyana is the largest sugar producer in Caricom. Sugar The land-drainage system is important for the sugar
is grown in the narrow strip of fertile land near the industry. There are about 15 kilometres of drainage
coast, a small part of which is shown in Figure 13.2.2. and irrigation canals for each square kilometre of
This is a good location for several reasons: cane. The canals are also used to take cane to the
● The soil is deep, retains water and plant sugar factories, using steel barges or punts. This
nutrients, and is easily cultivated. costs less than road transport. Maintaining the
● Rainfall is close to 2,000 millimetres a year; the drainage system is a major expense for Guyana.
G climate is not too dry. Most fields are flooded for several months
● Cane grows rapidly in the two rainy seasons, before they are planted. This flood fallowing kills
with good weather for harvesting in the two weeds, reducing the need for herbicides. Flood
drier seasons. Some fields are reaped in each dry water contains minerals and nutrients, reducing the
season, spreading the work through the year. need for artificial fertilizers. It also washes out
● Because the land is densely populated, sugar harmful salts. Pests are controlled by using parasites;
estates are able to find skilled and unskilled chemical pesticides are being phased out.
workers. Mechanization is difficult in Guyana. Cane was
● The sugar estates are easily reached by the traditionally planted in cambered beds, which slope
coastal road. to aid drainage. The layout of the beds makes it
● Sugar can be exported by ship from difficult to operate machinery, and in some areas the
Georgetown, Blairmont or Skeldon. soil is too soft for heavy equipment. Only a few
fields can be mechanically harvested.
N
After the harvest, the root system produces new
0 10 20 30 40 km
shoots of cane. This is the ratoon crop; there are
usually around four ratoon crops before the land is
ploughed and replanted.
Georgetown (Capital City) GUYANA
Uitvlugt
13.3.2 Loading a punt with harvested sugar cane.
LBI
Enmore
Wales
Demerara

Rosehall
Blairmont
Albion
Key
Major road
River
Berbice

Sugar factory
Sugar estate Skeldon
Export ports

13.3.1 Sugar growing in Guyana.

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 The future of the sugar industry
Low international prices for sugar have made
many Caribbean sugar growers unprofitable. In
2015 Guysuco’s production cost for one tonne of
sugar was more than twice the selling price on
the world market. The company needed large
government subsidies to remain in business and
its future was in doubt. To make the industry
more profitable, Guysuco could:
● operate more efficiently and reduce costs

● reduce the number of employees: staffing makes

up two-thirds of the company’s total costs

● increase its exports to other Caribbean countries

that have closed or downsized their sugar

industries
● increase sales of “Demerara Gold” branded and

packaged sugar, a premium-price value-added

product
● build a refinery to produce white sugar, which

is also a value-added product.

In 2014, sugar in Guyana provided:

6% of employment
13.3.3 An aerial view of cane fields, with a punt train on a
8% of exports
canal. 3% of GDP.

The state-owned sugar company, Guysuco, owns

eight sugar factories and grows sugar on 470 sq. km Quick questions
of land; this is a larger area than the island of
1 How has sugar growing in Guyana been
Barbados. Some sugar is also grown by independent
influenced by the following?
farmers. Total production increased from 130,000 a) Historical factors
tonnes in 1990 to a peak of 331,000 in 2002, but b) Soils
has since slipped. In 2014, the crop produced c) Climate
216,000 tonnes. d) Labour supply
Some sugar is used in Guyana. The rest is e) Drainage
exported to Europe, to Caricom countries, and to f) Trading arrangements
other markets. g) Investment in the industry.
2 Explain why sugar is important in the economy
Sugar factories of Guyana.
After the harvest, cane is taken to sugar factories.
Cane is crushed to extract the juice, which is then Research and comparison
boiled under a vacuum to concentrate the sugar, 3 Compare sugar growing in another Caribbean
producing a mix of crystals and a thick, dark liquid, country with Guyana, under these headings:
molasses. The crystals are separated from the a) Location within the country
molasses by spinning in a centrifuge; molasses can b) Number of harvests
be used as animal feed or to make rum. c) Cultivation methods
The waste material left when the juice is d) Number of factories
extracted is known as bagasse. The sugar factory at e) Ownership of industry
Skeldon in eastern Guyana uses bagasse as a biofuel f) Exports
g) The future.
to generate electricity.

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 13.4 Sugar growing in Brazil

Key ideas ● Brazil is a large and rapidly growing economy.

● Agriculture is important to the Brazilian economy.
● Large-scale sugar cane farming is a profitable activity.
● Some sugar is processed to produce ethanol biofuel.

Brazil and Guyana – facts and comparisons

Brazil Guyana
Date of independence 1822 1966
Area 8.5 million sq. km 215,000 sq. km
Population 204 million 750,000
Population density 24 per sq. km 3.5 per sq. km
GDP (2014) US$2,350 billion US$3 billion
GDP per person (1965) US$260 US$335
GDP per person (2014) US$11,600 US$3,750
Sugar production 740 million tonnes 0.2 million tonnes
Human Development Index 88 131
13.4.1 São Paulo.

13.4.2 The Itaipu Dam is the world’s second-largest hydroelectric plant. Hydroelectricity is the main source of electric power.

Brazil and its economy

Brazil is the second-largest country in the Americas, ● Brazil is a world leader in football and sports.
both by population and by the size of its economy. ● Brazil has a rich and varied culture. The annual
Only the USA is larger. It is one of the four BRIC Carnival in Rio de Janeiro is the largest in the
countries, which are playing a rapidly growing role world.
in the world – the others are Russia, India, and ● The main language is Portuguese. Brazil was
China. ruled by Portugal for 300 years, until 1808.
● São Paulo, Brazil’s largest city, has more than ● Most of the population is ethnically mixed.
20 million people. ● Brazil is divided into 26 states with a Federal

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 District for the capital, Brasilia. São Paulo state been cleared for agriculture since the 1970s,
has by far the largest population, with more increasing worldwide CO2 emissions and
than 44 million people. creating other environmental problems.
(See Sections 8.3 and 8.4.)
Brazil’s economy has grown rapidly. It is now a leading ● Some coastal areas have a tropical marine
producer of mining, agricultural, and manufacturing climate. Because Brazil is in the southern
products. Among its major exports are: hemisphere, the dry season runs from April to
● iron ore ● cars and aircraft ● steel December, when most of the Caribbean has
● oil ● footwear ● coffee high rainfall.
● meat ● sugar ● machinery.
● São Paulo and other large cities are the main
centres for services, finance, and manufacturing.
Contrasts within Brazil ● The capital was moved in 1960 from Rio de
Because it is so large, there are big contrasts between Janeiro on the Atlantic coast to the new city of
different parts of Brazil, both in the natural Brasilia in the interior.
environment and in the economy and social structure:
● In the north-east, much of the population suffers
● The basin of the River Amazon has an equatorial
from poverty. There are severe droughts,
climate, large rainforests, and a low population particularly during El Niño years (See Section 7.1.)
density, which are similar in many ways to the
● There are important oil resources offshore, in
interior of Guyana. Most of the Amerindian the Atlantic Ocean.
population lives here. Large areas of forest have

FRENCH
SURIN

VENEZUELA Key
GUY

GUIANA
Amazonia
ANA

AME

COLOMBIA North-east
São Paulo state
Offshore oil resources

ve
r A ma zon
Ri

Manaus

Recife

PERU

Brasilia

BOLIVIA

SÃO
PAULO
STATE
PARAGUAY Rio de Janeiro
São Paulo

ARGENTINA

0 1000 km
URUGUAY

13.4.3 Contrasting regions in Brazil: Amazonia, Rio, Brasilia, and the dry north-east.

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 Agriculture in Brazil
Agriculture makes up 5% of Brazil’s GDP. There are Sugar production has increased more than
many contrasting types of agriculture in Brazil: sixfold since the 1970s. Today, Brazil is the world’s
● Brazil is the world’s leading producer of coffee, largest and lowest-cost cane sugar producer. The
which is grown in large farms, mainly in a large industry is able to make a profit even when sugar
area around São Paulo. prices are low. There are 70,000 farms that grow
● São Paulo State produces more than half the sugar cane, and more than 400 sugar factories.
world’s orange juice. Sugar cane farming contributes close to 2% of
● Large areas of the Amazon rainforest have been Brazil’s GDP.
cleared for cattle and soybean farming.
● Some Amerindians in Amazonia still practise Where sugar cane is grown
small-scale subsistence farming.
● In the south, there are large commercial farms

producing rice, chickens, maize, and other

zon
products. Ama
R iver
● In the north-east there are large sugar

plantations and small family farms producing North-east

fruit and many other crops.
● There are more than 4 million family farms in

Brazil. Some are quite large, with an area of up

to one sq. km.
Other
Sugar cane farming in Brazil areas 36% São Paulo São Paulo
State 52%
SÃO PAULO
STATE
North- 0 1,000 km
east 12%

13.4.5 Where sugar is grown in Brazil.

São Paulo: tropical marine Total precipitation: 1,441 mm

climate (southern hemisphere) Daily temp. range: 9°
°C Altitude: 792 m mm
40 400

30 350

20 300

10 250

0 200

–10 150

13.4.4 Sugar growing in Brazil.

–20 100

Sugar cane was introduced to north-eastern Brazil

–30 50
by colonists from Portugal and the Netherlands
around 500 years ago. As in the Caribbean, enslaved
–40 0
Africans were forced to grow sugar cane in large J F M A M J J A S O N D
plantations. Slavery was not ended in Brazil until Month
1888, more than 50 years after British colonies in
the Caribbean. 13.4.6 The climate of São Paulo.

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 Today, sugar cane is cultivated on 95,000 sq. km of
land. That is more than 1% of the area of Brazil and
equivalent to an area more than eight times the size
of Jamaica. Most sugar cane is grown in two parts
of Brazil:
● Rural areas to the north of São Paulo produce

90% of the sugar cane.

● Coastal areas in the north-east were the historic

centre for sugar plantations, but now produce

only 10% of the cane.

The sugar cane harvest runs from April to

September in São Paulo State, because that is the
driest time of the year. It runs from September to
March in the north-east.
Sugar is grown on flat land, where agricultural
machinery can be used for land preparation and for 13.4.7 Ethanol pump station in Guaruja, Brazil.
harvesting.
The south of Brazil is not warm enough for
profitable sugar cane farming, and the Amazon basin To produce ethanol, sugar cane is used to
is too wet. produce molasses, which is fermented with yeast.
Molasses can also be used to make rum. Most
Employment issues Caribbean rum producers import molasses from
More than one million workers, or over 1% of the Brazil.
total labour force, work on sugar farms. The average Using ethanol as a fuel reduces total carbon
farm has around ten workers but the largest employ emissions from motor vehicles. However, the
many more. agricultural land used to produce ethanol could be
The number of workers is expected to fall used to produce food. An increase in ethanol use
sharply. Sugar growers can reduce costs by using worldwide could reduce the supply of food and
more machinery and employing fewer staff. result in higher food prices.
Sugar growers in the north-east employ more Bagasse, or sugar cane waste, is also used as a
labour and use less machinery than those in São biofuel, to generate electricity in Brazil. Bagasse is
Paulo and neighbouring states. also used for power generation in Belize and
Migrant workers from the north-east travel to Guyana.
São Paulo State during the crop season to work in Quick question
the sugar harvest. They earn low wages and live in
1 Describe three renewable energy sources used
poor conditions. However, employers say that overall
in Brazil.
wages in the sugar industry are higher than in most
other types of farming.
Quick research
Ethanol and biofuels 2 Use the Internet and other sources to find out
Approximately half of the sugar grown in Brazil is about deforestation in Brazil. In what ways
used to produce ethanol. Ethanol is a biofuel, which does it damage the environment? How can it be
can be used in motor vehicles; it can be produced controlled?
from sugar cane or from other crops such as maize.
It is a renewable energy resource.
In Brazil, all vehicles use a mix of ethanol and
gasoline. Brazil is one of the world’s two leading
producers of ethanol, along with the USA.

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 13.5 Agriculture: review
Comparisons
1 Describe contrasts between sugar cane farming
in Guyana and Brazil under each of these
headings:
a) Agricultural systems and practices, including
use made of canals in Guyana
b) Processing and products
c) Profitability
d) Crop seasons
e) Declining or increasing production
f) Scale of industry
g) Number of factories.

Research
2 For any Caribbean country other than Guyana,
write a short account of commercial farming
under these headings:
a) Climate and soils
b) Traditional export crops
c) New crops and diversification 13.5.1 Developing new crop varieties in a controlled
environment at the University of Trinidad and Tobago
d) Farming methods and organization
e) Processing
f) Markets
g) Challenges for the future.
On a sketch map, indicate an area used for
commercial farming, a processing or packaging
plant, and a port used for agricultural exports.
3 In what ways do the Ministry of Agriculture
and other government organizations assist
agriculture in your country? Write a short
account under these headings:
a) Training and education
b) Technical assistance
c) Roads and other infrastructures
d) Marketing and exports.

Discussion points
4 What events in other countries can affect the
food security of the Caribbean?
5 Why is agriculture important for the economy of
your country?
6 Is agriculture an attractive career for young 13.5.2 Mechanical rice harvesting on an experimental farm in
people? Would you consider a career in Trinidad
agriculture? What could be done to encourage
more people to work in agriculture?

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 Small-scale farming
Small-scale farms may grow as many as 15 or 20 5 Yam, dasheen, and banana are grown around the house.
crops. A mixed cropping pattern: There are also many fruit trees – coconut, mango,
breadfruit, grapefruit, golden apple, plum, and cashew.
● conserves the soil; the land is never bare
6 The yams are planted on mounds, with a stake to
● provides a year-round income; each crop is support the vine.
ready for sale at a different time 7 In the wet season, sweet potatoes, carrots, onions, and
● gives protection against poor weather or plant
cabbage are grown on this slope. The earth is heaped up
into ridges, so as to cut down soil erosion.
disease; some crops will survive. 8 About half the land on the farm is left fallow at any one
time, so that the soil can “recover”.
No crops are grown on fallow land.
9 Bananas and dasheen are grown in the valley. Both
crops grow well in damp, sheltered conditions. Some
1 vegetables are also grown here in the dry season, and
5 2 there are some tree crops too.
6
4 10 There is more pasture on the moist land in the valley
bottom.
7

1 The land on the ridge is exposed

to the sun and the wind. The soil
is quite deep, but it dries out quickly 10
when there is no rain.
2 This slope faces east. It is exposed to the
9 3
wind. The soil is thin here, and it becomes dry
at certain times of year.
3 The valley bottom is sheltered from the wind. The
air is often still and humid. The soil is thick and heavy,
with a high proportion of clay.
4 The farmer’s house is built close to the road. 13.5.3 A traditional small-scale farm in St Lucia.

Problems such as these affect peasant farming: Quick question

● Most farmers are middle-aged or elderly. Few

young people choose a career in farming. 4 Figure 13.5.3 shows a small farm.
● Until the 1990s bananas provided a steady
a) Describe two ways in which soil erosion is
controlled.
year-round income in many countries, but today
b) How do soil conditions and climate affect
banana prices are low. land use on the slope, and in the valley?
● Crops may be stolen (praedial larceny).

Research
Governments attempt to help small farmers in
several ways: 5 Visit a small-scale farm. Write an account of the
● Agricultural development banks provide loans. farm under these headings:
● Agricultural extension officers give advice, for a) Size b) Location
c) Relief d) Climate, soil
example on pest control.
e) Ownership f) Labour
● Access roads bring inputs such as fertilizer and
g) Crops, livestock h) Marketing
take crops to the point of sale. i) Challenges j) Assistance.
● Irrigation provides water during dry weather.
6 Describe the work of one organization that
● Specialist organizations help with marketing.
helps farmers in your country.

Many small farms earn a substantial income by

producing fruits and vegetables for the local market,
for hotels and restaurants, or for export.

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 14.1 Tourism in the Caribbean

Key ideas ● The Caribbean must compete with other tourist destinations.
● Tourism benefits the economy in many ways.

Why tourists visit the Caribbean

Tourism is a global industry; there were more than Other economic activities: Tourism benefits the
1,130 million international tourists in 2014. The rest of the economy. Building new hotels creates
Caribbean must compete with other destinations for work for the construction industry: construction
these tourists, such as the Mediterranean, Hawaii, or companies employ architects, engineers, masons,
the Maldives. and electricians. They also buy cement, paint, and
The Caribbean has resource and locational other materials, which may be made locally or in
advantages: other Caribbean countries.
● The climate is warm all year round and it is Infrastructures: Tourism helps to pay for
usually dry and clear during the winter months. facilities that benefit local people as well. These may
● There are beautiful landscapes, fine beaches, and include airports, improved water or electricity
clear waters. supply, sports facilities, and roads to rural areas
● From North America and Europe, the Caribbean where hotels will be built.
is closer than most other tropical destinations. Government revenue: Departure tax and other
charges help to pay for government services.
However, these advantages are not enough, on their
own, to develop tourism. Caribbean islands also “I’m at hotel school, studying food and beverage
have social and economic stability, an educated management. If I’m good, I’ll be able to work anywhere in
population, and infrastructures such as ports and the world.”
airports, electricity and a water supply, and
telecommunications. They also have a creative “We have three flights a week to the island. Without the
national culture and a welcoming atmosphere. tourists, it would not pay us to go there.”

Tourism in the economy “My supermarket serves tourists from the self-catering
Foreign exchange: Tourism is the most important apartments, hotel staff, and workers on the construction site.”
source of foreign exchange for many Caribbean
countries. Tourists spend US dollars, pounds or But not everyone welcomes the tourism industry:
euros. Caribbean countries can use this money to
buy goods and services from overseas. “The new hotel wants to make the beach private. We should
Employment: Tourism creates jobs at different have guaranteed public beach access, as some islands do.”
levels of skill, from labourers to senior management.
Large hotels employ accountants, engineers, “Hotels here never buy from local farmers. Everything comes
information technology specialists, and marketing straight from the port.”
professionals, as well as service and housekeeping staff.
Smaller businesses: Some tourism jobs are not “I don’t approve of casino gambling. Tourism encourages
in hotels. Tourism creates work for other businesses, prostitution and bad behaviour.”
such as taxis, bars and restaurants, and tour guides.
Agriculture: Some hotels buy locally grown “We depend on tourism, just as we used to depend on sugar.
fruit and vegetables, or fish. If they stop coming, we are in trouble. We need other
industries too.”

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 Tourism in four Caribbean economies
Barbados Bahamas Trinidad St Lucia
&
Tobago
% of labour force in …
hotels and 13 15 1 13
restaurants
agriculture 3 4 3 12
manufacturing 8 3 11 5
and energy
% of foreign exchange from …
tourism 64 65 4 57
agricultural 1 3 1 1
exports
manufacturing 10 12 87 6
and energy
% of GDP from …
hotels and 18 13 0.3 17
restaurants
agriculture 2 0.3 0.6 3
manufacturing 8 7 47 3 14.1.1 Building a new hotel complex, Jamaica.
and energy
Tourist visits 520,000 1,422,000 412,000 338,000
(2014) Quick questions
Hotel rooms 6,190 14,836 5,796 4,878 1 Which of the four Caribbean countries in the top
Cruise ship 558,000 4,805,000 43,000 641,000 table is most dependent on tourism:
passengers a) for foreign exchange?
Per capita GDP 15,580 24,000 21,300 7,980 b) for employment?
2014 (US$)
2 Which country is least dependent on tourism,
The world’s main tourism destinations and why?
Tourism Arrivals (2014) 3 Which country has the highest average income?
earnings (million)
4 In 2015, St Vincent did not have an airport
(US$ billion)
large enough to take direct flights from North
The USA 177.2 74.8
America and Europe. Passengers changed
Spain 65.2 65.0
aircraft in another island, such as Barbados.
China 56.9 55.6
A large international airport was under
The main tourism destinations in the Caribbean construction. How could this project benefit:
Arrivals a) tourism in St Vincent?
(2014)
b) families living in St Vincent?
(million)
c) farmers growing flowers in St Vincent for
Dominican 5.1
Republic export?
d) a cement manufacturer in Trinidad?
Cuba 3.0
Jamaica 2.1
Puerto Rico 1.7 Quick research
Worldwide, tourists from these countries spend the most: 5 How many tourists visited your country last
(US$ billion) year?
China 164.9
The USA 110.8 Discussion point
Germany 92.2
6 What are the advantages and disadvantages of
tourism for the Caribbean?

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 14.2 Barbados: successes and
challenges
Key ideas ● Many islands have successfully developed tourism resources.
● Tourism faces many challenges for the future.

G Like many of its neighbours, Barbados has

N Key
successfully developed its natural Main urban area
advantages for tourism. Main tourism areas
● Accessibility: There is an airport, with
Shopping, historic city,
flights to North America, Europe, the cricket Oval, port for
cruise ships
Caribbean and South America. The port
is equipped for cruise ships. Speightstown
East Coast
● Natural attractions: Beaches are well West Coast Rough seas, surfing,
Calm waters, a few small hotels.
maintained. Natural features such as the most Westmoreland
golf resort
Harrison’s Cave (see Section 3.2) and expensive hotels. Bathsheba

Welchman Hall Gully have been Holetown Harrison's Cave

and Welchman Hall Gully
developed for tourism.
● Culture and history: The annual Crop
Villas and golf
Over festival is one of many that attract courses on
inland sites.
visitors and local people throughout
the year. Many historic buildings are
Bridgetown
well maintained. Airport
The Crane
Hilton Hotel
● Sports: There are varied water sports,
Worthing St Lawrence
and land-based activities such as golf South Coast Oistins
and tennis. International cricket Some good beaches, 0 5 km
varied accommodation.
matches bring thousands of visitors.
● Accommodation: There is a wide variety
14.2.1 Tourism in Barbados.
of hotels, from luxury to budget. Many
are owned locally. There are also villa
rentals and self-catering apartments.
● Other businesses: Tourists spend much

of their time outside their hotel. They

support taxis, car rental companies,
bars, restaurants, nightclubs, and
duty-free shops. Areas such as
Holetown and St Lawrence Gap are
lively and attractive.
● Government support: The Barbados

Tourism Authority supports marketing

and product development. The
government builds infrastructures such
as airports, ports and roads. It supports
festivals, such as Crop Over, and sporting
activities. It supports tourism education 14.2.2 A 4x4 island safari for tourists in Barbados.
through the Barbados Hospitality Institute.
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 Challenges for the future ● promotion of the island by the Barbados
High costs: Barbados is a prosperous island. It is no Tourism Authority
longer a low-wage economy. Hotels must be well
● international tour operators, which include
managed in order to provide good service with independent hotels in their marketing and
limited staff numbers. Utility costs are also high by purchase rooms at a reduced bulk rate.
international standards. Resorts in destinations such
as the Dominican Republic or Sri Lanka have lower Few international hotel groups are represented in
costs and can charge less. Barbados. North American customers prefer well-
Competing destinations: Barbados was one of known brands. In the UK, listing by a well-known
the first tropical islands to be developed for tourism. tour operator gives consumers confidence.
Others are now well established. Sun, sand, and sea There are no giant-scale resorts. The biggest
are no longer enough. hotel in Barbados, the Hilton, has 350 rooms.
Cruise ships: An increasing number of people Hosting the largest international conferences
take cruises instead of land-based vacations. requires co-operation by several properties.
Lack of space: The west and south coasts are fully
developed. Some hotels and villa resorts have been
built inland, with swimming pools and golf or sports
facilities. Some coastal sites, such as the former oil
refinery, will be redeveloped for tourism. But a
shortage of land has sent prices up, a problem for
tourism and local residents alike. Beachfront property
costs around five times as much as inland sites.
Environment and resources: Barbados is a small 14.2.3 South coast hotels in Barbados.
and densely populated island. The freshwater supply is
limited and, with rising demand, must now be Tourists visiting Barbados came from:
supplemented by desalination. Some problems arising % of total 1987 2014
from coastal development are described in Section 5.8. Britain 19 36
Landscape: Much of the rural landscape is The USA 42 23
cultivated for sugar cane, but the industry faces Canada 15 13
difficulties (see Section 13.1). Unless solutions are Caribbean 15 15
found, neatly tended cropland may be replaced by Other 9 13
untidy waste ground. More land is needed for urban
development, but neither local people nor tourists Using graphs
want the island to lose its partly rural aspect.
1 Referring to the table above, draw divided circles
Traffic: With higher living standards, car
to show the origin of tourists visiting Barbados in
ownership has increased, and with it traffic
1987 and 2014. What were the two main changes?
congestion. This inconveniences both Barbadians
and tourists – who hope to relax and escape urban
Comparisons
pressures while on vacation. Traffic planning is
needed to ease the flow. 2 Compare tourism in Barbados with another
Caribbean destination, under these headings:
Marketing a) Natural attractions
b) Goverment support for tourism.
Most Barbados hotels are too small to pay for large-
scale international advertising. They rely mainly on:
● word of mouth and repeat business Discussion points
● niche marketing, for example in windsurfing 3 What are the most important challenges facing
magazines tourism in your country? How can they be dealt
● direct marketing, on the Internet and through with?
other methods 4 What are the advantages and disadvantages of
independent and locally owned hotels?

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 14.3 Contrasts in tourism

Key ideas ● Caribbean tourism caters for many different markets.

