BOSLAN Monopile Foundations

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The next generation

monopile foundations
for offshore wind turbines
Manufacturing, design and handling challenges
Offshore wind production has grown
exponentially over this century, but so far we
have just witnessed the tip of the iceberg.
With Climate Change pressing ever more and
decarbonization becoming a rising policy priority
in national and supranational agendas across
the globe, offshore wind power will play a vital
role in the transition to net zero. Before the end
of this decade, it is expected to experience a
7-fold increase. Besides, if we are to remain on
track with the Climate Neutrality target, by 2050,
we should multiply by fifty today´s offshore wind
installations.

The technical challenges are colossal, as we


need to go bigger, further and deeper into
the ocean. Before the end of this decade, we
are likely to witness wind turbines of 20MW and
more than 250m rotor diameter, with wind farms
200Km far from the shore. These figures seemed
science fiction merely a few years ago... and they
still do!

These monsters also imply larger supporting


structures, and manufacturers are already
working on the next generation of fixed
foundations: XXL Monopiles with lengths up
to 120m. These ultra-large structures require
greater diameters and weights beyond 2,000
tonnes. They create tremendous logistical
challenges in the manufacturing, handling,
transportation and final assembly processes.

Current manufacturing standards are no


longer valid as we push the technological
boundaries. Weight reduction becomes
imperative in the design of the next generation
monopiles, and recent studies suggest that
slenderness ratios up to 160 could be feasible. To
prevent plastic deformation and damage when
handling the cans, we need to rethink the whole
fabrication process, including the supports design
during the manufacturing, transport, storage and
assembly.

Our experience in project management,


design, manufacturing and assembly of
fixed foundation structures in some of the
most innovative offshore wind farm projects
places Boslan in a privileged position to
confront the technical challenges of the next
generation monopile foundations.

2
THE URGE TO SCALE UP OFFSHORE WIND
The past decade has witnessed an exponential growth of the offshore wind
market across the globe, with a 14-fold increase in the cumulative wind capacity
installed worldwide, a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 22%, and a total
of 35GW installed by the end of 2020. This accounted for 5% of total global wind
capacity and 7% share of new wind installations.1

Figure 1. Cumulative Offshore Wind Capacity Installed Worldwide, 2000-2020. Source: IRENA (2021)

This is just the beginning, as offshore wind will be a crucial vector in the
global response to climate change. Following The Paris Agreement,2 more than
130 countries have now set or are considering a target of reducing emissions to
net zero by mid-century.3 In July 2021, the EU adopted a series of legislative
proposals that intend to achieve climate neutrality by 2050, including the
intermediate target of a 55% net reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by
2030.4 Offshore wind is becoming one of the pillars of these decarbonization
policies,5 and its share of new wind installations keeps growing.6

Figure 2. Global Offshore Wind Growth, 2006-2020. Source: GWEC (2021)

3
Offshore wind will maintain exponential growth in the coming decades. The GWEC foresees a
7-fold increase of installed offshore wind during this decade, expecting to reach 270 GW by 2030.
This organization expects the volume of new annual offshore installations to more than triple in five
years, from 6.1 GW/year in 2020 to more than 20 GW/year in 2025 (bringing its share of global new
installations from 6.5% to 20%) and to double again in the second half of this decade, reaching 40GW/
year by 2030.7

Figure 3. Global Offshore


Wind Growth to 2030
(expected).
Source: GWEC (2021)

Noteworthy, the GWEC projections are insufficient to remain on track with the Net Zero
Emissions by 2050 Scenario, and we may need to go significantly further. The IEA is calling for
more substantial efforts, as it estimates that it is necessary to raise annual capacity additions to
80 GW/year of offshore wind by 2030.8 Likewise, IRENA’s analysis indicates that the world should
reach an offshore wind cumulative installed capacity of 380 GW by 2030 to achieve an energy
transition scenario aligned with the 1.5ºC Paris Agreement target. Overall, more than 2,000 GW should
be deployed globally by 2050.9

Figure 4. Closing the Offshore Wind Gap by 2050.


