Applied Rheology 2022; 32: 122–137

Research Article

Rabi Karaali* and Arzu Keven

Evaluation of four different cogeneration cycles

by using some criteria
https://doi.org/10.1515/arh-2022-0128 The majority of cogeneration plants in the industry
received September 07, 2022; accepted September 22, 2022 are between 3 and 20 MW in size while others are power
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to evaluate four plants larger than 20 MW or smaller than 1 MW called
different gas turbine cogeneration cycles which are basic, micro-cogeneration. This rate can be instantaneous, or
absorption cooling, air heating and air fuel heating cogen- it can be shown by calculating monthly or annual average
eration cycles by using the most important six evaluation values. The electrical heat ratio is about 1.0 for the gas
criteria for different excess air coefficient, different com- engine of the cogeneration plant, about 0.6 for the gas
pression rates, and different compressor inlet air tempera- turbine, and less than 0.4 for the steam power plants.
tures. These six evaluation criteria are electrical heat ratio, The energy utilization rate or total efficiency of the cogen-
exergy efficiency, incremental heat rate, artificial thermal eration plant is the ratio of the sum of the electricity and
efficiency, fuel energy saving ratio, and specific fuel con- heat energy obtained from the plant to the fuel energy
sumption. It is seen that the air-fuel heating cogeneration consumed. In well-designed power plants, this value is
cycle is the most efficient among the cycles examined for a between 80 and 90% [2].
certain compressor compression ratio, followed by the air The efficiency, working method, and other character-
heating, basic, and absorption cooling cycles. istics of the main engine (gas turbine) of the cogeneration
systems determine the properties, efficiency, and working
Keywords: cogeneration, evaluation criteria, exergy style of the whole system. According to the working
methods of cogeneration systems, it is possible to classify
them as gas turbine cogeneration systems, steam turbine
cogeneration systems, gas-steam turbine combined cogen-
1 Introduction eration systems, motorized cogeneration systems, and fuel
cells [3].
As it is known, the increase in the use of electrical energy In steam turbine cogeneration systems, the energy
continues in the world and in our country. In addition, released by the combustion of fuel is transferred to water
approximately 10% of the electrical energy produced in a boiler to obtain high-pressure superheated steam,
from large-scale thermal power plants and hydroelectric and work is produced by passing it through a steam tur-
power plants is lost in the distribution. Industrial estab- bine. Such systems work according to the Rankine cycle
lishments, by establishing cogeneration facilities to meet and a wide variety of fuels such as coal, natural gas, and
both electrical and heat energy needs, not only ensure liquid fuel can be used as fuel. Combined heat power
more efficient use of fuels but also reduce energy con- generation systems with steam turbines can be basically
sumption costs. In this way, large industrial facilities are divided into back pressure turbines and intermediate
able to secure themselves against power cuts. In addition, steam turbines. In gas turbine cogeneration systems,
small-scale cogeneration facilities can be widely used in the exhaust gases obtained at a temperature of approxi-
small enterprises, district heating systems, university mately 900–1,500°C, as a result of the combustion of a
campuses, and hotels [1]. gaseous fuel or liquid petroleum product in the combus-
tion chamber with the compressed air in the compressor
(10–12 times), leave some of its energy as they pass
 through the turbine. Thus, while the mechanical energy
* Corresponding author: Rabi Karaali, Department of Mechanical
is produced in the turbine, the temperature of the gas
Engineering, Bayburt University, 69000, Bayburt, Turkey,
e-mail: rabikar@gmail.com
coming out of the turbine drops to 500–900°C. With the
Arzu Keven: Department of Vehicle and Transport Technology, energy of the exhaust gases coming out of the turbine, hot
Golcuk Voc. High School, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey water or steam is produced in the waste heat boiler [4,5].