● Each market has a distinctive location pattern. (See also
Section 11.7, Controlling urbanization in the Bahamas.)

14.3.1 Snorkelling in Tobago.

Trinidad and Tobago – different N Scuba diving
Key
markets Business, Carnival, cruise port Main
Although Trinidad and Tobago is not a “typical” Beach vacations Ridge
Caribbean destination, it has more tourists than St Small nature lodges
TOBAGO
Lucia or Antigua. However, the beach vacation Areas with wildlife
market is just one of many:
● Business visitors – They travel for work,

not leisure – for conferences, meetings, and

professional visits. Most go to Port of Spain. Chaguaramas – marinas
● Visiting friends and relatives – This is the
Northern Range
largest group of visitors; they stay in all
Port of
parts of the country, with family or in Spain
hotels (see Section 11.9). Caroni
● Cultural tourism – The annual Carnival is Swamp
ge
centred in Port of Spain. There are other Gulf of Paria
al Ran Atlantic Ocean
ntr
festivals and cultural events throughout the Ce Nariva
Wildfowl trust Swamp
year.
● Yachting – There is a cluster of marinas on
Pitch lake
the Chaguaramas peninsula in north-
western Trinidad, with around 1,500 yachts
and pleasure boats visiting each year. TRINIDAD
Because hurricane risk is lower than in
more northerly islands, year-round 0 50 km
insurance coverage is available. Boat repairs
are an important source of employment. 14.3.2 Tourism in Trinidad and Tobago.
● Beach vacations – Tobago is a centre for

beach vacations, with many European

Types of tourist in Trinidad and Tobago
tourists.
● Nature tourists – Trinidad and Tobago has
Business visitors 18%
varied wildlife, with South American animals Visiting friends and relatives 55%
such as ocelot and armadillo and a variety of Hotel vacation tourists 21%
birds and butterflies. There are small nature Others 6%
lodges in the Northern Range of Trinidad,
and in Tobago, and specialized scuba-diving Who are the tourists?
hotels in the north-east of Tobago. International tourists are those who visit another
● Cruise passengers – Port of Spain and country, staying at least one night. They include
vacation tourists, business visitors, and visiting
Tobago are at the extreme south of
friends and relatives.
Caribbean cruise routes.

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 Nassau – large-scale tourism Two giant resorts
The Bahamas has more tourists than any other Atlantis Resort on Paradise Island is said to be
Caricom country. the largest hotel complex outside Las Vegas.
● It is close to the USA; Nassau is only 300 Advertising in North America is vigorous. In 2015,
kilometres from Florida. there were 3,500 rooms, almost 400 villas and a
● It has a dry, sunny climate; rainfall is around
golf course. The Aquaventure water park covers
57 hectares and there is a water ride 1.6 km long.
1,250 mm a year in Nassau.
There are 28 restaurants and a casino with 850
● It has sun, sand, and sea, with white-sand
slot machines. Atlantis was developed by an
beaches and clear waters offshore. American company whose main shareholder is of
● There are daily air links to many US cities.
South African origin.
● There are large hotels and tourist facilities.
Baha Mar on Cable Beach is planned to be the
Caribbean’s largest resort. Construction work
N
Key started in 2011 for the US$3.5 billion resort, which
Main urban area will have 3,000 rooms in several hotels, a golf
Bridge
Paradise course and a casino covering almost 1 hectare.
Main tourism areas Island The Chinese construction company has employed
Historic centre and Cable Beach
cruise port
up to 8,000 Chinese staff and several thousand
Nassau Bahamian construction workers. When Baha Mar
is finished, the two resorts will have jobs for
more than 10,000 hotel workers – 6% of the total
NEW PROVIDENCE ISLAND employment in the Bahamas.

0 5 km
Tourists in The Bahamas came from (2014)
14.3.3 Tourism in Nassau. The USA 78%
Canada 10%
Because of tourism, the Bahamas is a prosperous
economy. However: Europe 6%
● the main resorts are operated by major Elsewhere 6%
international hotel chains; only some small-scale
hotels are locally owned Quick questions
● large resorts offer a wide range of facilities and 1 Which types of tourism are important in your
some tourists do not spend much time or country?
money outside their hotels. 2 What advantages does the Bahamas have for
● agriculture and manufacturing are not well attracting American tourists?
developed; hotels import almost all their food,
furnishings and construction materials Quick research
● tourism is concentrated in a few islands; 79%
3 Draw a sketch map showing the main tourist
stay in Nassau and 14% on Grand Bahama. areas in your country. Why have these areas
● it is difficult for Bahamians to access some of been developed for tourism?
the best beaches. 4 Where do visitors to your country come from?
How does the proportion of American tourists
compare with (a) Barbados and (b) the Bahamas?
5 What is the largest hotel in your country? How
many rooms does it have?
14.3.4 The Atlantis Resort.

Discussion point
6 What are the advantages and disadvantages of a
very large resort such as Atlantis?

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 14.4 Cruise ships and aircraft

Key ideas ● The Caribbean is an important region for cruise tourism.

● Cruises benefit the region, but also have disadvantages.
● Changing travel technology affects global tourism.

G Cruise tourism Cruise tourism: Benefits and problems

Cruise ships are a growing part of the world travel + Passengers spend some money onshore.
market. In many Caribbean countries there are more + Crews include some Caribbean staff.
cruise ship passengers than hotel tourists. Nearly + Passengers may perhaps return for an
half of the world’s cruise vacations are in the onshore vacation.
Caribbean, because: + A few supplies are purchased from Caribbean
● the Caribbean is close to the USA, the main
businesses.
market for cruises + The cruise line pays a small passenger head
tax.
● there is warm, dry weather in the winter

months
+ Cruise lines organize energetic marketing
campaigns.
● each Caribbean country has its own character,

with attractions for cruise passengers

● the islands are a convenient distance apart, so the
− Cruise passengers spend less onshore than
hotel tourists do.
cruise ship can visit a different port every day. − Cruise lines ask duty-free shops and tours to
pay commission on sales revenue.
Cruises start from a home port, usually in Florida, − Cruise lines pay few taxes.
Puerto Rico, or the US Virgin Islands, where the − Caribbean governments build expensive
ship takes on passengers and supplies. Barbados is a cruise ports and other facilities.
home port for some cruises. This allows the island − Cruise lines may crowd out other tourists in
Caribbean cities.
to earn added value, because:
● passengers travel by special bus from the airport
− Some natural and historic sites are not
suitable for large crowds.
to the port
● cruise ships take on supplies locally

● some passengers take an onshore vacation What cruise passengers pay for onshore
before or after the cruise. Nearly always:
Head tax
Sometimes:
San Juan
Taxis and tours
St Maarten
St Bart's Souvenirs and crafts
Key St Kitts Duty-free shopping
Ports of call Drinks and snacks
Home port
Rarely:
Caribbean Sea
Restaurant meals
St Lucia (meals on board are already paid for)
Aruba Barbados
Curaçao
Grenada
Average spending in Bahamas, 2013
Cruise passengers: US$84
Margarita Island
Hotel tourists: US$1,382

14.4.1 An 11-night Caribbean cruise.

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 London–Miami. Smaller Caribbean destinations
do not attract enough passengers for the new
aircraft, and their fares will not benefit.
● Destination airports may need to expand
departure and arrivals halls for the additional
passenger flow.

The impact of new technology on air travel is not

easy to predict. When Concorde made its first
commercial flights in 1976, travel time on long
routes could be halved. Some expected a
revolution in air travel. But supersonic travel uses
too much fuel and the high fares deterred most
passengers. Few Concordes were built, and the
aircraft was withdrawn from service in 2003.
One of the few routes with a regular Concorde
service was London–Barbados. A small number of
14.4.2 A visiting cruise ship in Roseau, Dominica. very wealthy travellers paid many times the normal
fare for the four-hour journey. They helped
Aircraft technology and tourism Barbados to become a favoured destination in
In January 2005 a European aircraft company, Britain for luxury winter tourism. Barbados now
Airbus, unveiled the A380 aircraft, which can take preserves and displays a Concorde aircraft as a
up to 850 passengers – more than twice as many visitor attraction.
as other large jets. The aircraft also uses less fuel The 400-seater Boeing 727, launched in 1969,
per passenger. By 2015, 167 had been delivered to had a much greater long-term impact. Instead of
airlines in Asia, Europe and Australia at a cost of increased speed, it brought down the cost of long-
US$375 million each, with 317 more on order. distance travel, to the benefit of Caribbean tourism.
How is this aircraft likely to affect Caribbean The number of North American tourists visiting
tourism? Barbados almost doubled from 69,000 in 1968 to
● Some airlines use the extra space for showers, 137,000 in 1972.
lounges and private cabins for first-class
passengers. Virgin Atlantic plans in-flight gyms Atlas work
and casinos. These will make long-distance travel 1 Draw a sketch map to show this 11-night cruise:
more attractive for some passengers. Fort Lauderdale (home port) – Key West – Grand
● Other airlines have increased passenger load,
Cayman – Aruba – Colón – Limón – Cozumel
which could reduce fares on busy routes such as – Fort Lauderdale. Which countries does the
cruise visit?

Quick research
2 How many cruise ship passengers visited your
country last year?
3 List three local businesses that benefit from
cruise tourism.

Discussion points
4 How can the Caribbean gain more benefits from
cruise tourism?
5 How is changing technology likely to affect
travel and tourism during the next 20 years?
14.4.3 An Airbus A380.

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 14.5 Sustainable tourism

Key ideas ● Tourism can damage the physical and social environment.
● Well-managed tourism can sustain the environment.
● The natural environment is an attraction for many tourists.

Tourism and the environment

Most tourist resorts are built in coastal areas, which, The Asa Wright Nature Centre in the Northern
until recently, were used only for small-scale fishing Range of Trinidad and Tobago caters mainly for
and farming. These tourist developments result in birdwatchers and naturalists. It has 26 rooms and
changes to the physical environment: cottages, fewer than a typical beach resort.
● Coastal forests or mangrove wetlands may be ● The main building is a former coffee plantation

cleared for tourism. This threatens land and house, which is preserved as part of the historic
marine wildlife, and increases the risk of erosion. setting.
● There is an increased demand for fresh water ● Most of the 93 staff are from the local area.

and electricity. Many have been trained as nature guides.

● Solid waste and sewage must be disposed of. ● Locally produced foods are used where possible.

● New roads, airports, and cruise ship ports are The resort grows its own fruit and coffee.
needed. ● The main activities – birdwatching and walking

● Tourists who come to enjoy the environment may – do not damage the environment.
damage it, for example by trampling on coral reefs. ● Day visitors pay a small fee. Local people pay

less than tourists.

Tourism may also affect the social environment. The ● There is a nearby research station, where

character of a coastal village is changed if a large scientists can stay while studying rainforest
resort is built nearby: ecosystems.
● New job opportunities attract migrants from ● The Centre is run by a non-profit trust. Some of

other parts of the country and from overseas. its earnings buy extra land for conservation. It
● Agriculture and fishing may be neglected if they now owns almost 6 sq. km.
offer lower earnings than tourism.
● Tourists have a different culture and way of life.

Interactions between local people and tourists

may be positive, but are not always so.
● Land prices may increase, making it harder for

local people to buy their own homes.

● Local people may lose the use of beachfront

land for recreation and fishing. However, some

countries such as Barbados have laws to protect
public beach access.

Nature-based tourism
Many tourists are attracted by the natural environment.
They enjoy scuba diving, fishing, birdwatching, and
hiking. Small-scale nature lodges and hotels attract
visitors who want to enjoy the natural environment or
14.5.1 A guided nature walk at the Asa Wright Centre.
just relax in quiet surroundings.

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 Sustainable tourism Air travel
Some much larger beach resorts aim to consider When visitors travel from Europe or North America,
their environmental impact. Some of them use the even environmentally conscious long-distance tourism
Green Globe 21 certification scheme for sustainable affects the environment:
tourism, as in the Sandals resorts in Jamaica, St ● Aircraft account for around 6% of world oil

Lucia, and Antigua. To safeguard the environment, consumption. Use of fuel by aircraft is increasing
there is: by 3% per year. A family of four flying across the
● environmental training for staff Atlantic and back for a Caribbean vacation may
● natural ventilation and lighting use as much fuel as they would in a full year’s
● solar water heating driving in their own country.
● electronic systems which shut off electrical ● The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

equipment when a room is empty estimates that aviation is responsible for around
● treatment of waste water, with recycled water 3.5% of human-induced climate change.
used for irrigation
● water-saving bathroom equipment Because of improved technology, aircraft now use
● composting of kitchen waste less fuel per passenger kilometre than in the 1970s.
● purchase of organically grown local produce. However, more fuel is saved when people take
vacations closer to their own homes.
Sustainable tourism need not be based on natural
Quick research
attractions. In the old city of Havana in Cuba,
tourists visit historic buildings and enjoy traditional 1 Are there any examples of nature-based tourism
Cuban music. or sustainable tourism in your country?
● They make little additional impact on the 2 Describe one environmental and one social
physical environment of the city, which is problem created by tourism in your country.
What can be done to address these issues?
already shaped by human activity.
● Many stay in family-based accommodation, not

large hotels. Discussion points

● There are small family-run restaurants, or 3 What environmental and social issues should be
paladars. considered when planning a large beach resort
in a rural area?
Tourism has increased the income of many Cubans, 4 How will Caribbean tourism be affected if
and brought much-needed foreign exchange to pay people in Europe and North America become
for imports. At the same time, many are worried by more environmentally conscious?
an increase in street crime and prostitution.

14.5.2 Traditional Cuban musicians play for tourists outside Havana Cathedral.

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 15.1 Challenges to Caribbean
manufacturing
Key ideas ● Manufacturing creates employment and stimulates development.
● Caribbean governments have encouraged manufacturing.
● Protection for regional manufacturing has been reduced.
● Competition has damaged some manufacturers.
● Other manufacturers are able to grow and survive.

Manufacturing in the Caribbean

Manufacturing can play an important role in Some of the new industries were successful; others
economic development, because: were not:
● it creates employment ● There are food-processing industries in many
● some factories use local agricultural and primary Caribbean countries, producing goods such as
products breakfast cereals, canned goods, jams, yoghurt,
● Caribbean businesses are able to prosper and invest and ice cream. Most produce for the local
● local manufacturing reduces imports and market, but some products are exported. There
increases exports. are small industries such as bakeries in every
country, serving the local market.
Government support ● Trinidad and Tobago has profitable chemical
Since the 1950s, Caribbean governments have industries. It is the world’s leading exporter of
encouraged manufacturing: methanol and ammonia.
● They created industrial estates with ready-built
● Other industries have not succeeded. In the
factories for rent. 1980s manufacturers in Trinidad and Tobago
● Technicians and other staff were trained.
assembled cars, but they were more expensive
● Customs duties (tariffs) were charged on
and of lower quality than imported models and
competing imports. the plants closed in the 1990s.
● Some countries banned selected imports, leaving

the field clear for local manufacturers. Increased competition

● Investors were given incentives such as ten-year Since the 1990s there has been less protection for
tax holidays. Caribbean industry. International bodies such as the
World Trade Organization believe that free trade will
Three types of manufacturing were developed: benefit the world economy, and
1 Industries processing local raw materials, such ● Bans and restrictions on imports have been

as natural gas, producing goods for worldwide lifted.

export ● Caribbean countries are members of Caricom,

2 Import substitution industries, for example which has a common external tariff. This has
cement or processed foods, which replace been reduced.
imports ● Within Caricom, smaller islands formerly had

3 Enclave industries, where imported materials restrictions on imports from larger countries,
were assembled using Caribbean labour, then such as Trinidad and Tobago. Caricom is now
re-exported. Products included electronic developing as a single market and economy and
components and garments. this additional protection will disappear.

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 Some Caribbean manufacturers find it hard to
compete internationally:
● Companies from outside the region can flood

the market with low-cost goods, advertise

widely, and rapidly introduce new products.
● Labour costs are much higher in the Caribbean

than in countries such as China and Bangladesh.

● Energy costs are high by international standards,

except in Trinidad and Tobago.

● Shipping, air transport, and communications are

also more expensive than in larger countries.

● Most Caribbean manufacturers are small-scale by

world standards. In many industries, the most

efficient equipment is only suitable for large-
scale production.
● Export sales are difficult to establish. Overseas 15.1.2 Which brands are locally made?
supermarkets charge a high fee to display
unfamiliar Caribbean brands on their shelves. Manufacturing as a percentage of GDP
● Advertising to establish a Caribbean brand in a
1990 2014
major country is too expensive for most
Barbados 8 4
companies.
● Caribbean companies cannot dictate terms when
Jamaica 20 8
they discuss prices with larger foreign partners. St Vincent 11 3
Trinidad and Tobago* 10 6
*Not including oil and gas-based industries

Using graphs
1 Draw a graph of a suitable type showing
manufacturing as a proportion of GDP in four
Caribbean countries.

Quick research
2 List six manufacturing activities in your own
country. Which of them fall into these groups
(each can fall into more than one group)?
a) Food processing
b) Import substitution
c) Processing local raw materials.
3 Find ten food products on sale in a local
supermarket. Divide them into three groups:
a) Locally produced
b) Produced in another Caribbean country
c) Imported from outside the region
Which of the imported products could have
been produced locally?

15.1.1 Food processing can develop other industries: printing

Discussion point
labels for food and beverage products in Trinidad.
4 What are the advantages and disadvantages
of protecting Caribbean food manufacturing
against imports?

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 15.2 Food processing

Key ideas ● Some food industries process imported materials at a port.

● Others process local agricultural products.
● Even small industries can find a market for quality exports.

Food processing
Most of the foods we buy have been processed. soya; vitamin supplements; and a small amount of
They are frozen, canned, baked or dried. Caribbean limestone from Barbados, which is added to provide
manufacturers may process: calcium. The company also markets locally produced
● local agricultural products for export bottled water. It also runs a rice mill at Anna Regina
● imported farm products for the Caribbean market in western Guyana.
G ● local products for sale within the region.

Grain milling Key N

Mainly mountain and forest
No Caribbean country can grow wheat, but several Main urban area
have flour mills processing imported grain for the Main roads
local market. They are known as import substitution Ind Campden Park Industrial Estate
industries because they substitute a locally processed Flour mill
product for imported flour. Like many industries Erica's Country Style
that process bulky imported raw materials, flour A Arrowroot processing
Orange Hill A

mills have a coastal location close to a port. There Bakeries

are flour mills in port locations in countries such as Airport
Arrowroot is
processed in a rural
St Vincent, Barbados, Jamaica, Grenada and Trinidad area where the crop
is grown.
and Tobago.
The flour mill in St Vincent is on the Campden
Park Industrial Estate. This is a suitable location for
many industries because:
● it is on flat land, which has been laid out with

roads and infrastructures. Factories are available

to rent, but the flour mill has a purpose-built
Ind
structure.
● it is close to Kingstown, the capital, where many Campden Park

workers live. Others travel by minibus from all Kingstown

parts of the island. Arnos Vale
● there is a wharf. Wheat is imported from the Prospect
0 1 2 3 km
USA by bulk carrier, and flour is exported to
other islands on cargo ships, in containers. 15.2.1 Food-processing industries in St Vincent.

The East Caribbean Group of Companies owns the Grain milling in St Vincent is an export industry.
flour mill, and has more than 100 employees in St Sales are mainly to the eastern Caribbean, where the
Vincent. It has a rice mill and an animal feed mill company’s brands are well established; and also to
on the same site. The husks (or middlings) of the Jamaica, Trinidad and Barbados. Flour, rice and
wheat are used in animal feed. They are mixed with animal feed make up 20% of St Vincent’s exports.
broken rice from the rice mill; imported maize and Flour producers within the Organisation of Eastern

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 Caribbean States still enjoyed some protection from ● other people like to experiment with different
outside competition in 2011. A tariff is charged on foods, to provide variety – this is the
flour from larger Caribbean producers such as “crossover” market.
Trinidad or Barbados, with a larger tariff on flour
from outside the region. These are “niche” markets catering to a small section
of the population. Many Caribbean companies can
compete in niche markets but not in the mainstream
mass market, which is dominated by well-known
brands with low costs and high-volume production.

15.2.2 Flour milling in St Vincent.

A small-scale food processor

Erica’s Country Style has made pepper sauces, jellies,
seasoning, and snack foods from local ingredients
since the 1980s. It buys fresh produce from more
than 100 farmers, providing a market for small-scale
agriculture. Glass containers are imported from 15.2.3 Erica’s Country Style pepper sauces.
Florida because they are not made in St Vincent, and
labels are imported from Barbados and Trinidad. In Quick questions
2005, the company employed five full-time staff, 1 How does St Vincent’s economy benefit from
with part-timers in busy periods. the food processing done by:
It is located at Prospect, 6 kilometres from the a) the East Caribbean Group of Companies?
capital, Kingstown. This is a reasonably accessible b) Erica’s Country Style?
location. A small company like this does not need to 2 Study Figure 15.2.1 and comment on the
be located on an industrial estate. locations in St Vincent of:
Most of its sales are in St Vincent, but it also a) arrowroot processing
exports to the USA, Britain, Barbados, Germany and b) bakeries.
the US Virgin Islands. Agents collect orders from
supermarkets and other customers, and organize
Quick research
shipments. A website and social media also help
with export sales. All exports are duty-free because 3 Describe a food processing industry in your
of St Vincent’s trading agreements with its Caricom country:
a) Where is it located? Are there any
partners, the European Union, and the USA. There is
advantages to the location?
a market for Caribbean foods overseas because:
b) What goods does it make?
● many people from the Caribbean live in these
c) What raw materials does it use?
countries – they form the “ethnic market”

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 15.3 Manufacturing in Singapore

Key ideas ● Singapore is a successful small-island economy.

● Singapore is a major centre for manufacturing.
● Food manufacturing plays a small role in the island’s economy.

Singapore and Jamaica: facts and comparisons

Singapore Jamaica
Date of independence 1965 1962
Area 718 sq. km 10.991 sq. km
Population 5.5 million 2.7 million
Population density 7,615 per sq. km 248 per sq. km
GDP (2014) US$308 billion US$14 billion
GDP per person (1962) US$430 US$463
GDP per person (2014) US$56,300 US$4,900
Human Development Index 9 96
Tourist arrivals 15 million 2 million

Singapore’s historic development

Singapore is one of the most prosperous countries been reclaimed from the shallow surrounding seas,
in the world, with a per capita GDP slightly higher increasing Singapore’s area by 20%. There are plans to
than that of the United States. More than 250,000 add a further 100 sq. km by 2030.
of its people have personal wealth of more than one Singapore has no significant resources other
million US dollars. than its location. However, its port is a natural
In area, Singapore is slightly larger than St Lucia focus for shipping routes linking eastern Asia and
but its population is twice that of Jamaica. the Indian Ocean. The British began to develop
The main island of Singapore is joined to Malaysia, Singapore as a port in 1819; in that year it had a
on the Asian mainland, by two bridges. New land has population of around a thousand.

0 2,000 km Joho MALAYSIA

rS
CHINA JAPAN Senoko
tra
it

industrial
estate
INDIA Pacific
To China Changi
and Japan Ocean SINGAPORE airport
To India Main Downtown
and port
Middle East
Large scale
MALAYSIA
SINGAPORE industries
Indian Ocean Key
To Europe INDONESIA Reclaimed land
and Africa Road to Malaysia
To Australia 0 5 km

15.3151 Singapore
01 is a natural focus for Asian shipping routes. 15.3.2 Singapore.

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 Singapore achieved independence in 1965, soon migrants from other Asian countries. More than
after Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. At that time, 80% of construction workers and half the workers
all three countries had a similar level of economic in service industries are from overseas.
development. Migrant workers face many problems:
Singapore’s population is descended from ● Many have to borrow heavily to travel to

migrants. Three-quarters are of Chinese origin; but Singapore, and remain in debt.
large numbers also came from Malaysia and India. ● The minimum wage does not apply to migrant

The official language is English, but many people workers.

speak Chinese, Malay or Tamil (an Indian language). ● Migrants may work long hours in poor

In informal contexts, many use Singlish, a local conditions.

form of English. In the 1960s Singapore suffered ● Many live in huge dormitories. One houses

race riots between the ethnic Chinese population; more than 16,000, with 12 to a room sleeping
however, ethnic relations are now generally good. in bunk beds.
The growth rate of the local population is now ● Work permits are often for short periods. It is

low. Many Singaporean businesses depend on difficult for migrants to save, acquire skills, or
migrant workers; more than one-third of those who build a stable lifestyle.
live in Singapore are permanent or short-term

15.3.3 Financial district and Marina Bay, Singapore.

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 The economy of Singapore
Manufacturing in Singapore
Manufacturing accounts for more than one-quarter
of Singapore’s GDP, and employs 20% of the labour
force. Among the most important manufacturing
industries are those making:
● pharmaceuticals and medical products

● petrochemicals and oil refinery products

● oil rigs

● aircraft parts and equipment

● semiconductors and electronics.