Source: GWEC (2021)

4
The political, administrative and technological challenge is enormous. On the political and
administrative side, the Covid-19 crisis may impact offshore wind deployment in the medium and
long term, as some pre-development work such as permitting and environmental approval is
being delayed.10 On the technical side, maintaining exponential growth of the offshore capacity will
require more and larger farms in deeper waters and further from the coast, with bigger and more
powerful turbines, and more complex, longer and heavier substructures and foundations. Fixed-
bottom structures shall drive the sector´s capacity surge over this decade, while floating foundation
technologies could drastically accelerate offshore deployment from 2030 onward.11

Figure 5. Offshore Wind Current and Projected Capacity in the 1.5ºC Scenario, 2020-2050. Source: IRENA (2021)

5
CITIUS, ALTIUS, FORTIUS
Offshore wind turbines keep growing in power and rotor size, reaching
milestones that were unbelievable not long ago. The world´s first offshore
turbine farm, installed 30 years ago at Vindeby (Denmark),12 had turbines of
only 450kW, with a rotor diameter of 35m.13 Both turbine power and rotor
sizes have increased dramatically since then: in 2020 the average turbine
rating for new installations in Europe reached 8.2 MW,14 while the average
power rating of ordered turbines reached 10.4MW and the world´s record was
in the hands of GE with its Haliade-X model, with 14MW and a 220m rotor. 15

Figure 6. Evolution of Wind Turbine Sizes over Time. Source: IRENA (2021)

6
And the race goes on, as Siemens Gamesa and Vesta have already announced models that reach 15
MW and shall be commercially available by 2024.16 The Chinese MingYang Smart Energy has gone one
step further with the recent presentation of the MySE 16.0-242 prototype, which has a 242m rotor
and reaches 16MW.17 Some experts predict that, “considering the increasing pressure for offshore
wind to reach grid parity in Europe and China ... the next generation offshore turbine technology could
probably be around 20 MW with a 275m rotor diameter by 2030”.18 This is equivalent to the length of
three football pitches.

Figure 7. Evolution of Rotor


Size and Power Rating
over Time. Source: GWEC
(2021), based on commercial
offshore wind turbine
installation

In parallel, wind farms are growing and moving further offshore towards deeper waters, enabling
larger sea areas with more stable wind conditions, mitigating the visual impact on the coastline and
preventing unwanted side effects on other economic activities. But this also implies increasing the
construction and operation costs, as well as the technological challenges.19

There are already wind farms up to 100 km offshore and deeper than 100m, and a new generation of
wind farms, much further out, is in the pipeline.20 The evolution in the last few years is also remarkable:
the average water depth and distance to shore of offshore wind farms under construction in 2020
was 36 m and 44Km respectively,21 compared to 22m and 33Km in 2014, just six years before.22

Figure 8. Average Water Depth and Distance to Shore of all Offshore Wind Farms in Europe. The size of the bubble indicates the
overall capacity of the site. Source: WindEurope (2021a)

7
TRENDS IN FOUNDATION
STRUCTURES
Fixed foundations are the most common type of installation in offshore wind
farms, and by far the most mature technology. They are being routinely
deployed in water depths of up to 40m (in some cases up to 60m deep),
and at up to 80km from shore.23

Floating foundations are one of the recent developments in the offshore


renewable energy industry, adapting various technologies used in the
oil and gas sector. They enable access to waters beyond 60m deep and
could potentially become a lower-cost alternative to wind farms with fixed
foundations even for mid-depth sites (30-50m). Besides, they lower the
impact on marine life.24 However, as of today this is still a nascent technology
that will likely only blossom in the next decade.

Figure 9. Fixed Offshore Wind Turbine


Foundations. Source: IRENA (2021)

Figure 10. Floating Offshore Wind


Turbine Foundations.
Source: IRENA (2021)

8
Monopiles remain the most widely used foundation structure for offshore
wind turbines: by 2020, roughly 80% of all new and cumulative installations
in Europe had adopted this technology.25 It is a popular solution due to its
tubular structure, making it relatively easy to design and manufacture.26
However, the increasing size of turbines and deeper installation water
depths require ever-larger structures, challenging designers and
manufacturers alike.

