Information Technology 9626 As Level Notes

1/28/2019 Information Technology (9626) - AS Level Notes - Google Docs
Data, Information,
Knowledge and
Processing
Data, Information and Knowledge
Data: Raw numbers, letters, symbols, sounds or images without meaning
or context.
Information: Data with context and meaning.
Knowledge: Information to which human experience has been applied.
Sources of Data
Static Data: Data that does not normally change.
Dynamic Data: Data that changes automatically without user intervention.
Primary Data: Data that is collected for the purpose for which it will be
used.
Secondary Data: Data that was collected for a different purpose.
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Quality of Information
Accuracy Data must be accurate to be considered of a good quality
Relevance Information must be relevant to its purpose
Age Information must be kept up to date in order to be useful
Level of Detail Too much information will make it difficult to find the
information required. Too little information means that it
cannot be used correctly.
Completeness All of the information required must be provided.
Coding and Encoding Data

Advantages and Disadvantages of Coding Data
Advantages Disadvantages
Data can be presented in small There may not be enough codes
spaces, and less storage space is available to use, meaning that more
required. letters or numbers need to be
added.
Data can be input more quickly. Inputting data too quickly may result
in errors.
Processors can process data more Some letters such as O and 0 can
quickly since they only have to be hard to distinguish, especially if
process the coded data. handwritten.
Coded data can be validated by If a user inputting codes does not
checking its length and/or its know what code to use, then they
format. will be unable to enter the data
efficiently.
Data can be coded so that it cannot Some information and detail may
be understood by others. be lost in the process of coding.
Encoding Data
When data is encoded, it is stored in a specific format. Computers use
binary digits, which are 1s and 0s.
Text is encoded as a number which is then represented by a binary

number. The most common encoding method is ASCII (American Standard
Code for Information Interchange), which consists of 256 codes from 0 to
255.
Images are encoded as bitmaps. The pixel size of the image, the bit count,
compression type and resolution is encoded.
Sound is encoded by including information about the sample rate, the bit
depth, and the number of channels. Lossy compression will reduce file size
and reduce quality at the same time, while lossless compression reduces
the file size without losing any quality.
Video is encoded by storing both image and sound. Images are stored as
frames, and a FPS value (frames per second) must also be determined.
The resolution of the video and the bit rate is also encoded.
Advantages
● Reduces file size, leading to smoother streaming and downloading.
● Reduced file size means that more files can be stored.
● Different file formats can be used for different purposes.
Disadvantages
● Required codecs may not be installed.
● Not all software is capable of opening different file types.
● Quality is lost when using lossy compression.
Encryption
Encryption scrambles data so that if it is found, it cannot be understood.
However, this does not stop the data from being intercepted, stolen or lost.
As long as the encryption key or keys are kept secure, it is virtually
impossible for somebody to decrypt the data using brute-force methods.
Caesar Cipher
A cipher is a secret way of writing. It is usually applied by shifting the letters
of the alphabet along. This was used in the Roman Empire by Julius
Caesar to communicate in secret with his generals.
Symmetric Encryption
It requires both the sender and recipient to possess the same encryption
key, which is used to encrypt and decrypt the message. The secret key
must be sent to the recipient, either alongside the message or separately.
This isn’t very secure as both the message and the key could be
compromised at the same time.
Asymmetric Encryption
This is also known as public-key cryptography. It helps overcome the
problem of keys being intercepted by using a pair
of keys. Each person possess a public key and
private key. The public key is known to everyone,
and is used to encrypt the message. The
encrypted message is then sent to the recipient,
and only they can decrypt the message by using
the corresponding private key. This means that
even if the message is intercepted, it cannot be
read since the attacker does not have the
corresponding private key. Digital certificates are used to list public keys,
which list the public key itself, the certificate issuer, organisation name, and
the user’s details. However, constant encryption and decryption will slow
down the transmission of information.
HTTPS
Normal web pages transmitted using HTTP are not encrypted, meaning
that attackers can easily read the data being received and transmitted.
HTTPS adds a layer of security, usually Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or
Transport Layer Security (TLS) to encrypt and decrypt pages and
information sent and received by web users. When a browser connects to a
secure page, it will check if the digital certificate is valid. If it is, the browser
will use the corresponding public to encrypt a new symmetric key, sent to
the server. All communication is then encrypted using the new symmetric
key, which is much quicker than asymmetric encryption.
Hard Disks
Disk encryption will encrypt every single bit of data stored on a disk. This
means that even if someone gets physical access to the disk, they still
cannot read the data since the encryption key will still be required. This is
especially important for portable devices like USBs, since they are the most
vulnerable to be stolen.
Email
Email encryption uses asymmetric encryption. Before encrypted emails can
be sent and received, both the sender and recipient must send each other
a digitally signed message containing their public key. The most common
form of email encryption is known as PGP (Pretty Good Privacy).
Validation
Validation takes place when data is input into a computer system. The data
is checked to ensure that it has been entered correctly, and that it makes
sense. If it isn’t, the user will be informed and they will be prevented from
entering the data incorrectly. However, it is important to note that validation
cannot check that the data itself is correct; it can only check that it has
been entered correctly.
Presence A presence check is used to ensure that data is entered,

Check and that a field isn’t left blank.
Range A range check ensures that data is within a defined range.
Check This can be implemented by either using one boundary or
two boundaries.
Type Check A type check ensures data is in the correct data type.
Length A length check ensures data is of a correct range or within
Check a range of lengths.
Format A format check ensures that data matches a specific
Check format. In databases, this is implemented as an input
mask. A common example is for emails; they must follow
the format xxx@xxx.xxx
Lookup A lookup check tests to see if the inputted data
Check corresponds to an option on a list. This is similar to
referential integrity.
Consistency A consistency check compares data in one field to existing
Check data in another field to ensure that it is consistent.
Check Digit A check digit is a number or letter added at the end of an
identification number. This character is calculated based on
the rest of the previous numbers according to a specific
algorithm.
Verification
Verification is the process of checking that the data entered into a computer
system matches the data from the original source.
Visual Checking
A user can look and read the data to ensure that the entered data matches
the original source. This does not ensure that the original data is correct; it
only ensures that the data has been copied and entered correctly.
Double Data Entry