Agriculture in Singapore
Because of its limited land area, Singapore has a small
agricultural sector. There are around 5,000 farms and
most of them are around one hectare in size. They
produce fruits, vegetables, eggs, poultry, and pork for
the local market. Some of the most profitable farms
grow orchids for export to Japan, Australia, and the
15.3.4 Migrant workers endure crowded conditions. US. Almost all of the food consumed in Singapore is
imported. Food industries in Singapore process
The World Bank ranks Singapore as the world’s imported products for the local market.
easiest country with which to do business. Neighbouring Malaysia and Indonesia have
According to Transparency International, an important fishing industries. Some of their fish
independent agency, it is one of the least corrupt catch is processed in Singapore.
countries.
Singapore has been successful in many different Food processing in Singapore
areas of activity:
● It has the world’s second largest container port,

after Shanghai in China. Kingston in Jamaica

ranks 79th.
● Singapore’s main airport is sixth in the world

for international passenger traffic. Singapore

Airlines ranks tenth in number of international
passengers carried.
● Singapore is a leading centre for banking and

finance.
● Health and education are well developed. There

are 80,000 international students. More than

200,000 patients visit Singapore each year to
seek medical care. The money they spend helps
develop the economy.
● Singapore has no oil or natural gas resources,

but it is a world leader in construction of oil

rigs. Its location has also helped make it a major
centre for oil refining.
15.3.5 Range of products from Tee Yih Jia.
● Singapore is a leading exporter of computers,

integrated circuits, and electronic equipment.

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 Food processing in Singapore is less significant than Malaysia, China and the US. More than 90% of
knowledge-based manufacturing: its production is exported.
● Almost 10% of manufacturing establishments ● Super Coffeemix produces instant beverages
are involved in food processing. However, most and convenience foods. It has factories in
are relatively small. Overall, they employ only Singapore, Malaysia, China, Myanmar, and
7% of the manufacturing labour force. Thailand, making 300 products and exporting
● The value of food products is less than that of to 52 countries.
high-technology industries. Food processing ● Unicurd produces and exports soya products
makes up only 3% of manufacturing output. such as tofu.
● Wages in food processing are one-quarter below ● Thong Seik produces surumi fish products, such
the average for manufacturing. Workers in as crab-flavoured sticks, mushroom seafood
pharmaceuticals and petrochemicals earn twice balls, and breaded fish fingers.
the average. Oil refinery workers earn three
times the average.
● Most Singaporean workers do not want to work

in food processing. The industry employs mainly

short-term migrant workers.

Among the food-processing operations are:

● bakeries

● dairy processors and ice-cream producers

● noodle and pasta manufacturers

● producers of soybean products and sauces

● manufacturers of snack foods

● factories making products from surumi fish or

meat paste, such as imitation crab meat.

Food processing in Singapore shares many problems

with food industries in the Caribbean. Many
businesses are small and family run. They lack the
expertise to develop products for international
markets.
The government plans to improve skills training.
It encourages the development of new high-value
convenience and health-oriented products. The Food
Innovation Resource Centre provides technical
advice on product development, packaging, and
marketing. The Tasty Singapore initiative promotes
food products internationally.
15.3.6 The modern face of Singapore business.
Some food-processing businesses
● There are some large and successful food- Quick research
processing businesses. Many are located in the
1 Use the Internet and social media to research
Senoko industrial estate, which has excellent
a food-processing company in Singapore.
port facilities, an electricity-generating station, Compare it with a food manufacturer in your
and good access to all parts of Singapore. These country. Use these headings:
are some examples: a) Products
● Tee Yih Jia produces convenience foods such as b) Size of operation
frozen spring roll pastry, samosas, ramen, and c) Exports.
Asian pizzas. It has factories in Singapore,

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 15.4 A Caribbean economy:
Jamaica
Key ideas ● Caribbean economies use a variety of natural resources.
● The importance of economic sectors and resources changes over time.
● Each sector creates employment, foreign exchange earnings, and government revenue.

G Jamaica’s natural resources Additional resources remain to be discovered. For

All Caribbean countries have a variety of natural example, exploration is in progress for offshore oil
resources that can be used for economic and social and natural gas.
development. Jamaica’s natural resources include:
● The climate: The country has a warm climate
Stages in development
with sufficient rain for agriculture. The way in which Jamaica’s resources have shaped its
● The soil: Some deep soils on flat land hold
economic development has changed over the past
moisture and nutrients well, but other soils are centuries. From 350 years ago until the mid-twentieth
thin, dry, or infertile. century, the economy of Jamaica was based on
● Minerals: Bauxite is mined and some of it is
plantation agriculture. Export crops such as sugar,
processed to make alumina. Limestone and coffee, and citrus provided most of the export earnings.
gypsum are used to make cement, stone, and Wages for the working population were low.
sand for construction. From the mid-twentieth century, other sectors
● Scenery: White-sand beaches, mountains, and
of the economy began to develop:
● Bauxite: Initially developed by US and Canadian
rivers attract tourists and improve the quality of
life for Jamaicans. companies, bauxite provided few jobs but a high
● Forests: These are not used for large-scale timber
proportion of export earnings. It created wealth,
extraction. However, they help preserve wildlife, which stimulated economic development.
● Manufacturing: Manufacturing developed after
soil and water resources, and provide a recreational
environment for Jamaicans and tourists. the mid-1950s. There were import-substitution
industries such as food processing as well as
cement, enclave industries such as garments,
and industries such as alumina plants which
processed local raw materials for export.

15.4.1 The beach and hotels in Ocho Rios, Jamaica.

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 ● Tourism: Large-scale tourism developed after ● Other services: A broader-based economy has
the mid-1950s. Hotels, restaurants, and other encouraged the growth of government services
services provided jobs, and paid taxes. such as education and private sector businesses
such as banking and insurance.

Which sectors are most significant?

% of employment % of economic output
Agriculture 18.5% Agriculture 7% Bauxite and mining 1.5%
Other services 40%
Manufacturing 10%

Bauxite and mining 0.5%

Construction 7.5%
Manufacturing 6%
Other
Construction 7% services 48%

Retail and
Retail and wholesale 20% wholesale 21%

Hotels and Some sectors of the economy provide most jobs.

restaurants 8% Some increase economic output. Hotels and restaurants 5%
Some provide most foreign exchange.

15.4.2 Pie charts showing contributions to employment and economic output in 2014.

The government
When the economy is prosperous, the government receives more tax revenue
to spend on services such as health care, education, and national security, and
on infrastructures such as roads and water supply. These contribute to public
welfare and economic development.

Migration
Development of manufacturing and services in the mid-twentieth century
stimulated the growth of Kingston, as people migrated from rural to urban
areas in search of jobs.
Since the mid-twentieth century, there has been large-scale overseas
migration from Jamaica to Britain, North America, and elsewhere. Migrants
send earnings home to their families as remittances, which are now a pillar of
the Jamaican economy.

15.4.3 Manufacturing and

service industries at
Montego Bay.

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 Industries linked to growing sugar cane.
Which are forward linkages? Bakery Supermarket
Oil refinery Which are backward linkages?
(fuel)
Growing Drinks and
Sugar factory Hotel
Sugar Cane Juices
Port
(fertiliser imports)

Ice cream Restaurant

Agriculture
Linkages
Fishing Industries are linked together as they
develop.
Hotel
School Hotel ● With forward linkages, one industry

Construction
provides a raw material or input for
company another.
● With backward linkages, one industry
Airport
provides a market for another.

15.4.4 Forward and backward linkages.

Foreign trade
Every country imports goods such as oil, food, and
clothing, and pays for overseas services such as air
travel or university education. To pay for the imports Earnings from...
it needs, Jamaica exports goods such as alumina, Bauxite,

Goods exports 23%

Other earnings 9%
alumina 9%
provides services such as tourism, and receives Sugar 1%
migrant remittances.
Other 13%

The future
Jamaica’s economy has not expanded as rapidly as Remittances
(inflows) 31%
some others, such as Singapore, over the past 50
years. Answers are needed to questions such as
Tourism 29%
these:
● How can Jamaica attract additional tourists? Other services 8%

● Can the bauxite industry survive and expand?

Imports
● Are there new energy resources offshore?
Other 7% Food 10%
● Can new and successful manufacturing and
Remittances
service industries be developed? (outflows) 3%
Goods imports 65%

● Can traditional crops such as sugar be

profitable? Other Oil 23%

● Can new forms of agriculture be developed? services 23%

● What can be done to improve living conditions,

raise the standard of public health and

education, and reduce the rate of violent crime? Tourism 2% Other 32%
● What can be done to encourage locally based

and foreign investment?

● Can Jamaica cut the cost of imported energy 15.4.5 Pie charts showing Jamaica’s foreign trade, 2013.
and also reduce its carbon emissions?

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 15.4.7 Alcan Kirkvine aluminium works Mandeville Jamaica.

15.4.6 Port development at Kingston: foreign exchange is

needed to pay for imports.

Quick questions
1 What natural resources were most important for
Jamaica:
a) before the mid-twentieth century?
b) after the mid-twentieth century?
2 Which two economic sectors are most important
in Jamaica for:
a) creating employment?
b) increasing economic output?
c) earning foreign exchange? 15.4.8 Food and beverage processing: production of Lishous
drinks by GK Foods & Services Limited (Grace Foods
Processors, Canning Division, Jamaica).
Quick research
3 Draw a diagram to show how some of the
economic activities in your country are linked
to tourism. You may improve your diagram by
Discussion points
naming specific businesses.
4 Compare the economic development of any 5 If Jamaica discovered offshore oil, how would
other Caribbean country with that of Jamaica, this affect:
under these headings: a) employment?
a) Natural resources b) export earnings?
b) Traditional agriculture c) imports?
c) The main economic sectors today d) government revenue?
d) Migration 6 Do any economic sectors in your country face
e) Exports and imports. difficulties? How can these be resolved?

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 15.5 Environmental degradation

Key ideas ● Human activity can damage the environment.

● Careful management can promote sustainable development.

Sustainable development Pollution

Look again at Section 12.2. Sustainable development “A substance which causes an undesirable change in
meets the needs of the present, while protecting the the physical, chemical or biological environment.
environment and its renewable resources for future Although there are some natural pollutants, such as
generations. It also takes social development into volcanoes, pollution generally occurs because of
account. human activity.”
Unfortunately, some economic development is Oxford Dictionary of Geography
unsustainable. Wealth is created for a short period,
but at great environmental and social cost. When a Pollution may affect:
renewable resource is damaged or a non-renewable ● the atmosphere – this is air pollution
resource is depleted, the consequences may be ● rivers, seas, lakes and groundwater – this is
disastrous. water pollution
We have already looked at some examples of ● rocks and the soil – this is land pollution.
environmental degradation and of how the
environment can be protected by good management: No part of the world is free from pollution. In the
● Sections 5.6, 5.7, and 5.8 describe the Arctic and Antarctic the air appears clear; but there
importance of coral reefs and mangroves, and are traces of industrial chemicals in the atmosphere
suggest how the coastal environment can be and in falling snow. Production of carbon dioxide
protected. and greenhouse gases is a form of air pollution,
● Section 14.5 describes how tourism can be which has worldwide effects.
developed in ways that promote sustainability.
● On a larger scale, Chapter 7 describes how Dust
human activities are changing the world’s Dust particles cause pollution, which is unpleasant
climate, and we can deal with climate change but localized. Quarries and construction sites produce
through mitigation and adaptation. dust, and so do some factories. Dust pollution may
● Sections 8.3, 8.4, and 8.5 show how clearing
cause breathing difficulties or other health problems.
forests for agriculture and other purposes can Ash may also be a nuisance where sugar cane is
cause environmental damage; and how this burned before harvesting, and close to sugar factories.
damage can be limited by good land Some sources of dust can be controlled. Older
management. cement plants produced clouds of choking dust, but
● Section 12.5 outlines the need for sustainable
in modern plants, such as those in Trinidad,
use of forest resources in Guyana. Barbados, and Jamaica, electrostatic precipitators and
● Section 11.6 describes how urban development
filters remove dust. Where limestone is quarried to
has led to pollution problems in Kingtson make cement, covered conveyor belts can reduce
Harbour, and how these problems can be dust pollution.
controlled.
● Section 12.4 outlines the need for sustainable The ozone layer
use of marine resources in Belize. Some dangerous forms of pollution cannot be seen
or smelled. They can be detected only with scientific
instruments, but may have worldwide effects.

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 15.5.1 Pedestrians wearing face masks walk on a street in heavy smog in Beijing, China

In the upper atmosphere, from 15 to 30 kilometres levels by around 2050. International action of this
above the Earth’s surface, sunlight reacts with sort is now needed to deal with the problem of
oxygen to produce small amounts of ozone (O3), climate change.
which screens out harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are industrial Urban smog
chemicals formerly used to make foam, in aerosol Ozone in the lower atmosphere is not protective,
sprays, and in air-conditioning and refrigeration but produces pollution. It can cause asthma attacks
equipment. When they are released, they rise into and breathing difficulties, and may damage plants,
the upper atmosphere, and start a chemical process paint, and plastics. Vehicle exhausts react with
that breaks down the protective ozone layer. sunlight to trigger chemical reactions that produce
The world’s wind system concentrates CFCs in ozone.
the Arctic and Antarctic. From the 1980s, scientists Where there is ozone pollution, a “heat haze”
detected a loss of ozone in polar regions. There was or “smog” reduces visibility. The sky appears white,
an increase in ultraviolet radiation, with an not blue. Mexico City has still air, is surrounded by
increased risk of skin cancer and harmful effects on mountains, and suffers serious air pollution; so do
crops and marine life. Beijing and other Chinese cities. Caribbean cities,
Under the Montreal Protocol, signed in 1987, such as Kingston or Port au Prince, are also affected.
the main developed countries agreed to end Smog can be reduced by lower fuel
production of CFCs. However, some is still released consumption, improved vehicle design and
as old refrigerators and cooling systems are phased maintenance, and by using reformulated gasoline
out. Over time, these emissions will be reduced and that contains additives such as ethanol.
the ozone layer is expected to return to normal

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 Risks linked to oil extraction
Oil and gas supply 60% of the world’s energy.
Dependence on these fuels creates problems:
● Burning oil and gas releases carbon dioxide,

contributing to climate change.

● Energy imports are costly. Oil made up 36% of Deepwater
Horizon
Jamaica’s imports in 2013.
● Oil and gas are non-renewable resources, and
Gulf of Mexico
will eventually run out.
● Oil production, transport, and use can lead to Key
Area closed to fishing
water, land, and air pollution. Area covered with oil
16–18 weeks 1–3 weeks

Geologists search for oil in the Arctic, in Coastline affected

0 100 km
Light oiling Heavy oiling
rainforests, and at sea. A single well, drilled in
waters 3,500 metres deep in the Gulf of Mexico in 15.5.2 The Deepwater Horizon oil spill.
2009, discovered four times the total oil reserves
of Trinidad and Tobago. However, deep-sea oil
production creates risks as well as rewards.

The Gulf of Mexico oil spill

On 20 April 2010 a burst of methane gas escaped,
caught fire and exploded beneath the Deepwater
Horizon oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico, 65
kilometres from the Mississippi Delta. Eleven of the
126 workers on the rig were killed. The others
escaped by lifeboat and helicopter. The charred
remains of the rig sank 36 hours later.
The rig had drilled an exploration well in water
1,500 metres deep, and found oil at a depth of
10.6 kilometres.
Before the flow of oil and gas was stopped 87
days later, 4.9 million barrels of oil had poured into
the sea. The daily flow was equivalent to two-thirds
of the oil production of Trinidad and Tobago.
Oil spread on the surface of the sea, reaching the
Louisiana coast on 1 June. More than 500 kilometres
of shoreline were affected. Some of the chemicals
used to disperse the oil were themselves toxic.
Workers employed in the clean-up reported health 15.5.3 The fire on the rig.
problems.
Thick deposits and droplets of oil killed plants,
birds, turtles, dolphins, and other mammals. Fish
and other wildlife developed sores and deformities. Damage to wildlife continued for many years.
At one point, fishing was banned in an area of Five years after the disaster, much of the oil
225,000 km2 – slightly larger than Guyana. remained in the Gulf, some at great depths. The
Tourists stayed away from beach resorts on the effects of oil and gas in the marine environment are
Gulf of Mexico, concerned about oil pollution. complex and not fully understood.

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 The financial cost
● The disaster had an enormous financial cost:
● The cost of the lost rig and lost oil was more
than US$800 million.
● The market value of BP fell by more than
US$60 billion in the year after the disaster.
● BP pleaded guilty to causing the deaths of 11
workers, and was fined US$4 billion.
● Some company staff were charged with
obstruction of justice and lying to investigators.
● BP in 2015 agreed a payment of US$18.7
billion to settle environmental claims. For
comparison, the entire annual output of the
Jamaican economy at this time was US$14
billion.

Are other countries at risk? 15.5.4 An oily seabird being wiped down after the spill.
Oil spills can occur on land as well as at sea. More
than 2,000 major oil spills in the Niger Delta have
polluted land and rivers.
Two oil tankers, the Atlantic Empress and Aegean
Captain, collided in July 1979, 16 kilometres from
Trinidad and Tobago. This caused the world’s
fifth-largest oil spill. Fortunately, the resulting oil
slick never reached land. Much of the oil burned
or evaporated.

Quick research
1 Are there any areas in your country where
localized air pollution is a problem? Describe
the problem, and draw a location map to
illustrate your answer.
15.5.5 A team of environmentalists clean up an oil spill,
Huntington beach, California.
Discussion points
2 What should be done to control air pollution: The World’s largest oil spills
a) on a national or local scale? Where When Cause Barrels of oil
b) on a worldwide scale? (million)
3 What impact would a major oil spill have on your Kuwait 1991 Gulf war 1,000–1,500
country? California 1910–11 Oil well 9
4 What can be done to reduce the risk of oil onshore
spills? Were all possible steps taken to prevent
Gulf of 2010 Oil well 4.9
the Deepwater Horizon disaster?
Mexico offshore
5 What are the benefits and dangers of offshore
(USA)
oil extraction?
Gulf of 1979– Oil well 3.5
Mexico 80 offshore
(Mexico)
Trinidad & 1979 Tanker 2.1
Tobago collision & fire

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 15.6 Location factors: review

Location factors for manufacturing

● Raw materials: Industries may be located close ● Transport: All manufacturing industries need
to bulky or perishable raw materials. good transport links.
– Sugar factories: Sugar factories are located – They must be close to good roads.
where sugar cane is grown; see Figure 13.3.1. – Ports and airports should be nearby.
Sugar cane is perishable, so it must be – Heavy industries such as cement or oil
processed quickly after harvesting. Sugar cane refining are often located at ports.
is bulky; around 10 tonnes of cane are ● Energy: All industries need a reliable electricity
needed to make a tonne of sugar. supply at a reasonable cost.
– Alumina plants: More than half of the – Some industries process energy products,
bauxite is discarded in waste products. It is such as oil refining or liquefied natural gas.
cheaper to transport alumina than bauxite. – Aluminium smelters use large quantities of
Most alumina plants are located close to energy. They must be close to a low-cost
bauxite mines; see Figure 12.6.5. energy source.
● Markets: Industries with bulky or perishable ● Relief: Most factories are built on flat land.
products may be located close to markets. ● Government support: Some industries are
– Bakeries: Bread must be eaten within days of assisted by government support.
baking, so it is baked close to the market. – Industrial estates: Governments build
There are bakeries in all Caribbean countries. industrial estates with factories, roads,
Most are near towns and cities; see power supply, and other services for
Figure 15.2.1. manufacturing industry.
– Soft drinks: To reduce transport costs, these – Economic support: Governments may
are often produced close to the market. Most provide low-interest loans and tax
Caribbean countries have bottling plants. concessions, often through organizations
● Labour: Skilled or low-cost labour is the main such as the Barbados Investment and
locational requirement for some industries. Development Corporation.
– Garment manufacturing: Garment – Protection: Duties and controls may give
manufacturing grew in the Caribbean until protection against imports, but this is less
the mid-1990s because labour costs were low. widespread than in the past.
Today, garment industries have moved to
countries such as China and Bangladesh,
where wages are lower than in the Caribbean.
– Fashion design: This requires specialized
skills and international contacts rather than
low-wage labour. New York, Paris, London,
and Tokyo are world centres for fashion
design.
– Marketing and organization: These also
require high-level skills and contacts. Many
large manufacturing and financial companies
have their headquarters in cities such as
New York, Singapore, and São Paulo.
15.6.1 An industrial estate near Arima in Trinidad. Why
is this a good location for manufacturing?

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 Manufacturing in Trinidad and Jamaica
North Coast – rough seas

Northern Range

Port of Spain Arima

West Coast - calm seas

East Coast – rough seas

Piarco International
Key Airport
High population density
and scattered industries
Gas pipelines
Point Lisas
Major highways Point Lisas Industrial Estate
Ports Cement Plant
Claxton Bay
Heavy industries Pointe à Pierre Oil Refinery
Urban areas San Fernando

Point Fortin Liquefied Natural Gas

0 25 km

15.6.2 Heavy industries in Trinidad.

1 How is the location of industry in Trinidad

Industrial influenced by:
estate Bakery a) energy resources?
Po Paint Limestone b) access to overseas markets?
rt
Oil quarry c) labour?
refinery Flour
Cement
mill
plant
d) relief?
2 What factors have influenced the location of
Jetty Jetty
the industries shown in the map of
Kingston, Jamaica?
Airport 0 2 km

15.6.3 Industries in Kingston, Jamaica.

Location factors for tourism Location factors for agriculture

Natural attractions Climate, beaches, forests, Natural Climate (temperature, rainfall,
wildlife environment etc) Climate hazards (hurricanes,
Other attractions Culture, music, food, sports floods drought, etc.) Soil, relief,
facilities water supply, drainage
Social environment Safe, friendly, low crime rate Human Land ownership
Transport facilities Airports, ports, marinas, roads environment Size of farms
Other tourist Hotels, restaurants, Labour supply, skills, costs
facilities entertainment Technology

Infrastructures Electricity, water supply Economic Markets – local and overseas

environment Prices
Labour force Labour supply, skills, costs
Investment
Markets North America, Europe,
Government Farm roads and transport
regional, local
assistance Training and technical advice.
Government Tax concessions, staff training, Market and price support.
assistance roads Loans and tax concessions.

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 15.7 Trends and challenges: review
Globalization Sustainability
Look again at Section 12.2. Globalization has Look again at the definition of sustainable
advantages and disadvantages for the Caribbean. development in Section 12.2.
Advantages Disadvantages Sustainable Examples
High-quality Imports compete with development
imports available to local businesses issues
consumers Use of non- Oil, natural gas, bauxite
Export opportunities Caribbean exports must renewable mining.
for goods and compete with China, India resources
services in world markets Over-exploitation Over-fishing
More international Competition from other of resources Soil erosion
tourism worldwide destinations Deforestation
Foreign investment Overseas companies Pollution Oil spills
develops Caribbean compete with local Chlorofluorocarbons,
industries businesses ozone layer
International rules Caribbean countries must Mercury pollution
on e.g. environment, abide by rules Climate change Rising sea levels
copyright financial Global warming
crime Increased floods, droughts
Worldwide disaster
assistance

Technology
New technology has influenced every type of Agriculture
economic activity. Fertilizers and pesticides
New plant varieties
Communications and information technology Improved transport and storage
Internet Farm machinery
Email and social media
Low-cost international telephone calls Travel
Multi-channel cable and satellite TV Larger international aircraft
Low-cost computers Mega cruise ships
Reduced cost of travel
Manufacturing
Automation – fewer workers for the same output Energy production
Improved control of quality Drilling for oil in deep water
New products Solar panels
Larger-scale production Geothermal energy
Old machinery becomes obsolete

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 Trading blocs and market challenges Cariforum
Traditional agricultural and manufacturing products Members: Caricom members and Dominican Republic
can no longer rely on protected markets. See Sections Established: 1992
13.1 and 15.1. Regional blocs and worldwide treaties Purpose: Negotiates and administers trade
provide a new trading environment. agreements between Caribbean and EU.
Caricom
The European Union (EU)
Members: The 12 independent countries of the
English-speaking Caribbean, plus Montserrat, Members: 27 European countries (includes
Suriname and Haiti French overseas departments of Guadeloupe,
Associates: Five UK overseas territories (Anguilla, Guyane, Martinique)
Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Established: 1957 (Treaty of Rome)
Turks and Caicos Islands) Headquarters: Brussels, Luxembourg, Strasbourg
Headquarters: Georgetown, Guyana Importance for Caribbean:
Established: 1973 (Treaty of Chaguaramas) Economic Partnership Agreement: Signed in
Aims: Promoting trade, economic development, 2008. Provides duty-free access for Caribbean
functional co-operation, and links between exports to EU and most exports of services.
Caribbean nations Development assistance: Grants and technical
Institutions: Caribbean Development Bank; support for Caricom and regional governments
Caribbean Examinations Council; Caribbean Now phased out: In the past, privileged access to
Meteorological Organization; Caribbean EU for Caribbean sugar, rice, rum, bananas.
Community Climate Change Centre; etc. Guaranteed price for sugar.