Open Access. © 2022 Rabi Karaali and Arzu Keven, published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License.
 Evaluation of four different cogeneration cycles  123

In combined (gas-steam) cycle cogeneration systems, work mass required for constant power [3]. The performance of
is generated by adding a steam turbine to the system from gas turbines depends on the altitude, ambient tempera-
the high-pressure steam obtained in order to utilize the high ture, ambient pressure, and turbine pressures. Every 10 K
exhaust heat from the gas turbine cycle. If the steam increase in the inlet temperature reduces the electrical
obtained from the cycle is low pressure, it is sent to the power obtained by around 9% [3,8]. An increase of
process to be used. By using additional combustion, the 300 m in height reduces the electrical power obtained
combined system provides a very flexible heat-to-electricity by around 3.5%. Each kPa pressure drop of inlet air pres-
ratio [5]. In motorized cogeneration systems, it is possible sure in filters, devices that provide silent operation, and
to produce some steam with exhaust gases at around ducts reduces the mechanical power by around 2%. Each
400–600°C, and its total efficiency is 80–90%. In this kPa pressure loss in the flow, combustion chamber,
system, advantages such as high electrical efficiency and sound breaker, and ducts reduces the mechanical power
part load efficiency, low plant cost, low heat rates, short by 1.2% [3,8].
operating times, and short interruption time intervals for First and second law analyses of thermodynamics
maintenance and repair can be counted [3–5]. and exergy analysis of the cases of basic system, pre-
Gas turbines operate on the Brayton cycle. Combustion heating the combustion air, preheating the fuel and com-
chambers have been developed for low NOx formation, and bustion air, and cooling the compressor inlet air with the
the efficiency has been greatly increased with various absorption cooling system with hot exhaust gases, are
measures such as environmentally friendly and envir- applied.
onmentally friendly cooling of the compressor inlet air
(evaporative or mechanical) with steam injection into
the combustion chamber, injecting water or steam into
the compressor outlet air, and installing a regenerator. 2 Materials and methods
Karaali and Öztürk [6,7] applied the methods of pre-
heating the fuel and combustion air, injecting the steam Gas turbine is the main engine in gas turbine cogenera-
produced from the system into the combustion chamber tion plants. As seen in Figure 1, the air pressed from the
and cooling the compressor inlet air, which are among compressor at high pressure is burned with natural gas
the improvement methods considered for cogeneration in the combustion chamber, and the high-temperature
systems, for different situations in an exemplary cogen- exhaust gases obtained leave some of their energy to be
eration system. Among these methods, it has been seen converted into electrical energy in the gas turbine, and
that the method of preheating the fuel and combustion then, it is thrown out, leaving most of the remaining
air has the best electrical power generation performance energy to the water in the waste heat recovery device.
[6,7]. In terms of combining the improvement methods, In this way, while mechanical energy (converted to elec-
they explained that a preheated system for combustion trical energy in the generator) is obtained from the gas
air and fuel should be preferred in a cogeneration system, turbine at the same time, hot water or steam is obtained
if there is a thermal power adjustment, it should be con- from the waste heat recovery device [3,9].
sidered in the steam injection system, and if it is possible
to cool the compressor inlet air with opportunities out-
side the system, it should be included in the system [6]. If
there is no need for forced cooling (triple generation etc.),
the heat in the system should not be used for cooling the 7
Water Steam
compressor inlet air. In addition, if there is a possibility of 8

cooling by injecting water into the compressor inlet air, HRSG

5
absorption cooling with the help of waste heat, or in 6
another way, in summer operating conditions without
CC
bringing much cost, additional improvement may be pos- 4
2
sible [6,7]. 3
The cooled inlet air increases the electrical power T Gen.
C
obtained while reducing the heat power but increasing
9 10
the cycle efficiency. It extends the turbine life by reducing
1 Air
the temperature of the exhaust gases coming out of the
combustion chamber. Thus, it reduces the amount of air Figure 1: General diagram of the basic (bsc) cogeneration system.
124  Rabi Karaali and Arzu Keven

