Running head: AVIATION RESEARCH 1

Viable Future Propulsion Options for Fixed-Wing Aircraft within the Earth’s Atmosphere

Kipkoech Kevin

JKUAT- College of Engineering and Technology (COETEC)

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Viable Future Propulsion Options for Fixed-Wing Aircraft within the Earth’s Atmosphere

Introduction

Just like automotive engineering, the long-term negative impact of fossil fuel

consumption on global warming and climate change has spurred efforts into the search for

alternative sources of propulsion for aircraft. Although alternative aircraft propulsion

technologies are still lagging as compared to automobiles, it is a safe bet to assume that the

aviation landscape is going to be very different shortly. Research has been conducted and

prototypes have been developed on various aircraft propulsion systems such as electricity, hybrid

aviation systems, solar-powered planes, hybrid planes, and Pulse Detonation systems. These

technologies are discussed in more detail in the following sections.

Electric and Solar-powered Aircraft Propulsion

Electricity, as asserted by most aerospace giants such as NASA, is the future of air travel.

Many industries have developed conceptual electric engines that would serve in aircraft

propulsion as the world races to achieve zero emissions. Perhaps the current most popular

electric plane is the Alice that was developed by the Israeli aviation company Eviation. The

prototype is projected to carry up to nine adults and travel non-stop over a distance of six

hundred and fifty kilometers. With its capability of traveling as high as 10000 ft at speeds of over

400 km/h, the plane is expected to have a booming market and is going to hit the air as soon as

two years from now.

To date, Solar Impulse 2 remains the most popular solar-powered flight in the world. The

single-seat aircraft used only solar electricity to circumnavigate the planet in a flight that took

550 hours (Nunez 2016). The solar-powered flight may not be as fast or nearly as efficient as
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fuel or electric-powered flight, but it is the most sustainable flight of them all (Brelje & Martins

2019). Solar-powered planes feature solar panels across their wingspan and they actively convert

solar energy into electric power during flight.

The use of electricity to power flight not only saves the environment but also reduces

aircraft weight through the removal of unnecessary and usually heavy components such as the

fuel engine. This makes flight more economical and efficient. Current challenges lie in the

conversion of electricity into power but once this is addressed, electric power will be cemented

as the main replacement for fossil fuel in powered flight.

Hybrid Aircraft Propulsion

Recently, Rolls Royce unveiled its new hybrid-electric engine concept which is intended

to be in the mainstream as the next generation of air travel takes shape. The company is currently

working with another aviation company known as APUS to make the dream of hybrid propulsion

a reality shortly. Conventional gas engines are disadvantaged by thermodynamic inefficiencies,

mechanical losses and throttling, and build-up of stress during high speed, and all these factors a

collective detriment on overall aircraft performance. This, coupled with the fact that fuel

combustion is damaging the environment and fuel resources are diminishing globally, has forced

engineers to go green in aviation propulsion (Rolls Royce 2019). This involves the use of

technologies such as electric and hydrogen propulsion but since current technological constraints

mean the desirable level of efficiency is not achievable using these new systems, a hybrid system

utilizing both electric and fuel propulsion systems is proposed. This ensures fuel usage is

reduced while performance levels are maintained at least up to the time when fully efficient pure

electric or hydrogen propulsion systems are developed.

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The system comprises a fuel engine and an electric motor. Fuel input and batteries are

connected to the engine and the motor respectively. A controller determines power transmission

between the batteries and the motor to ensure the electric system only comes online when

needed. Two main hybrid systems exist as shown below;

(i) Parallel hybrid systems- in parallel systems, the gas engine and the electric

systems run independently. The gas engine system is the preferred system for

takeoff and landing but during emergencies or high-altitude cruises, the pilot can

manually switch to electric propulsion. Both propulsion systems are directly

connected to the transmission system of the plane but the electric system is

controlled using an inbuilt controller.

(ii) Series hybrid systems- in such systems, there is a single input to the transmission

system as both the gas engine and electric systems come together before getting to

the transmission system. The two systems converge at the controller which closes

the type of propulsion to drive the plane’s systems as needed. A generator is fitted

to the IC engine to convert its power into electricity before going to the controller.

The controller then transmits electric energy from the IC engine or from the

batteries to the motor that then transmits mechanical energy to the electric motor.