This is where data is input twice, and the data is compared by the computer
system to ensure that they match. If there are any differences, it means that
one of the inputs must have been incorrect. However, if a user enters the
data incorrectly twice in the same manner, the data will still be wrong but it
will be verified.
Proofreading
Proofreading is where a person re-reads the input data to ensure that it
makes sense. This is usually carried out using a person other than the one
that did the data entry, since they will be able to spot errors more quickly.
For large pieces of text, it may also be a good idea to proofread using
spellcheck and grammar software, or printing the document out and
reading it over line by line.
Hardware and
Software
Hardware
Hardware: A physical component of a computer system.
Device: A hardware component of a computer system consisting of
electronic components.
Input Device: A device that allows data to be entered into a computer
system.
Output Device: Device used to communicate data or information from a
computer system.
Storage Device: A device used to store data onto a storage medium.
Volatile: Data is lost when power is lost.
Non-Volatile: Data is not lost when power is lost.
Internal Hardware Devices

CPU: Central Processing Unit. Performs calculations, logical operations,
and fetches instructions from memory and executes them. They take inputs
and convert them into outputs. CPUs usually consist of multiple cores, to
allow multiple functions/calculations to be executed simultaneously.
Motherboard: A printed circuit board which connects the main components

of a computer. Other hardware components are connected directly to the
motherboard.
RAM: Random Access Memory. It is volatile memory used to store

currently active programs and data. Its extremely high speeds mean that
programs and software can open and operate in real-time, without having
to wait for data being written to/read off a disk.
ROM: Read-Only Memory. It is memory that can only be written to once - it

is permanent and non-volatile. These can usually be found on a
motherboard containing the BIOS, or on small electronic devices like
calculators.
Graphics Card: A printed circuit board that generates the signals needed
to output an image from the computer. Sometimes, it can be found as part
of a CPU or as part of the motherboard. Powerful graphic cards are used
for gaming, modelling, and
simulations, since they contain hundreds of powerful processing cores.
Sound Card: A printed circuit board that generates the signals needed to
output sound from the computer to speakers or headphones. Nowadays,
they are usually integrated into the motherboard, but higher-quality ones
can also be purchased separately.
External Hardware Devices

Cloud: Cloud computing refers to anything where computing services are
hosted over the internet and not the same physical location as the
computer being accessed. When data is stored in the cloud, the hosting
company takes all responsibility for storing and managing the data. The
data can be accessed remotely from a variety of devices, but will usually be
more expensive than physical storage methods.
Monitor: An essential part of most computer systems. Connected to the

computer using a graphics card, and displays the graphical user interface.
Monitors come in many different resolutions, and recent innovations have
also made curved monitors possible. Touch-sensitive monitors also exist;
these are known as touch screens.
Keyboard: A number of buttons used to input text or control parts of an

interface. In most languages, each key will correspond to a specific letter.
Mouse: A pointing device which allows objects to be selected and

manipulated on the screen. The mouse controls a pointer known as a
cursor, which moves according to the movement of the actual mouse.
Speakers: They provide sound output from a computer.
Camera: Used to capture still or moving images. A higher-resolution

camera will capture higher-resolution media. Expensive cameras also
include image stabilization technology, where shaky footage is stabilized to
make videos smoother. This is usually found in handheld devices.
Webcam: A camera used for the purpose of capturing images while using
the computer. This is usually lower-quality, and may also contain an
integrated microphone. Usually used for video conferences.
Microphone: A device which records sound and stores it digitally.
Printer: A devices which produces a hard copy from a computer, usually

onto paper. There are four main types:
● Laser Printer. It negatively changes a cylindrical drum which attracts

toner (powdered ink). The toner is the heated so that it melts onto the
paper.
● Inkjet Printer. It uses four coloured ink cartridges (black, cyan,
magenta, yellow) and squirts small droplets of ink onto a piece of
paper.
● Dot Matrix Printer. These were popular in the past, and used physical
pins to push ink on a ‘ribbon’ onto a sheet of paper.
● Plotter. A large inkjet printer designed for large sheets of paper,
usually A2, A1 and A0.
Laser Inkjet Dot Matrix Plotter

Fastest of all printers. Standard speeds for Very slow. Very slow, since print
home use. area is very large.
Black and White Laser Cheapest of all Cheap in the past, Most expensive
printers are the same printers. but they are now because of their large
cost as coloured inkjet expensive since size.
printers. Coloured laser they are no longer
printers are very mass produced.
expensive.
Toner cartridges are Ink cartridges vary in Very cheap, as Same as inkjet
more expensive than price, but a complete the ribbon lasts printers, but much
inkjet cartridges, but pack will often cost as for a long time. more expensive since
they last longer and the much as the printer the paper used is
cost per page is itself. ‘Compatible’ much larger and more
actually less. cartridges can also be ink is needed.
purchased for cheaper.
Usually black and white Almost all inkjet Coloured ones Can print in colour.
only. Coloured ones are printers print in colour. are very rare.
more expensive.
Highest quality of all Reasonably good Usually poor. Same as inkjet
printers. quality,but ink can printers.
show through thin
paper and smudges
may occur.
Letters, bulk printing, Photographs, charts, Invoices or Architectural drawings,
general office and general office and receipts requiring large maps, canvas
home printing. home printing. duplicates, ATMs, prints, posters.
POS systems, hot
and dusty
environments.
Scanner: Used to capture documents in the form of an image. They

perform a function similar to digital cameras, but at a much higher quality.
Optical Character Reader: Also known as OCR. A device that enables

characters on a document (usually a scan or a picture) to be identified and
understood by a computer as actual characters. This is usually found in the
form of a scanner with OCR software, where the scanned document is
automatically converted into an editable document, and not a picture.
Optical Mark Reader: Also known as OMR. Detects the marks that are
made on a multiple choice document. A scanner-like device scans the
paper, and translates the position of the marks into the data that is
represented.
Magnetic Ink Character Reader: Also known as MICR. Reads characters

printed in magnetic ink, usually at the bottom of cheques.
Barcode Reader: Used to detect the width of lines and gaps that form a
barcode. A laser beam is shined on to the barcode, and the reflected light
indicates the presence of a white gap while absence of reflected light
represents black gaps.
Pendrive/USB Drive: A small data storage device about the size of a

