Unit 6: Non-Destructive Testing

Syllabus
Non-Destructive Testing
Classification of Non-destructive testing methods
Principles of physics in Non-destructive Testing
Advantages of Non-destructive testing methods
Acoustic Emission Testing
Ultrasonic (thickness measurement, flaw detection)
Radiography testing

Nanotechnology
Introduction to nanotechnology
Quantum confinement and surface to volume ratio
Properties of nanoparticles: optical, electrical, mechanical
Applications of nanoparticles: Medical (targeted drug delivery), electronics, space and
defense, automobile

6.1.1 Introduction and classification of Nondestructive Testing

Destructive Testing: In this method, the sample under test is destroyed and cannot be used for any
purpose after the test. Examples are tensile test, impact test, etc. These tests are performed on
sample material out of the batch. These tests are used to find our mechanical properties like
hardness, compressive strength, yield strength and tensile strength, etc.

Objectives of Nondestructive testing (NDT):

These tests do not change the structural properties of the material under the investigation.
It is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating materials, components or assemblies for
discontinuities, or differences in characteristics without destroying the serviceability of the
part or system.
Safety norms can be applied after the requirements of the test.

6.1.2 Classification of NDT methods and Physics Applied

Classification of NDT Methods Nondestructive testing (NDT) is based on interrelation
between a physical field or a substance and a tested object.
Few types of NDT are discussed as below:

Sr. NDT Method Physics employed Applications

1 Acoustic Application of mechanical load or rapid Flaws or irregularities inside the
temperature or pressure change to the part materials
being tested and analyzing its propagation.
2 Ultrasonic Echo sounding using ultrasonic Detection of flaws or irregularities
inside the materials.
Measurement of thickness of metal
sheets
3 Radiography Exposing the materials under test to x-rays Detection of Cracks, Cavities, Flaws,
TestingX- or y-rays and taking impression Porosity of materials
rays or r,rays
4 Magnetic Magnetic field is applied to the materials Continuity (flaw detection)
NOT methods and changes in the magnetic characteristics Dimensions, structural and
of the ferromagnetic materials are mechanical properties
detected

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 5 Electric or Exposing the tested objects to electric (i) Measuring parameters of the
non-electric disturbance (e.g. electrostatic field, composition and structure of a
NDTmethods constant AC or DC field) or non-electric material
disturbance (e.g. infrared, mechanical, etc.) (ii) Finding geometrical dimensions
of a tested object
(iii) Finding moisture level
6 Eddy-Current The interaction between an external Testing item dimensions,
NDTmethods electromagnetic field and the measuring the diameter of wire,
electromagnetic field induced in the test rods and pipes, thickness of metal
object. plates and that of pipe walls

In addition to these, other types of NDT methods are vibration analysis, leak testing
and integrated ones.
In all the NDT methods, due to probable presence of defects in the tested object, the nature
of external appl ied field changes.

Distinction between destructive and non-destructive testing

Sr. Destructive testing Non-destructive testing

1 Tests are carried out to find properties and Tests are carried out to find properties and
behavior of the material under different the defects inside the material.
external conditions.
2 Properties of the material such as bending, Properties of the materials cannot be found
tensile strength, compression, strength can out.
be found out.
3 Defects inside the material such as flaw, Defects inside the material can be located.
cracks, porosity cannot be located.
4 Tests are not possible to carry out on entire Tests can be carri ed out on selected samples
batch of products as it will destroy all parts in randomly and results can be correlated to
production. other parts.
5 The object under testing is destroyed. The object under testing remains intact.
6 As tests involve destruction of part, the As tests do not involve destruction of pa rt,
production cost increases as part needs to be the part under test remains intact and
replaced after tests. production cost can be reduced .
7 Examples: bending test, tensile test, Examples: Acoustic emission, ultrasonic
compression test, impact test, etc. testing, eddy current testing, radiography
testing etc.

6.1.3 Acoustic Emission Technique (AET)

Principle: A mechanical load or rapid temperature or pressure is applied to the material under test
and resulting stress waves generated are sensed by sensors.
Method:
A localized external force such as an
abrupt mechanical load or rapid
temperature or pressure is applied to
the part of the material being tested.
A small material displacement or
plastic deformation is produced inside
the material.
• This results into generation of stress waves inside the material in the form of short-lived,

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 high frequency elastic waves.
These stress waves are detected by sensors that have been attached to the materi al.
The stress waves show discontinuities in the material where flaws or irregularities inside the
materials.
When multiple sensors are used, the resulting data can be analyzed by a CRO to evaluate
locate discontinuities in the part.