Caricom Single Market and Economy In the wider region

Members: Caricom members except Suriname, Association of Caribbean States: 25 states,
Haiti, and the Bahamas including Spanish-speaking mainland countries.
Established: 2006 Headquarters in Port of Spain. Promotes trade
Headquarters: Georgetown, Guyana and co-operation.
Aims: A single market with no barriers to North American Free Trade Agreement: Promotes
regional trade; right of establishment for free trade and investment between USA, Canada
Caribbean businesses anywhere in the region; and Mexico
free movement of capital; free movement of CaribCan: Duty-free access for Caribbean exports
labour, initially for certain groups and skills to Canada. Promotes investment and co-operation.
(e.g. University of West Indies graduates, media Negotiations for new agreement in progress in 2015.
workers). The Caribbean Court of Justice rules on Caribbean Basin Initiative: Has provided duty-
disputes relating to the single market. free access for some exports to USA from wider
Caribbean
Organization of Eastern Caribbean States PetroCaribe: Venezuelan oil products imported
on preferential terms; finance for development
Members: Antigua-Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, projects.
Montserrat, St Kitts-Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent
and the Grenadines Worldwide
Associates: Anguilla, British Virgin Islands
Established: 1981 (Treaty of Basseterre) International Monetary Fund and World Bank:
Headquarters: Georgetown, Guyana 188 countries (includes all Caribbean except
Aims: Promotes economic integration, co- Cuba). Promote economic co-operation and
operation and unity development assistance.
Institutions: Eastern Caribbean Central Bank; World Trade Organization: 161 countries (includes
common currency (EC dollar); Eastern Caribbean all Caricom except Bahamas). Negotiates removal
Supreme Court and judicial system; Eastern of trade barriers. Supervises trade agreements.
Caribbean Telecommunications Authority, etc.

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 16.1 Satellites and maps

● Bare soil and rocks look blue, yellow, or brown,

depending on what they are made of and how
wet they are.

Satellite images showing clouds and weather systems

are used in television weather reports.
Figure 6.1.1 is a satellite picture showing
Hurricanes Ivan and Frances on 5 September 2004. The
individual Caribbean islands look small. A large area is
covered, to show the development of weather systems
several hundred kilometres across. We say that the scale
is much smaller than with the Landsat picture.
Using satellite photographs
1 Find a map of the Bahamas in your atlas.
a) What is the name of the island in this picture?
b) How long is the island?
c) What is the name of the island that can be
seen in the top right-hand corner of the
picture?
2 Make a sketch map of the island and the sea
around it. Do not show the clouds. Show:
a) the coastline
16.1.1 A satellite photograph of the Bahamas Platform.
b) an area of deep, clear water
G c) an area where the water is shallow or
Figure 16.1.1 is a satellite picture of an island in the contains sand and sediment
Bahamas. It was made using information from a d) the areas where there is most vegetation
satellite called Landsat. Satellites may record visible e) an approximate scale, to show the size of the
light, infrared, ultraviolet, and microwave radiation. island
They transmit electronic messages about what they f) the names of any places you can identify.
3 List what you have learned about the island
“see” back to earth. Computers use these messages
from the satellite picture, and what you have
to produce a picture we can understand. Satellite
learned from your atlas.
images such as Figure 16.1.1 use false colour to
4 Say whether an atlas or satellite picture would
pick out features of interest. (Other images, such as be most useful for each of these purposes:
Figure 11.4.1, use true colour as a human observer a) Locating a town with a big sports competition
might see it.) b) Measuring the distance to a city overseas
● Vegetation looks red.
where you have friends or relatives
● Healthy vegetation that is growing well looks c) Estimating the size of an area where crops
deep red. Less healthy plants are paler. have been damaged by a drought
● Clear, deep water is dark blue or black. d) Finding out about a country where you have
● Water containing sand or sediment, or which is a penfriend
shallow, is pale blue. So is swampy wetland. e) Finding out how much new construction has
● Buildings and roads look blue-grey. taken place around a large city over a two-
● Beach sand looks white. year period.

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 The Global Positioning System

16.1.2 A Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite in orbit.

The GPS was developed for military purposes,

but since the 1990s has been open to all users, for
purposes such as these:
● Cars, ships, aircraft, and hikers can track their

changing position as they travel.

● A GPS receiver can carry mapping information, so

the user can plan a route or find nearby services.

● Map-making and surveying are faster and more

accurate. Surveyors use GPS receivers with

accuracy of a few centimetres.
● After a natural disaster, exact locations where help

is needed or facilities damaged can be pinpointed.

16.1.3 A GPS receiver in use.
● Locations identified from satellite data can be

visited and checked on the ground.

● Direct earthquake movement can be measured

The satellite-based Global Positioning System or GPS along a fault line.

can provide exact location information anywhere on ● Natural features such as rivers, beaches, and

Earth. volcanoes can be mapped to show recent changes.

The US government maintains 31 GPS satellites ● Birds, fish and animals can be tracked for

in orbit more than 20,000 kilometres above the wildlife studies.

Earth, which send out signals showing their exact ● Land ownership can be identified and crops

time and position. From most points on Earth there mapped.

is a direct “line of sight” to at least six of these ● Cars, computers, and other devices can be traced

satellites at any time. A GPS receiver measures the if they are stolen or misplaced. Lost pets with a
distance to at least four satellites, to calculate its GPS collar can also be tracked.
own exact position and height above sea level, ● Cameras can apply exact coordinates to

usually with an accuracy of around 10 metres. photographs when they are taken.

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 Geographic Information Systems
Many sources of information may be used, such as:
● printed maps

● air photographs

● satellite images

● data already recorded, for example by rain

gauges or a national population census

● data newly collected on the ground, with GPS

coordinates.

A GIS may be used to produce a map, such as:

● a general topographic map, showing the main

features in an area
● a rainfall map

● a population map

● a road map

● a map showing pollution and waste disposal

● a map of areas at risk from flooding

● a map showing primary and secondary schools.

16.1.4 A land-use map of Trinidad, prepared with a

Geographic Information System. Using a GIS, a map can be:
● produced for a special purpose, for example

with traffic information

A Geographic Information System (GIS) stores and ● updated quickly to show new developments
organizes geographical data in a digital form.
such as roads
A GIS may record the location of: ● transmitted as an email attachment
● buildings, such as houses, schools, and factories.
● stored on a CD.
These may be recorded as points
● linear features or polylines, such as roads,
Data may also be shown in other ways. For example,
rivers, and coastlines
the relief of the land may be shown by:
● areal features, such as forests, agricultural crops,
● a contour map
and land ownership. These are recorded as ● cross sections
polygons. In contrast to those used in geometry, ● a three-dimensional representation.
GIS polygons need not have straight edges.
“We are using the technology to track the traps
Almost any type of information may be stored in a
where the fruit flies are. This laptop is showing
GIS, for example:
an animation of all the traps. If it’s white, there
● place names
are no flies, if it’s green the infestation is going
● height above sea level
up, if it’s red the trap has a high infestation and
● rainfall
the area needs to be sprayed.”
● soil type
Citrus grower using GIS for pest control in Belize
● population

● crops grown

● flow of traffic per hour on a road

● the location of utility poles.

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 The Jamaican iMap
● A route planner allows the user to plan a
journey in many countries, such as the USA,
Barbados, and Jamaica.
● There is a search menu in the top left of the
image and an explore button that shows
photographs of places of interest.
● In countries that have been covered by ground
survey vehicles equipped with GPS receivers,
cameras and lasers, street view is available.
Moving a “pegman” icon to the point required
gives a ground-level view.
● Businesses and other organizations can enter
their location, using Google My Business.
16.1.5 A large area of central Jamaica shown at a small scale
on the iMap. You can zoom in to see small areas in Google Maps covers many worldwide locations. The
detail by using the scale bar on the left.
images used are updated from time to time, but
they are not immediately current. Unfortunately,
there are also some errors; for example, the street
The National Land Agency in Jamaica has used GIS
grid may be shown a few metres away from its
to develop an interactive map, the iMap, which is
actual position, and some names are wrongly
based on satellite images. The user can:
● view the whole island at a scale of 1:1 000 000
spelled or located. Errors can be reported so that
they can be corrected.
(see Section 16.5 for map scales)
● view smaller areas, down to a scale of 1:1,000,
There are other satellite map systems such as
Bing, but most have been slower to develop detailed
where individual buildings can be clearly seen
● select an area using a grid reference (see Section
Caribbean coverage.
16.6).

The Jamaican iMap shows:

● place names, including streets
16.1.6 Google maps: zoom control, pegman and scale.
● public services, such as schools
● some businesses

● hotels and tourist attractions

● property boundaries and information on each

parcel of land
● contours, showing the height of the land above

sea level (see Section 16.8).

Google Maps
Google Maps is a web-based mapping service that
provides coverage of most land areas, with maps,
satellite images, and aerial photographs.
● A control on the right of the image allows you to

zoom in from a worldwide map to a local scale

16.1.7 Castries, St Lucia: satellite view.
where objects a few metres across can be seen.
● In Google Earth view, roads and place names

are added to a satellite image.

● In map view, roads and place names are shown

against a plain background.

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 Research
1 Find your home or school on Google Maps,
using Earth view. Zoom in to the largest possible
scale; usually the scale bar will read 20 m (or 100
feet). Make a sketch map showing the location.
You should include roads, buildings, and a linear
scale.
2 Find the same area on a printed topographic
map at a scale such as 1:25 000. Make a sketch
map to show the features that have changed
since the topographic map was prepared.
3 Find a nearby area with hilly relief. Switch into
16.1.8 Castries, St Lucia: map view. map view, which shows the terrain. Make a
sketch map to show the contour patterns.

Discussion points
4 Before and during a vacation in another
country, what use could be made of:
a) Google Maps?
b) The Global Positioning System?
5 For relief and reconstruction after a natural
disaster, what use could be made of:
a) The Global Positioning System?
b) Geographic Information Systems?
c) Google Maps or Jamaica’s iMap?
16.1.9 Castries, St Lucia: terrain view. d) Satellite images taken after the disaster?

Google Maps exercises

Google Maps and similar websites can bring
landscapes to life. You can see natural and human
features, at close up and in a more distant view, in
the Caribbean and other regions of the world.

Where you see this mark in the margin of the

text, look on the CD that accompanies this book for
an exercise based on use of Google Maps.

G
16.1.10 Google maps street view: Boon Tat Street in
Singapore’s Downtown Core.

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 16.2 Latitude and longitude

Lines of latitude and longitude can be used to ● Degrees, minutes, and seconds of longitude vary
pinpoint the location of any place on the Earth. in length, depending on their distance from the
● The Equator is a line of latitude – latitude 0°. poles.
● The other lines of latitude are all parallel to the

Equator. Atlases have an index at the back. In most atlases,

● The North Pole is at latitude 90° north. The the index will tell you the exact location of the
South Pole is at latitude 90° south. place you need to find in degrees and minutes of
● The lines of longitude are not parallel to each latitude and longitude. The latitude is given first,
other. They meet at the poles. then the longitude.
● The line of longitude that runs through the old

Royal Observatory at Greenwich in England is Atlas work exercise

referred to as the Prime Meridian. It is at 1 Use the index in your atlas to find the latitude
longitude 0°. It was chosen for historical reasons. and longitude of:
● The other lines of longitude run up to 180° east
a) Kingston, Jamaica b) Roseau, Dominica
or west of this line. c) London, UK d) Lagos, Nigeria
● Each degree of latitude and longitude is divided e) New Delhi, India f) Tokyo, Japan.
into sixty minutes (60′); and each minute is 2 Mark each place on a blank world map.
divided into sixty seconds (60″).
● A degree of latitude measures 111 kilometres. A

minute measures 1.8 kilometres; and a second

measures 31 metres.

North pole
80°N 66.5°N
Arctic Circle
(Greenwich) Meridian

60°N

40°N
23.5°N
Tropic of Cancer 60°W 40°W 20°W 0° 20°E
20°N
Prime

Equator

20°S 23.5°S
Tropic of Capricorn
°
40 S

16.2.1 Lines of latitude … and longitude.

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 16.3 Time zones and maps

As the Earth rotates, the point where the sun is Kingston, Jamaica, is at 76° 47′ west. That
overhead moves from east to west. means that the sun is highest in the sky at 5 hours,
There are 360 degrees of longitude, and 24 hours 7 minutes and 8 seconds after midday Greenwich
in the day. Every hour, the point where the sun is Mean Time. Montego Bay is 1° 9′ further west. The
directly overhead moves 360 24
or 15° to the west. At this sun reaches its highest point 4 minutes and 36
place it is midday, local time. seconds later than at Kingston.
When we compare the time at different places, it Towns and villages do not set their clocks to the
is often convenient to use Greenwich Mean Time exact time when the sun is overhead. The world has
(GMT). Midday GMT is the time when the sun is been split into time zones. When travellers go from
highest in the sky at the old Royal Observatory at one zone to the next, watches must be adjusted by
Greenwich, near London – at exactly 0° of longitude. one hour. On long air journeys through several time
zones, a greater adjustment is needed.
At 12.00 midday Greenwich Mean Time, it is:
■ 12.00 midday at Accra, Ghana, and all points at 0° The air journey from London, Gatwick (0° 10′
■ 11.00 a.m. at Las Palmas in the Canaries and at all west) to Antigua (61° 45′ west) takes 8 hours and
points at 15° west 25 minutes. Local time in Antigua is four hours
■ 8.00 a.m. in Barbados and at all points at 60° west earlier than Greenwich Mean Time. If travellers leave
■ 6.00 a.m. at Merida, Mexico, and at all points at
London at 12.00 midday GMT, their arrival in
90° west.
Antigua will be at 8.25 p.m. GMT; but they should
In the eastern hemisphere, it is later in the day. It is:
■ 1 p.m. at Catania, Italy, and at all points at 15° east adjust their watches to read 4.25 p.m. local time.
■ 3.00 p.m. at Mogadishu, Somalia, and at all points Large countries are divided into several time
at 45° east zones. Russia has 11. When it is 6.00 a.m. GMT it is
■ 6.00 p.m. at Dakha, Bangladesh, and at all points 9.00 a.m. in Moscow, but it is already 6.00 p.m. in
at 90° east. the eastern part of Siberia.
16.3.1 Time zones.

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 Understanding time zones
Countries and time zones: Most countries are in one time zone. Countries that
extend a long way from east to west have several time zones, for example
Russia, Canada, and the USA.
China uses only one time zone, but extends more than 55° of longitude from
west to east. When the sun is overhead in western China, the clocks show 3 p.m.
Changing time zones: Countries close to the boundary between time zones can
move from one to the other. Guyana was in the time zone GMT–3 until 1990 and
moved to GMT–4 at the start of 1991.
Half-hour zones: Some time zones show a half-hour difference. Venezuela
changed its time zone in 2007, from GMT–4 to GMT–4.5.
Daylight saving time: North America, Europe, and most temperate countries
move one time zone to the east during the summer. Sunset is later, with an
extra hour of daylight in the evening. In the Caribbean, Cuba, the Bahamas, and
the Turks and Caicos Islands use daylight saving time.
UTC and GMT: These are abbreviations for standard time, which is used for
many purposes, such as international weather reports. UTC is Universal Co-
ordinated Time.
24-hour clock: You may find it easier to do time zone calculations using the
24-hour clock, which is used in many countries for travel timetables and other
purposes. After midday, 1 p.m. becomes 13.00, 2 p.m. becomes 14.00, etc.
International date line: This line runs through the Pacific Ocean, close to
longitude 180°. When it is Monday to the west of the date line, it is Sunday to
the east.

80°W 75°W 60°W

Florida
Texas
Ba

Atlantic Ocean
ha
m
as

Cuba
light saving
Day
Puerto
Rico
E
Mexico Jamaica
as

Belize
ter
nC
aribbean

saving
Daylight Curaçao Barbados

Panama
Key
Venezuela
GMT–3 –4
–4.5 –5
Colombia Guyana
–6 Pacific Ocean
Daylight saving time Suriname
Brazil
16.3.2 Time zones in the Caribbean.

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 Calculating local time Time zones exercises
You may need to calculate the difference in local 1 Use your atlas to find these places. At midday
time for two places. It can be done like this: GMT, what is the local time at:
a) Baranquilla, Colombia? b) Denver, USA?
For places in the same hemisphere (east or west) c) New Orleans, USA? d) Manaus, Brazil?
e) Cook Islands, Pacific? f) Oran, Algeria?
Write the longitude of the first place, e.g. g) Alexandria, Egypt? h) Kobe, Japan?
Vancouver, Canada: 123°W 2 If it is 12.00 midday GMT, what is the time at:
Subtract the longitude of the second place, a) 45° W? b) 105° W?
e.g. Miami, USA: −80°W c) 75° E? d) 130° E?
3 If it is 12.00 midday at 60° W, what is the time at:
Write the difference between the two: 43°
a) 30° W? b) 120° W?
c) 15° E? d) 105° E?
Divide the result by 15°: 2.87
e) 0° longitude? f) 180° longitude?
Round off to the nearest whole number: 3 4 Look at Figure 16.3.2. When it is 12.00 midday
The difference is 3 hours. GMT, what is the local time in:
a) Paramaribo? b) Castries?
Miami is further east than Vancouver. c) Caracas? d) Kingston?
Local time must be three hours ahead. e) Belize City? f) Panama?
So when it is 9.00 a.m. in Vancouver, it is 5 If it is 12.00 midday in Kingston, what is the
12.00 midday in Miami. time in Miami:
a) in December, when Eastern Standard Time is
For places in different hemispheres in use?
b) in June, when Eastern Daylight Time is used?
6 Using the 24-hour clock, what are these times?
Write the longitude of the first place, e.g.
a) 2.30 p.m.? b) 11.30 p.m.?
Buenos Aires, Argentina: 58°W
c) 11.30 a.m.? d) 12.00 midnight?
Add the longitude of the second place,
7 The BBC transmits a World News broadcast from
e.g. Auckland, New Zealand: 173° E London (0° longitude) at 11.00 a.m. GMT. At what
Write the sum of the two: 231° time will this broadcast be seen in:
a) Barbados (59° 33’ W)? b) Jamaica (77° W)?
Divide the result by 15°: 15.4 c) Hong Kong (114° E)?
Round off to the nearest whole number: 15 8 A sports event takes place in Seoul, South Korea
The difference is 15 hours. at 12.00 midday, local time. What time will it be
seen on television in:
Auckland is in the eastern hemisphere. a) Trinidad and Tobago? b) Moscow?
Local time must be 15 hours ahead. c) Los Angeles?
So when it is 6.00 a.m. in Buenos Aires, it is Use your atlas to find the longitude of these
places.
9.00 p.m. in Auckland.
9 A relative is working for a short time in Sydney,
Australia. She is in her office from 9.00 a.m. to
5.00 p.m. If you want to telephone her at work,
what would be a convenient time to call, in your
local time?

Discussion point
10 Why do countries such as Canada and the USA
use daylight saving time? Why is it not used in
most of the Caribbean?

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 16.4 Aerial photographs and maps

16.4.1 An aerial photograph of Kingston Harbour.

Figure 16.4.1 is an aerial photograph of Kingston, ● To the north-west is the port.

Jamaica, and Kingston Harbour. The same area is ● To the north-east is Long Mountain. It is
shown overleaf on a map. reflecting light, so it looks white. A road zigzags
On the photograph, you can see the following: up the steep mountain slope.
● The pattern of roads and streets. In the downtown

area of the city, the roads run at right angles. Aerial photographs are used to prepare a map. A
● That in most of the city the road plan is ground survey also checks details, and a satellite-
irregular. The main road to the north from the based Global Positioning System can fix the latitude
downtown area makes a “Y”, with one branch and longitude of key locations.
running north-east and one to the north-west.
● That the still water in the harbour reflects light.
Aerial photograph exercise
It looks white. Make a sketch from the photograph, showing:
● South of the harbour is a spit of land, the a) the coastline
Palisadoes. Next to it is the airport runway. b) the airport
● To the south-east, the sea does not reflect the c) waves approaching the shore
d) three other features you can identify.
light. It is dark, and you can see the pattern of
waves approaching the shore.
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 16.4.2 A 1:50 000 map of Kingston, Jamaica.

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 16.5 Scale and symbols

Figure 16.5.2 is an extract from a small-scale atlas

map of the Caribbean. Kingston is shown by a
symbol, but it is not possible to find out much
about the city from a map like this.
Figure 16.5.3 is an extract from a small-scale map
of Kingston. The scale is 1:250 000; 1 cm on the map
represents 250 000 cm, or 2.5 km, on the ground. The
main roads and rivers are shown, but few other details.
Figure 16.4.2 is a large-scale map of Kingston.
Figure 16.5.1 is part of the key to this map, and a
linear scale is shown in Figure 16.7.1. The scale is
1:50 000. One cm on the map represents 50 000 cm,
or 0.5 km on the ground; 2 cm represent 1 km. Maps
like these give detailed information.
Figure 16.5.4 is a large-scale map of the
downtown area of Kingston at a scale of 1:10 000.
One cm on this map represents 100 m on the
ground; 10 cm on the map represents 1 km.
Figure 16.5.5 is at an even larger scale, 1:1,250.
One cm on the map represents 12.5 m on the
ground. At this scale, every building can be shown.

Map and photograph exercises

1 Add these names to the sketch you drew from
Figure 16.4.1.
a) Kingston Harbour b) Long Mountain
c) Cross Roads d) Newport West.
2 What information can you learn from the map
but not from the aerial photograph?
3 The photograph was taken from a high altitude.
What additional features would you see on a
low-altitude photograph?
4 Explain why aerial photographs are useful for
bringing map information up to date.
5 You have now seen five maps at different scales.
Which would be best for:
a) deciding how to drive into Kingston?
b) finding your way about the city on foot?
c) identifying a site for a new office building?
d) finding the distance from Kingston to Haiti?
e) showing how much woodland and
agricultural land there is around Kingston?
6 Identify the area of the 1:1 250 map on:
a) the 1:10 000 map b) the 1:50 000 map.
16.5.1 The symbols used on 1:50 000 maps of Jamaica.

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 16.5.2 An atlas map showing Jamaica. 1:16 000 000.

16.5.3 A small-scale map of Kingston, Jamaica. 1:250 000.

16.5.4 A 1:10 000 map of downtown Kingston. 16.5.5 A 1:1,250 map of part of downtown Kingston.

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 16.6 Grid references

Figure 16.6.3 is a simple map of the area around The square that has been shaded in Figure
Sandy Point, St Kitts. This map, and the map of 16.6.2 has a six-figure grid reference, 662 425. The
Kingston in Figure 16.4.2, each have a grid of lines, imaginary small grid has also been drawn in for one
which run north–south and east–west. Each grid grid square on Figure 16.6.3. The lines are 4 mm
G square covers exactly 1 sq. km. apart. On Figure 16.4.2 they would be 2 mm apart.
On a large-scale map, a grid like this can be
used to define an area or pinpoint a location. St Kitts mapwork exercises
● Grid lines called Eastings run from north to
1 What places are inside these grid squares on
south and tell you how far east you have gone. Figure 16.6.3?
● Grid lines called Northings run from east to
a) 09 19 b) 11 17 c) 10 18 d) 09 20.
west and tell you how far north you have gone. 2 What is the four-figure grid reference of:
a) Burt’s? b) Half Way Tree? c) Chalk Farm?
There is a two-figure number opposite the end of 3 What is at these six-figure grid references?
every grid line on the margin of the map. You can a) 111 177 b) 096 191 c) 103 207.
identify any 1-km square on the map by giving the 4 What are the coastal features at these places?
number of the grid line to the west, and the a) 082 205 b) 086 199 c) 101 176.
number of the grid line to the south, as in Figure 5 How did Sandy Point get its name?
16.6.1. This is called a four-figure grid reference.
Figure 16.6.3 has a scale of 1:25 000. Four cm Kingston mapwork exercises
on the map represents 1 km on the ground, so the 6 What districts are in these grid squares on
distance between two grid lines is 4 cm. Figure 16.4.2?
Now look at the map of Kingston, Figure a) 69 47 b) 74 50 c) 67 48 d) 75 49.
16.4.2. This map is at a scale of 1:50 000. Two cm 7 Look at the background colour. What is the land
on the map represents 1 km on the ground, so the use in these grid squares?
grid lines are 2 cm apart. a) 68 50 b) 78 48 c) 63 51 d) 78 51.
You can give a more exact grid reference if you 8 What letter of the alphabet is at these six-figure
imagine that there is a smaller grid inside each grid references?
1-km grid square, as in Figure 16.6.2. a) 724 505 b) 621 527 c) 760 434
d) 777 442 e) 790 492 f) 684 456.
The lines on the imaginary grid would be
9 What would you find at these grid references?
100 m apart on the ground. Each of the imaginary
a) 680 450 b) 718 458 c) 756 519
small grid squares would measure 100 m × 100 m,
d) 621 461 e) 663 461 f) 777 480.
and an area of exactly 1 hectare. This is about the
same as the area of a football pitch.