thumb which stores data on flash memory. The use of the USB interface
means that it can be used on virtually all computers. The lack of moving
parts means that it is very safe to transport.
Portable Hard Disk Drive: This can be an external SSD or HDD, usually
with a USB port for ease of access. They are usually found in rigid
enclosures to protect them from drops and magnetic interference.
Memory Card: Flash memory on a small card. Typically used in digital

cameras and mobile phones. They are physically very small and can have
a considerable amount of storage space, making them suitable for portable
devices.
Storage Devices
Magnetic Tape Drive: Magnetic tape is used for backing up and archiving
data. The low cost and high capacity of tapes makes them ideal for this
purpose. However, data is stored sequentially since data is written as the
tape is wound through the drive. This means that it will take a long time for
a specific file to be retrieved, making it unsuitable for everyday use. Tapes
are only ideal for backing up an entire system or all of the secondary
storage for a computer or server since they can hold several terabytes of
data.
Optical Storage: This includes CDs, DVDs and Blu-Ray Discs. They are
usually used to distribute music, films, videos and software.
HDD: Hard Disk Drive. The most common form of secondary storage. It is
composed of multiple disks with a head that can read and write data to it.
However, they are usually slow since data has to be physically written and
read to the disk. Hard Disks are non-volatile forms of data storage.
SSD: Solid State Drive. Also a secondary form of storage, but contains
flash chips and no moving parts. They are also non-magnetic, meaning that
they are safe from drops and magnetic interference. The lack of moving
parts means that they are very fast, but also relatively more expensive.
SSDs are usually used to store the operating system and frequently used
programs for faster load times.
System, Application and User Interface

Software: Programs which give instructions to the computer.
User Interface: Method of communication between the user and the
computers system.
System Software
System software consists of programs designed of programs intended to
maintain or operate the computer system.
Operating Systems: Software that manages the hardware within a

computer system. It sits between hardware and applications software and
manages communication between the two, and it allocates memory and
transmits data connected to the computer system.
Device Drivers: This is software that comes with external hardware

components, designed to allow the operating system communicated with
the device.
Application Software
Programs that are intended for productivity or to carry ut a task for the user
are known as application software.
Word Processors: As their name suggests, they process words. They are
suitable for writing large pieces of text and for mail merging. They often
include features for tables, headers, footers, and a variety of formatting
options.
Spreadsheets: This is used mainly for performing calculations and

modelling, often for financial and statistical information.
Database Management Systems: These are used for viewing and editing
data within a database, which is a structured collection of data in the form
of tables which are related to each other. It will contain features such as
data entry forms, filters, queries, graphs and security features.
Graphics Manipulation Software: They contain features for manipulating

bitmap and vectors. Using graphics manipulation software requires a lot of
skill and advanced features are usually more appropriate for serious artists.
Photo Editing Software: A specific type of graphics manipulation software

focused on editing photographs. Home users can use it to make minor
changes, while photographers can use it to enhance their photos.
Video Editing Software: This is used to edit videos by merging and

separating videos, adding transitions and animations, overlaying videos
with text or images, etc.
Communications Software: This can cover a range of tasks including

instant messaging, audio conferencing, video conferencing and email.
Web Authoring Software: A type of software used for the creation and
editing of websites. They can be very hard to use, but many provide
previews of the webpage for the developer.
Control and Measuring Software: Control software is used for controlling

devices that are not part of the computer system, while measuring software
is used to measure values in the real world.
Apps: Another name for a program. It is a piece of software that can run on
a desktop computer, over the internet, table computer or on a mobile
phone. The most common reference to ‘apps’ is when referring to software
designed to work with mobile phones.
Applets: An applet is a small program designed to carry out a specific task.

It cannot run on its own but must be executed from within another piece of
software.
Utility Software
Utility Software: Software that performs some sort of maintenance on the
computer system.
Anti-Virus: Also known as anti-malware software, they deal with malicious

programs and threats to a computer system. They usually consist of a
real-time monitor which constantly checks for malicious programs, and
prevents them from being executed. The other part is a scanner which
allows the user to scan the system for any existing viruses on malware, and
remove/disinfect the computer as necessary.
Backup: Backup utilities create a second copy of data and programs that
are in storage. This can be set up so that automatic, regular backups are
made.
Data Compression: These utilities will reduce the original size of files so
that they use up less storage space. Opening compressed files will take
longer, but they will also use up less storage.
Disk Defragmentation: As a hard disk gets used, files are stored over all
the magnetic platters in the hard disk itself. This can slow down file
read/write times since the platters need to constantly spin round to locate
the file or parts of the file, and new files may have to be broken up and
written to several locations since there may not be enough available space.
Disk defragmentation software orders the files and puts them close
together, removing all gaps and speeds up file read and write times. This
can only be used on HDDs.
Formatting: Formatting is the process of organising the tracks/platters on

a disk into sectors, ready for data to be stored. New drives will have to be
formatted before use, and existing drives can be formatted to erase all the
data on it.
User Interfaces
Command Line Interface
A command line interface (CLI) allows a user to enter text commands to
which the computer system will respond. The computer system will output
the result in a text format. CLIs use very little memory as there is no need
to store any graphics, so they are useful in old systems and the
maintenance of very small devices. However, they can be difficult to learn
and use since users must memorise all the commands, and errors are
easily made when entering those commands.
Graphical User Interface

A graphical user interface (GUI) is the most common type of interface. All
GUIs contain WIMP - which are windows, icons, menus and pointers
respectively. Complex GUIs require a lot of memory to operate, but they are
intuitive and very easy to use.
Dialogue Interface
This is where the user speaks to communicate with a computer system. A
user can give commands using their voice and the computer system will
give feedback using a synthesised voice. This is usually used in phone
assistants and in-car entertainment systems. A big advantage of dialogue
interfaces is that no hands are required, and they can be operated quite
easily. However, the main problem with these systems is the quality of
speech recognition, which may cause commands to be interpreted
incorrectly.
Gesture-Based Interface
Gesture-based interfaces will recognise human motion, by tracking eyes
and lips, identifying hand signals or monitoring whole body movement. This
can be in the form of the user physically moving their hand (like in many
game consoles), swiping on a touch screen, or even by tracking eye
movement.
Custom-written/Off-the-shelf Software
Custom-written: Software that is written specifically to meet the
requirements of a client.
Off-the-shelf: General purpose software available to a large market.
When a client requires a software solution with specific purposes unique to

their organisation, they will ask for software to be written for them. When
software already exists and is purchased online or from a shop, it is known
as off-the-shelf software.
Custom-Written Software Off-the-shelf Software