Applications:
AET is applied to inspect and monitor pipelines, pressure vessels, storage tanks, bridges,
aircraft, and bucket trucks, and a variety of composite and ceramic components.
It is also used in process control applications such as monitoring welding processes.

6.1.4 Radiography Testing X-rays or y-rays

Principle: X-rays or y-rays are passed through the material. The radiations are partially absorbed and
partially scattered by the medium and partially by the defects. The characteristics of the radiations
such as intensity get modified .

Method:
X-rays or y-rays are produces by a source of radiation (e.g. EJ ...,. Source of
radiation
Coolidge tube in x-rays).
The material under investigation is placed in the path of the
radiation and the photographic plate. Film
The beam of radiation is allowed to fall on the material.
Depending on the thickness and absorption characteristics of
the material, some amount of radiation will be absorbed and
scattered.
Absorption of radiations is different in regions inside the
material where defect is present and that are free of defect.
~
D~ enedarea(when proces~ )
I
The scattered radiations produce an image on the photographic plate. After developing the
photographic plate and its analysis, the defects inside the material can be identified.
With a single radiogram the presence of defect can be detected.
For getting exact position of the defect, the radiation should be passed through different
angles in the material and resulting set of radiogram is analyzed.

Applications:
Using radiography techniques various irregularities inside the material such as flaw, Cracks, presence
of Cavities, Porosity can be detected.

6.1.5 Ultrasonic Testing

The frequency of sound waves audible to human ear ranges from 20 Hz to 20kHz.The sound waves
having frequencies greater than 20 kHz are called ultrasonic or supersonics.

Principle of Echo Sounding

Echo sounding is a process in which ultrasonic waves are
generated by a transmitter, they are directed towards the
Transmitter/Source
I
Reflector/Object

I
Ultrasonic Waves
object and reflection is received.
By knowing the t ime required to cover distance (between f--------------Ec
ho (Ref~lection)
transmitter and object) and velocity, distance of the object
t - - - - d=~-------,
from the transmitter can be determined. 2

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 (Velocity of the ultrasonic waves) x (time required for reflection)
Distance of the object=
2

Ultrasonic Testing for Thickness (or gauge) measurement

Method:
• Using a transducer, ultrasonic waves of known
frequency and velocity are sent along the thickness of a J:=7L
•
metal block or sheet.
Ultrasonic waves travel through metal block and gets """t]T""~""" """~''"~'
I
reflected from its bottom.
I
• The time required for reflection is calculated .
• As speed of ultrasonic waves and reflection time (echo Change in hickncss
time) is known, thickness or gauge of the metal block
can be calculated using the relation, thickness of the obj ect= vt
2
Applications:
This technique is used for determination of gauge or thickness of the metal block or sheet.

Ultrasonic Testing for Flaw detection

Method:
• The testing mechanism mainly consists of a Transmitter/Receiver
transmitting transducer, receiving transducer
and CRO.
Transducer
• A transmitting transducer sends ultrasonic Init ial Pulse
waves into the specimen. Reflected signals Back surface
echo
from back surface of the specimen are Crack
echo
detected by receiving transducer and are
input to a CRO.
0 2 4 6 B 10 12 Met al Block
• If there are no flaws in the specimen, output
of CRO screen shows normal peaks. If there is any flaw present inside the specimen then
CRO screen shows small peaks corresponding to the reflection of ultrasonic waves from flaw.

Applications:
• This method is used to evaluate the properties of a material without causing damage to t he
material.
• Flaw detector detects the flaws like holes, casting, flakes, cracks, tiny cavities etc in metal

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 Questions on Non-Destructive Testing
6 marks
1. What is non-destructive testing? State types of non-destructive testing. Explain ultrasonic
testing technique for flaw detection. [Dec 19, 6ml
2. What is NDT? Differentiate between destructive testing and NDT.