Figure 11. Cumulative Number of Foundations Installed in Europe by the end of 2020, by Substructure Type.
Source: WindEurope (2021a)
Photo: NAVANTIA

9
BOSLAN, A KEY ENGINEERING PARTNER IN
FIXED OFFSHORE FOUNDATIONS

Over the last few years, Boslan has developed a unique experience on fixed
offshore wind turbine foundations, spanning various engineering disciplines
at different manufacturing stages, including Jacket and Substation Design
and Calculation, Civil and Electrical Works Supervision and Management,
QA&QC, Testing and Commissioning, and Health and Safety.

Boslan´s flagship wind farm projects include the following:

✓ Wikinger Project (2017) - Offshore wind farm that supplies 350


megawatts (MW) to the German power grid. Seventy jackets (each
weighing 620 tonnes) have been manufactured by Bladt Industries in
Lindo (Denmark) and Navantia (Fene, Spain). Windar and Navantia have
manufactured 280 piles in Spain, measuring 40 meters in length and 2.5
meters in diameter.

✓ East Anglia One (Start date in 2020) – Offshore wind farm with presence
in the UK (North Sea) with a capacity of 714 megawatts (MW). 102 jacket
type foundations were manufactured by Navantia (Fene, Spain), Lamprell
(UAE) and Harland & Wolff in Belfast (Ireland). Piles were manufactured by
Windar in Avilés (Spain).

✓ Saint-Brieuc (Start of the operational phase expected in 2023) -


Currently under construction, this 496 MW offshore wind farm will be close
to Saint Brieuc Bay (France). Navantia-Windar is manufacturing 62 jackets
at Fene (Spain). Windar has manufactured the piles in Avilés (Spain). In line
with the fabrication strategy adopted by the foundation’s manufacturer,
Boslan is present at different locations in France and Spain, covering various
roles related to Fabrication, Assembly, Transport, QA&QC and Health and
Safety.

Boslan Working Sites and Manufacturing Partners – Saint Brieuc Project

✓ FENE (Spain) – NAVANTIA:


• Fabrication of 62 transition pieces (TP)
• Fabrication of bracings and legs for 28 jackets
• Assembly of 62 jackets

✓ BREST (France) - NAVANTIA/WINDAR:
• Fabrication of bracings and legs for 34 jackets (Navantia)
• Fabrication of 186 stabbings (Windar)

✓ AVILES (Spain) – WINDAR
• Preparatory works for 186 stabbings
Figure 12. Boslan Working sites, Saint • Assembly of 62 TP cylinders
Brieuc Project • Fabrication of 186 piles

10
Transition Piece

JUB – Jacket Upper Block

JLB – Jacket Lower Block

Figure 13. Jacket Overview.


Source: Iberdrola

Figure 14. Jacket manufacturing breakdown.


Source: Iberdrola

Load #12 of Jacket components to be transported from Navantia-Windar manufacturing facilities in Brest (France) for the final
assembly in the Navantia facilities in Fene (Spain). Successfully completed last 06.04.2022. Photo: NAVANTIA

11
MANUFACTURING, DESIGN
AND HANDLING CHALLENGES
OF XXL MONOPILES
Manufacturers are already offering the next generation of ultra-large monopiles, the so-called XXL
Monopiles, with lengths up to 120m, diameters of 10m and weights that reach 2,400 tonnes.27 The
evolution is striking. Merely ten years ago, monopiles were recommended just for water depths less
than 20-30m. An engineering paper on the monopiles published as recently as 2017 considered the
then-average diameters of pile of 4.8m (max. 7m), average lengths of 51m (max. 85m) and average
weights of 420t (max. 805t).28 In only five years those ranges have become totally outdated, as
there are monopiles already delivered that surpass 1,700t, 8m diameter and 90m length.29 And this
may be just the beginning, as factories are being adapted to be able to supply monopiles with an
outside diameter of 15m, 130m in length, and more than 3,500t of total weight.30

Photo: Alamy

The increasing size of monopile comes with huge practical challenges, as all the logistics become far
more complex. Component sourcing, piles handling throughout the fabrication stage, vessel fleet
lifting capacity and hammering equipment need to be adapted to the scale of the next generation
monopiles. This requires profound design and fabrication optimizations to ensure that monopiles rank
as the most economical structure foundation type.