The entire development cost of the The development cost is spread
software is paid by a single client, between all the customers that
which means that it could be quite purchase the software, making the
expensive. cost significantly lower.
Custom-written software takes a Off-the-shelf software is
long time to develop. immediately available.
The requirements of the client can Some needed features may be
be met accurately without any missing and there may be a lot of
redundant features. redundant features.
The developers will ensure that the There may be incompatibility issues
custom software is compatible with and bugs, making updates
the hardware, software and data necessary.
used by the client.
The client will have direct support Customers will be able to get
from the company that developed support from the developers,
the software. discussion forums and online
training.
Compilers and Interpreters

Compilers
Compilers translate software written in a high-level programming language
into machine code which a computer can understand. The whole source
code is translated into an executable at once. The executable file does not
have any dependencies, and can be run as a standalone program. A
compiler is capable of identifying all the errors in a program after it has
been compiled, and it can optimise code to run as efficiently as possible.
Interpreters
Interpreters also translate a program written in a high-level programming
language into machine code, but it does so one line at a time. This can be
less efficient since it takes time. However, interpreters are useful for testing
since errors are reported on a per line basis, so they can be easily
identified. Source code that has not been compiled into an executable file
will need an interpreter to run, with every few lines being fed into memory
and executed at once.
Linkers
Linkers (also known as link editors) combine several modules, separated
into object files, into a single executable file. The object files are also
known as dependencies, as they are necessary for the program to run.
Programs also often use a common library, which contains basic functions
such as mathematical operations, memory management, progress bars
and input/output features.
Compiler VS Interpreter
Compiler Interpreter
Translates source code into Translates source code into
machine code all at once before machine code one line at a time.
execution.
Compiled code will only work on the Source code can be translated in
operating system it was compiled real time into machine code for any
for. operating system.
Machine code is ready to be Machine code has to be translated
executed without delay. first, so additional time is added to
the execution time.
Compiling can take a long time, Only the required code needs to be
which is not appropriate for interpreted, so this is efficient for
on-the-fly testing. on-the-fly testing.
Monitoring and
Control
Sensors
Sensor: A device that record data about the surrounding physical
environment.
Analogue: A smooth stream of data that we process on a daily basis.
Microprocessor: An integrated circuit used in monitoring and control
technologies.
Actuator: A type of motor that controls a mechanism or system.
Sensors can automatically enter data into a computer system, making them
extremely useful for automation, and in environments that could be harmful
to humans. A sensor constantly monitors the surrounding environment, and
the data it records will be in analogue form. An analogue to digital converter
must be used to convert the data into digital form, which is then sent to a
microprocessor. If the data is in an acceptable range, the microprocessor
will signal the actuator to trigger an action that needs to be taken.
Motion Sensors
Motion sensors detect movement. This can either be passive or active; an
active sensor is usually an infrared sensor, and detects any changes in
energy in the surrounding environment. An active sensor is usually a
microwave sensor, which constantly emits microwaves and detects
changes in the reflection of the waves, much like a bat. However, motion
sensors are not error proof, and sometimes may trigger a false alarm or not
trigger at all when there is actual movement. These sensors are usually
used in CCTV systems, and automatic doors and lights.
Pressure Sensors
A pressure sensor measures pressure, usually of a liquid or a gas. Most
pressure sensors use piezoresistance, where a specific level of pressure is
linked to a specific level of charge. They are frequently used in the
manufacturing of vehicles and chemicals, and also in touch screens.
Moisture and Humidity Sensors

Humidity sensors monitor the humidity in the air. They use two electrical
conductors with a non-conductive film separating them. Moisture collects
on the film and changes the level of voltage between the two conductors,
which is then interpreted as a measurement of humidity. They are used in
wine cellars, meteorological stations and in agriculture.
Temperature Sensors
They monitor and measure the temperature of an environment by
measuring how much heat is present. They are found in many home
appliances.
Light Sensors
There are many different types, but the most common type uses
photoresistors. These resistors will change its resistance depending on the
light shining on it. They are used in digital cameras, scanners and
smartphones.
E-Safety and Health

and Safety
E-Safety
Phishing
This is when an unauthorised person tries to gather personal data by
disguising or impersonating a trustworthy person or organisation. This is
usually done in the form of phishing emails which try to trick a user into
logging in to a fake phishing website, which looks like a legitimate website
but is designed to steal the user’s login credentials or private information.
Pharming
This is another method of collecting personal data by installing malicious
code onto a computer or server. When a user attempts to access a
legitimate website, they will be redirected to a fake phishing website. This
can be done by hijacking the user’s DNS server, which maps domains to IP
addresses. It can also be done by changing the ‘hosts’ file on the user’s
computer; this file overrides DNS settings.
Smishing
This is SMS phishing. It may try to trick a user into accessing a phishing
website or phoning a fake number.
Vishing
This is vishing over voice, where a fraudster calls a user and claims to be
from a certain organisation requesting personal information. They will often
impersonate a bank and claim that there are fraudulent charges on the
user’s account. The victims of this are usually elderly or vulnerable.
Malware
Trojan Horse
This is a malicious program which disguises itself as useful software. When
the application is run, the trojan horse will execute in the background,
usually to install other malware.
Worms
A type of malware that exploits holes in computer networks to replicate
itself and quickly spread through the network. This is usually done to install
other malware once the worm is in place.
Spyware
This refers to any software that is used to gather data about a person
without their knowledge. Keyloggers are the most common type of
spyware; they will record all the actions performed by a user, including all
keystrokes.
Adware
This is software used to display adverts targeted at the user. Adware will
usually fill the user’s screen with adverts in the form of popups or windows.
Adware is often bundled with free software.
Rootkit
This is a type of malware that enables a person to gain administrator
access to a victim’s computer. This access can be used to disable any
safety mechanisms, such as firewalls or antivirus software.
Malicious Bots
Bots are applications that are programmed to repeatedly carry out certain
tasks. These are usually used by cybercriminals to bombard people with
spam emails. Bots can also be used on instant messaging services to try
and trick users. Infected computers can also be turned into ‘zombie bots’,
which are used to collectively launch attacks on websites.
Ransomware
A type of malware which encrypts all of the user’s files and demands a
payment for decryption. Usually, the only method for the user to recover
their files is to pay, often using cryptocurrencies.
Health and Safety