3/4 marks
1. What is echo sounding technique? Using this technique explain non-destructive testing of
flaw detection using ultrasonic waves.
2. What is echo sounding technique? Using this technique explain non-destructive testing for
measurement of thickness of a metal sheet or block using ultrasonic waves.
3. What is NDT? State advantages as compared with destructive testing.
4. Differentiate between destructive testing and non-destructive testing.
5. Explain in brief how Acoustic Emission Technique is used in non-destructive testing.
Dec 19, 3m]
6. Discuss in brief Radiography Testing and its applications.
7. Discuss in brief applications of ultrasonic waves in flaw detection
8. Discuss in brief applications of ultrasonic waves in thickness measurement

Numerical on - Ultrasonic
Formulae:
velocity of Ultrasonic x time
Distance/Thickness
2
Example: Find the echo time of ultrasonic pulse which is traveling with the velocity 3.lx103 m/s in
mild steel. The correct thickness measured by gauss meter is 9mm.
Solution:
Data: v = 3.1x1O 3 m/s, t = 9 mm = 9x1O-3 m
velocity of Ultrasonic x time
Thickness =
2
. _ Thickness x2 9 x 10- 3 x 2 _ _ _
Time - . - 5.8 x 10 6 s - 5.8 µs
Ve1oc1ty 3.1 X 103

Example: An ultrasonic pulse of frequency 130 kHz is sent through a block of steel. The echo pulse is
received after 1. 695 microseconds. If velocity of ultrasonic wave in steel is 5900 m/s, calculate the
thickness of the steel block and the wavelength of the pulse. {Dec 19, 4m]
Solution: Data : v = 5900 m/s, t = 1.695 µs
6
Th1c ness o f t h e bl ock = -v xt = -
. k 5900xl.695x10-
- - - - - = O.005 = O.5 cm
2 2
5900
As v=fxA, Velocity of ultrasonic pulse, ,1, = ~ = = 0.045 m = 4.5 cm
f 130Xl0 3

Example: An ultrasonic pulse is sent through a block of steel. The echo is recorded after 1.512
microseconds. Calculate the thickness of the steel block and the wavelength of the pulse if the
frequency of ultrasonic pulse is 100 kHz and velocity of ultrasonic in steel is 5900 m/s.
Solution: Data : v = 5900 m/s, t = 1.512 µs
. V Xt 5900Xl.512Xl0-6 -3
Thickness of the block= - - = = 4.46 x 10 m = 0.446 cm
2 2
5900
As v=fxA, Velocity of ultrasonic pulse, ,1, = ~ = = 0.059 m = 5.9 cm
f 100X103

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Example: An ultrasonic pulse is sent through a copper block and echo is recorded after 4µs. If velocity
of ultrasonic waves in that metal is 5000 m/s, calculate the thickness of the copper block. At another
location in same block echo is recorded after 1.253µs. What is the location of flaw? [Dec 19, 4ml
Solution: Data : v =5000 m/s, t =4 µs
V X t 5000 X 4 X 10-6
Thickness of the block= - - = = 0.01 m = 1 cm
2 2
V X t 5000 X 1.253 X 10- 6
Location of flaw= - - = = 0.00313 m = 0.313 cm
2 2
Thus, the flaw is located at 0.313 cm from the top surface

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Unit 6: Nanotechnology

6.2.1 Introduction to nanoparticles and nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale, which is about
1 to 100 nanometers. It is about the study and manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular
scale.

6.2.2 Quantum confinement, surface to volume ratio and properties

Quantum confinement: A bulk material or solid has three dimensions. If only one length of three-
dimensional nanostructure is in nanoscale (1-100 nm), the structure is known as a quantum well.
Instead if two sides are of nanoscale (1-100 nm), the resulting structure is known as quantum wire.
A nanoparticle is often referred to as a quantum dot as its all three dimensions are in the nanoscale
(1-100 nm).

Surface to volume ratio: As the size of materials approaches nanoscale, the percentage of atoms
at the surface of a material becomes significant. Nanoparticles have a very high surface area to
volume ratio.