The hot water or steam obtained is used in heating, addition to the existing system. If it is to be an addition to
drying, and meeting the process heat needs, as well as in the existing system, the possibilities and structure of the
electricity generation using steam turbines, district heating, existing system should be considered and the system
absorption cooling, and similar processes. Different cycles should be modified accordingly. Considering the repair
are obtained by adding other devices such as recuperator, maintenance required by the cogeneration system during
steam injection, heat exchangers, absorption cooling, and operation, repair maintenance should be done in a planned
steam turbine to the main machine. In addition, it may manner. The number of starts during the year should be
occur in cycles where different fluids such as CO2 are used taken into account [9].
instead of air as the working fluid [10,11]. Cogeneration systems consist of different devices,
The efficiencies of the components of the cogenera- and pressure, temperature, and chemical composition
tion system, namely, the compressor, the gas turbine, the changes occur in these devices. Also, a chemical reaction
waste heat recovery device, the recuperator and the com- happens in the combustion chamber [10]. In this study,
bustion chamber efficiencies, the isentropic efficiencies the assumptions made in the analysis of the systems are
of the turbine and the compressor, the heat exchanger, as follows. The cogeneration system operates in a contin-
and the recuperator efficiency can be calculated by using uous regime, the ideal gas mixture laws are valid for air
the first and the second laws of thermodynamics and the and exhaust, methane is chosen as the ideal gas, and it is
exergy analysis method. complete combustion, with no NOx formation, and the
The fuel types that can be used should be determined, heat loss in the combustion chamber is 2% of the fuel
and their supply should be considered during the selection upper thermal value. There is no heat loss in other ele-
of the facility. The problems to be encountered in the cost ments, and kinetic and potential energy effects are not
and supply of the fuel to be used and the extent to which it taken into consideration. In addition, environmental con-
will be affected by economic fluctuations should also be ditions are taken as follows; T0 = 298.15 K and P0 = 1,013 bar,
considered. If the system is being installed for steam pur- pressure loss in the combustion chamber is 5%, and for heat
poses, sales methods should be sought for the excess elec- exchanger and capacities m1 = 91.4 kg/h for compressor,
tricity to be produced. If there are no sales opportunities, it ms = 14 kg/h saturated steam pressure for heat exchanger
should be considered how much of the steam to be pro- at 20 bar, gas turbine net electrical power 30 MW, and com-
duced can be given up. If the system is being installed for bustion chamber fuel flow mf = 1.64 kg/h methane was taken
electrical purposes, ways of using the resulting heat in the [9,11]. The thermodynamic model and calculation procedure
operation should be investigated. If there is no usage area, are given in Tables 1 and 2 for the inlet air cooling cycle.
alternative systems should be considered to obtain electri- A compressor is a device that takes air or working
city from this heat [6,8]. fluid and compresses it or puts it to high pressure.
The system must be reliable and it must supply elec- Centrifugal and axial compressors are used in gas turbine
tricity or steam, or both, reliably and continuously. It cogeneration systems because they provide continuous
should be determined whether the cogeneration facility flow. Axial flow compressors are used in most gas turbines
will be a new or a conversion of the existing facility, or an with a power of 5 MW and above. Their efficiencies are

Table 1: The mass, the energy, and the entropy equations of the components of the absorption cooling cycle (ab) [8–10]

Component Mass Equations Energy Equations Entropy Equations

Compressor ṁ 1 = ṁ 2 ṁ 1 h1 + Ẇ C = ṁ 2h2 ṁ 1 s1 − ṁ 1 s2 + Ṡ gen, C = 0

Combustion chamber ṁ 2 + ṁ 10 = ṁ 3 ṁ 2h2 + ṁ 7 h7 = ṁ 3h3 + 0.02ṁ 7 LHV ṁ 2s2 + ṁ 7 s7 − ṁ 3s3 + Ṡ gen, CC = 0
Turbine ṁ 3 = ṁ 4 ṁ 3h3 = Ẇ T + Ẇ C + ṁ 4h4 ṁ 3s3 − ṁ 4s4 + Ṡ gen, T = 0
HRSG ṁ 5 = ṁ 6 ṁ 5h5 + ṁ 10h10 = ṁ 6h6 + ṁ 11 h11 ṁ 5s5 + ṁ 10s10 − ṁ 6s6 − ṁ 11 s11 + Ṡ gen,HRSG = 0
ṁ 10 = ṁ 11
Overall cycle h¯i = f (Ti )
s¯i = f (Ti , Pi )
ṁ air hair + ṁ fuel LHVCH4 − Q̇ Loss,CC − ṁ eg.,out heg.,out − Ẇ T
− ṁ steam(hwater,in − hsteam,out ) = 0
Q̇ Loss,CC = 0.02ṁ fuel LHVCH4
 Evaluation of four different cogeneration cycles  125

Table 2: The evaluation criteria, exergy, and the exergy efficiency equations of the components of the absorption cooling cycle (ab)
[2,8,10,11]