Health Issues
RSI (Repetitive Strain Injury): This is pain, numbness or weakness that
occurs in the hands, arms, shoulders and the neck. This is caused by
repetitive movements such as typing or clicking and poor posture. To
prevent this, a good posture should be maintained and regular breaks
should be taken. Wrist rests can also be used to support a user’s wrists.
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Pain and numbness in a user’s hands and

fingers. It is cause by the compression of a major nerve, and happens
because of constant repetitive movements. Again, users should take
regular breaks to avoid this.
Back Pain and Muscle Spasms: Caused by poor posture. A user should
sit on an adjustable chair with proper back support.
Eye Strain: A user will often experience eye strain when looking at a
monitor for extended periods of time. Users should configure their monitor
correctly to reduce this, and they should take regular breaks.
Deep Vein Thrombosis: This is when blood clots occur, usually in the
legs. This is normally caused by sitting in a chair that puts pressure on the
back of a user’s legs, mostly behind their knees. This can be prevented by
taking breaks and standing up for a while.
Fatigue: This is when a user gets very tired from overworking for long
continuous periods of time. Users should take regular breaks.
Safety Issues
Fire: Computers can overheat and could cause fires. This can also occur
because of overloaded plug sockets. Computers should be used in rooms
that are properly ventilated, with fire extinguishers nearby. Plug sockets
should not have too many devices plugged into them, especially those that
require a lot of power.
Loose Wires: There can be trailing wires, especially when plug sockets are
not near computer systems. A person could trip over these wires. Wires
should be secured by cable management systems or they should simply be
clipped together to prevent this.
Spilt Drinks: These can cause a short in a computer. Eating and drinking
at a computer should be avoided where possible.
Electric Shock: This can occur if a user touches wires, especially if they
are worn out. It can also occur if liquids are spilt onto an electrical device.
Caution should be taken when handling electrical wires, and old ones
should be repaired. Liquids should be kept away from electrical devices.
The Digital Divide

The Digital Divide
The digital divide describes the technology gap between countries,
demographic groups and economic areas. The divide that people can
experience depends on many factors, including age, status and location.
The digital divide isn’t just limited to internet access; iit includes other forms
of modern technology, including telephones, television, computers, and
home appliances.
Causes
Location
A person’s geographical location can have an effect on their access to
technology. There is a digital divide between those living in rural areas and
those living in urban areas, since urban areas already have most of the
infrastructure in place to provide high-speed broadband services. There is
also a higher concentration of people, meaning that ISPs have a large
incentive to develop broadband in the area. Rural areas are sparsely
populated, so ISPs are reluctant to develop broadband in these locations.
There is also a global digital divide caused by the location factor. The
quality and price of internet connections can differ dramatically from country
to country, which can affect the adoption of technology. Developed
countries usually have high-speed, affordable connections, while
developing countries usually don’t. This is usually because less developed
countries allocate more financial resources to other services and there isn’t
enough to concentrate on developing technology services.
Developing countries may find themselves stuck in a vicious cycle; the lack
of technology means that they cannot trade using modern technologies and
cannot access the same customer base. This will also affect the level of
education since they won’t have access to the internet as an educational
resource. These consequences could prevent a country from developing
further and competing on an international level.
Income
There is a digital divide between economic classes, since richer people are
able to afford access to high-speed internet connections and expensive
devices. Poorer members of society may be unable to afford these
services, which could have an impact on their level of education and
ecommerce, creating a greater divide. An increasing number of companies
are transacting online exclusively, and the inability to access the internet
creates a significant divide between rich and poor people.
Age
The digital divide can exist between old and young people, since young
people have grown up surrounded by technology and have become
accustomed to it, while the elderly may be reluctant to learn how to operate
modern devices. They may also have no use for modern technology.
Solutions
● Community teaching programmes to teach older people how to use
technology.
● Subsidising/gifting devices to children from poor backgrounds.
● Setting up cyber cafes in rural areas.
● Providing overseas aid to countries to purchase technology.
● Setting up affordable 4G connections in rural areas.
Using Networks
Networking Computers
Network: A set of computers and devices connected together so they can
communicate and share resources.
Network Architecture: The design of its network both geographically and
physically.
Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs)

Local Area Network: A network that covers a small geographical area.
They are usually found in homes, schools, universities and small
businesses.
Wide Area Network: A network that covers a large geographical area. This
can be within a country or across the globe. The internet is an example of a
global WAN. Several LANs can be connected together to form a WAN - this
is usually the case for multinational companies.
Local Area Network Wide Area Network

Up to 1Gb per second. Usually restricted to less than
200Mb per second.
Few data transmission errors, as Greater chance of error as packets
data packets sent over short are sent over longer distances.
distances.
Restricted to a small location. Expanded to a wide location, with

Copper wire, fibre optic cable or copper wire, fibre optical cable and
radio waves are mostly used. microwaves being frequently used.
They can often use public
telephone systems, leased lines
and satellite communication.
High security, as it is easier to Relatively low security, as it is
implement over a smaller number of difficult to implement across a
devices and connections. larger number of devices and
connections.
Usually owned by individuals or Often uses infrastructure owned by
organisations. others.
Client-server Network
They used a dedicated server to store data, manage resources and control
user access. The server acts as a central point on the network that other
computers connect to. Computers that connect to the server to access the
data and resources it manages is known as a client. A client-server network
will usually have at least one server and several clients. Multiple servers
can also be found in some network, in order to spread out the workload an
ensure the network runs efficiently.
Advantages:
● Centralised database of users and login credentials provides security.
● User data is kept private.
● Users do not need to make backups as they are centralised.
● Several servers can be used for different functions for efficiency.
Disadvantages:
● Expensive to set up and maintain.
● Single point of failure.
● Requires specialist technical staff to maintain.
Peer-to-peer Network
Users store data on their own computer, but may allow other users to
access it. They can also choose to not do so, but they can still connect to
other peers.
Advantages:
● Cheap to setup and maintain. Does not require expensive servers.
● Failure of an individual peer does not cause the entire network to stop
working.
● Does not require specialist technical staff to maintain.
Disadvantages:
● No centralised database of users and credentials, making it harder to
maintain security.
● Users have to worry about backing up their own data since there is
no centralised system.
● The more computers on a peer-to-peer network, the slower it will run.
Virtual Private Networks (VPN)