Bulk Quantum wall Quantum wire Quantum dot

30 20 10 00 surface area (m') 4nr2

2[2] s[2] 2[[] {II]

Energy Energy Energy Energy
volume(m3)

surface area
volume
(m·•)
4/3 nr3

3/r

Figure: Quantum confinement effects Figure: Surface to volume ratio

Significance of nanoscale and change in properties of nanoparticles:

Many properties of solids such as optical, electrical, mechanical, etc depend on its size. As compared
to its bulk form, properties of materials change when at least one of the dimensions of material is
reduced to naosclale (1-100 nm), mainly due to following reasons:

(i) Upon reaching quantum confinement at nanoscale energy levels of nanoparticles become
discrete (as shown in the figure) . This increases or widens up the band gap and the band gap
energy. This results into change in the properties of material at nanoscale.
(ii) Nanoparticles have a relatively larger surface area when compared to its bulk form. Th is makes
the nanoparticles more chemically reactive compared to bulk form and it thus modifies its
properties.
(iii) Physical properties of materials such as electrical are characterized by the mean free path
(path of the electron collision due to atoms or ions). This mean free path changes at
nanoscale.
(iv) Bulk properties of materials such as hardness changes at nanoscale. Nanoparticles are much
harder and tougher as compared to their bulk form.

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6.2.3 Optical properties of Nanoparticles

(a) Optical properties of metallic nanoparticles

The color of nanoparticles is different from bulk material. One of the daily life examples is of glass.
Glasses are transparent, but when doped with different nanoparticles, adopt different colors like
red, pink, blue, green, etc depending upon the dissolved nanoparticles.

Metal Color for bulk Color at nano-level

Gold Yellow Bright red
Silver Colorless Pale yellow

G. Mie Theory for change in optical properties

- G. Mie explained the phenomenon using Maxwell's equation in 1908. When electromagnetic
radiation incidents on spherical particles of uniform size a part of the radiation is absorbed and
a part is scattered. Thus the intensity of transmitted light changes.
- If incident light has wavelength J, intensity lo,
length of medium x, then The intensity of lo • • I
transmitted radiation is given by: Incident Light - + ~- -1111\::::-11~-a'-- - - - + - - Transmitted Light

I= ! 0 e-µ x
Where,
µ = !::!..V Cext is extinction coefficient ----- x ----➔
Length of the medium
N is number of particles in medium,
V- Volume of colloidal particles
Cext - extinction cross section of a particle

At nanoscale, as size of the nanoparticles change, there is change in the length of medium
and thus the values ofµ and x changes.
This changes the intensity of transmitted light and it depends on the wavelength of incident
light.
This changes the color of nanoparticles at different nanoscale region.
Mie theory successfully explained absorption of light of visible wavelength for nano-
particles, but for particle size less than ~10 nm, there is need to consider dielectric constant
which depends also on particle size.

Drude theory for optical properties {Additional Information 1

Free electrons can be considered as plasma.
When electromagnetic radiation interacts with metals, it is responsible for oscillation of
electrons coherently. These oscillations are quantized and known as plasmons.
A resonance occurs if frequency of incident radiation is same as that of plasmon frequency.
At nanoscale electrons oscillates coherently with a resonant frequency resulting in to
variation of color at nano-scale.

Optical properties of semiconductor nanoparticles {Additional Information I

Every material has a characteristic size only below which size dependent properties are
realized. In semiconductors this size is the size of the exciton.
In semiconductor nanoparticles, as the particles become smaller and smaller, the energy gap
increases and absorption peak shifts towards higher energy/frequency values.
This leads to shift in the absorption spectrum and change in color of particles.

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6.2.3 Electrical properties of Nanoparticles
Electrical properties are characterized by the mean free path of electron (path of the electron
collision due to atoms or ions). The mean free path changes at nanoscale due to collision and
tunneling within the conductor.

1-V Characteristics of bulk conductor: When voltage V is applied across the conductor, cu rrent I
flowing through it is governed by Ohm's Law and has a linear variation.

I Coulomb Staircase
I

Coulomb Blockadge
\

1-V Characteristics at nanoscale: If dimensions of conductor are in nanoscale (1-100 nm), there
appears a region around zero voltage for which there is no current. A single electron is tra nsferred
by tunneling when the voltage is ± e/2C. Therefore, when the voltage is less than t his electro n
cannot be transferred. This gives a region of zero current at low bias voltage and is known as
'Coulomb blockade region'. The electrons are transferred when the voltage is ± e/2C. The repeated
tunneling of single electron produces 'Coulomb staircase'.

Electrical resistivity: The materials of nano-sized grains have larger number of grain boundaries than
corresponding polycrystalline materials. Electrical resistivity of materials having nano-sized grain is
larger than the polycrystalline materials due to scattering of electrons at grain boundaries.