Component Exergy equation Exergy efficiency

Compressor ĖD,C = E1̇ + Ẇ C − E2̇ Ė out,C − Ė in,C

ηex,C =
Ẇ C
Combustion Chamber ĖD,CC = E2̇ + Ė 7 − Ė3 Ė out,CC
ηex,CC =
Ė in,CC + Ė fuel

Turbine ĖD,T = Ė3 − Ė 4 − Ẇ C − Ẇ T Ẇ net,T + Ẇ C

ηex,T =
Ė in,T − Ė out,T

HRSG ĖD,HRSG = Ė 5 − Ė 6 + E10

̇ − E11
̇ Ė steam,HRSG − Ė water,HRSG
ηex,HRSG =
Ė in,exhaust,HRSG − Ė out,exhaust,HRSG

Overall cycle Exergy efficiency Ė = Ėph + Ė ch

Ėph = ṁ (h − h0 − T0(s − s0))
ṁ
Ė ch = M{
∑xk e¯kch + RT¯ 0∑xk ln xk }
Wnet,T + (Esteam,HRSG − Ė water,HRSG)
̇ ̇
ηex =
Ė fuel
The electrical heat ratio EHR =
Wnet
Qnet
Specific fuel consumption-SFC SFC = 3600.
ṁ fuel
Ẇ net
Artificial thermal efficiency ηa =
W
QFuel,inlet − (QNET / (ηCC)H)

The FESR FESR =

Δ QFuel,inlet
QH W
( + )
(ηCC)H ηel

Incremental heat rate–IHR (IHR)CG =

QFuel,inlet.CG
−
(QNET )CG
=
1
−
λCG
WCG (ηCC)CGWCG ηel (ηCC)CG

around 80, 85, and 90% for reciprocating, centrifugal, and In Figure 4, the cycle in which the air entering the
axial flow compressors, respectively. The recuperator trans- compressor is cooled by the absorption cooling system
fers some of the heat of the exhaust gases from the gas using the heat of the exhaust gases from the gas turbine
turbine to the pressurized gases exiting the compressor is shown. In this cycle, after some heat energy is con-
before they enter the combustion chamber [9]. The main sumed to cool the air, the remaining heat energy is spent
function of the combustion chambers is to increase the on steam production.
temperature of the high-pressure gas with a good combus- Electrical efficiencies are around 18–36% for the
tion reaction. Gas turbines are of two types, axial flow and basic system and 28–38% for the system with regenera-
radial turbines, and they can be classified as impulse and tors (without applying other additional improvements).
reaction turbines. Axial flow turbines are used in 95% of Hot exhaust gases from the turbine can be used as a
applications. In the turbine, some of the useful energy of
the fluid is converted into mechanical energy, while the
remaining non-recoverable part comes out of the turbine
Water 9
as kinetic energy [9,11]. The waste heat recovery device Steam
8
(HRSG) provides steam production at high pressure and
temperature by transferring the exhaust energy to the water. HRSG 5
The pressure of the exhaust gases coming out of the gas 6 Rec.
7
turbine is slightly above atmospheric pressure, and their 4
YO
temperature varies between 500 and 950°C. 2 3 Net
Natural gas Power
In Figure 2, a general diagram of the air heating 10
C T Gen.
cogeneration system (airh) is given.
11 12
In Figure 3, besides preheating the air, it is shown
that the fuel is preheated by means of a recuperator and 1
Air
sent to the combustion chamber, and some of the heat
energy of the exhaust gas from the gas turbine is sent to Figure 2: The general diagram of the air heating cogeneration
the combustion chamber by means of the recuperators. system (airh).
126  Rabi Karaali and Arzu Keven

Steam
14
Water 13
6 5
HRSG Rec
8 7
Rec. 10
9
CC
2 3 4

C T
Gen.
11 12

Air 1

Figure 3: The general diagram of the air-fuel heating cogeneration system (airfh).

defined as continuous flow continuous open (SASA).