Generally, hybrid systems consist of gas engine systems that provide energy and an

electric system that provides support. Some of the positives brought about by electric propulsion

systems include reduction of environmental pollution by the gas engine through the reduction of

fuel consumption, reduction of vibration and mechanical losses, elimination of altitude effects

that impact gas engine performance, improved aerobatic performance, and proper distribution of

propulsion throughout the aircraft.

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The Volta Volare DaVinci is a revolutionary hybrid diesel-electric developed by the

Volta Volare Company. Designed as the flagship of the new breed of hybrid aircraft, it has few

moving parts and has enhanced speed and safety. Its key specifications include a weight of 2600

pounds, a capacity of 1200 pounds, a 220-kW electric motor as the source of electric energy and

a 300-horsepower engine, a maximum speed of 75 knots, a take-off distance of 1400 feet, and a

landing distance of 1500 feet (Volta Volare). This model is under construction and is expected to

take to the skies this decade. It primarily targets the private jet space but depending on its success

and advances that would be made concerning the efficiency of hybrid propulsion, it is highly

likely that companies such as Volta Volare will be the leading aviation companies soon.

Turbo-electric Aircraft Propulsion

This is a type of propulsion that involves interconversions between mechanical energy

and electric energy. Mechanical energy from a rotating turbine is converted into electrical energy

via a generator, transmitted to a given point, and converted back into mechanical energy via an

electric motor. This type of propulsion is used in all kinds of vehicles ranging from ships to

aircraft. The use of turboelectric propulsion in aircraft brings about several advantages such as;

(i) Mechanical losses are minimized. The transmission of power in a turbo-electric

drive is achieved through the conversion of mechanical energy into electric

energy so that it is converted back to mechanical energy at its destination. This

reduces the number of moving parts on the aircraft and friction and vibration

losses are reduced as a result. This helps save on fuel, conserve the environment,

and improve the aircraft’s range and durability. This is the main driving force

behind the adoption of turbo-electric drives in aviation.

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(ii) The fact that maximum power is transmitted to the engine means engine core

noise is reduced. This is because there is sufficient power to run the fans and other

cooling apparatus thus ensuring engine conditions are maintained at the optimum

level.

(iii) Turbo-electric propulsion systems can be used as a backup to regular hybrid,

electric, or gas engine systems. This means in the event of failure of the main

propulsion system, aircraft performance such as symmetric thrust is maintained.

Turbo-electric systems, therefore, enhance plane safety and are expected to be in

much more use in the future as aircraft safety continues to be the main issue.

(iv) The system improves load distribution in the plane. For instance, wing-tip-

mounted engine systems, turbo-electric systems make it possible to lower the

structure weight of wings since engine size and mass is considerably reduced.

Wing-tip positioning of the engine also reduces lift-induced drag and turbulence-

induced vortices.

Despite these merits brought about by the use of turbo-electric propulsion in aircraft,

some disadvantages exist too. These include increased system complexity due to the addition of

new systems, increase in aircraft weight due to the addition of new components such as

generators and electric motors, increased risk of poor performance due to non-linearity between

external aircraft aerodynamics and the turbo-electric system, and the ingestion of ice, water, and

snow through openings of the turbo-electric system such as the mail-slot inlet.

Hydrogen-powered Aircraft Propulsion

The use of hydrogen as a fuel for propulsion has been a popular prospect for the future of

automotive and aviation engineering for a long time. Automotive companies such as Toyota and
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Honda had earlier developed prototypes for such propulsion but it wasn’t until 2016 that the

world of aviation finally embraced the technology as the HY4 became the first hydrogen-

powered plane to fly (Pipistrel, n. d). The aviation giant has since revealed three different

concepts for hydrogen-based zero-emission aircraft which according to them, would be in

service in fifteen years. These concepts differ in terms of structure and range;

(i) Concept 1: This is a turbofan-based aircraft that has a range of approximately

2000nm. Airbus states that this plane will be powered by a modified version of

the gas turbine engine that burns hydrogen to produce thrust, and water a waste

(Bailey 2020). This aircraft is expected to replace the current Airbus A320

(ii) Concept 2: this is a turboprop-based plane that targets local and regional flights

soon. It has a range of 1000nm and a capacity of 100 passengers (Bailey 2020).

(iii) Concept 3: this is the newest of the three concepts and is not based on any current

aircraft (Bailey 2020). The revolutionary design is expected to have space for up

to 200 passengers and it would have sufficient storage for liquid hydrogen making

it usable for inter-continental flights.