6.2.5 Mechanical properties of Nanoparticles

Mechanical properties of materials depend upon the composition
of material, bonds between the atoms and presence of impurity.
When the size of materials is reduced to nano-scale (1-100 nm),
materials tend to be single crystal. The measurements of Nanoparticles Nanorods Nanotubcs

elasticity, hardness, ductility show different behavior as

compared to the bulk material. For example, in the case of metallic nanocrystalline materials, elastic
modulii reduce dramatically.
Hardness Hardness

Material Form Grain Young's modulus

size
Mg Nanocrystal ~12 nm V =3900 N/mm 2 Size in µ m Size in nm
Polycrystalline > l µm V =4100 N/mm 2

Plastic deformation in nanocrystalline materials (a) At bulk level (b) At nano-scale

strongly differ from that of polycrystalline bulk material i.e. if stress is removed the recovery to
original shape/size is recovered more effectively.

Hardness of materials is also related to the grain size. In the nanometer size ra nge, t he hardness
increases with decrease of particle size. (Shown in figure for copper)

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6.2.4.1 Applications in medicine (targeted drug delivery)
The traditional drug delivery system, the drug is distributed to the affected tissues or organs
of the patient's body as well as to the healthy tissues or organs. This leads to the side
effects.
In the targeted drug delivery system, the drug is dissolved, entrapped, encapsulated or
attached to a nano particle. The system is then embedded in a capsule which is guided
towards the affected part of the body.
The capsule is opening at the specific tissues or organs controlled by externally applied
magnetic field or infrared light or physiologically. Then drug can be delivered in controlled
manner.

Drug is dissolved, Nanoparticles and

The system is injected
entrapped, durgs are actived at the
in the body and guided
encapsulated or location of tissues or
towards targeted
attached to a nano organ and drugs are
tissues or organs body
particle delivered

Carriers for targeting drug

Depending on the treatment required and nature of the drug, following are few examples of carriers
are used for targeted drug delivery:

Sr. Carriers of drug Applications

1 Poly (alkyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles with anti cancer agents Cancer therapy
2 Poly (methyl methacrylate) nanoparticles with vaccines Vaccine delivery
3 Poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) polyester nanoparticles with anti parasitic Intracellular targeting
4 DNA- gelatin nanoparticles DNA delivery

6.2.4.2 Applications of nanotechnology in Electronics

In the spin-electronic devices, the spin property of electrons (instead of charge) is taken into
consideration. Advantage with spin is that it cannot be easily destroyed by scattering from collisions
with other charges, impurities or defects. The electronic devices with typical dimensions of few
nanometers in either of three directions display unique properties. Such devices are fast, compact,
and relatively cheap. Such devices are typically known as spin-electronic (spin-electronic) devices.
Few applications are listed as below:
1. Single electron transistor (SET}
The single electron transistor is a switching device in which a quantum dot is placed between
the source and the drain. It uses controlled electron tunneling to amplify current. They offer
low power consumption and high operating speed.
2. Spin valves
Spin values are commercially used in computer read heads. Their use has enabled to
increase the data storage capacity of magnetic memory devices due to their ability to detect
small magnetic fields.
3. Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR)
GMR effect is the change in magnetic field of certain materials after application of magnetic
field. This is very effective in observing small changes in the magnetic field and useful as a
read device of the magnetically stored data. The data storing and reading in computer hard
disks is the direct application of GMR.
4. Spin polarized Field Effect Transistor (S-FET)
In S-FETPolarized beam of light was used to obtain spin polarized electrons from the source.
It is expected that this will help in faster and efficient data processing.

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 5. Nanophotonics
In nanophotonics, nanostructures (quantum dots, nanowires or 2-D thin films) or
nanocomposites are used to produce light or detect light. They can be used for light
production, propagation, manipulation like amplification, filter, detection etc.
6. Display technologies for TV and monitor
The flat panel television or computer monitors are products of nanotechnology. Even the
coatings used on screens of TV or monitors can be of nanoparticles, which have better
properties in terms of color quality and resolution than micro particle coatings.