CC The first law of thermodynamics can be written as follows
2 3 4
for the open system and steady-state state.
7
8
9
Vg 2
C T Q̇ KH − Ẇ KH + ∑ṁ g ⎛hg +
⎜ + gzg ⎞⎟
g ⎝ 2 ⎠
1 (2.1)
4 V2
Absorption Water − ∑ṁ c ⎛hc + c + gzc ⎞ = 0.
⎜ ⎟

10 ⎝ 2 ⎠
cooling system c

5 6
The law of conservation of mass (in steady state) is
HRSG
written as follows [10,11]:
Steam ∑ṁ g = ∑ṁ ç . (2.2)
11
Since the internal energy and enthalpy properties of
Figure 4: General diagram of the cogeneration system with
absorption cooling (ab).
matter cannot be measured directly, relations based on
directly measurable properties such as pressure, tem-
perature and specific volume are written. Thus, internal
source of hot air, for heating the air entering the combus- energy and enthalpy functions are obtained [9].
tion chamber, as combustion air in the waste heat recovery Performance analysis of cogeneration plants is diffi-
device, boiler, or additional combustion chamber. There cult and complex. Performance analysis for a thermal
is around 16% unburned oxygen in the exhaust gases system can be done in two separate studies: the perfor-
coming out of this turbine (since 200–300% of the air mance of the entire system and the performance of each
required for stoichiometric combustion is supplied to the device that makes up the system. The necessity of both
gas turbines and there is approximately 21% oxygen in the studies can be understood as the performance of each
air, around 6% of this oxygen is used in the combustion device affects the performance of the entire system. In
process in the combustion chamber, and the remaining order to reveal the performance of the cogeneration
15–16% oxygen remains in the exhaust together with other plants, the heat rates of the whole system, the products
hot gases) [9]. The chemical reactions that happen in the and the power of the devices should be revealed [12].
combustion chamber are as follows. According to ASME, the important parameters that reveal
the performance of a gas turbine cogeneration plant
λ¯ CH4 + [0.7748N2 + 0.2059O2 + 0.0003CO2 + 0.019H2O]
(design ones are not taken) are power, inlet air mass,
→ (1 + λ )[XN2 N2 + XO2O2 + XCO2CO2 + XH2OH2 O].
heat power ratio, efficiencies, and (cp) specific heats for
Open systems in which the properties of matter are the whole system. The parameters to be calculated for
uniformly distributed in each mass-exchange region of each device are the efficiency of the compressor, the
the control surface; however, the instantaneous work energy consumed, the energy lost, the inlet pressure,
and heat exchanges that do not change over time are temperature, and humidity of the air. Efficiency, outlet
 Evaluation of four different cogeneration cycles  127