Companies or organisations may want to allow users to access a network,
often a LAN, from a remote location. To ensure security, a virtual private
network can be implemented. Once connected to the VPN, the remote
computer has secure access to the LAN’s resources, as if it were directly
connected to the LAN. This is done through a process called ‘tunneling’;
the remote computer connects to the LAN directly via an encrypted tunnel
to securely transmit data through a possibly unsafe network.
Advantages:
● They maintain a high level of security for data transmission over the
internet.
● VPNs use external resources. There is no need to purchase or
implement secure, dedicated connections called leased lines for
users that wish to access the network.
● The cost of maintaining external resources is covered by someone
else.
● Adding extra clients costs little to nothing as the network is virtual.
Disadvantages:
● Performance of the VPN may be outside the control of the
organisation, since it is dependent on the external resources that are
used.
● A certain amount of technical expertise is needed to set up and
maintain VPNs. This must be factored in when deciding whether to
implement a VPN.
Intranets and Extranets

Intranet: A privately owned network that uses internet technologies, such
as web pages, for internal use within an organisation. They typically use
client-server architecture, often with multiple servers.
Extranet: An intranet that has been opened up to allow external user

access. Extranets use VPNs to allow an external user to securely access
the information on them. However, extranets usually only allow certain
information of the intranet to be accessed.
The Internet
The internet is a global network made up of interconnected network and
individual computers. This global network allows users to access online
services.
Characteristics
To connect to the internet we need to use an internet service provider
(ISP), which owns the infrastructure needed to connect to the internet. Data
and information is held and distributed by content providers. Most devices
connected to the internet act as clients, and the majority of data is held on
web servers.
There is no entity with centralised control, with various independent

organisations controlling certain aspects of the internet. This means that
the quality of information on the internet is mixed; it can be useful and
correct, but it can also be completely incorrect. The internet is also
constantly changing and evolving, with data being modified and more and
more devices connecting to it every day.
Benefits:
● There is a large amount of information available on any topic.
● Contributors have a global audience.
● Immediate transmission of information.
● Immediate availability of services.
● International ecommerce.
● Many options for entertainment.
● Free education, accessible to all.
● Social Networking.
● Real-time, up-to-date news.
● Lowered costs for businesses and organisations.
● Ease of providing feedback.
● Possibility of using big data to improve existing services.
Drawbacks:
● Incorrect, misleading information.
● Anonymity may lead to inappropriate behaviour.
● Hacking and viruses.
● Identity Theft.
● Inappropriate content is easily accessible.
● Online addiction, especially to social media and videogames.
The World Wide Web

The internet describes the physical, global network, while the world wide
web describes the information system running on the internet. Users
access this information using a web browser.
Mobile Networks
A mobile network is a wireless WAN that uses radio waves to transmit and
receive communications from portable devices, such as smartphones.
Mobile networks cover a considerable amount of the inhabited areas of the
world.
Advantages:
● Users can communicate with others while on the move, usually
through the use of smartphones.
● The network is broken down into small areas called cells, which
allows lower power radio transmitters to be used, bringing energy and
cost savings.
● There is a limited number of radio frequencies available. These can
be split among neighbouring cells and reused in more distant cells,
increasing the number of possible simultaneous connections.
● Large areas can be covered using a single transmitter.
● Multiple transmitters ensures there is no single point of failure of the
entire network; if a cell fails, only a small area will be affected.
Disadvantages:
● Quality of reception can vary and can be poor at the edge of a cell.
● The frequencies used must be carefully planned to avoid interference
between cells.
● Setting up large mobile networks costs money, and may be
impractical in sparsely populated areas.
Video and Web Conferencing

How to set up a video conference
A video conference will require a desktop computer or laptop, a webcam, a
microphone, a monitor, speakers, a stable network connection and video
conferencing software. Smartphones can also be used. To initiate a video
conference, the following steps must be followed:
● Register with the video conferencing service.

● Install the video conferencing software.
● Select another registered user and initiate a conference call.
The following should also be taken into account:
● Ensure that all participants have a stable internet connection.

● Ensure that microphones are inputting voice at a suitable level.
● Ensure that webcams are positioned correctly and that image quality
is acceptable.
How to set up a video conference

This is similar to setting up a video conference. The steps are as follows:
● Send an invitation to interested participants, stating the time and date

of the conference.
● Send access codes/login credentials and a link to the website with
the invitation or separately.
● Login to the web conference service.
● Select an appropriate meeting space/room.
● Manage the web conference by disabling messaging/cameras/muting
other participants.
Networks in Video and Web Conferencing

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN): This is a networking
technology that allows data to be transmitted digitally over analogue copper
wire. It is quite slow and only used in areas where new technology has yet
to be implemented.
Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Lines (ADSL): This is also known as

broadband, and is the most common type of connection to the internet. It is
typically used in homes and businesses. Asynchronous means that
download speeds do not match upload speeds.
Synchronous Digital Subscriber Lines (SDSL): Same as ADSL, but with

equal download and upload speeds.
3G/4G Mobile Networks: These are used, usually by smartphones, to

allow users to join a video conference when travelling or when access to a
LAN is not possible.
Video conferencing software uses codecs to compress video and audio

signals so that they can be transmitted more efficiently, especially in
networks with low bandwidth. The data is decoded at its destination.
Impact
The rise of technology and video conferencing means that users can see
and hear their friends and family from far away easily. It has also enabled
witnesses to give testimony via video conferencing, especially in the cases
where witnesses may be too upset to attend court. Defendants can also
make initial court appearances via video conferencing, reducing travel
costs. Suspects and witnesses can also be interviewed via video
conferencing.
Video conferencing has also been used in education to engage students by

allowing them to participate in discussions with other schools and
universities. This has also made live debates and remote teaching
possible. Experts can also give talks and lectures remotely.
Consultants and physicians from different hospitals can also make use of
video conferencing to discuss a patient’s case and help offer a diagnosis.
External devices such as ultrasound scanners and video endoscopes can
also be connected and shared with the video conference, improving
medical care. Video conferencing can also be used for doctors and nurses
to keep in touch with patients living in remote areas.
Video conferencing has helped businesses by enabling meetings that do