6.2.4.3 Applications of nanotechnology in Space and defense

Nanotechnology has a wide range of applications in space defense. Nanomaterials in various forms
are used for reduction of weights of space vehicles, improving efficiency of solar cell, insulation of
space vehicle, ignitior and propellents, etc. A few of them are listed below:
1. Aerogels
Aerogels are designed using nanomaterials and have very low density typically 0.01-0.8
g/cm 3. They are very light weight and poor conductor of heat and have potential
applications in designing spacecrafts, defense equipment, suits, jackets to reduce the
weight.
2. High efficiency light weight solar cells
Satellites or spacecrafts are mainly powered by solar energy. Currently solar cells have
reached an efficiency of 30 - 40 %. Using luminescent dye sensitized nanoparticle based or
nanoparticle-based solar cell arrays have potential to reduce the weight of solar cells as well
as increase in efficiency.
3. Insulation for space vehicles
Space vehicles should withstand harsh and extreme environments during launching and in
space. Materials should also sustain high or low temperature and high or low pressure. Use
of silica fibers and nanoparticles provide insulation in solid rocket motors and also they are
better radiation protectors.
4. Better ignitors and propellants
Nanocrystalline materials such as alumina particles are better propellants than conventional
one. A nanocomposite of Fe203 and aluminium burns much faster and is more sensitive than
conventional thermites.
5. Fatigue resistant materials
Fatigue strength in aircraft usually decreases with time. Some nanomaterials have better
fatigue strength and life is increased by 200-300 %.
6. Detection of biological weapons
Biological weapons may use dangerous microbes or viruses as weapons. Some nanoparticle
oxides like Cao, Al203 and MgO interact with such chemicals much faster than microparticles
and are ideally suited for fast decomposition of warfare chemicals

6.2.4.4 Applications of nanotechnology in Automobiles

Nanotechnology has a wide range of applications in automobiles. Nanomaterials in various forms are
used for designing sturdy structural parts, smooth and non-scratch paints, self-cleaning windows,
better tires, reduction of harmful emission, etc. A few of them are listed below:

1. Sturdy structural parts

Various body parts of vehicles are made up of steel, some alloys, rubbers, plastics etc.
Nanotube composites have mechanical strength better than steel.
2. Smooth and non-scratch Paints
Cars are spray painted with fine particles. Nanoparticle paints provide smooth, non-scratch
thin attractive coating.

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 3. Self cleaning glass for windows
Self cleaning glass can be made by dissolving small amount of titania (TiO2) nanoparticles
while manufacturing glass. Titania is able to dissociate organic dust in presence of UV light
available in the sunlight. Drops of waters on glass give hazy look, but TiO2-containing glass
can spread water evenly giving clear sight.
4. Small motor parts
Small motors are needed in vehicle (such as wipers, window glass movements, etc). Very
powerful electric motors are made using shape memory alloys using nanoparticles of
materials like Ni-Ti. They require less power and gives better performance.
5. Better tires
Tires of vehicles undergo wear and tear with use and also increase its weight. By using
nanoparticle clay, better, light weight, less rubber consuming thinner tires are possible that
can reduce the overall weight, increase in fuel consumption and speed.
6. Controlling harmful emission
Use of efficient nanomaterial catalysts is one solution to convert harmful emission into less
harmful gases. Large surface area of nanoparticles is useful to produce better catalysts. They
are capable of absorbing emission of particles and poisonous gases like CO and NO from
vehicle exhausts.
7. Hydrogen fuel
Instead of using conventional petro fuels, there are numerous advantages of using hydrogen
as a fuel. When hydrogen fuel is burned it can only produce harmless water vapor. Hydrogen
gas is normally stored in a metal cylinder under high pressure. Nanocylinders of carbon
nanotubes have potential to store hydrogen in very small space.

Questions on Nanotechnology

6 Marks
1. What is nanotechnology? Explain quantum confinement and surface to volume ratio in case
of nanoparticles. How this affects the properties of nanoparticles?
2. Explain electrical and mechanical properties of nanoparticles. {Dec 19, 6m]
3. What is nanotechnology? Explain any two properties of nanoparticles.
4. What are applications of nanotechnology? Explain any two applications of nanoparticles.

3/4 Marks
1. What is nanotechnology? Explain applications of nanotechnology in electron ics field .
[Dec 19, 4m)
What is quantum confinement? How does it affects the properties of nanoparticles?
{Dec 19, 3m]
2. Explain optical properties of nanoparticles.
3. Explain electrical properties of nanoparticles.
4. Explain mechanical properties of nanoparticles.
5. What are applications of nanotechnology? Explain any one application of nanoparticles.
Explain how nanotechnology is employed in targeted drug delivery. [Dec 19, 4ml
6. Explain applications of nanoparticles in automobiles.
7. Explain applications of nanoparticles in the field of space and defense.

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