12
The most sought optimization is weight reduction. This is currently achieved with higher-strength
steels; nonetheless, fatigue design aspects often prevent the general use of these materials. Besides,
in addition to any technological progress with raw materials, design standards and industry rules of
thumb need to be revised to keep up the pace for efficient and economical design at this grand scale.

Monopile Slenderness: The D/t ratio


As we design longer monopiles for more powerful turbines and deeper waters, ever-larger diameters
are required. This implies increasing the steel thickness – to meet the Diameter (D) to Thickness (t) D/t
ratio criteria set by the engineering standards on tubular structures. Thicker plates mean much heavier
structures.31

The current D/t standards are no longer valid for XXL monopiles. Until recently, design standards and
engineering papers set the D/t ratio to values less than or equal to 100.32 Some more up-to-date
standards set the new reference ratio to 120.33 But even with the 120 ratio, monopiles with diameters
of 10m and above would become disproportionately heavy, given that any increase in the diameter
(ΔD) would translate into a relative increase of the weight close to the third power:

That is, if we hold the D/t ratio constant, a 25% increase of the monopile diameter (e.g. from 8m to
10m), would double its weight, and with a 50% increase in the diameter (e.g. from 8m to 12m) the
weight would triple. See footnote (*) This would not only be a massive waste of steel and money, but it would
also multiply the manufacturing, transport and installation challenges. Tubular steel piles are typically
shaped from plates using 3 or 4 rolls bending machines. Therefore, the main design parameters
that gauge current workshops’ capacity are the can diameter, plate thickness, pile section depth and
weight that workshops can handle. The handling and support of such heavy components throughout
fabrication, without overstressing the cans or ovalizing them too severely, becomes of critical concern.

Photo: Alamy

A 2019 study by Steelwind Nordenham suggests that monopiles with slenderness ratios up to 160 are
“realistically feasible and applicable for deep waters and large turbines”, with pile diameters up to 11m
and weights up to 2,000 tonnes.34 Its conclusions are somewhat controversial,35 and more research
will be needed as we push the boundaries further and further. In any case, the Steelwind Nordenham
study highlights a number of highly relevant considerations that need to be accounted for in the
fabrication stage regarding the supports, transport, and storage.

(*) Here we are assuming a linear approximation for the relationship between the diameter and the length of the monopile,
L=a*D+b where a and b are constant and b/D<<a,
Wo α Do * to * Lo → ΔW/Wo ≈ (ΔD/Do) * (Δt/to) * (ΔL/Lo) ≈ (ΔD/Do)3
The linear approximation for the L-D relationship with b/D<<a seems a reasonable estimate. See e.g. Negro (2017)

13
Figure 15. Maximum Deflection of Cans
or Sections on the Roller Supports at
Increasing Diameter and Slenderness.
Source: Steelwind Nordenham. Published
by Offshore WIND Magazine 4/2019

Supports
Supporting a 2,000-tonnes pile during the manufacturing process without damaging it is far from
easy. We must guarantee that the support points do not cause bending, plastic deformation or any
other type of damage to the can during the manufacturing process. More so given that XXL monopiles
may have D/t ratios significantly above 100, which increase local bending and hoop stresses. To prevent
plastic deformation on roller supports, the aforementioned study warns that their width and distance
from the edge of the can are two key parameters to monitor.36