43 43
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
42 42 1
0 1 2 34 5 6 7 8 9

65 66 67 68 65 66 67 68
66.42 662.425

16.6.1 A four-figure reference locates a kilometre square. 16.6.2 A six-figure reference locates a 100-metre square.

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 21

Ruined Tower

Sir Gillies Estate

20
00
Fig Tree 2000
20

15
10

00
00
Pump
Estate

Burt's
50
0

SANDY POINT
TOWN
Hospital
19

Bourke's
Land Settlement
ut
tG
oin
yP
nd
Sa
Chalk
Farm
18
Charles Fort

Brimstone Hill Fort

752 ft
500

200
0 1 km
New

y Gut
Guinea

Moline
The Walk
17

Con Phipp's
Estate
Key
Main roads Sand
Harry Phipp's
Railways Watercourse Half Way Tree
Buildings Rocks, cliffs
Coral

16

08 09 10 11 12

16.6.3 A large-scale map of Sandy Point, St Kitts. Scale 1:25 000. The heights are in feet.

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 16.7 Scale and distance

16.7.1 Using a linear scale to measure distance.

Straight-line distance
Measuring distances in a straight line on a map is ● work out the distance on the ground in
very easy. Measure the distance on the map with a kilometres, like this:
ruler, then compare it with the linear scale printed – If it is a 1:50 000 map, like Figure 16.4.2,
on the map. The scale is usually given in kilometres divide the distance in centimetres by 2.
and metres, and also in miles and yards. It is usually – If it is a 1:25 000 map, like Figure 16.6.3,
simplest to work in metric units. divide the distance in centimetres by 4.
In Figure 16.6.3, the linear scale is printed as – If it is a 1:10 000 map, like Figure 16.5.4,
part of the map. Figure 16.7.1 shows part of the divide the distance in centimetres by 10.
linear scale used on Jamaican 1:50 000 maps, such
as the map of Kingston in Figure 16.4.2. Measuring distance on a map: examples
1 On Figure 16.6.3, to measure the distance along
This small map extract shows an area near
the road from 102 180 to 094 200:
Montego Bay. The distance shown by the red line ■ Check the scale of the map. 1:25 000
from the church at Hopewell to the postal agency at ■ Measure the distance on the map. 8.5 cm
Tower Hill is 5 kilometres and 900 metres, or ■ Divide by 4. 2.125
5.9 kilometres. ■ The distance is 2.125 km or 2,125 m.
As an alternative, you can:
● check the scale of the map 2 On Figure 16.4.2, to measure the distance along
● measure the straight-line distance in centimetres the airport runway from 711 432 to 737 421:
with a ruler ■ Check the scale of the map. 1:50 000
■ Measure the distance on the map. 5.5 cm
■ Divide by 2. 2.75
■ The distance is 2.75 km or 2,750 m.

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 Distance along a curved line Scale and distance exercises
It is almost as easy to measure distance along a line 1 On Figure 16.6.3, measure the straight-line
that is not straight, such as a road or river: distance from:
● Place the edge of a piece of scrap paper along
a) 100 180 to 100 190
the first section of the line. b) 090 200 to 110 200
● Mark it off as shown in Figure 16.7.2. c) 100 205 to 100 185
● Then place the paper against the second section d) 090 205 to 105 185.
of the line, and mark it off. 2 On Figure 16.4.2, measure the straight-line
● When you have marked off all the sections of distance from:
the line, measure the total distance against the a) 730 460 to 730 430
b) 730 460 to 780 460
linear scale.
c) 730 460 to 770 490
d) 600 484 to 640 490
A
N e) 690 473 to 665 430
f) 757 478 to 763 480.
3 On Figure 16.5.4, measure the straight-line
distance:
a) along Orange Street, from Harbour Street to
South Parade
A b) along Barry Street from Hanover Street to
Church Street
c) from the chapel on East Parade to the
market on West Parade.
4 On Figure 16.6.3, measure the distance:
a) along the road from 109 170 to 094 198
16.7.2 Measuring the distance along a road.
(railway crossing)
b) along the railway from 120 163 (Harry Phipp’s)
Estimating areas to 102 180 (E of Charles Fort).
Estimate the area in a particular land use by 5 On Figure 16.4.2, measure the distance along the
listing the grid squares. Ignore features like roads road:
and rivers, which are much narrower than they a) from 684 496 (Three Mile) to 650 526 (Six Miles)
are shown on the map. Remember that this is an b) from 745 430 (airport junction) to 795 442
approximate method only. Estimate the area in (Harbour Head)
cultivation shown in green in Figure 16.7.3 like c) from 720 465 (chapel) to 769 463 ( jetty)
this: d) from 638 468 (road junction) to 680 488
e) from 729 467 (post office) to 729 493 (library).

Grid square km2

10 09 0.0
Estimating areas
10 10 0.2 6 Calculate the total number of grid squares to
10 11 09 0.8 give the total area shown in:
11 10 0.7 a) Figure 16.6.3
12 09 0.7 b) Figure 16.4.2, from Northing 44 to 50, and
12 10 0.0 from Easting 62 to 68.
09
TOTAL 2.4
10 11 12 7 Estimate the area above 500 feet between
16.7.3 Estimating areas. Northings 19 and 21 in Figure 16.6.3.
8 In Figure 16.4.2, estimate the area in each of
these land uses to the east of Easting 78:
a) Built-up area
b) Woodland, including trees and scrub
c) Mixed or scattered cultivation.
State your answers to the nearest whole number
of km2.

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 16.8 Relief mapping

•150 b. Hill steeper on western side

•150 0
•150 20
•150 •100 0
•100 15
•100 0
10
•100 •100
50
•50 100•
•50 •50
•50 A B
•50
•50 •50 •100 200
•50
150
•100
•50 100

100
c. Valley with
•50 •100

50
a. Spot heights only 50 flood plain

25
0 50 50
20 100 100
0 150 150
15
0
10 0
0 15
0
10
50

d. Narrow
v-shaped valley e. Plateau f. Depression

16.8.1 Spot heights and contour patterns.

It is not easy to show hills and valleys on a flat sheet When you are used to reading contour maps, you
of paper. Four methods of doing this are common: will recognize patterns. Some of these are:
● Spot heights show how high a point is above ● flat land – no contours

sea level. ● gentle slopes – contours widely spaced

● Contours are lines that join up all the places ● steep slopes – contours close together.

which are at the same height above sea level.

● Layer colouring is where land above a certain Figure 16.8.1f illustrates how depressions are
height is coloured in. shown on most maps. Depressions are found at
● Hill shading is where slopes are shaded, as if volcanic craters, and in limestone areas where
the land was being lit from the north-west. rocks have been dissolved, as described in
Slopes that face away from the north-west are Chapter 3.
shaded darker, as if they are in shadow.
Figure 16.8.2 illustrates these four ways of showing
relief.

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 •5
Relief exercises – St Kitts
•20
•50 •50 •30 5 Look at your atlas. What is the height of Mount
•50 •100 •100 •2
50 15
Liamuiga? Remember to state whether your
•50•100 150 • • 100 • •
150• •173 answer is in feet or metres.
100
• • •50 •10 150 6 Look at Figure 16.6.3. What is the height of
•50 •100 150
• 100 100 Brimstone Hill? What height is grid reference
•50 •50 •30
•5 50 119 201?
•5 7 Write a brief description of the relief and
a. Spot heights b. Contours
drainage of this area.

Relief in Kingston
Jamaican 1:50 000 maps, such as Figure 16.4.2, G
use spot heights and contours to show relief.
150
There are contours at 20, 40, 60, and 80 metres
100 above sea level; after that, there are contours at
50
40-metre intervals. The contours at 200-metre
c. Layer colouring d. Hill shading intervals are shown by thicker lines, so they are
16.8.2 Ways of showing relief.
easier to pick out.
Most of the western part of the map shows flat
land, formed by rivers depositing mud and other
Relief exercises sediments on the fringes of Kingston Harbour. A
1 Look at Figure 16.8.2. Which methods are good few spot heights are shown, but there are no
for: contours over much of this area.
a) giving precise information about the height The central part of the map slopes gently, but
of the land? the contours are hard to see within the built-up
b) giving a clear impression of what the land area.
looks like to someone who is not used to There are steep-sided hills and mountains in
reading maps?
the east, south-west and north-west. These are
2 Copy Figure 16.8.1a into your exercise book.
mostly covered with woodland, trees, and scrub.
Add:
a) contours b) layer colouring
Some slopes are too steep for building or
c) hill shading. cultivation. There are several quarries, where
3 In which direction is the river flowing in Figure limestone and other minerals are extracted.
16.8.1a?
4 Many atlas maps use layer colouring to show Relief exercises– Kingston
relief. What colours are used for high and low 8 Look at the grid squares on Figure 16.4.2. Is the
ground in your atlas? land steeply sloping, gently sloping, or flat?
a) 68 48
Relief in St Kitts b) 78 52
c) 62 43
Figure 16.6.3 shows the lower slopes of Mount
d) 78 49
Liamuiga, a volcano in the north-west of St Kitts. e) 75 50
The map uses spot heights, contours, and layer f) 63 50.
colouring to show relief. The contours are at 9 How far above sea level are the spot heights at
intervals of 500 feet (152 metres). There are smaller these grid references?
volcanic cones on its slopes, for example at 111 177 a) 713 432
and 119 201. b) 604 479
Section 1.6 describes how volcanoes are formed; c) 724 481
Figure 1.6.10 shows a volcano with parasitic cones d) 669 497
on its slopes. e) 765 478
f) 797 481.

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 Contour patterns and landforms
a. Gentle slope: contours Gently sloping land
widely spaced
This is suitable for agriculture, roads, and
200
50 settlement.

150
100

100
0
500
b. Steeper slope: 400
Steep slopes
contours closer Steep slopes may create difficulties for agriculture,
300
200 roads and settlement.
100

200

100
300

400
50

0
500
c. Concave slope: gradient Concave slopes
400
increases as you climb Agriculture, roads and settlement are mainly on the
300
200 lower slopes.
100

200

100
50

50

0
500 Steep slope and plateau
d. Convex slope: gradient 400
lessens Here a steep convex slope leads up to a plateau.
300
200
100
100

200

300
250

0
500 Stepped or terraced slope
e. Stepped slope 400
300 See Section 3.2 – inland cliffs and coral terraces in
200 Barbados have this profile.
400
200

100
50

f. V shaped valley: river

V-Shaped valley
erodes downward This is characteristic of the upper course of many
Caribbean rivers in mountainous areas.
500 See Section 4.4.
400
300
200
250

400

100
100

g. Valley with flood plain Valley with floodplain

The middle and lower course of many rivers runs
through a floodplain. See Section 4.4.
200
100

500
400
300
200
50

100
0

350 h. Spur Spur

200 A spur of high ground extends onto a flat plain.
50
500
400
300
200
100
0

16.8.3 Contour patterns and landforms.

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 26
i. Conical hill with peak Round-topped hill A round-topped hill
50 has convex slopes.
50
150 250 500
24 Round-topped hill
400
Peak 300
Conical hill 200
100
0
22 A ridge is usually steep
50 j. Ridge of high ground
often separates two on both sides.
200 drainage basins

20
Ridge 300
200
100
0
18 An escarpment has one
k. Escarpment
Steep scarp slope steep side and a gentle
200 Gentle dip slope dip slope. It may be a tilt
150 block, such as the John
16 400
Scarp slope Dip slope 300 Crow mountains in
100
200 Jamaica. See Section 1.4.
50 100
0
14
50 l. A plateau has a wide, flat summit A horst or a lava flow
200
Cliff symbol shows very steep slope may form a plateau.
This example has a
12 Depression Cliff
cliff on one side and
400
300 contains a depression.
200
100
0
10 A pass or saddle may
50 m. A col, pass or saddle between two areas of
high ground form a natural
200
routeway. A col is
Peak
Peak higher and less likely
8 500
400 to form a routeway.
Pass or saddle
300
200 200
Road 100
50
6 0
26
n. Interlocking spurs on each side of a Along the upper
50 V-shaped valley course of many rivers,
0

4
35

15 0

interlocking spurs
25
0

24 Spur Spur 500

form the valley sides.
400 See Section 4.4.
200
300
0
30 200
40

100
0

22 0

16.8.4 Contour patterns and landforms.

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 16.9 Sections and gradients

This is how to draw a cross section:

1 Check the contour interval of the map you are
using. On the 1:50 000 map of Jamaica, it is 40
metres except near sea level.
2 Choose a vertical scale that fits the contour
interval. For this example, the vertical scale is
2 millimetres to 40 metres.
3 Take a sheet of graph paper and measure off the
length of the cross section.
4 Make a frame and label it. You should look at
the maximum and minimum height of the cross
section, to make sure it will fit into your frame.
5 Place the edge of a strip of paper along the line
of the cross section. Mark off the places where
the contours cross the line and label the
important ones.
6 Place the strip of paper next to your frame.
Make a dot inside the frame at the right height
for every mark on the paper.
7 Join the dots up neatly with a smooth curve.
8 Check your work and make sure that it is
labelled.

Drawing cross sections

1 Draw a cross section of the hill in Figure 16.8.1b
from A to B. Use a frame like the one shown in
Figure 16.9.2.
2 Draw a cross section of the area shown in Figure
16.6.3, from 120 202 to 097 177. Use a frame like
16.9.1 Drawing a cross section of Long Mountain.
the one shown in Figure 16.9.3. On your cross
section, show:
a) Charles Fort b) the road
Cross sections c) the railway d) the sea.
A cross section shows what an area of land would 3 How does the gradient of the land change as
look like if it were cut through and we could look you approach the sea?
at the hills and valleys from the side, in profile. 4 Draw a cross section from 770 460 to 800 490
Figure 16.9.1 is a cross section of Long on Figure 16.4.2. Use a frame like the one
Mountain. It starts at 750 460 and finishes at shown in Figure 16.9.4. Show the position of the
780 490. coastline, Long Mountain, Hope River and Dallas
Mountain.

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 m ● As a ratio, the average gradient is 1:2.4.
250 16.9.2 Frame for cross section ● If you use a calculator, you will get the same
200 of a hill. answer expressed as a decimal, which is 0.42. If
150 you use the reciprocal function, you will see the
100 figures 2.38 or 2.4, which express the answer as
50 a ratio.
Sea Level When drawing your own frame, ● Expressed as a percentage, the gradient is 42%.
it should be 13.7 cm long to be in
A B
the correct scale.
● You can use the decimal, 0.42, to work out the
Ft
2,500
angle of the slope. The decimal is the tangent of
2,000
the slope angle. So if you use the Tan−1 or
Inverse Tan function on your calculator, this will
1,500
give you the angle of slope, which is 22° 47′.
1,000

500 Difference in height 100 m

Horizontal distance 100 m
Sea Level Ratio 1:1
120 202 097 177 Percentage 100%
16.9.3 Frame for St Kitts cross section. Per cent slope angle 45°

m Difference in height 100 m

800 Horizontal distance 300 m
Ratio 1:3
700
Percentage 33%
600 Per cent slope angle 18°
500
400
300 Difference in height 100 m
200 Horizontal distance 800 m
Ratio 1:8
100 Percentage 12.5%
Sea Level Per cent slope angle 7°
770 460 490 800
16.9.4 Frame for cross section of Long Mountain and Dallas 16.9.5 Gradients.
Mountain.
Feet and metres
Gradients On many Caribbean maps, heights are given in feet.
We can use the contours on a map to work out how To calculate gradients, convert the vertical distance
steep a slope is, or measure its gradient. This is how to metres, using one of these methods:
to work out the gradient of the slope of Long ● Use the conversion table printed on the map.

Mountain between 770 475 and 770 465. ● Multiply the difference in feet by 0.305.

Formula to calculate the gradient of a slope:

Difference in height Alternatively, convert the horizontal distance from
Horizontal distance metres to feet. Multiply by 3.28.
● Make sure both parts of the fraction are in the
Calculating gradients
same units – in this case metres.
● Use the contours and spot heights to find the 5 Look at Figure 16.6.3. Work out the average
height above sea level at the top of Long gradient along the cross section you drew for
question 2:
Mountain (770 475). This is 440 metres.
● Then find the height above sea level at the foot
a) above the 1,000 feet contour
b) from the 1,000 feet contour to the coast.
of the slope (770 465). This is 20 metres.
Remember to make sure you are using the
● Now calculate the difference in height.
same units for both horizontal distance and
440 m – 20 m = 420 m. difference in height.
● Now find the horizontal distance. This is
6 Look at Figure 16.4.2. Work out the average
1 kilometre, or 1,000 metres. gradient of the slope between:
● So the gradient is:
420 m a) 790 480 and 781 480
1,000 m b) 757 478 and 763 480 – in a straight line
● This is
1 1
or approximately c) 757 478 and 763 480 – along the road.
2.38 2.4

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 A hill at Dibe, near Port of Spain, Trinidad

16.9.6 Looking north from Long Circular Mall, near Port of Spain, Trinidad.

Figure 16.9.6 shows a conical hill close to Port of C

0m
300 m

200 m

100 m
Spain, Trinidad. Figure 16.9.7 shows a simplified

30
contour map of the same feature. The camera

m
viewpoint is shown to the south of the map.
A cross section from A to B on the contour map 200

shows the conical profile of the hill when seen from

the south. It also shows the Dibe valley to the west
of the hill. A B
A cross section from C to D shows the hill as it
would be seen from the west. It shows that the
conical peak is in fact the southern end of a north–
south ridge, with a spur projecting towards the
camera viewpoint.
Cross section exercises
7 Draw a cross section along the line from A to B
on Figure 16.9.7. Label your section to show a
peak and a valley.
8 Calculate the gradient of the slope: D
100 m
a) from the peak east to the 100-metre contour
b) from the peak west to the valley floor.
9 Draw a cross section along the line from C to D
on Figure 16.9.7. Label your section to show a Long Cir
cular Ro
ad
ridge and a spur.

View
Key 300
Contours at 20 and point 0 500 m
Major roads 100 m intervals
200

16.9.7 Simplified contour map of the area north of Long

Circular Mall.

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 Macaque Hill, near Diego Martin, Trinidad

16.9.8 Looking north-east to Macaque Hill from a

footbridge on the Diego Martin Highway, near Port A
of Spain, Trinidad. 100 m
N

Figure 16.9.8 shows Macaque Hill on the western

200 m
side of the Diego Martin rift valley in Trinidad.
Figure 16.9.9 is a simplified contour map of the 300
m
same feature. The camera viewpoint is shown in the 400
m
south-east corner of the map.
A cross section from A to B on the contour map
shows the two peaks seen in the photograph, with a
slight col between.
m
A cross section from B to C shows a spur of 300
high ground projecting to the south. m
B 200
400 m

Cross section exercises

100
m
10 Draw a cross section along the line from A to B
on Figure 16.9.9. Label your section to show two 3 00 m

Diego Martin Highway

peaks and a col.
11 Draw a cross section along the line from B to C
m
on Figure 16.9.9. 200

100 m

C
View point

0 500 m

Key 300
Contours at 20 and
Major roads 100 m intervals
200

16.9.9 Simplified contour map of Macaque Hill.

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 0°

5°
16.10
N

45
Direction

31
NNW NNE

°
NW NE

WNW ENE
16.10.1 The points of the

270°

90°
W E
compass.
WSW ESE

SW SE
SSW SSE

22
S

5°
5°

13
180°
There are two ways of giving the direction from
one place to another: If you do not have a 360° protractor, then do the
● You can use the points of the compass. following:
● You can use a bearing. ● Use a 180° protractor to measure bearings close

to NE, E or SE, which are less than 180°.

Figure 16.10.1 shows the 16 points of the compass. ● For bearings close to SW, W or NW, which are

Using compass points is accurate enough for most more than 180°, measure clockwise from south.
purposes. You should use the compass points to give Then you must remember to add 180°.
the general direction of an irregular line, such as a
Direction exercises
coastline, a winding road, or a river.
A bearing is measured in degrees. It gives a 1 In Figure 16.6.3, what is the general direction of:
more precise description than a compass point. a) the coastline between Half Way Tree and
Bearings are measured clockwise. The measurement Charles Fort?
always starts from North, which is 0°. b) the road and railway to the north of Charles
Fort?
Surveyors and engineers use bearings when they
c) the watercourse in Sandy Point Gut?
are making measurements on the ground. When a
2 Figure 16.4.2 shows part of the Rio Cobre,
ship or an aircraft is plotting its exact course it is
between grid references 600 500 and 650 477.
better to use a bearing. What is the general direction of flow in each of
Figure 16.10.2 shows how you can use a grid these sections:
line to help you measure a bearing. Measuring a) East of Easting 63?
bearings is much easier if you have a 360° circular b) West of Easting 63?
protractor. When you are using your protractor, make 3 Look at Figure 16.10.1. Compass bearings are
sure that you measure in a clockwise direction from marked round the outside of the compass,
the 0° mark, which corresponds to North. measuring clockwise from north. What bearing
corresponds to each of the compass points below?
a) North
b) South
c) East
d) West
e) North-East
f) North-North-East.
4 What compass point is nearest to:
a) 046°? b) 085°?
c) 280°? d) 035°?
e) 358°? f) 175°?
5 On Figure 16.6.3, give the direction of travel
using compass point and bearing for:
a) a car driving from 094 200 to 102 180
b) a beachgoer walking from 090 197 to
081 203.
And on Figure 16.4.2 for:
16.10.2 Using grid lines to help measure the bearing from A c) a boat sailing from 710 450 to 760 450
to B. d) a helicopter flying from 730 520 to 730 430
e) a car travelling from 771 514 to 744 520.

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 16.11 Reducing and enlarging

16.11.1 A sketch map to show transportation facilities around Kingston Harbour. Scale 1:100 000.

A sketch map is not a copy of a printed map. It 9 Do not show features that are not relevant. Keep
draws attention to a few selected features. Sketch the sketch clean and simple.
maps may be drawn at an enlarged or reduced scale.
This is how to prepare a sketch map: Sketch maps are useful for showing particular features
1 If there is not a printed grid on the map you such as:
are working from, add one carefully in pencil. ● coastal or river landforms

Sometimes you may need to add extra grid ● land use in an urban or rural area.

lines, even if there is a printed grid.

2 Decide on the scale of the sketch map. Figure Sketch maps are also often used to show the
16.11.1 is at a scale of 1:100 000. This is half relationship between different features, for example:
the scale of the printed map. ● how relief influences land use and vegetation

3 The map must have a title and a border. ● how coastal landforms influence the location of

4 Draw a grid on a piece of graph paper or plain hotels.

paper. Because the scale of this sketch map is
twice as small as the main map, the grid lines Sketch maps exercises
are 1 cm apart.
1 Draw a square 8 cm by 8 cm in your book. Use
5 Use the grid to copy the features you want to
it to make an enlarged version of grid square
show. It is often useful to start with the 10 17 in Figure 16.6.3, showing coast, roads, and
coastline. Show the main lines of these features. railway. Your enlarged map has a scale of 8 cm
Do not worry about all the little details. to 1 km, or 1:12 500. Draw a linear scale to show
6 Use appropriate colours and labels to show the 500 m, and make a key. Add a North point.
features you have selected. 2 Make a similar enlargement of squares 75 43 and
7 Make a key and label your sketch map properly. 76 43 in Figure 16.4.2. Use a total area 16 cm by
8 Show the scale and add a North arrow. 8 cm, and a scale of 1:12 500. Draw a linear scale,
make a key, and add a North point.

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 16.12 Petit Martinique

The map and photograph show the island of Petit Martinique,

which is in the Grenadines, 40 kilometres north-east of Grenada
and 3 kilometres east of the island of Carriacou. Like most of its
G neighbours, the island is volcanic in origin.
It has a population of only 825, and measures only 2.3 km2.
Some people earn their living from small-scale farming or fishing;
there are also a few small hotels and guesthouses.
The map is at a scale of 1:10 000, which is the same scale as
Figure 16.5.4, the map of downtown Kingston in Section 16.5.
Because it is a large-scale map, the 100-metre squares which are
used for six-figure grid references have been shown with fine lines.
Heights are shown in feet.
Mapwork exercises 16.12.1 Petit Martinique from Carriacou.
1 What is the six-figure grid reference of the highest point on the
island?
2 How high is this point above sea level?
3 What is the total length of the road?
4 Which compass point describes the general direction of the
road from the primary school to the clinic?
5 What is the compass bearing from the trigonometrical station
on the Piton (666 834) to:
a) the trigonometrical station at 657 836?
b) the trigonometrical station at Sugar Hill (667 842)?
(These are concrete markers used in mapping surveys.)
6 What coastal features are at these grid references:
a) 670 829?
b) 658 839?
c) 659 834?
d) 662 844?
7 List four services that are available on the island.
8 Describe the drainage pattern of the island.
9 Explain how the relief of the island has influenced:
a) the course of the road
b) the location of settlement.
10 Draw a sketch map of the island, showing:
a) the road b) a beach
c) land over 500 feet d) two cliffs
e) the main area of settlement.
Do not forget to draw a key and a scale.
11 Draw a cross section across the island from 659 835 to
674 835. Use symbols to mark the position of the road, and the
trigonometrical station on the Piton.

16.12.2 The symbols used on 1:10 000

maps of the Grenadines.

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 84

83

66 67
16.12.3 Petit Martinique. The scale is 1:10 000. Heights are in feet; 100-metre grid squares are shown by fine lines.