not have to be conducted face-to-face. This saves travel expenses and
allows for more efficient use of an employee’s time. Teleworking is also
possible, where employees can work from home while being less isolated
from their employer and co-workers. Video conferencing can also be used
for staff training. However, some people are less confident in front of a
camera, and some employees may feel more stressed in virtual meetings
than in face-to-face ones.
In the news and media sector, video conferencing allows journalists to

deliver live reports and report on international press conferences.
Expert Systems
Components
An expert system is a computerised system that tries to replicate human
decision-making processes, usually experts. They are designed to try and
reproduce the judgement of a human expert in a certain field. By doing so,
they can be used to replace or assist a human expert.
Expert systems gather data by asking the user questions about the
problem. The questions asked will depend on the user’s responses. Expert
systems are composed of three main components: the knowledge base,
the inference engine and the user interface.
Knowledge Base
The knowledge base is a database which allows the storage and retrieval
of knowledge provided by a collection of experts. This is collected by
interviewing the experts and using the data obtained to build the knowledge
base.
The rules base is part of the knowledge base. The rules base contains a
set of rules (if statements) which are used by the inference engine to obtain
a solution to a problem or a decision.
Inference Engine
The inference engine is the part of the expert system which makes
judgements and reasoning using the knowledge base and user responses.
It produces reasoning based on a set of rules. It follows a line of logic
based on the user’s answers to the questions it asks, often using a
chaining method. The chaining method is the sequential process of
following logic in order to reach a conclusion.
Chaining can be forward or backwards; forward chaining is where an input

is provided and a conclusion is reached, while backward chaining is when a
conclusion is known and the expert system works in reverse to find the
path to it.
User Interface
The user interface is the way the user interacts with the expert system. The
interface will allow the user to input their answers, and will output the
conclusion that the expert system gives.
Uses
Expert systems are usually used for the following purposes:
● Medical Diagnosis
● Car Mechanical Diagnosis
● Playing Chess
● Providing Financial Advice
● Troubleshooting computer and printer issues
● Identifying items, for example plants and birds
Data Processing Systems

Batch Processing Systems
A batch processing system is a system that processes batches of data at
set time intervals. These collections of data are stored together in what is
known as batches. By storing the data in batches, processing can be
carried out when the system is in less demand. However, there is a time
delay for data processing, so the output is not always readily available.
Also, errors will only be recognised after the data is processed. Examples
of batch processing systems include payroll and stock control systems.
Online Processing Systems

Online processing systems usually deals with data in transactions.
Transactions are small inputs of data, and once all the data of a transaction
is collected, it is processed and the next transaction can occur. Examples
include online booking systems.
Real-time Processing Systems

A real-time processing system processes data as soon as it has been
input. They are normally used when data needs to be processed
immediately. However, they require a lot of resources since the system
needs to be ready to process data at a moment’s notice. Examples include
air traffic control systems and real-time computer games.
Master Files
These are collection of fields about a main element of a data system, with
its information being mostly permanent.
Transaction Files
These are files with temporary data used to update master files. In
real-time and online processing systems, the transaction file is matched
with the master file and is processed. In a batch processing system, the
transaction files are stored until a suitable time to update the master files.
Spreadsheets
Definitions
Formulae: A formula uses basic arithmetic calculations.
Functions: A function is a ready-made formula representing a complex
calculation on both numbers and text.
Absolute Referencing: This is used when a cell reference shouldn’t
change when the formula/function is copied to other cells. A $ symbol is
used.
Functions
SUM Calculates the total of values =SUM(A1:A10)

within a range.
AVERAGE Calculates the average of values =AVERAGE(A1:A1
within a range. 0)
MINIMUM Calculates the smallest values =MIN(A1:A10)
within a range.
MAXIMUM Calculates the largest value =MIN(A1:A10)
within a range.
INTEGER Returns the whole number value =INT(A1)
of a decimal number.
ROUND Rounds a number to the nearest =ROUND(A1,2)
decimal place specified.
ROUNDUP Rounds a number up to the =ROUNDUP(A1,2)
nearest decimal place specified.
ROUNDDOWN Rounds a number down to the =ROUNDDOWN(A1

nearest decimal place specified. ,2)
DAY Calculkates the day part of a =DAY(A1)
date.
MONTH Calculates the month part of a =MONTH(A1)
date.
YEAR Calculates the year part of a =YEAR(A1)
date.
DATE Calculates the date from a given =DATE(A1,B1,C1)
year, month and day.
HOUR Calculates the hours part of a =HOUR(A1)
time.
MINUTE Calculates the minutes part of a =MINUTE(A1)
time.
SECOND Calculates the seconds part of a =SECOND(A1)
time.
TIME Calculates the time from given =TIME(A1,B1,C1)
hours, minutes and seconds.
NOW Returns the current date and =NOW()
time.
CONCATENATE Joins together text values. =CONCATENATE(
A1,B1,C1)
LEFT Extracts the furthest left =LEFT(A1,3)
characters.
RIGHT Extracts the furthest right =RIGHT(A1,3)
characters.
LEN Calculates the length of a string. =LEN(A1)
UPPER Converts text into upper case. =UPPER(A1)
LOWER Converts text into lower case. =LOWER(A1)