Deformations can also occur due to dead load during the assembly process. This problem is aggravated
at high D/t ratios, as we increase the can slenderness. Consequently, additional supports and lateral
stiffeners may be required in XXL monopiles to keep the section´s round shape, as identified by the
Steelwind Nordenham publication.37

Transport and storage


Plastic deformations can occur, particularly for slender components, during the transport and storage of
the cans. Cranes and custom lifting beams typically transport the cans or sections during fabrication. Similar
to the roller supports, the self-weight of the can is likely to induce high local bending stresses at the contact
area of the lifting and handling devices. The Steelwind Nordenham study shows that the risk of plastic
deformation already exists for mild-slenderness ratios. Hence, lifting devices may need to be adapted
accordingly.38

The support structure requires to be adapted in all the section assembly fabrication steps. Steelwind
Nordenham concludes that sections and monopiles beyond 1200 tonnes usually need to be supported at
three or more points and highlights that special consideration must be given for support points near conical
transitions since the stiffening effect of the cone shape may lead to higher stresses in these regions.39

Pre-production planning ahead of fabrication, transport and storage operations will be critical for
developing the next generation monopiles. Further investments are likely necessary to adapt current state-
of-the-art fabrication processes and workshops to handle ever bigger, heavier and slenderer monopiles.

Figure 16. Optimum Support Positions for Heavy


Monopiles. Source: Steelwind Nordenham. Published
by Offshore WIND Magazine 4/2019

14
BOSLAN´S PARTICIPATION
IN THE BALTIC EAGLE PROJECT

Photo: Iberdrola

Baltic Eagle offshore windfarm is a 476MW wind project located in the


Baltic Sea, approximately 75km off the coast of Rugen Island, Germany.
It will have 50 wind turbines of 9.53-MW of unit power on monopiles, for
an annual production of 1.9 TWh. It will meet the needs of 475,000 homes
and avoid the emission of almost one million tonnes of CO2 into the
atmosphere every year.

The foundations are being carried out by Windar and German EEW SPC.
Boslan is supporting the manufacturing process in Avilés (Spain) for 50
transition pieces, as well as other parts in several locations.

The transition piece (TP) is made up out of a steel pipe construction and is
the second part of a Wind Turbine Generator foundation, which is directly
connected to the monopile foundation. The transition piece is secured to
the monopile through a bolted connection and reinforced with grout after
installation. It connects the wind turbine generator with the monopile and
provides means to correct any misalignment of the foundation that may
have occurred during installation, as the verticality of the monopile cannot
be guaranteed after hammering. The transition piece is painted in yellow
colour in order to improve visibility at sea after installation.

Figure 17. Transition Piece Overview.


Photo: Iberdrola

15
Boslan Working Sites and Manufacturing Partners – Baltic Eagle Project
WINDAR – Avilés (Spain):
- 50 TPs

NAVANTIA – Fene (Spain):


- Fabrication of 50 external platforms

SERASME – Gijón (Spain):


- Fabrication of 20 boat landings and 20 Access ladders

DIMIR – Langreo (Spain):


- Fabrication of 25 boltings and 25 intermediate platforms

TMG – Fene (Spain):


- Fabrication of 30 boat landings and 30 Access ladders

CALSOMATU – Fene (Spain):


- Fabrication of 25 boltings and 25 intermediate platforms

PREMONOR – A Coruña (Spain):


- Fabrication of 25 airtights

DIZMAR – Vigo (Spain):


- Fabrication of 25 airtights

FERRI – Vigo (Spain):


- Fabrication of 50 Davit Cranes

Baltic Eagle Project. First Transition Piece Fully Assembled. Photo: Windar

16
ABOUT BOSLAN
In the last few years, Boslan has been in charge of the development of state-of-the-art offshore
wind farms across the globe, covering the construction project cycle in projects such as Wikinger,
Baltic Eagle, East Anglia One and Saint-Brieuc. Besides, Boslan has been working in Brazil for the
last 15 years, transferring the expertise acquired in European offshore sites to its Brazilian affiliate.