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 16.13 Tucker Valley, Trinidad

Figure 16.13.2 shows an area approximately 11 List four services provided in the settlement of
10 kilometres west of Port of Spain, Trinidad. The Carenage.
western part of the area shown belongs to the 12 Give two reasons why Carenage is a good
government-owned Chaguaramas Development location for a settlement.
Corporation. The buildings in grid square 51 81 were 13 Write a brief description of the relief of this
originally part of a US military base. Some are now area.
used as offices. There are several nightclubs and 14 Describe two ways in which relief has
G restaurants in the area. influenced:
a) the routes taken by main roads in the area
Mapwork exercises shown on the map extract
b) land use in the area shown on the map
1 What is the six-figure grid reference of extract.
the market at Carenage? 15 Give the four-figure grid reference of a
2 What is the distance by road from 540 812 square that contains some land suitable for
to 521 830? development. State briefly how it could be
3 Draw a sketch map of the area bounded developed for agriculture, housing, or tourism.
by Eastings 51 and 53, and Northings 81
and 83. You should show:
a) the coastline b) the Cuesa River
c) land more than 50 feet above sea level
d) first-class roads.
4 Identify a beach and a river mouth. Give a
six-figure grid reference for each. For the
beach, use its mid-point.
5 What is the height of the trigonometrical
station at 532 820?
6 What is the exact compass bearing of the
road running north from 521 830?
7 Why is this section of road able to run in
a straight line?
8 Draw a cross section across these two
valleys:
a) The Tucker Valley, from 508 844 to
530 841
b) The valley of the Industry River, from
534 830 to 540 830.
9 Write a sentence describing the contrast
between the two cross sections you have
drawn.
10 To the nearest km2, how much land is
used for citrus cultivation? 16.13.1 The symbols used on 1:25 000 maps of Trinidad.

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 86

85

84

83

82

81

50 51 52 53 54
16.13.2 Tucker Valley, Trinidad. The scale is 1:25 000. Heights are in feet.

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 16.14 Grenville, Grenada

Figure 16.14.2 shows an area on the east coast of Grenada. Grenville is the main
G business centre for this part of the island. Much of the land is used for small-scale
farming. The landscape is volcanic in origin, but has been greatly altered by erosion.
Mapwork exercises
1 Find a map of Grenada in your atlas. Draw a
sketch map to show the location of the area
shown in the map extract.
2 State the grid reference of Paradise Bridge,
which is in the south-east of the map extract.
3 Which of the grid references below shows a
meander, an island, a river cliff or bluff, and a
confluence?
a) 410 411
b) 398 408
c) 401 409
d) 391 405.
4 What is the distance by the major road from
the nutmeg station at 395 418 to Dunfermline
Bridge at 404 422?
5 In which general direction does the main road
run from Telescope to Lower Pearls?
6 List three services provided at Grenville.
7 Describe briefly the settlement pattern in each
of these grid squares:
a) 41 40 b) 39 41
c) 40 39.
8 Draw a sketch map for the coastline, rivers,
and wetlands east of Easting 416. Show three
major coastal features on your map. Using map
evidence, describe how one of these coastal
features may have been formed.
9 Describe how relief within the area shown has
influenced roads.
10 The map shows Grenada’s former airport at
Pearls, out of use since 1984. What is the length
of the runway?
11 Explain why Pearls was not a suitable location
for a full-sized international airport, which
should have a runway at least 2.6 km long.
12 Using map evidence, list three economic 16.14.1 The symbols used on 1:25 000 maps
activities in the area. of Grenada.

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 44

43

42

41

40

40 41 42 43
39
16.14.2 Grenville, Grenada. The scale is 1:25 000. Heights are in feet.

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 16.15 Holetown, Barbados

Figure 16.15.2 shows the district around Holetown 9 Draw a cross section from 225 766 to 225 750.
on the west coast of Barbados. Holetown was Show the position of three watercourses and
established in 1627 as the first English settlement on one road.
the island. The surrounding land was historically 10 Draw a cross section from 210 761 to 223 761.
used for the cultivation of sugar cane and other What type of slope is shown?
crops. There were plantation houses and sugar HEIGHTS IN METRES
factories similar to the one shown in Figure 13.1.1. Dual
Main road, carriageway Bridge
Most of the rural population lived in villages. Trents surfaced Trees

plantation house is at grid reference 220 764. In the Secondary road, Culven
surfaced Line of Trees
past, plantation workers lived at Trents tenantry
Other roads
village, around grid reference 214 764. and tracks Scrub

Many areas have since been developed for

Footpaths Casuarina
tourism. There are hotels along the coast, for Wall, Fence or
example at grid reference 212 754. Sunset Crest is a Hedge Mangrove

planned settlement that was developed for tourism. Cut-line Palm

Cut-line
Sunset Ridge has large, luxurious houses, many of
which are rented to tourists in the winter season. Built-up Area Cultivation

To help with this exercise, look again at Section Building:-

Named Other Sand
3.2, which describes limestone landscapes in Barbados.
Building:- Under Marsh or
Two large steep-sided gullies meet at grid reference Construction, Ruin Swamp

222 759. A slope running north–south, about 800

Monument, Windmill Coral
metres east of the present coastline, marks a former
Cliff,
beach and cliff. Dolines are shown as depressions. Telephone Steep Slope

Parish Boundary Rock, Quarry

Mapwork exercises
110
100
1 What is the six-figure grid reference of the Locality Name OUINTYNE Contours (V.I. 10m) 90

police station at Holetown?

Antiquity Settlement Depression
2 What is the distance by road between the Rim height
unknown
junctions at 212 767 and 212 753? Trees suspected of Watercourse
3 What is the compass bearing from the obscuring detail

windpump at 219 765 to the chimney at 218 757? .151 Well, Borehole
Spot Height :- Surveyed
4 What landforms are located at:
Spot Height :-
a) 217 764? b) 225 761? Photogrammetric .127 Reservoir, Tank Res. Tk

c) 223 760? d) 213 759? Soakaway

5 Give two reasons for the location of St James’ Trigonometrical Station

School (216 762). FF8206

Air Photo Principal
6 From map evidence, give two reasons why this Point with Film No. 106

area is suitable for tourism. ABBREVIATIONS

7 Why are there few roads between Northings 758
Cemetery Cemy Hospital Hosp Post Office PO
and 763?
Chapel Cha Market Mkt School Sch
8 Looking at the area south of Northing 758,
Chimney Chy Police Post PP Swimming Pool SwP
describe three contrasts in population density
Church Ch Police Station PS Tennis Court
and settlement characteristics for the areas east TC

and west of Easting 224. Windpump WP

16.15.1 The symbols used on 1:10 000 maps

of Barbados.
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 21 22

76

75
16.15.2 Holetown, Barbados. The scale is 1: 10 000. Heights are in metres. 100-metre grid squares are shown by fine lines.

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 16.16 Queen of Spain’s Valley, Jamaica
G

16.16.1 Looking north-east over Queen of Spain’s Valley towards Falmouth, Jamaica.

In the foreground of Figure 16.16.1 is the North of the polje are low, round-topped
Hampden sugar factory in Queen of Spain’s Valley, limestone hills, covered with trees, scrub, and
Jamaica. woodland. These run mainly north–south, parallel to
Young sugar cane is growing close to the joints and faults that run through the limestone.
factory. North-west of the factory, land has been Between the polje and the hills is the village of
ploughed for the next crop. A little further east, Hamden. In the background (from the left) you can
there is badly drained land with small lakes and see two limestone quarries close to the village of
ponds, which is now used for pasture. This land was Goodwill, then Kent Estate, Orange Valley and St
still used for sugar cane when the map was printed, George’s Valley.
in 1991. Finally, there is a belt of trees, scrub, and
Queen of Spain’s Valley is a polje. Section 3.3 woodland close to the coast. In the rear centre of
explains how a block of limestone is faulted the photograph is the inlet of Salt Marsh Bay. About
downwards and filled with sediment, to form a 2 kilometres east of the map extract is the town of
broad valley with a flat floor. Falmouth, which has a cruise ship port.

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 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
07

06

05

04

03

02

01

00

99

98

97

96

16.16.2 Queen of Spain’s Valley and the north coast of Jamaica. Scale 1:50 000. Heights are in metres. The symbols for
1:50 000 maps of Jamaica are shown in Section 16.5.

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 Mapwork exercises Mapwork discussion points
1 What is the six-figure grid reference of: Coastal features and tourism
a) Hampden Sugar Factory? 1 What landforms and natural features can be
b) Greenwood Great House? found on or near the coastline?
c) the reservoir west of Bounty Hall? 2 Are there any indications of major tourism
2 What is the main land use in these grid squares? developments shown on the map?
a) 70 97 b) 76 03 c) 72 03. 3 What disadvantages does this area have for
3 What is the distance along the road: tourism development?
a) from the major road junction north-east of 4 What natural and human features in the area
Dundee to the Health Centre at Goodwill? shown could be developed to attract tourists?
b) from the cemetery at Bounty Hall to the What activities could be developed?
school at Granville? 5 Look at the surrounding area in your atlas. What
4 What settlement pattern is found in these grid human and natural features in the parishes
squares? of St James and Trelawny can assist with the
a) 70 01 b) 74 99 c) 74 98. development of tourism?
5 What is the compass bearing of the parish 6 Using map evidence, suggest a site where a
boundary between St James and Trelawny, which successful tourism facility could be developed.
runs through the Hampden Sugar Factory to the Locate this site, using a six-figure grid
coastline? reference. What activities could be developed
6 What is the height above sea level at each of for tourists? What type of visitor would be
these grid references? attracted?
a) 741 016 b) 720 048 7 What challenges would need to be addressed in
c) 770 042 d) 753 030. the development of this facility?
Contours are shown at 20, 40, 60 and 80 m
Limestone landforms
above sea level; then at 120 m, continuing at
1 In what ways does the drainage of this area
40-m intervals.
indicate the presence of limestone?
7 Draw cross sections from:
2 Where in the land and coastal area shown in
a) 765 045 to 765 014, showing a ridge and the
the map extract is new limestone now being
position of the coastline
formed?
b) 745 060 to 745 020, showing the position of
3 In what ways does the drainage pattern indicate
the coastline, an area of mangrove, a ridge,
that the map extract shows a limestone area?
and a V-shaped valley
4 Refer to Sections 3.1 and 3.2. It is not always
c) 790 023 to 740 023, showing an escarpment.
possible to identify landforms from map evidence
alone. However, are there any indications in the
map extract for the presence of:
a) coral terraces and inland cliffs?
b) dolines?
c) springs and resurgences?

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 16.17 Interpreting maps: review

Landforms Volcanic and limestone landscapes

Look for landforms like these: In volcanic areas, look for:
● concave slopes ● conical hills ● ash cones and composite cones

● convex slopes ● round-topped hills ● lava domes

● stepped slopes ● ridges ● lava flows

● V-shaped valleys ● escarpments ● craters

● floodplains ● plateaux ● a radial drainage pattern.

● spurs ● cols, passes, or saddles.

2 Describe three volcanic features shown in:

1 Which landforms are shown: a) Figure 1.7.3.
a) at 63 52 and 63 53 in Figure 16.4.2? b) Figure 16.12.3. (State the grid square
b) at 667 835 in Figure 16.12.3? for each.)
c) from 500 850 to 504 853 in
Figure 16.13.2? In limestone areas, look for:
d) from 661 832 to 667 835 in ● land with few rivers and little surface drainage

Figure 16.12.3? ● gullies with watercourses

e) from 671 832 to 673 832 in ● depressions and dolines

Figure 16.12.3? ● caves, swallow holes and resurgences

f) in square 49 83 in Figure 16.13.2? ● cockpits

g) at 412 411 in Figure 16.14.2? ● coral terraces and inland cliffs.

h) at 428 401 in Figure 16.14.2?

i) from 750 500 to 785 465 in Figure 16.4.2? 3 Which limestone features are shown in
j) from 610 435 to 627 435 and from Figure 16.15.2 at these grid references?
627 435 to 634 425 in Figure 16.4.2? a) 225 761 b) 217 764.

Tourism
1 Describe two types of
tourism developed within
this area.
2 Why is this area suitable for
each of these types of
tourism?

16.17.1 Tourism developments west of Montego Bay.

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 Rivers, relief and drainage
In the upper course of a river, look for:
● a V-shaped valley

● steep valley sides

● interlocking spurs

● waterfalls.

3 Give the grid square for three features shown

in Figure 16.13.2 that indicate the upper
course of a river. Briefly describe each feature.
In the middle and lower course, look for:
● a wide valley with a floodplain

● meanders.

4 Draw a sketch of the course of the Great River

south of Northing 42 in Figure 16.14.2. Show
two features that indicate the lower course of
a river. Briefly describe each feature.

16.17.2 A section of the Arima River, east of Arima in Look at Figure 16.17.2.
Trinidad. 5 Describe two features characteristic of the
lower section of a river valley.
Look for: 6 What evidence is there for deposition by the
● radial drainage patterns, on volcanoes, on river?
isolated hills, and on small islands 7 What risks would arise from residential
● dendritic drainage patterns in many areas development very close to the riverbanks?
● trellised drainage patterns, with rivers and 8 What are the main forms of land use and
tributaries forming a rectangular grid vegetation close to the river?
● areas with few rivers, on limestone or

permeable rock. Coastal features

Look for:
1 Describe the drainage pattern shown: ● cliffs
a) in Figure 1.7.3 ● beaches, including bayhead beaches and coves
b) east of Easting 52 and north of Northing ● headlands and bays
84 in Figure 16.13.2 ● lagoons, bars, spits, and tombolos
c) east of Easting 77 and north of Northing ● river mouths and deltas
50 in Figure 16.4.2 ● coral reefs; fringing reefs are close to the coastline
d) betweens Eastings 61 and 63, and ● mangroves.
Northings 42 and 45 in Figure 16.4.2.
Look for contrasts between high-energy and
Look for: low-energy coasts. High-energy coasts are often
● areas of poor drainage or swamp land where on the eastern or windward side of an island.
the relief is almost flat Low-energy coasts may be on the leeward side; or
● mangroves and lagoons in low-lying coastal they may be protected by a headland, an island, or
areas. a fringing coral reef.
9 Give the four-figure grid reference of three
2 Draw a sketch to show an area of poor drainage coastal features in Figure 16.4.2. Briefly
in grid square 42 43 in Figure 16.14.2, and describe each feature, using a sketch map. The
explain how it was formed. key for this map is Figure 16.5.1.

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 Vegetation and land use Agriculture and land use
Sugar cane and commercial arable farming are
usually on well-drained, flat or gently sloping
land, which may have fertile soil. If the land is
very flat, there may be drainage and irrigation
canals. You may also find settlements for
agricultural workers and a network of farm roads.
Mixed or scattered cultivation often indicates
small-scale farming. Relief may be sloping or hilly,
and there may be a dispersed settlement pattern.

5 In what ways is the land shown in

16.17.3 Rural land use in central Jamaica.
Figure 13.2.2 suitable for commercial arable
farming?
Remember the difference between:
● uncultivated land – woodland, mangrove,
6 Identify an area used for sugar cane on
Figure 16.4.2 and an area used for mixed or
forest, trees and scrub, mangrove, marsh, or
scattered cultivation. For each, give a four-
swamp; often found on steep slopes or badly
figure grid reference. Explain how agricultural
drained land not suited to agriculture
● cultivated land – sugar cane, citrus, bananas,
land use has been influenced by relief.
coconuts, rice, and other cultivation. Communications
Major roads may be built:
Look for:
● to connect nucleated settlements
● mangroves in low-lying coastal areas, close to
● to serve ports, airports, tourist resorts, or
river mouths, deltas, and lagoons
● swamp or marsh in other low-lying areas,
industrial or mining areas.
often close to rivers
● forest and woodland on land unsuitable for
Minor roads may be built:
● within residential areas or urban settlements
cultivation, for example because of steep
● to serve an area with dense but scattered rural
slopes
● scrub on land too dry for cultivation, possibly
settlements
● to provide access to farmlands.
in a rain shadow or an area of permeable
limestone with thin soil and no rivers or
Roads are easier to build on flat or gently sloping
surface water
● pasture, which may be on most types of land.
land, and may run in a straight line.

In mountainous or steeply sloping land:

1 Identify four types of uncultivated vegetation
● there may be few roads – traffic follows other
on Figure 16.4.2. For each, give a four-figure
routes
grid reference and suggest a reason why the
● roads may take a zigzag route, with sharp
land is not suitable for agriculture.
“hairpin” bends
● roads may follow natural routeways, such as a
Look at Figure 16.17.3.
saddle, pass, or river valley
2 What landforms are shown in this area?
● roads may keep a level course if they run
3 How have the landforms influenced:
approximately parallel to the contours.
a) vegetation? c) settlement?
b) agriculture? d) communications?
Roads often avoid areas of poor drainage and
swamps.
4 What natural resources are present in the area
shown?

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 Settlement and population

16.17.4 Looking from central Trinidad towards the Northern Range.

Look for dense population: ● on ridges of high ground, with dry land and
● close to agricultural land (crops, mixed cool winds
cultivation) ● along the coast.
● close to roads

● close to towns and cities, which provide work

Look for services, such as schools, hospitals,
and urban services. police stations, markets, or health centres. These
should be in easily accessible locations.
Look for sparse population where there is:
● wetland, mangrove, or swamp
1 For each of these locations, briefly describe
● steeply sloping land
the settlement pattern, and give two reasons
● very dry land (look for dry woodland
why it has developed. Illustrate each answer
vegetation, no rivers, indications of limestone with a sketch map:
karst landscape) a) The area shown in Figure 13.2.2
● a large area used for commercial arable
b) Grid square 41 41 in Figure 16.14.2
farming. c) The area close to 760 045 in Figure 16.16.2.

Look for nucleated settlements: 2 Why are each of these grid squares in Figure
● on flat or gently sloping land
16.4.2 almost uninhabited?
● where roads converge
a) 61 52
● close to rivers
b) 62 43
● close to agricultural land
c) 64 49
● close to natural harbours and anchorages.
d) 77 46.

Look for dispersed settlement: Look at Figure 16.17.4.

● in agricultural land with scattered cultivation
3 What is the main land use:
● where there is a good road network
a) for the flat land in the foreground of the
● where many rivers and streams provide a
photograph?
water supply. b) for the gently sloping land at the base of
the Northern Range?
Look for linear settlements: c) within the Northern Range?
● along roads

● along river valleys

4 How has the relief of this area influenced
roads and communications?

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 Manufacturing

16.17.5 An industrial estate west of Montego Bay.

Look for: d) The transshipment facility at grid reference

● planned industrial estates, usually on flat land 532 812 in Figure 16.13.2, where bauxite
with good transport facilities from Guyana is loaded onto larger ships
● access to port facilities, airports, and major for transport to overseas alumina plants.
roads
● access to populated areas which provide a Look at Figure 16.17.5.
labour supply and a market 2 Describe three ways in which this area is
● processing industries located near agricultural suitable for manufacturing and other industrial
land or mineral resources. activities.
3 Name one commodity that is imported and
1 Describe three reasons for the location of each stored within this area.
of the facilities below, using a sketch map to 4 This is also the location of the Caribbean
illustrate your answer: Institute of Technology, which offers courses
a) The factory at grid reference 712 986 in including a postgraduate certificate in
Figure 16.16.2 Geographic Information Systems. Why is this a
b) The cement plant at grid reference good location for an educational institution?
785 457 in Figure 16.4.2
c) The industrial estate in grid square 67 48
in Figure 16.4.2

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 17.1 Choosing a topic Field studies

Your field study Sources

The field study gives you the opportunity to pursue You must carry out first-hand observation in the
an area of special interest within the Geography field, from primary sources. Examples might include:
syllabus, and to develop your practical and research ● a questionnaire study of a group such as local

skllls. You will need to take these steps: residents, farmers, or tourists
1 Define a problem suitable for a field enquiry. ● direct observation of land use in a small area

2 Devise a simple programme of enquiry. ● measuring the depth, velocity, and sediment

3 Present and discuss your findings. content of a river.

4 Draw a conclusion.
Reading books and looking at information collected
Relevance by other people is useful, but it is not enough for
Your field study must be relevant to the CXC your study. Examples of information from secondary
Geography syllabus. Look at these objectives from sources are:
the CXC syllabus. Any of these could suggest a ● land use – crops shown on a printed map

number of separate enquiries, each of which could ● government statistics on tourist arrivals

be the basis for a field study: ● a textbook description which tells you what

● Natural systems: Explain the formation of river features to expect in the middle course of a river.
landforms: Specific objective 22(a).
● Natural systems: Describe the impact of earthquakes,

hurricanes, volcanoes, landslides and flooding on the physical and

human environments in the Caribbean: Specific objective 29.
● Human systems: Describe the consequences of

in-migration and out-migration in the Caribbean since the

1990s: Specific objective 7(a).
● Human systems: Explain the factors influencing the

development of agriculture in the Caribbean: Specific objective

16.
● Human systems: Explain the ways in which economic

activities can contribute to environmental degradation in the

Caribbean: Specific objective 21.

Scope
Do not be over-ambitious. It is better to have
limited objectives which you can cover thoroughly,
such as:
● studying a small river at two points on its course

● explaining how the location of small-scale

commercial farming in a small area is

influenced by relief and road access
● describing the consequences of international

migration in a small settlement

● investigating the causes of deforestation in a 17.1.1 Preparing to take measurements for a coastal
small area. landforms study.

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 Combining sources for a river study ● your own observation provides other
Many studies use a combination of primary and information, such as sediment type, which is
secondary sources. Secondary sources provide useful not shown on the map.
background information, as well as data for
... or a tourism study
comparison. In a river study:
● textbooks suggest what landforms can be In a tourism study:
● government statistics give national data on
expected in the upper course of a river, and
how they may be formed tourist arrivals
● a published map shows how a small area was
● some books also suggest field study ideas and

measurement techniques used before it was developed for tourism

● your own observation shows where tourist
● a map tells you what course the river followed

when it was surveyed facilities are located

● a questionnaire survey may give additional

information about tourists visiting the area.

The strategy sheet

Before you begin the study, you must submit a What is the aim of your study?
strategy sheet. You must think carefully about your State this briefly in two to three lines, for example:
field study before you complete the strategy sheet. It ● To determine whether businesses in Bathsheba have created
will ask you about your study, under these headings: jobs as a result of tourism.
General topic ● To observe wave patterns, beach material and landforms at

This relates the field study to the syllabus. Do not the named locations on the windward and leeward coasts of
use too much detail here, but use a simple heading, St Kitts, and attempt to identify ways in which waves have
for example: affected landforms.
● To contrast present land use with that shown on the 1970
● Coastal landforms

● Tourism 1:25 000 map, and interview residents to identify reasons

for suburban development.
Possible question to be investigated
This is your concise outline of the problem you will Use key words such as these to emphasize your
investigate. It should be written as a question. It active role in the field study:
must be relevant to a specific syllabus objective, compare, describe, identify, classify, contrast,
which you should add in brackets on the strategy explain, observe, investigate, illustrate, explore,
sheet, for example: determine.
● How has tourism created employment in Bathsheba,
How will you obtain data?
Barbados? (Specific Objective 14, Human systems)
● What contrasts can be observed between the beaches at Say briefly how you will obtain your data. You may
Friar’s Bay and White House Bay in St Kitts? (Specific use more than one method, for example:
Objective 22(b), Natural systems) Bathsheba study:
● Has proximity to Port of Spain led to suburban development 1 Field investigation with maps to identify and locate
in Glencoe, Trinidad, since 1970? (Specific Objective 5, businesses operating in the area of study
Human systems) 2 Interviews with local businesses, using questionnaires

Location of study area Friar’s Bay and White House Bay study:
You should describe the location of your field study 1 Review maps to identify major coastal landforms at the
carefully in a few words, for example: named locations.
● Bathsheba, Parish of St Joseph, Barbados 2 Field trip to the areas of study to (a) observe and measure
● Glencoe, Diego Martin Regional Corporation, Trinidad and wave height, frequency and angle; (b) observe and describe
Tobago. beach material; and (c) describe coastal landforms.
You should attach a simple map to show the location. 3 Draw sketch maps and take photographs.

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 4 Review secondary sources, for example guides to coastal Analyse and discuss data
fieldwork. In this section of the strategy sheet, you should give
a brief outline of the way in which you will discuss
Glencoe study: your data. For example:
1 Field survey of the area of study to determine current land ● Bathsheba study: Describe ways in which tourism has
use enabled businesses to create employment in the study area.
2 Use of large-scale maps and air photographs to determine ● Friar’s Bay and White House Bay study: Discuss
historic land use relationship among wave processes, relief, geology, and
3 Interviews with local residents, using questionnaires to landforms in the study area.
determine reasons for residence in Glencoe, migration history ● Glencoe study: Describe the extent of suburban
and length of residence in the area development and discuss reasons for suburban development in
Resources the study area.
In this section you should list the resources you will Anticipated challenges
use. Think ahead about challenges that may arise –
● All field studies will require maps. transport difficulties, timing of work, access to land,
● You can complete some field studies with very lack of co-operation from interviewees. You should
few other items of equipment – for example consider any possible safety concerns, with regard
clipboards and questionnaires. to both the physical and the social environment.
● Cameras are also useful for many field studies. If There will always be unforeseen problems, too. You
you use a digital camera, you can easily enlarge will have to deal with these as they arise, with
or crop photographs, and print them directly guidance from your teacher. You may need to modify
onto the page. your fieldwork strategy if there are unforeseen
● Many landform studies require simple surveying problems.
equipment, such as poles and tapes. You should develop a study strategy with as few
● Your school may have equipment for simple soil foreseeable problems as possible.
analysis, but not necessarily in the Geography
department. Possible solutions
You can minimize some difficulties by advance
How do you intend to present the data planning – for example, with a letter from the
and findings in your report? school to assist your approach to interviewees, or
You should use at least two different techniques to obtaining permission for supervised use of school
present your data, but at this stage you do not need equipment and facilities.
to include too much detail. Here is an example of Consider safety precautions and equipment
what to note: where appropriate, as well as the availability of
1 Location maps of the area of study: e.g. Bathsheba, assistance should the need arise.
St Joseph, Barbados (as shown on the map).
2 Illustrate data using tables and graphs.
3 Illustrate data with annotated photographs.