temperature, specific fuel consumption for the combus- Wnet

EHR = . (2.6)
tion chamber, efficiency for the turbine, power produced, Qnet
lost energy, and inlet and outlet pressures should be cal- Artificial thermal efficiency is the ratio of the work
culated. Waste heat recovery device, efficiency, inlet and achieved to the thermal value of the fuel used for work
outlet temperatures, water inlet and outlet temperatures, production [2].
water flow, and energy should be calculated. Efficiency,
air inlet and outlet temperatures, and exhaust inlet and W
ηa = , (2.7)
outlet temperatures should be calculated for the recup- QFuel,inlet − (QNET / (ηCC)H)
erator. Curves related to the effect of compressor inlet tem- ηel = W / QFuel,inlet . (2.8)
perature on gas turbine power, heat power ratios, and fuel
consumption. Curves related to the effect of the change of Fuel energy saving ratio (FESR) is defined as the ratio
air-fuel ratio as a function of compressor compression ratio of the amount of fuel consumed separately for electricity
on powers, efficiencies, cost of products, fuel energy-saving and heat generation in conventional systems, the differ-
and heat increase rates, electric heat rates, fuel consump- ence in fuel amounts used for compound production in
tion, combustion chamber and turbine inlet and outlet tem- the cogeneration plant, to the total amount of fuel obtained
peratures, and loss energies [9]. in the conventional system and is given in the following
Due to a large number of manufacturers and the wide equation. This criterion is the most descriptive and compre-
variety of power plants, there is no standard selection hensive in evaluating cogeneration plants [2].
method for the appropriate cogeneration system. However, ΔQFuel,inlet = (QNET / (ηCC)H) + (W / ηel ) − QFuel,inlet . (2.9)
while making the selection and designing the system, the
most basic thermodynamic, operational, economic, and Here, ΔQFuel,inlet is the amount of heat saved compared
thermoeconomic factors should be considered [13–15]. to the conventional system, and QFuel,inlet is the thermal
Cycle analysis should be done by thermodynamic methods energy of the amount of fuel consumed in the cogenera-
and the amount of fuel to be spent for each unit of elec- tion system. For the conventional (heat and electricity
tricity to be obtained must be found. The loss amounts for obtained in separate systems) system, boiler or combus-
tion chamber efficiency (ηCC)H = 0.9 and electrical effi-
each state of the cycle should be visible. Environmental
ciency ηel = 0.4. The FESR can be written as follows:
factors that will cause a decrease in the output power of
the cogeneration plant, such as the altitude at which the ΔQFuel,inlet
FESR = .
(2.10)
cogeneration plant will be installed, the ambient tempera-
ture and humidity, and the composition of the fuel to be
( QH
(ηCC)H
+
W
ηel )
used, should be determined. The following criteria are The incremental heat rate criterion is a thermody-
considered in the evaluation of the thermodynamic perfor- namic performance criterion and gives information about
mance of the system [2]. the increase in electrical energy when the fuel energy
Efficiency (the rate of energy use) or the overall effi- is increased at this rate. When the First Law is applied
ciency of the cycle is defined as the ratio of the sum of the to the cogeneration system (including (QExh)CG unusable
network from the cycle and the useful heat from the cycle thermal energy)
to the energy fed into the cycle by fuel.
(ηCC)CGQFuel,inlet = (QNET)CG + WCG + (QExh)CG , (2.11)
W + Qsteam
η= . (2.3)
QFuel,inlet QFuel,inlet.CG (QNET)CG
(IHR)CG = −
WCG (ηCC)CGWCG
Electrical efficiency is the ratio of the work obtained (2.12)
1 λ CG
in the cycle to the fuel energy supplied, and the heat = − .
ηel (ηCC)CG
efficiency is the ratio of the heat energy obtained in the
cycle to the fuel energy supplied [10].
W
ηel = , (2.4)
QFuel,inlet 3 Results and discussion
Qsteam
ηheat = . (2.5) Since the maximum temperature of the cycle must be
QFuel,inlet
kept below a certain temperature due to metallurgical
The electrical heat ratio can also be defined as reasons, much more air than required for combustion
follows: (up to four times the theoretical air required for complete
128  Rabi Karaali and Arzu Keven

combustion) has to be used, and the properties of the air compressor, the compression ratios are very effective
have a great influence on the properties of the exhaust on the efficiency of the cycle [16].
gas [8]. Accordingly, when the compressor compression In Table 3, electrical efficiency, first, and exergy effi-
ratio (P2/P1) increases, the compressor outlet temperature ciencies are obtained by changing the recuperator outlet
(T2) will increase, so the efficiency also increases, but temperature for each compression ratio and keeping
the high-pressure ratios cannot exceed a certain value the combustion chamber outlet temperature constant at
due to metallurgical reasons, and as the compression 1,341 K, approximately 7–15 K below the turbine outlet
ratio increases, the friction and compressor dimensions’ temperature.
increase so the machine efficiency starts to decrease [9]. However, it should be well known that in order to be
Therefore, by installing a recuperator, the air coming out able to compare the example, absorption cooling, air
of the compressor can be heated with the exhaust gas heating, and air fuel heating cycles with each other, cal-
coming out of the turbine, which increases the efficiency, culations should be made for the cases where the air
but when the pressure ratio increases, the compressor excess coefficients are the same. In this, the outlet tem-
outlet temperature increases and the benefit of the perature of the recuperator should be taken as constant
recuperator decreases as the turbine outlet temperature so that the air excess coefficient and the change situa-
decreases. In fact, when the two temperatures are equal tions for these four cycles can be compared. In order to
at a certain compression ratio, it is not possible to ben- keep the recuperator outlet temperature 7–15 K below the
efit from the recuperator [9]. Since most of the work turbine outlet temperature for each of the thousands of
produced by the turbine (the ratio of compressor work calculations made here, each calculation must be done
to the work produced by the turbine is called the back 5–6 times, which is practically useless. For these reasons,
work ratio, which is around 60%) is spent by the from now on, the recuperator outlet temperatures will be

Table 3: Values of the air-fuel heating cycle obtained under the accepted conditions* for different compression ratios