However, before the goal of zero emissions could be achieved, Airbus cites several

challenges associated with hydrogen propulsion that first need to be addressed. They include the

need for safe storage facilities for hydrogen, revamping of airports to suit hydrogen refueling and

huge monetary investments.

Electro-aerodynamic Thrust Systems for Aircraft Propulsion

Electro-aerodynamic propulsion systems are a relatively new concept used in ionocrafts,

solid-state, or ion-propelled air transport. The main advantage that this system promise is to
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greatly improve aircraft performance since no combustion and movement of parts that effectively

eliminate most energy losses from the aircraft. Since the technology is still in its infancy, it has

been developed to a very small extent and has only been tested on a handful of small, unmanned

aircraft (Muelaner 2019). The technology was first stumbled upon by Thomas Brown during a

VTOL experiment and thinking it was an anti-gravity phenomenon, he named it the Biefield-

Brown effect. However, it wasn’t until after it was discovered that the effect did not work in a

vacuum that it was determined to be an electro-aerodynamic effect. Research and development

into this technology were undertaken shortly after it was discovered. The first ionocraft prototype

was developed in 1959 and it could move sideways and hover in the air under the support of

‘ionic wind’ that was created by varying the amount of voltage on different parts of the craft

simultaneously. Currently, the most advanced form of this technology is the Wingless

Electromagnetic Air Vehicle (WEAV), first introduced in 2008 (Muelaner 2019), which uses

electrodes installed on its surface to emit ions and generate lift. The WEAV architecture also

incorporates magnetic fields that increase the efficiency and strength of the ionization process.

The concept of ionic propulsion generally involves the movement of air due to ionization

introduced through electrical fields. It works following the principle of electro-hydrodynamics.

The emitting surface structures such that two conductive electrodes are laid parallel to each

other. They are separated by an air column such that no direct movement of current takes place

between them. The emitter wire is then fed with sufficient electric voltage such that a very large

electric potential is created between the two plates. This forces electricity to ‘jump’ across the

insulation column to reach the second plate. As this takes place, electricity at the emitter plate

ionizes the surrounding air (Muelaner 2019). These ions then flow towards the oppositely-

charged collector plate. The strength of this flow is dependent on the electric potential between
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the plates, and this is controlled such that an ionic stream that is strong enough to support an

aircraft and to propel it in the air is achieved. The following equation determines the ionic thrust

force provided by an electro-aerodynamic engine dependent on the amount of current (I), the

separation distance between the two conductor plates (d), and the ion mobility coefficient which

is unique to the insulation medium (k);

Id
F=
k

Ionocraft design and performance focuses on three principal parts namely;

(i) The Emitter- this mostly comprises a thin wire or a plate that is connected to a

power supply that provides high voltage to the system. The wire must be highly

conductive and some of the materials that are prime candidates for this application

include white copper and stainless steel. Since ionization is inversely proportional

to the size of the wire as shown in the equation shown above, it is ensured that the

wire or plate is as thin as possible.

(ii) The Air Gap- air provides an ionization target for the system and also provides an

environment across which ions can be accelerated between the two plates to

produce thrust or lift. 1mm/kV is considered as the ideal thickness of their gap at

this point of this technology, but this is expected to change as engineers attempt to

increase the efficiency of electro-aerodynamic propulsion soon.

(iii) The Collector- material used at the collector must have the capability to conduct

vast amounts of current per unit time to ensure that a constant flow of ions is

maintained across the air gap for sufficient propulsion. Most theoretical and

prototype-stage models of the collector feature the use of conductive tubes, foil
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skirts, and meshed wires to maximize electric conduction. Better designs of the

collector are expected in the future as the electro-aerodynamic system continues

to evolve and become more

To support aircraft sizes that are similar to modern aircraft, a lot of electric power is

required to generate sufficient electro-aerodynamic thrust. Current technological constraints do

not permit humans to use this technology to propel aircraft more than a couple of kilograms but

it is expected to be a mainstream aviation technology in the future because it is well ahead of its

time (Muelaner 2019). Conventional gas engines remain more efficient than electro-aerodynamic

thrusters because the latter requires a lot more power to produce the same amount of lift. Since

the technology does not work in a vacuum, it will be restricted to airplanes and not suitable for

rocket technology.

Pulse Detonation Propulsion

Pulse Detonation Engines (PDEs) derive combustion and subsequent propulsion from

supersonic detonation waves (Cassady 2016). This technology was first developed during the

second world war as a propulsion system for the V-1 missile by Nazi Germany. However, it was

noted that flame propagation slowed down the missile, and the use of PDEs gradually dropped.