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 GEOGRAPHY FIELD STUDY
STRATEGY SHEET
To be completed by 15 March in the year of the examination (but preferably in the Fourth Year).
Make a duplicate copy of this sheet. Your teacher will return a copy to you.
CANDIDATE’S NAME Sharon Browne REGISTRATION NUMBER ……. CLASS 4C
GENERAL TOPIC OF INTEREST Factors influencing weather and climate
1 (a) POSSIBLE QUESTION TO BE INVESTIGATED
Are there differences in temperature between Belmont, St Vincent (300 metres above sea
level), and Kingstown, St Vincent (7 metres above sea level)? (Specific objective #9, Natural
Systems)
(b) Location of Study Area: State the name of area of study: show on maps.
Belmont, St Vincent, and Kingstown, St Vincent.
STRATEGY
A What is the aim of your study?
To investigate variations in temperature between the locations to be studied in relation to relief.
B How will you obtain data?
1 Take temperature readings on a daily basis with a maximum/minimum thermometer during
four-week study period.
2 Interviews with Meteorological Service
3 Review weather reports on Meteorological Service website during study period.
4 Review literature on weather and climate in St Vincent.
C Resources
Maximum/minimum thermometers.
Survey maps showing Kingstown and Belmont, St Vincent.
D How do you intend to present the data and findings in your report?
1 Location maps of the areas of study: Belmont, St Vincent and Kingstown, St Vincent (as shown
on the map.)
2 Illustrate temperature data with graphs and tables.
3 Illustrate placing of thermometers with annotated photographs.
E Analyse and discuss data:
Discuss any differences in rainfall between the two study sites, in relation to relief, altitude and
other relevant factors.
ANTICIPATED CHALLENGES
I will need assistance in identifying a secure location to place the thermometers, which is
representative of the surrounding area.
The Kingstown site is on school premises and I will need permission to place a thermometer.
Access to the school site at weekends may be difficult.

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
I would request assistance from the school authorities and from you as my Geography teacher.
If it is not possible to arrange access to the school site at weekends, the study could be limited to
weekday data only.

Teacher’s name Teacher’s signature

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 17.2 Preliminary Field studies
research
Planning and preparing
Secondary sources help you plan and prepare your
fieldwork. You may use information from printed
sources and the Internet, but you must use your
own words. You must not copy directly. List your
sources carefully, because you will need them for
your bibliography. They may include the following:
● Textbooks. Study the relevant sections of this

book. Look at books prepared for CAPE and

similar exams. They will give you other points 17.2.1 Using secondary sources to prepare fieldwork.
of view. Some may include fieldwork ideas.
● Newspaper articles. These are useful for topics

such as flooding, landslides, and trends in Individual interviews

tourism, agriculture, and manufacturing. Some Interviewing the manager of a business, the chair of
newspapers, such as the Jamaica Gleaner, have a a community group, or an environmental researcher,
website with a search engine, so you can look may give you useful background information. This
for articles on your chosen topic. does not count for CXC purposes as data collection
● Magazines and other publications. Use your from a primary source, but it may help you plan
school or local library. your field study.
● The Internet. You can search for material on ● Discuss the need for an interview with your

your chosen topic and country. Design the teacher, and, if appropriate, with adult relatives.
● Write a letter or an email from a school address
search carefully, to avoid being deluged with
irrelevant material. You may need help from a explaining the purpose of your study and asking
teacher or other adult to understand some for an interview. You may make a follow-up
sources, such as academic studies. Some telephone call after a reasonable time.
information from the Internet is unreliable. Remember, the person you want to see will be
● Maps. The Lands and Surveys Department in busy, so you may see another staff member such
your country will have large-scale maps. Note as a communications officer.
● You should carry out the interview with another
the survey date, which tells you when the map
was prepared. student or with a small group. This will help
● Air photographs. Your Lands and Surveys with note taking. If you use a voice recorder,
Departments will also be able to supply large- you must draw attention to it.
● Arrive at the interview a few minutes early. You
scale air photographs. These, too, will usually be
a few years old. should ask at the beginning how much time is
● Statistical information. Government statistical available and be careful not to overrun.
● You should have a few questions prepared in
offices and specialist agencies covering
agriculture or tourism may help with data. Their advance. You may ask follow-up questions. If
staff are busy, so be considerate. you do not fully understand an answer, do not
● Advertising material and brochures. These may be afraid to ask for clarification. If you ask for
be helpful for a topic such as tourism, detailed information, it may be supplied
manufacturing, or pollution. Remember that afterwards, for example by email.
● Write a letter of thanks, also from a school
they are produced to present a particular point
of view, so interpret them carefully. address.

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 17.3 Primary sources Field studies

17.3.1 Keep interviews short and simple.

Group work Interview surveys

Working in a small group with other students is a Many studies use interview surveys, with a
good idea. You can discuss your findings and how to questionnaire. For these, interview technique is
cope with unforeseen difficulties. It is also safer to important.
work with a small group. ● You are representing your school. Be polite.

Every member of the group should take an ● Explain the purpose of your study briefly and

active part in data collection and measurement. clearly beforehand, and thank the respondent
However, each student must write up the field study afterwards.
individually, as an independent effort. You may ● Carry a letter from your school that states that

collect data as a group, but you must write the report the survey is part of your studies.
alone. ● Remember that you are interrupting people’s

daily activities. Be considerate.

● For safety reasons, and for easy note taking,

work in pairs or small groups.

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 Questionnaire design tips ● Use closed-ended questions. These are where
● Keep it short. Ten questions can be answered respondents choose from a list of possible
quite quickly. Some studies use only four or five. answers. These save time and are easy to analyse.
● Keep it relevant. Make sure you only include
● Use flash cards. Look at Figure 17.3.3. Cards
questions which you need for your study. like this, with options to choose from, can save
● Keep it clear. All your questions should be time.
short and simple.

TYPE OF
● Don’t be intrusive. Avoid asking about income
or age, or similar personal questions. Do not
record a person’s name or exact address on the
survey form. ACCOMMODATION
1. How long is your expected stay • All-inclusive
in Antigua?
One day
• Other hotel
2–7 days

8 days or more • Self catering

2. What type of accommodation
are you using?
• Visiting friends or relatives
All-inclusive resort

Other hotel • Cruise passenger

Self catering

Visiting friends/relatives
• Other
Cruise passenger 17.3.3 A flash card.

Other (specify)
● Use open-ended questions sparingly. These
may be useful but try not to use more than
perhaps one per interview. Put them at the end.
3. Which of these services have you used?
Which do you plan to use during your stay?
● Test it first. Try out the questionnaire with a
friend or relative before you have it printed. You
Already used Plan to use
may need to redesign some of the questions as
Taxi
a result of their feedback.
Restaurant ● Consider layout. Your questionnaire should be
neat and fit on one sheet of paper. Use a
Car rental clipboard to keep your papers tidy.
Diving/water sports
If there is time, you may want to end the interview
Gift shop survey with an informal discussion. This may help
you interpret your results, so make notes of what
Other (specify)
the person you are interviewing says.

17.3.2 A questionnaire.

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 Sample size With home-based interviews, you are more likely
By taking a sample, you are using few people to to find retired people than those who go out to work.
estimate the characteristics of a larger group. The Response rate
larger the sample size, the more accurate your The percentage of successful interviews is the
survey will be. “response rate”. Some people are not willing to be
As a general rule, if 50% of your sample give interviewed, often because they are too busy. You
answer “A” in a questionnaire, then the real answer should keep a note of their numbers. The higher
for a larger group would probably be: your response rate, and the larger the sample, the
● 35–65% if your sample size was 12
more accurate your survey is likely to be.
● 40–60% if your sample size was 25

● 45–55% if your sample size was 100.

Geomorphic data
Geomorphology is the study of landforms. If you
decide on a field study of a natural system, you will
100% 100% 100%
need to take some geomorphic measurements. Some
of these will require special equipment, but you can
also carry out useful studies with simple equipment,
75% 75% 75% such as:
● a simple clinometer, which can be used to

Likely Likely Likely

measure slopes. It is not very accurate, but it
range range range will give you an approximate estimate of the
50% Sample 50% Sample 50% Sample angle of a steep slope.
estimate estimate estimate
● tapes and poles, which can be used to survey some

landforms, such as small beaches and river features.

25% 25% 25%

0% 0% 0%

Sample size 12 Sample size 25 Sample size 100

Key
Sample estimate

True answer is probably

in this range

17.3.4 Sample size and accuracy.

So you should remember that your survey results

are only a rough estimate of the true answer.
An advantage of a small sample is that you have
time to think carefully about each interview. That
may help you to interpret the data.
Sample selection
Having a big sample is no use if it is not randomly
selected.
For street interviews, if you interview only
helpful-looking elderly ladies, your answers will not
be representative of the whole population. A better
rule might be to interview every tenth passer-by. 17.3.5 Using a clinometer.

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 17.4 Presenting your
Field studies
study report
There is a clear mark scheme setting out what the You should state at least one aim, which clearly
examiners are looking for. You should make sure defines the focus of the study. This should be
that you follow it. linked to the syllabus, and allow for the collection
of primary data. You may use a direct question,
Length and format such as:
Your field study report must be no more than 1,000
words in length. If it is longer, you will lose marks. What have been the causes of international in-migration and
You must write clearly and concisely. out-migration in Chateaubelair, St Vincent, since 2001?
The word limit is for the main text of your (Specific objective #7(a): Human systems).
report; it does not include illustrations, the Alternatively, you may use an implicit question,
bibliography or appendices. such as:
The report may be neatly handwritten or
technologically aided. You should submit it in a soft- This study aims to determine the causes of international
backed A4 or Quarto-sized folder. You may also in-migration and out-migration in Chateaubelair, St Vincent
submit it electronically. since 2001. (Specific objective #7(a): Human systems).
You may want to include more information here
Title page and strategy sheet than was possible on the strategy sheet.
The following information should be shown on the
outside of the folder, and again on the first page of Location of the study
the report: You should briefly describe the location of the
● Your name and registration number
study. To accompany the description, you should
● The name of your school
include at least two sketch maps: a location map
● The title of your study.
and a site map.

The second page of your report should be a copy of Location map

your strategy sheet. This should show the location of the study area.
An island-wide map is often best. For larger
Table of contents territories, such as Jamaica, Guyana, Belize, and in
This should come immediately after the strategy most cases for Trinidad and Tobago, you should use
sheet. However, it should be prepared last, after you a location map covering, for example, East Berbice,
have written the study and numbered the pages. It south-eastern Trinidad or western Jamaica. Where
should list the sections of the field study and must data is collected at two separate locations – for
include page numbers. example two beaches several kilometres apart –
You should make an additional list of the figures show them both.
(maps, diagrams, etc.), showing which page they Make sure your location map is clear and neat,
are on. and has:
● a title
Introduction and aim of the study ● a border

You should begin with a short introduction, giving ● a scale

an overview of the study. You may explain how your ● a north point or directional arrow

study relates to the syllabus objectives and content. ● a key

You should show how these lead to a clear focus on ● labels to indicate important features.

your study topic.

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 17.4.1 A small-scale location map.

17.4.2 A larger-scale
location map.

The location map must always be hand-drawn. Do photograph to help you draw the main features.
not use photocopies or computer-generated maps. You may have to add some features by hand, for
Sometimes it is useful to include two location maps: example newer buildings, land use, or river
● A small-scale map showing the study area in features.
relation to the whole country Like the location map, the site map must have a
● A larger-scale map showing the features close to title, a border, a scale, a north point or directional
the study area arrow, a key, and labels to indicate important features.
In some cases, where there is no base map available,
Site map
you will have to make a sketch map. You may need a
Your site map should show the area covered by the compass to check the north point. If you are
study in more detail. You will often find it useful collecting data at two widely separated locations, you
to use a large-scale printed map or an aerial will need to include a site map of each one.

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 17.4.3 A more detailed location map.

Methodology and data collection

You should state clearly How, When, and Where you
Example 2
collected the data. You should also illustrate or
HOW THE DATA WAS COLLECTED
describe clearly any equipment you have used, and
The width of the river was measured with a tape and water depth with
include a blank copy of any questionnaire or data a measuring pole, as shown in Figure IV.
record sheet. WHERE THE DATA WAS COLLECTED
The Caura River in Trinidad was measured at the points shown on the
Here are two examples: location map, Figure II.
WHEN THE DATA WAS COLLECTED
Example 1
Data was collected on 23 October 2015 between 10.00 and 16.30.
HOW THE DATA WAS COLLECTED
An attempt was made to interview one member of each household You might also list secondary data sources, as in this
within the study area, using a questionnaire as shown in Appendix II. example:
Where no contact was made after two visits, no further attempt was
made to interview that household. Secondary data, including census results, were studied in Roseau,
WHERE THE DATA WAS COLLECTED Dominica during the month of October 2015.
The study area was part of the village of Laudat in Dominica, which
is shown in the location map, Figure I. Interviews were conducted
with households living next to the road which runs for 500 metres due
Presenting your data
north from grid reference 247 391. You should present your data with a brief written
WHEN THE DATA WAS COLLECTED statement, accompanied where appropriate by
Interviews were completed on 23–24 October 2015 between 12.00 tables, graphs, diagrams, and labelled photographs.
and 16.30. The main data must be obtained from your own

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 field observation and not copied from secondary now attempt to answer it in your conclusion. Do
sources. the data answer the question you have asked?
The data must be accurate, relevant to your Your conclusion must be supported by the
study, and neatly presented. Each item must be results of your fieldwork. You should provide a well-
clearly labelled and captioned. argued summary, showing how your data support
The use of illustrations is described in more your conclusion, as in this example:
detail in Section 17.5.
We found that tourism has created employment in Bathsheba. A
Analysis and discussion of your data total of 35 people were employed in small hotels. A further 15
people were employed in bars and restaurants which said that tourists
This is the written statement of your findings. You provided a substantial proportion of their business. In other shops and
should outline the main points demonstrated by supermarkets, where 16 people were employed, tourists were not a high
your data. You should explain how the data support proportion of their customers. However, hotel employees did spend a
the points you are making. substantial amount in local shops.
You may begin with a brief introductory Of the tourists interviewed, all had used local bars and
paragraph, such as this: restaurants. Of the sample, 35% were staying in hotels in other areas.
Almost all, or 80%, had car rental. However, the car rental companies
The study begins with a description of the landforms of Choc Beach, St were not in Bathsheba, and had not created employment within the
Lucia. This is followed by an account of the sand and other materials study area.
that compose the beach. We then discuss the action of waves on the
beach at the time of the field study. Consideration is next given to You may also note ways in which your study could
the mouth of the Choc River, with suggestions of ways in which the have been improved. This is one way of learning
river may have influenced the development of the beach. Also noted is from your own work. For example:
evidence of recent changes in the form of the beach.
It is concluded that the influence of wave action and of river We could have asked the businesses we interviewed whether they
action can be clearly seen in the beach sediments and landforms, and in had plans for expansion, to find out whether employment in the area is
changes that are currently taking place. likely to increase.

You may use headings to break your work into Sometimes the data collected does not support the
sections, for example: conclusion you originally expected. That should not
be a problem; you should state clearly what the data
1 The beach shows. Unexpected findings are an important
2 Wave action feature of the scientific method and may suggest
3 The river mouth new approaches and areas for further study.
4 Beach material
5 Indications of recent change Bibliography and appendix
It is often best to start each section on a new page. These should come at the end of your report. They
List the separate sections in your table of contents. do not count towards the overall word limit.
Section 17.6 describes how to prepare your
Conclusion bibliography and appendix.
Here you should discuss the data you have
presented in relation to the aim of your study. You
asked a question when you stated your aims. You

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 17.5 Illustrations and
Field studies
photographs
You must illustrate your field study, using at least ● Maps should have a scale and a directional
two different ways to present data, and preferably arrow or north point.
more than two. Refer to Section 10.2, which shows ● All maps, and most graphs, need a key.
some ways of using maps and diagrams. You may ● For tables, maps and graphs, you should state
use methods such as: the source. This may either be your own field
● tables observations or a secondary source.
● choropleth maps ● A histogram or bar chart can be used to show
● line graphs the results of survey data. A histogram is similar
● dot maps to a bar chart, except that the bars touch.
● divided circle diagrams

● charts and diagrams

● histograms and bar charts

● labelled photographs

● field sketches.

17.5.2 Using a bar chart to show survey results.

Using photographs
Use photographs carefully to make a point.
17.5.1 A sketch may present information more clearly than a ● Do not use more than three photographs.
photograph. ● Make sure that each one shows a specific

Sketches, maps and diagrams feature, or makes a point that can be illustrated
with a clear caption.
● All illustrations should have a border. ● Label the photographs at the margin, or use an
● There should be a caption or title beneath or accompanying labelled sketch. Use a pointer or
above each illustration, outside the main border. arrow where appropriate.
● Illustrations should be clearly labelled. A label is ● A digital camera allows you to print directly
written inside the border and forms part of the onto the page and place labels within the
illustration.

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 photograph. You can also enlarge areas of
interest and crop others, such as the sky, which
may not be needed.
● Field sketches are often more effective than a
photograph because you can emphasize key
features. However, they require some artistic
talent. Use them if you are able.

Integrating illustrations and text

To gain full marks, it is important to integrate all
your illustrations into the text. Place each illustration
immediately next to the relevant text paragraph.
Sometimes you may devise a diagram using a
combination of methods which suits the special
purpose of your study.

17.5.4 Another way of showing survey results.

17.5.3 A divided circle diagram showing the percentage of

residents who knew that embankments have been
built to control flooding. Of the 40 respondents, 36
(or 90%) were aware of the embankments.

17.5.5 Presenting data from a vegetation transect.

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 17.6 The bibliography
Field studies
and appendix
The bibliography
Your bibliography should list all the sources of Newspaper and magazine articles
written information you used for your study. It List articles in this format:
should be carefully organized, with books listed first ● Writer (if one is named)

(in alphabetical order of author’s name), and ● Headline or title

followed by the maps, published articles, and other ● Newspaper or magazine (this should be

sources used. underlined)

● Date of publication.

Books
List all book titles using this format: For example:
● Author’s surname and initials Mitchell, D., Nature’s Wrath: One feared dead, bridge
● Title (this should be underlined if handwritten collapses, expect more rain, Jamaica Gleaner, 25 May
and in italic if typed) 2003.
● Publisher Tindall, D., Once Upon an Island, Caribbean Beat,
● Place of publication May–June 2000.
● Date.

Encyclopedias
For example: List encyclopedias like this:
Barker, D., Newby, C. and Morrissey, M. A Reader in ● Name of encyclopedia

Caribbean Geography, Ian Randle Publishers, Kingston, ● Volume

1998. ● Date.

Donovan, S. and Jackson, T. (editors) Caribbean Geology:

An Introduction, Kingston, University of the West Indies For example:
Publishers’ Association, 1994. Chambers Encyclopedia, Volume 3, 1998.

Some books do not have a named author. List them Atlases

like this: List atlases like this:
Bahamas Handbook and Businessmen’s Annual, Dupuch ● Name

Publications, Nassau, 2004. ● Place of publication

● Publisher

Maps ● Date.

List map references like this:

● Country For example:
● Scale Certificate Atlas for the Caribbean, London, George
● Sheet number Philip Ltd, 2000.
● Date of publication.

Internet sources
For example: Use this format:
Trinidad and Tobago, 1:25 000, Sheet 12, 1970. ● Name of website

For air photographs, similar information will ● url reference

normally be found in the margin. ● Date and other relevant details.

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 For example: ● publicity material relevant to your study – for
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, example, brochures printed by a hotel in your
http://www.goes.noaa.gov/browsh2.html study area.
12 September 2006, Satellite photograph of weather
systems in Western Atlantic and Caribbean. The plural of appendix is appendices. If you have
several appendices, you should label them
The appendix “Appendix I”, “Appendix II”, and so on. You may
Any material that will help the reader but does not refer to them in the main report, and you should
belong in the main body of the report should be in list them in the table of contents.
an appendix. This may include:
● a sample of your questionnaire form

● full details of statistical information from

secondary sources

17.6.1 Map of the Caribbean region.

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 INDEX
A basalt plateaux 18–19 Caribbean Court of Justice 295 climate 94–5, 135
abrasion 51, 72 batholiths 16, 17 Caribbean deforestation 142 altitude and temperature 99
absolute humidity 96 bauxite resources 234, 284 Haiti 147 continentality 98–9
adaptation to climate change 124 bauxite and aluminium 242 Iwokrama Centre, Guyana 151 equatorial climates 115
adaptation strategies 127 bauxite mining and the environment reafforestation 150 Jamaica 284
agriculture 250, 266 244–5 St Lucia 148–9 land and sea breezes 100
agriculture in Singapore 282 Caribbean bauxite and the world Caribbean economies 230–1 latitude 98
Amerindian farming 256–7 242–3 agriculture in the Caribbean 250–3 prevailing winds 100
changing role of sugar in Barbados future for Caribbean bauxite 244 bauxite mining 242–5 rainfall and relief 99–100
250–1 location of the bauxite industry 244 development 232–3 tropical marine climates 114–15
climate change 120, 123 marketing bauxite and alumina 243 fishing in Belize 236–9 weathering and climate 33
deforestation 142, 143 bays 76 forestry in Guyana 240–1 winds and relief 101
farm in the Guyanese coastlands beaches 75 Jamaica 284–7 climate change 116, 120
254–5 bayhead beaches 76 oil and gas in Trinidad and Tobago agriculture 120, 123
future for bananas 252 beach erosion in Barbados 88–9 246–9 changes to the Arctic 120
future for sugar 252, 259 beach protection 91 resources in the Caribbean 234–5 climate change and the Caribbean
Grenada 166 beach vacations 270 small-scale farming in Guyana 254–7 122–7
growing peanuts for sale 257 sand mining 76–7 sugar growing in Brazil 260–3 climate change and the UK 128–31
how export rules have changed two beaches in St Lucia 77 sugar growing in Guyana 258–9 El Niño 117
251–2 bearings 322 Caribbean manufacturing 276–7 global warming 118–19, 121
large- and small-scale farming 142, bed load 51 food processing 278–9 greenhouse gases 118
143, 254 Belize fishing industry 236 Caribbean migration flows 224 how ice ages affected the Caribbean
location factors for agriculture 293 aquaculture 238–9 effects of migration 225 116–17
new rural economy 253 conservation and sustainability host countries 226 human health and comfort 120
organic farming 257 237–8 migration and Jamaica 224 ice ages 116
technology 294 fishing and tourism 238 migration from Haiti and Cuba 227 mitigation strategies 124
traditional export markets 251 organization and marketing 237 migration from Montserrat 227 ocean currents 121
air pollution 218 resources and locations 236 return flow 226 proposals for international action
air pressure 95–6 Belize population 201 Caribbean natural hazards 156–7 132–3
aircraft tourism 273, 275 Belmopan, Belize 189 areas at risk 158–61 rainfall patterns 120
alluvium 52 bibliography 354–5 earthquakes 178–83 responses to concerns 124
alternative energy sources 124, 131 biofuels 259, 263 hurricanes 162–9 rising sea levels 66, 120–1, 122,
altitude 99 biomass 135 Caribbean Plate 8 123, 129
alumina 242, 243, 292 biomass energy 125 areas of stability 8 wildlife 120, 129
aluminium 242 biomes 134 map 9 clints 41
annual temperature range 95 tropical forests and the dry season Caribbean population 200–1 clockwise direction 103, 322
anticlines 12 139–41 Caribbean rivers 64–7 clouds 96–7
anticyclones 95–6, 102–3, 107 tropical rainforests 136–8 Caribbean time zones 303 coastal management 90
antitrades 103 biosphere 156 Caribbean tourism 266–7 coastal protection 87, 89
appendix 355 biotic conditions 135 aircraft technology and tourism 273 coastal zone vegetation 127
aquaculture 238–9 biotic resources 234 Bahamas 271 cold fronts 104, 107
aquifers 47 birdsfoot deltas 63 Barbados 268–9 collapse dolines 40
arches 74 birth rate 195, 200, 225 cruise ships 272 communications technology 294
Arctic 120 boulders 52 sustainable tourism 274–5 commuting 253
arcuate deltas 63 braided channels 61 Trinidad and Tobago 270 compasses 322
ash cones 20 brain drain 225 Caribbean urbanization 206–7 composite volcanic cones 21
ashfalls 171 Brazil 260–1 benefits and problems of urbanization conservation 237–8
Association of Caribbean States 295 agriculture in Brazil 262 214–17 constructive waves 70–1
Atlantis Resort, Paradise Island, Bahamas contrasts within Brazil 261 controlling urbanization in the continental drift 7
271 employment issues 263 Bahamas 220–1 continentality 98–9
atmosphere 156 ethanol and biofuels 263 population changes in Kingston convergent plate boundaries 6, 9
atolls 83 sugar cane farming in Brazil 262 212–13 coral reefs 81–2
attrition 51, 72 where sugar cane is grown 262–3 Port-au-Prince, Haiti 208–9 atolls 83
breezes 100 settlement in St Vincent 210–11 barrier reefs 82–3
B building design 124, 185 urban pollution problems 218–19 beach erosion in Barbados 88–9
backwash 70 Caribbean weather systems 102 climate change 122
Bahamas C anticyclones 102–3 coral bleaching 82, 85
Baha Mar, Cable Beach 271 calcium carbonate 27 cold fronts 104 fishing resources 89
controlling urbanization in the calderas 21, 22 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone fringing reefs 82
Bahamas 220–1 cambered beds 258 (ITCZ) 103–4 importance of coral reefs 84
Grand Bahama 222 carbon dioxide 118–19 trade winds 103 land-based threats to coral reefs 84–5
some Bahamian islands 222 carbon capture 124 tropical waves 104–5 marine-based threats 85
tourism 271 carbonation 32 CaribCan 295 worldwide threats 85
bakeries 292 Caribbean Basin Initiative 295 Caricom 295 core 4
bananas 252 Caribbean climate change 122 Caricom Single Market and Economy corrasion 51, 72
bar graphs 199 adaptation strategies 127 295 crabwood tree 240
Barbados 38 agriculture 123 Cariforum 295 crime 216
beach erosion in Barbados 88–9 coral reefs 122 casuarina tree 150 cruise tourism 269, 270, 272–3
changing role of sugar in Barbados geothermal power 126 catchment areas 48 Cuba
250–1 how ice ages affected the Caribbean caves 38–9, 44 Hurricane Ivan 168
Holetown, Barbados 330–1 116–17 marine caves 74 migration from Haiti and Cuba 227
Hurricane Ivan 168 mitigation strategies 124 Cayman Islands cultural factors 190
pollution control in Barbados 90–1 REDD+ agreements 124 Hurricane Ivan 167 cultural tourism 268, 270
population 201 reduced use of fossil fuels 124 population 201 cumulonimbus clouds 97
tourism challenges 269 renewable energy 125 chemical pollutants 85 cumulus clouds 97
tourism marketing 269 rising sea levels 122, 123 China 202, 204 cyclones 95–6
tourism successes 268 solar energy 126 choropleth maps 192
bars 61 storms and hurricanes 122 cirrus clouds 97 D
bay-bars 79 tourism 123 clay 52 daylight saving time 303
offshore bars 78, 79 water supply 123 cliffs 72–3 death rate 195, 200