VLOOKUP Searches for a value in a table =VLOOKUP(A1,
and returns a value from the B1:C4, FALSE)
same row.
HLOOKUP Searches for a value in a table =HLOOKUP(A1,
and returns a value from the B1:C4, FALSE)
same column.
IF Executes one function or the =IF(A1 = 1, “hi”,
other based on the value of a “bai”)
cell.
COUNTA Counts the number of cells that =COUNTA(A1:A10)
are not empty in a range.
COUNTIF Counts all values within a range =COUNTA(A1:A10,
that meets a certain criteria. “Yes”)
SUMIF Adds up all values within a range =SUMIF(A1:A10,
that meets a certain criteria. “>0”)
AVERAGEIF Calculates an average of all =AVERAGEIF(A1:A
values within a range that meets 10, “>0”)
a certain criteria.
Modelling
A model is a computer representation of a real-world process, created
using mathematical analysis. Spreadsheets can be used to create
computerised models, but custom-written solutions are also used to model
specific purposes. Models are usually used to train people to use
equipment and for forecasting. Training employees using real-world
equipment can be costly and dangerous, and changes should be tested in
a model before applying them to the real world.
Simulations
A simulation is the use of a computerised model to predict how a real-life
system might behave. They are also used for training and forecasting.
Typical simulations include natural disaster planning, pilot training, car
driving and nuclear science research.
Advantages:
● It is not necessary to create expensive prototypes or the real thing in
order to experiment with different variations.
● Changes to the model can be made very quickly.
● Alternative models and designs can be easily implemented.
● Unusual events (e.g. earthquakes) can be tested without needing to
wait for them to actually happen.
● Equipment does not suffer from wear and tear and there is no risk of
damaging it during testing.
● Dangerous simulations can be tested without putting people in
danger.
● Simulations can be sped up so that the results from slow processes
can be obtained quickly.
Disadvantages:
● The effectiveness and reliability of a simulation highly depends on the
underlying model.
● Simulation software and equipment can be very expensive to
purchase.
● Training is needed to use simulation equipment and software.
● Complex models can take years to develop, especially for
complicated processes.
● It is impossible for a simulation to be a perfect representation of the
real-world process.
Database and File

Concepts
Relationships
One-to-one
A one-to-one relationship is when each record in one table only connects to
one record in another table. Foreign keys will only link to one primary key
and viceversa.
One-to-many
A one-to-many relationship is when each record in one table can connect to
many (zero or more) records in another table. This is the most common
type of relationship within relational databases.
Many-to-many
They are not used in relational databases as they are converted into two
sets of one-to-many relationships. Technically, in a many-to-many
relationship, each record in one table can connect to many records in
another table but each record in the other table can also connect to many
records in the original table.
Types of Databases
Flat File
This is a database that consists of a single table with no relationships,
much like a single worksheet in a spreadsheet. This will usually lead to
redundant data, which is data that is repeated and takes up storage space.
Relational
Relational databases contain multiple related tables, which eliminates data
redundancy.
Keys
Primary Key
A primary key is a unique identifier for each record in a table. The field
used for the primary key must contain unique values, and its data must be
permanent.
Compound Key
A compound key is two or more fields combined to form a unique identity.
These should not be used in relational databases as they are very
complex.
Foreign Key
A foreign key is a field in a table that refers to the primary key in another
table. The foreign key must always have the same data type and field size
as the primary key it is linking to.
Referential Integrity
Referential integrity exists when data in the foreign key on the many side of
a relationship exists in the primary key of the table on the one side of a
relationship. This means that a record can only be input if the key already
exists in the other table; if it doesn’t, the database will prevent the data for
being entered. This is important for maintaining the accuracy of data within
a database.
Validation
Lookup in list Gender “M” or “F”
Lookup in list Title IN(“Mr”,”Mrs”,”Miss”,”D
r”)
Range Date of Birth <DATE()
Range Date Joined >28/02/1995
Data Type/Format Initials Like “[A-Z][A-Z]”
Format Email Like “*@*.*”
Length Any two characters Like “??”
Presence Name IS NOT NULL
Data Dictionary
A Data dictionary is a document or file that describes the structure of the
data held within the database. It is known as metadata which means ‘data
about data’. It includes the following:
● Field Names
● Data Types
● Field Size
● Format
● Default Values
● Primary keys, compound keys and foreign keys
● Indexed fields
● Validation rules
● Sort order
● Relationships
Management Information System (MIS)

A Management Information System is used by managers to aid them in
their managerial duties. They provide past, present and prediction
information, which helps managers make informed decisions for their
business. They will include many data resources, such as databases, and
also the hardware resources of a system. They will include tools to easily
produce reports and charts for sales, revenue and production data.
Managers will be able to easily spot trends by comparing historical data or
by looking at charts and graphs.

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Coding and Encoding Data

Text is encoded as a number which is then represented by a binary

Presence A presence check is used to ensure that data is entered,

Double Data Entry

Internal Hardware Devices

Motherboard: A printed circuit board which connects the main components

RAM: Random Access Memory. It is volatile memory used to store

ROM: Read-Only Memory. It is memory that can only be written to once - it

External Hardware Devices

Monitor: An essential part of most computer systems. Connected to the

Keyboard: A number of buttons used to input text or control parts of an

Mouse: A pointing device which allows objects to be selected and

Speakers: They provide sound output from a computer.

Camera: Used to capture still or moving images. A higher-resolution

Microphone: A device which records sound and stores it digitally.

Printer: A devices which produces a hard copy from a computer, usually

● Laser Printer. It negatively changes a cylindrical drum which attracts

Laser Inkjet Dot Matrix Plotter

Scanner: Used to capture documents in the form of an image. They

Optical Character Reader: Also known as OCR. A device that enables

Magnetic Ink Character Reader: Also known as MICR. Reads characters

Pendrive/USB Drive: A small data storage device about the size of a

Memory Card: Flash memory on a small card. Typically used in digital

System, Application and User Interface

Operating Systems: Software that manages the hardware within a

Device Drivers: This is software that comes with external hardware

Spreadsheets: This is used mainly for performing calculations and

Graphics Manipulation Software: They contain features for manipulating

Photo Editing Software: A specific type of graphics manipulation software

Video Editing Software: This is used to edit videos by merging and

Communications Software: This can cover a range of tasks including

Control and Measuring Software: Control software is used for controlling

Applets: An applet is a small program designed to carry out a specific task.

Anti-Virus: Also known as anti-malware software, they deal with malicious

Formatting: Formatting is the process of organising the tracks/platters on

Graphical User Interface

When a client requires a software solution with specific purposes unique to

Custom-Written Software Off-the-shelf Software

Compilers and Interpreters

Moisture and Humidity Sensors

E-Safety and Health

Health and Safety

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Pain and numbness in a user’s hands and

The Digital Divide

Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs)

Local Area Network Wide Area Network

Restricted to a small location. Expanded to a wide location, with

Virtual Private Networks (VPN)

Intranets and Extranets

Extranet: An intranet that has been opened up to allow external user

There is no entity with centralised control, with various independent

The World Wide Web

Video and Web Conferencing

● Register with the video conferencing service.

The following should also be taken into account:

● Ensure that all participants have a stable internet connection.

How to set up a video conference