Boslan´s practical and technical know-how in the design, manufacturing, assembly and handling of
fixed foundation structures has made us a preferred partner for developers who need to confront
the technical challenges of the next generation monopile foundations.

An ENGINEERING and CONSULTANCY FIRM


with a MULTIDISCIPLINARY SPIRIT
BOSLAN is a Spanish company with over two decades
of experience offering highly specialized technical,
engineering and consultancy services. Headquartered in
Bilbao, it has permanent offices in 9 countries and 750+
employees. It is currently running projects in 30 countries.

BOSLAN is organized into several areas of activity


that coordinate and implement engineering, technical
management, testing and commissioning works: oil & gas,
power generation & networks, industry, architecture &
urban development, IT and telecommunications.

Drawing on the multidisciplinary nature of the different


departments and the vast experience acquired
from the multiple and diverse projects, BOSLAN
carries out comprehensive project management and
implementation, supporting its partners and customers
throughout the project´s lifecycle: Initiation, Planning and
Design, Executing, Monitoring and Controlling, Closing
and Commissioning.

R&D is at the core of BOSLAN´s DNA. This allows us


to keep up with state-of-the-art know-how and take
advantage of the most advanced design tools. BIM
methodologies enable us to face each project holistically,
guaranteeing an agile, timely and robust response
tailored to the specific needs of the client and compliant
with the highest quality requirements. Our goal is to
continually surpass our customers’ expectations and
become a trusted partner.

17
REFERENCES
API (2007). Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms—Working Stress Design.

American Petroleum Institute (API), 21st Edition, December 2000. Errata and Supplement 3, August 2007.

Arany (2017). Design of monopiles for offshore wind turbines in 10 steps. Arany, Bhattacharya, Macdonald & Hogan. Soil Dynam-
ics and Earthquake Engineering, 92, 126–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2016.09.024

CompositesWorld (2021). MingYang Smart Energy launches MySE 16.0-242 offshore hybrid drive wind turbine. CompositesWorld
website, 25 August 2021. https://www.compositesworld.com/news/mingyang-smart-energy-launches-myse-160-242-offshore-
hybrid-drive-wind-turbine

DNV (n.d.). Rules and Standards, DNV (n.d.). https://www.dnv.com/rules-standards/

European Commission (2020). Offshore Renewable Energy Strategy. European Commission, November 2020.

European Commission (n.d.). 2030 Climate Target Plan. European Commission (n.d.) https://ec.europa.eu/clima/eu-action/euro-
pean-green-deal/2030-climate-target-plan_en

EWEA (2016). The European offshore wind industry - key trends and statistics 2015. European Wind Energy Association (EWEA),
February 2016.

GE (n.d.). Haliade-X offshore wind turbine. GE Renewable Energy website (n.d.). https://www.ge.com/renewableenergy/wind-en-
ergy/offshore-wind/haliade-x-offshore-turbine

GWEC (2021). Global Offshore Wind Report 2021. Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), September 2021.

IEA (2020). Tracking Offshore Wind 2020. International Energy Agency (IEA), June 2020. https://www.iea.org/reports/track-
ing-offshore-wind-2020

IEA (2021). Wind Power. International Energy Agency (IEA), November 2021. https://www.iea.org/reports/wind-power

IRENA (2021). Offshore Renewables: An action agenda for deployment. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2021.

ISO (n.d.). International Organization for Standardization. https://www.iso.org/home.html

Marson (2021). How far can we push D/T ratios? Alan Marson, empireengineering.co.uk website. Posted on July 20, 2021. https://
www.empireengineering.co.uk/how-far-can-we-push-d-t-ratios/

Negro (2017). Monopiles in offshore wind: Preliminary estimate of main dimensions. Negro, López-Gutiérrez et al. Universidad
Politécnica de Madrid, 2017

Norsok (n.d.). Standards Norway. https://www.standard.no/en/webshop/norsok/#.YfBsAurMIdU