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 decomposers 134 see Caribbean economies formal sector organizations 208 housing 166, 217
deforestation 142, 143, 145 ecosystems 134 fossil fuels 124 human activity 135
deforestation in Haiti 147 how ecosystems work 134–5 freeze-thaw weathering 30 human development 232
deforestation in the Caribbean 142 hygrophytic ecosystems 139 frost action 30, 31 human health and comfort 120
flooding and water supply 144 mesophytic ecosystems 139–40 frost shattering 30 humidity 96
large- and small-scale forest clearance why ecosystems vary 135 fumaroles 25, 172 humus 134
146 xerophytic ecosystems 140–1 hurricanes 108, 111
pattern of forest regeneration 147 El Niño 117 G climate change 122
soil erosion and landslides 145 employment 207, 263, 266 garment manufacturing 292 development of Hurricane Tomas
wildlife 144 endemic species 45 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 112–13
deltas 62–3 energy consumption 124, 130 298 flooding 163
demographic transition 196 energy efficiency 124 geomorphic data 347 how hurricanes are tracked 164
after Stage Four 197 energy production 294 geothermal power 126 how hurricanes die 110
Stage Four 197 energy sources 124, 125 ghauts 172 how hurricanes move 110
Stage One 196 energy supply 292 Global Positioning System (GPS) 297 hurricanes and tropical waves 112
Stage Three 197 environmental degradation 288 global warming 118–19 Ivan in Grenada 166–7
Stage Two 197 dust 288 globalization 232–3, 294 Ivan in other countries 167–8
dendritic drainage 49 Gulf of Mexico oil spill 290–1 gold resources 234 Jeanne 168–9
denudation 29 ozone layer 288–9 Google Earth 299 landslides 163
deportation 226 pollution 288 Google Maps 299–300 storm surge 163
deposition 26, 29, 52 risks linked to oil extraction 290 gorges 57 structure of a hurricane 109–10
bars 78, 79 sustainable development 288 government policies 200 tracking Ivan 164–5
lagoons 79–80 urban smog 289 government revenue 266, 285 wave damage 162
spits 78 epicentre of earthquake 10, 11 government support 268, 276 what happens when a hurricane
tombolos 78, 79 epiphytes 137 manufacturing 292 passes 110
depth 82 equatorial climates 115 graben 10, 11 where and when hurricanes form
destructive waves 70–1 erosion 26–7, 28, 29, 51 grain milling 278–9 108–9
development 157, 232 caves, arches and stacks 74 granular disintegration 33 wind damage 162
globalization 232–3 cliffs 72–3 graphs 199 hydraulic action 51, 72
gross domestic product 232 deforestation 145 gravel 52 hydroelectric power 125
human development 232 how waves erode 72 Great Rift Valley, Africa 14 hydrological cycle 46–7
diagrams 199 rock type and erosion 73 greenheart tree 240 hydrolysis 31
dip slopes 15 windward and leeward coasts 71 greenhouse gases 118, 119 hygrophytic ecosystems 139
direction 322 escarpments 14, 67 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) 302 hypocentre of earthquake 10
disasters 156 ethanol 263 Grenada
areas at risk 158–9 Eurasian Plate 19 Grenville, Grenada 328–9 I
Belize City 189 European Union (EU) 295 Hurricane Ivan 166–7 ice ages 116–17
coastal villages in Jamaica 189 evaporites 27 grid references 310–11 Iceland 19, 170
disaster management cycle 158 exfoliation 30 gross domestic product 232 igneous rocks 26
disaster response 188 extrusive volcanic features 18–21 ground fissures 176 illustrations 352
disaster risks and economic Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland 19 groundwater 46, 47 integrating illustrations and text 353
development 157 group work 345 photographs 352–3
reconstruction 189 F grykes 41 sketches, maps and diagrams 352
tourism and disasters 183 Family Islands, Bahamas 221–2 Gulf of Mexico oil spill 290 impermeable rock 46
why disaster risk is increasing 157 fashion design 292 financial cost 291 India 202, 205
discharge 48 faulting 10–11 gully erosion 145 industrial estates 292
dispersed settlements 211 faulting and landforms in Jamaica 14 Guyana infant mortality 195, 200
distance 312 fertility rate 194–5, 200 bauxite mining 244 infiltration 46, 47
distance along a curved line 313 field studies 340 forestry in Guyana 151, 240–1 informal sector organizations 208
estimating areas 313 combining sources 341 rivers 67 information technology 294
straight-line distance 312 group work 345 small-scale farming in Guyana 254–7 infrared images 106
diurnal temperature range 95, 115 illustrations and photographs 352–3 sugar growing in Guyana 258–9 infrastructures 266
divergent plate boundaries 6, 9 individual interviews 344 inputs 134, 286
divided circles 199 interview surveys 345–7 H insolation 98
dolines 40, 43 planning and preparing 344 Haiti insurance 185
dot maps 192 relevance 340 deforestation 147 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
drainage 48 scope 340 finding solutions 209 103–4
drainage basins 48–9 sources 340 Hurricane Jeanne 168–9 international date line 303
drainage density 48 strategy sheets 341–3 migration from Haiti and Cuba 227 International Monetary Fund and World
drainage patterns 49 study report 348–51 urban growth 208 Bank 295
drainage patterns in Jamaica 37 fires 176 urban poverty 208–9 interviews 344
drought 117, 120, 123, 129 fishing 85 Haiti earthquakes 2010 180 interview surveys 345–7
dry woodland 140 fishing in Belize 236–9 burying the dead 182 intrazonal soils 155
dust 288 fishing resources 89 faults and plate boundaries 180–1 intrusive volcanic features 16–17
dykes 16, 17 flash floods 160, 163 food, water, medical treatment 183 island arcs 9, 152
flood fallowing 258 immediate response 181–2 isobars 95
E flooding 163, 176 reconstruction and recovery 183 isopleth maps 192
Earth 4 deforestation 144 removing debris 183 Iwokrama Centre, Guyana 151
changes in volcanic features 22–5 floods and flood hazard mapping rescuing survivors 182
extrusive volcanic features 18–21 160–1 security 183 J
intrusive volcanic features 16–17 UK 128–9, 130 shelter 183 Jamaica
plate boundaries 10–15 floodplains 58 tourism 183 bauxite mining 244, 284
plate tectonics 5, 6–7, 8–9 focus (of earthquake) 10, 11 why the damage was severe 181 benefits and problems of urbanization
earthquakes 6, 7 folding 12 hazard management 158 214–17
earthquake hazard mapping 160 fold mountains 6, 13 building design 185 Cockpit Country 42–5
earthquake magnitude 177 food processing 278 earthquake preparations 186–7 drainage patterns in Jamaica 37
earthquake preparations 186–7 food processing in Singapore 282–3 insurance 185 earthquakes 178
earthquakes and faulting 10–11 grain milling 278–9 land at risk 184 faulting and landforms in Jamaica 14
earthquakes in the Caribbean 178–9 small-scale food processors 279 natural environment 184 foreign trade 286, 287
fires 176 forearc ridges 41 preparedness 158 future 286
floods 176 forest resources 149, 234, 284 reconstruction and recovery 158, government 285
ground fissures 176 forest protection 124 183, 189 Hurricane Ivan 167, 189
Haiti earthquake 2010 180–3 see deforestation; rainforests; tropical response 158, 181–2 Jamaican iMap 299
landslides 176 forests risk reduction 158 linkages 286
liquefaction 176 forestry 240 storm warnings 164 migration 224, 285
tremors 176 forest management 241 when a warning is issued 186 natural resources 284
tsunamis 176 forests and forest industries 240 headlands 76 population 200
economic activities 230, 266 transport and accessibility 241 historical factors 190 population changes in Kingston
changing economy 231 trees and their uses 240–1 horst 10, 11 212–13

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 Queen of Spain’s Valley, Jamaica M providing for the future 249 Dominica 191
332–3 magma 7 Trinidad and Tobago’s resources 248 Guyana 191
stages in development 284–5 mangroves 86 Venezuela, Mexico and Colombia 249 Trinidad 193
Yallahs River 64–5 mangroves and coastal protection where gas is produced 247 population dynamics 194–5
87, 89 natural hazards 156 population growth 194, 225
K threats to coastal mangroves 87 earthquake hazard mapping 160 China 202, 204
karst landforms 42 why are mangroves important? 86 earthquakes 176–83 demographic transition 196–7
Cockpit Country 42–5 mantle 4 floods and flood hazard mapping graphs and diagrams 199
Kingston, Jamaica 212, 285 manufacturing 276 160–1 India 202, 205
aerial photographs and maps 305–7, government support 276 hazard levels in Montserrat 159 Nigeria 202–3
308–9 increased competition 276–7 volcanic hazard mapping 159 population growth rate 194
bad housing conditions 217 Jamaica 284 volcanoes 170–5 population in the Caribbean 200–1
contrasts between Kingston and rural location factors for manufacturing natural increase 195, 200, 206 population pyramids 198
Jamaica 214 292–3 natural resources 230, 234–5, 284 world’s largest cities in 2015 206
downtown and New Kingston manufacturing in Singapore 282 nature tourism 270, 274 population maps 192
214–15 small-scale manufacturing 253 new technology 253, 294 precipitation 97
Portmore 216 technology 294 Nigeria 202–3 primary activities 230
relief 316 maps 296–8, 334 non-renewable resources 232 primary consumers 134
slowing growth 214 aerial photographs and maps 305–7 North American Free Trade Agreement probability 159
transport 216 contour patterns and landforms 295 producers 134
urban sprawl 212–13 316–17 North American Plate 19 production forests 149
water pollution in Kingston Harbour contours 315 northers 104 protection forests 149
218–19 cross sections 318–19 nuclear energy 131 protection/production forests 149
Kingstown, St Vincent 210–11 direction 322 nucleated settlements 211 purple heart tree 240
Kyoto agreement 132 feet and metres 319 push and pull factors 207, 223
after Kyoto 132–3 Google Maps 299–300 O pyroclastic flows 21, 25, 170
gradients 319 ocean currents 121
L Grenville, Grenada 328–9 ocean trenches 6, 7 Q
labour 292 grid references 310–11 oil 246 questionnaire design tips 346–7
lagoons 78, 79–80 hill at Dibe, near Port of Spain, international markets and location
lahars 35, 171 Trinidad 320 247 R
Laki fissure, Iceland 19, 170 hill shading 315 providing for the future 249 radial drainage 49
land breezes 100 Holetown, Barbados 330–1 risks linked to oil extraction 290 rain 97
land management strategies 149 Jamaican iMap 299 Trinidad and Tobago’s resources 248 rain shadow 99
forest management 149 layer colouring 315 Venezuela, Mexico and Colombia 249 rainfall and relief 99–100
Iwokrama Centre, Guyana 151 Macaque Hill, near Diego Martin, where oil is produced 247 rainfall patterns 120
reafforestation 150 Trinidad 321 oil spills 85 rainforests 136
land pollution 218 Petit Martinique, Grenadines 324–5 Gulf of Mexico oil spill 290–1 forest floor 138
land reclamation 244–5 population maps 192 oil spills on land and at sea 191 other plants 137
land-use planning 127 Queen of Spain’s Valley, Jamaica oolite 36, 37 shrub layer 138
landslides 34–5, 163, 176 332–3 organic farming 257 structure of the rainforest 138
landslide damage 35 reducing and enlarging 323 organic pollution 85 trees 136–7
latitude 98 scale and distance 312–13 organization 292 world’s tropical rainforests 137
latitude and longitude 301 scale and symbols 308–9 Organization of Eastern Caribbean States rapids 57
latosols 155 sketch maps 323 295 ratios 319
lava 7 spot heights 315 overland flow 46, 47 raw materials 286, 292
acid lava 170 Tucker Valley, Trinidad 326–7 oxbow lakes 60 reafforestation 150
ash cones 20 weather maps 107 oxidation 31 recreation 85, 207
basalt lava 170 marketing 292 ozone layer 288–9 red mud 245
basalt plateaux 18–19 markets 292 REDD (Reducing Emissions from
basic lava 18, 170 market challenges 295 P Deforestation and Forest Degradation)
lava flows 170 mass wasting 28 parasitic plants 137 124
viscous lava 18, 20, 170 landslides 34–5 peanuts 257 refracted waves 75
leaching 155 soil creep 34 percentages 319 regolith 28
leeward coasts 71, 99 meanders 59 percolation 46, 47 relative humidity 96
letterwood tree 241 Mercalli Scale 177 permeable rock 46 relief 99–100, 292
leucaena tree 150 mesophytic ecosystems 139–40 Petit Martinique, Grenadines 324–5 relief in Kingston 316
levees 61 metamorphic rocks 27 PetroCaribe 295 relief in St Kitts 311, 316
lianas 137 microwave images 106 petroleum resources 234 relief mapping 314–17
life expectancy 195, 200 migration 195, 200, 206–7 photographs 352–3 relief rain 99
limestone 27 Caribbean migration flows 224–7 physical factors 190 winds and relief 101
Barbados 38 Jamaica 285 plate tectonics 5 remittances 225
caves 38–9, 44 migration from the Caribbean 222–3 Caribbean Plate and its neighbours rendzinas 155
cockpit karst 42–3 migration within the Caribbean 223 8–9 renewable energy 125, 131
composition of limestone 36 push and pull factors 223 continental drift 7 renewable resources 232
how gullies were formed 41 mineral resources 175, 284 convergent plate boundaries 6, 9 research 344
inland cliffs 41 mining 142 divergent plate boundaries 6, 9 review questions
limestone pavements, clints and mitigation of climate change 124, earthquakes and faulting 10–11 agriculture 264–5
grykes 41 130–1 extrusive volcanic features 18–21 coastal features 92–3
limestone resources 234–5 moment magnitude 177 faulting and landforms in Jamaica 14 interpreting maps 335–9
poljes 44 Montserrat volcanic eruption 1995 fold mountains 13 population and settlement 228–9
stalagmites and stalactites 39 172–3 folding 12 rivers and weathering 68–9
surface depressions 40 earning a living 175 Great Rift Valley, Africa 14 rills 46
underground rivers 38, 44 evacuation of population 174 plate margins 5 rill erosion 145
volcanic and limestone islands 152–3 hazard levels in Montserrat 159 Point Radix in Trinidad 14–15 rivers 47, 53
weathering and drainage on limestone migration from Montserrat 227 transform plate boundaries 7, 9 bars 61
37 reconstruction 175 plugs 16, 17 braided channels 61
line graphs 199 warning signs 174 poljes 44 Caribbean rivers 64–7
linear settlements 211 mudflows 171 pollution 82, 288 deltas 62–3
linkages 286 air pollution 218 deposition 52
liquefaction 176 N land pollution 218 erosion 51
lithosphere 4, 156 Nassau, New Providence, Bahamas 220 pollution control in Barbados 90–1 floodplains 58
lobate deltas 63 large-scale tourism 271 pollution reduction 219 gorges 57
longitude 301 natural gas 234, 246 solid waste pollution 218 how material is deposited 52
lumbering 142 how natural gas is used 248–9 water pollution 218–19 levees 61
commercial timber extraction 143 international markets and location population density 190 lower course 54, 55
transport and accessibility 241 247–8 contrasts within countries 190 meanders 59

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 middle course 54, 55 Hurricane Ivan 168 tourism and disasters 183 calderas 21, 22
oxbow lakes 60 settlement 210–11 tourism and the environment 274 Caribbean volcanoes 170
rapids 57 St Vincent Soufrière 22–4 tourism in the economy 266–7 composite volcanic cones 21
rivers and energy 50 stacks 74 Trinidad and Tobago 270 lava flows 170
transportation 51 stalactites 39 why tourists visit the Caribbean 266 Montserrat 159, 172–5
underground rivers 38, 44 stalagmites 39 traction 51 mudflows and lahars 171
upper course 54 storms 122 trade winds 103 pyroclastic flows 21, 25, 170
waterfalls 56–7 tropical storm warnings and watches trading blocs 295 shield volcanoes 19
rock types 26–7 164 transform plate boundaries 7, 9 viscous lava domes 20
rock type and erosion 73 stranglers (plants) 137 transport 166, 216, 241, 292 volcanic hazard mapping 159
rock type and weathering 33 strategy sheets 341–2 transportation 26, 51
Roseau River, St Lucia 66 sample sheet 343 wave transportation 75–6 W
run-off 46, 47 stratus clouds 97 trees 150 wallaba tree 240
rural economy 253 study report 348 trees and their uses 240–1 warnings 186
new products and diversification 253 analysis and discussion of your data trees (tropical rainforest) 136–7 hurricane warnings 164
rural population 206, 207 351 “A”-layer or emergent trees 138 volcanic eruptions 164
push and pull factors 207 bibliography and appendix 351 “B”-layer or canopy trees 138 water 84
conclusion 351 “C”-layer or lower-storey trees 138 water supply 123, 129, 144
S introduction and aims of the study trellised drainage 49 water cycle 46
salinity 82 348 tremors 176 water pathways 47
fresh water 84 length and format 348 Trinidad and Tobago 270 water pollution 218–19
saltation 51 location of the study 348–9 hill at Dibe, near Port of Spain, reducing pollution 219
sand 52 methodology and data collection 350 Trinidad 320 water vapour images 106
sand mining 76–7 presenting your data 350–1 Hurricane Ivan 168 waterfalls 56–7
satellites 296 site map 349–50 Macaque Hill, near Diego Martin, waves 70
Global Positioning System (GPS) 297 table of contents 348 Trinidad 321 constructive and destructive waves
satellite images 106 title page and strategy sheet 348 oil and gas industry 246–9 70–1
scree 30, 31 subduction zones 6 Point Radix in Trinidad 14–15 how waves approach the shore 75
sea breezes 100 subsistence farms 257 Tucker Valley, Trinidad 326–7 how waves erode 72
sea defences 127 suburbs 206 tropical forests 136–8 hurricanes 162
sea level changes 66, 120–1, 122, 123, sugar 250, 292 dry woodland 140 wave transportation 75–6
129 changing role of sugar in Barbados forest management plans 149, 241 wave-cut platforms 72
Caribbean 122, 123 250–1 semi-evergreen forest 139–40 windward and leeward coasts 71
UK 129 future of the sugar industry 252, 259 thorn scrub 141 weather 94–5
secondary activities 230 sugar factories 259 threats to the forest 142–3 air pressure and winds 95–6
secondary consumers 134 sugar growing 258 tropical marine climates 114–15 Caribbean weather systems 102–5
sectors of the economy 208, 284–5 sugar growing in Brazil 262–3 equatorial climates 115 clouds 96–7
sediment 85 sunlight 82 variations in tropical marine climates humidity 96
sedimentary rocks 26–7, 36, 37 Super Coffeemix 283 115 hurricane warnings and watches 164
semi-evergreen forest 139–40 Suriname tropical waves 104–5, 107 influences on weather 98–101
service industries 285 bauxite mining 244 hurricanes and tropical waves 112 precipitation 97
settlement 210–11 Surtsey, Iceland 19 tsunamis 176 temperature 95
sheet erosion 145 surumi 283 tsunamis and the Caribbean 179 tropical storm warnings and watches
shield volcanoes 19 suspension 51 turbidity 82 164
shields 9 sustainability 237–8, 294 weather maps 107
shifting cultivation 256–7 sustainable development 232, 288 U weather satellites 106
shipping 85 sustainable tourism 274–5 UK climate 128 weather stations 106
sial 4 swallow holes 38, 40 flooding and the Thames Barrier 130 weathering 26, 28, 29
sills 16, 17 swash 70 international threats and the UK 129 biological weathering 32
silt 52 swells 70 mitigation strategies 130–1 carbonation 32
sima 4 synclines 12 threats from climate change 128–9 chemical weathering 31
Singapore 280–2 Unicurd 283 frost action 30, 31
agriculture 282 T Universal Co-ordinated Time (UTC) 303 physical weathering 30
food processing 282–3 technology 253, 294 updraughts 96 pressure release 30
manufacturing 282 Tee Yih Jia 282, 283 uplift 67 rock type and weathering 33
sink holes 40 temperature 82, 95 urbanization 206 weathering and climate 33
sketch maps 323 altitude and temperature 99 benefits of urbanization 214–15 weathering and drainage on limestone
small businesses 266 tertiary activities 230 controlling urbanization in the 37
small-scale food processors 279 Thong Seik 283 Bahamas 220–1 weathering front 28
smog 289 thorn scrub 141 Port-au-Prince, Haiti 208–9 wildlife 120, 129, 144
social services 207 throughflow 46, 47 problems of urbanization 216–17 winds 95–6
socio-economic factors 190 time zones 302 push and pull factors 207 antitrades 103
soft drinks 292 calculating local time 304 urban development 142 hurricanes 108–13, 162–9
soil 135 time zones in the Caribbean 303 urban growth 206, 208, 213 land and sea breezes 100
intrazonal soils 155 understanding time zones 303 urban growth in the Caribbean prevailing winds 100
Jamaica 284 Tobago see Trinidad and Tobago 206–13 trade winds 103
latosols 155 tombolos 78, 79 urban pollution problems 218–19 wind energy 125
soil creep 34 topics urban population 206 wind erosion 145
soil erosion 145 bibliography and appendix 354–5 urban sprawl 206, 212–13 winds and relief 101
soils and ecosystems 154 field studies 340–3 world’s largest cities in 2015 206 windward coasts 71
soils fertility 154 illustrations and photographs 352–3 worldwide urban growth 206 world population 194
solar energy 126 preliminary research 344 USA World Trade Organization 295
solid waste pollution 218 presenting your study report 348–51 Hurricane Ivan 168
solution 31, 51, 72 primary sources 345–7 utilities 207 X
solution dolines 40 tourism 225, 253 V xerophytic ecosystems 140–1
spits 78 aircraft technology and tourism 273 valleys 54–5
sports 268 Bahamas 271 how meanders widen a river valley Y
squatting 142 Barbados 268–9 59 yachting 270
St Kitts relief 311, 316 climate change 123 visible light images 106 Yallahs River 64
St Lucia cruise tourism 269, 270, 272–3 volcanic features 16–17, 18–21 how the river has been modified 65
deforestation 148 fishing and tourism 238 St Lucia 24–5 lower course 65
Hurricane Ivan 168 Grenada 167 St Vincent Soufrière 22–4 middle course 65
land management 149 Jamaica 284, 285 volcanic and limestone islands 152–3 upper course 64
Roseau River 66 location factors for tourism 293 volcanic landscapes 22
two beaches in St Lucia 77 Montserrat 175 volcanoes 6, 7, 11 Z
urban and rural differences 207 nature-based tourism 274 ash cones 20 zonal soils 155
St Vincent technology 294 ashfalls 171

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