After several decades, it was then figured out that if the detonation process is modeled on a

constant-volume basis, the negative effect of flame propagation could be eliminated and a great

amount of thrust could be derived from the engine as a result.

The combustion chamber is a PDE that is structured such that the air-fuel mixture can

undergo explosive combustion at supersonic speeds known as detonation. This creates a

shockwave that traverses the chamber causing all contents to combust simultaneously before
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they could expand. This, known as constant-volume combustion, creates a lot of pressure at once

and its release from the engine provides much more thrust than conventional gas engines. This

fully eliminates energy losses during expansion as chemical energy changes into heat energy

during normal combustion. All chemical energy is theoretically harvested in this engine thus

promoting fuel economy and very high efficiency.

The main advantages that are brought about by PDE systems include;

(i) Higher efficiency- the rate of combustion is greatly improved in PDE engines as

compared to regular engines. This ensures PDEs produce more power per unit

time.

(ii) Reduced complexity- the process is much more straightforward thus letting the

design be much less complex than the jet gas engine.

(iii) The system saves more fuel since the process of combustion is made much more

efficient.

However, despite all these advantages associated with PDEs, it’s implementation is

currently affected by many challenges including;

(i) It is difficult to always create conditions within the engine that permit detonation

to occur. This means in some cycles, the PDE would burn fuel like a regular gas

engine (Cassady 2016). The ideal operating cycle of a PDE involves mixing of air

and fuel in their correct proportions, combustion of the air-fuel mixture,

blowdown of the products of combustion, and purging of the resultant

soundwave. When the ideal conditions for detonation are not set, only the first
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two steps of the cycle take place making it similar to regular gas engines and

lowering the PDE’s efficiency.

(ii) The PDE requires a Deflagration-Detonation Transition (DDT) system to ensure

that detonation occurs and a shockwave is created. This means additional

components are required to build the system making it much more expensive

(Cassady 2016). DDT is achieved through the increment of turbulence within the

engine, the use of specific engine construction materials to cause interference, and

the installation of an efficient heat removal system.

(iii) The nature of combustion in the PDE means a lot more heat is generated than in

normal gas engines (Cassady 2016). This means more frequent repairs are needed

and the use of more heat-resistant materials, which may be more expensive, is

required during construction.

It is expected that these challenges are going to be addressed in the future and PDE would

become a viable form of aircraft propulsion (Pandey & Debnath 2016). This is very important

since more efficient fuel-burning systems are needed due to the gradual reduction in fuel.

However, after man has exhausted all fossil fuels from the planet, this technology will no longer

be usable. In short, this technology is likely to be used as a way of slowing down the

consumption of fossil fuels.

Conclusions

This paper includes an in-depth discussion of key technologies that will dictate the future

of aircraft propulsion. This is because the earth’s fossil fuel reserves are fast-dwindling and the

high rates of energy losses leading to inefficiency and environmental pollution by conventional

gas engines. Currently, most green technologies are not efficient enough to completely replace
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current fossil fuel engines hence a lot of research and development is expected in the coming

decades. The five key technologies that are expected to revolutionize air travel and humans enter

a new age include electric and solar propulsion, hybrid propulsion, turbo-electric propulsion,

hydrogen propulsion, electro-aerodynamic propulsion, and Pulse Detonation Engines. Already a

mainstream technology in the transport industry and spearheaded by global companies such as

Tesla, electric propulsion promises to replace gas engines in automobiles and aircraft. However,

current aircraft models are smaller than conventional aircraft and have lower performance

meaning more research is required on the topic. The same is said about solar energy. Hybrid

propulsion is an intermediate technology that seeks to maintain the efficiency of gas engines

while minimizing fuel usage and using electric power to cover the deficit. Turbo-electric systems

are electric systems in which mechanical losses are minimized through constant interconversions

between electric and mechanical energy to ensure that the aircraft has a few moving parts and

possible. Hydrogen propulsion utilizes the high combustibility of hydrogen to generate electric

power in vehicles and aircraft that is then used for propulsion while producing water as a by-

product. Electro-aerodynamic propulsion, the most advanced of the bunch, involves the

ionization of air and the use of the resulting ionic flow to provide propulsion. Pulse Detonation

Engines optimize the process of fuel combustion through the detonation of the air-fuel mixture to

get better performance from less fuel.

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