OffshoreWind (2022). Haizea to Deliver Monopiles for Ørsted’s Offshore Wind Project. OffshoreWIND.biz website, posted on
January 2022. https://www.offshorewind.biz/2022/01/24/haizea-to-deliver-monopiles-for-orsteds-offshore-wind-project/

Steelwind Nordenham (2019). Beyond XXL – Slim Monopiles for Deep-Water Wind Farms. Steelwind Nordenham, Offshore WIND
Magazine 4/2019. Posted by Offshore WIND on May 2020. Available on https://www.offshorewind.biz/2020/05/11/beyond-xxl-
slim-monopiles-for-deep-water-wind-farms/

Steelwind Nordenham (s.d.). Mega Monopiles. Steelwind Nordenham (s.d.). https://www.steelwind-nordenham.de/steelwind/pro-


dukte/megamonopiles/index.shtml.en

TNO (n.d.). Design limitations for large monopiles. TNO website (n.d.) https://www.tno.nl/en/focus-areas/energy-transition/road-
maps/renewable-electricity/wind-energy/support-structure-wind-turbine/design-large-monopiles/

UN (2015). Paris Agreement. United Nations, 2015. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf


UN (n.d.). Net Zero Coalition. United Nations (n.d.) https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/net-zero-coalition

Wikipedia (n.d.). Vindeby Offshore Wind Farm. Wikipedia (n.d.). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindeby_Offshore_Wind_Farm#His-


tory

WindEurope (2021a). Offshore Wind in Europe: Key Trends and Statistics 2020. WindEurope, February 2021.

WindEurope (2021b). Wind Energy in Europe: 2020 Statistics and the Outlook for 2021-2025. WindEurope, February 2021.

WTM (n.d.). AN Bonus 450/35. Wind-turbine-models.com website (n.d.). https://en.wind-turbine-models.com/tur-


bines/720-an-bonus-450-35

18
NOTES
1
Source GWEC (2021)
2
Source UN (2015).
3
Source UN (n.d.)
4
Source European Commission (n.d.)
5
Source European Commission (2020)
6
Source GWEC (2021)
7
Ibid.
8
Source IEA (2021).
9
Source IRENA (2021)
10
Source IEA (2020)
11
Source GWEC (2021)
12
Source Wikipedia (n.d.)
13
Source WTM (n.d.).
14
Source WindEurope (2021b).
15
Source GE (n.d.).
16
Source GWEC (2021)
17
Source CompositesWorld (2021).
18
Source GWEC (2021)
19
Source WindEurope (2021a).
20
Ibid.
21
Ibid.
22
Source EWEA (2016).
23
Source IRENA (2021).
24
Ibid
25
Source WindEurope (2021a).
26
Source TNO (n.d.).
27
Source Steelwind Nordenham (s.d.).
28
Source Negro (2017).
29
Source Steelwind Nordenham (2019).
30
Source OffshoreWind (2022).
31
Source Marson (2021).
32
See API (2007), Arany (2017) and Negro (2017).
33
See Marson (2021), as well as DNV (n.d.)., ISO (n.d.).and Norsok (n.d.).
34
Steelwind Nordenham (2019).
35
Marson (2021).
36
Steelwind Nordenham (2019).
37
Ibid.
38
Ibid.
39
Ibid.

CONTRIBUTORS
- Bruno Maques, BOSLAN FOU Engineer.
- Alexandre Laíño, BOSLAN FOU - Fabrication Service Manager in St Brieuc OWF.
- Juan Francisco Martínez-Tebar, BOSLAN FOU Fabrication Service Manager in Baltic Eagle OWF.
- Fáktica Analytics

19
© BOSLAN 2022
BOSLAN Ingeniería y Consultoría S.A.
Autonomia 26 – 8º
48010 – Bilbao
Bizkaia, España
Tel: (+34) 94 470 01 18
Fax: (+34) 94 470 07 87

All Rights Reserved.

The information given in this document only contains general descriptions and/or performance
features that may not always specifically reflect those described, or which may undergo modification
in the course of further research and/or development of the products. The requested performance
features are binding only when they are expressly agreed upon in the concluded contract.

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