Comp. El. Effic. Fuel Rec. Fuel Rec. Fuel Air Air Rec. Air Air Rec. Air Mass Cog. Ener. Cog. Exer.
Rat. (r) W/QFuel Cold İn. Exh. In. Rec. Rec. In. Out. Exh. In. Flow Effi. (W + Effi. (W +
Out. Out. LMTD LMTD Tem. (K) Out. (kg/s) Qnet)/QFuel EQ)/EFuel
Tem. (K) Tem. (K) Tem. (K)

6 0.4439 298.15 949 204 22.6 521–915 931 162.9 0.6373 0.5413
915 931 552
7 0.4242 298.15 919 212 32.0 545–875 901 140.0 0.6707 0.524
875 901 585
8 0.4249 298.15 895 183 16.6 566–865 876 137.0 0.675 0.5261
865 876 590
9 0.411 298.15 873 185 20.4 586–840 856 130.0 0.6852 0.5207
840 856 613
10 0.408 298.15 856 164 9.7 604–832 838 127.8 0.6884 0.5197
832 838 620
11 0.3969 298.15 839 163 11.0 620–814 821 123.5 0.6946 0.5147
814 821 636
12 0.3875 298.15 826 161 11.0 636–800 807 120.0 0.6997 0.5103
800 807 651
13 0.3785 298.15 812 157 10.0 650–787 794 117.2 0.7038 0.5058
787 794 664
14 0.3698 298.15 800 155 10.0 664–775 783 114.7 0.7074 0.5014
775 783 677
15 0.362 298.15 790 151 9.0 677–765 772 112.7 0.7103 0.4973
765 772 688
16 0.354 298.15 780 150 9.0 689–755 763 113.7 0.7134 0.4931
755 763 700

*For constant fuel consumption (1.64 kg/s methane, ηisK = ηisT = 0.86, Tsteam = 485.57 K) where the combustion chamber outlet temperature
is constant (1,341 K) and the outlet temperature of both recuperators is kept below the turbine outlet temperature of 7–15 K and
TExh = 426 K).
 Evaluation of four different cogeneration cycles  129

1.3
abEHR(r=16)
bscEHR(r=16)
1.1
Electric Heat Rate-EHR=Wnet/Qnet
airhEHR(r=16)
airEHR(r=16)
0.9 abEHR(r=10)
bscEHR(r=10)

0.7 airhEHR(r=10)
airEHR(r=10)
abEHR(r=6)
0.5
bscEHR(r=6)
airhEHR(r=6)
0.3
airEHR(r=6)

0.1
1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2
Excess Air Rate

Figure 5: Variation of the electrical heat energy ratio with air excess coefficient at different compressor compression ratios for basic (bsc),
absorption cooling (ab), air (airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles (mfuel = 1.64 kg/s, ηisC = ηisT = 0.86, Trecout = 850 K,
Tsteam = 426 K).

taken as constant until the optimizations are calculated, obtained increases. This increase is more in cycles with a
but care will be taken to ensure that these temperatures recuperator.
are at least 7 K lower than the turbine outlet tempera- Changes in compressor inlet air temperatures cause
tures. The reason for this attention is that the heat does serious changes in the electrical and heat energy power
not pass from the compressor outlet air to the exhaust of the facility. In the literature, according to Boyce [1], the
gas; that is, the recuperator does not work in reverse. electrical power increases as the compressor inlet air
Since the heat of the exhaust at the turbine exit is temperatures decrease; for example, when it is reduced
used to preheat the increased amount of air in air and air from 25 to 0°C, the electrical power increases by 13–14%,
fuel heating cogeneration cycles where recuperators are whereas the thermal energy power decreases by around 10%.
used, the heat energy of the exhaust entering the waste Kehlhofet et al. [5] gave curves showing the effect of
heat recovery device decreases rapidly, which reduces compressor inlet air temperature on the relative work,
the heat power more rapidly in these two cycles. and according to these, the work obtained increases as
As shown in Figure 5, it is understood that the ratio the inlet air cools [5].
of the electrical power to the heat energy power of Al-Fahed et al. [17] examined the effect of the com-
the systems decreases as the compression ratio of the pressor inlet air temperature change on the performance
compressor decreases, as the electrical power decreases. of the basic cycle cogeneration system in their article.
Increasing the air excess coefficient increases the elec- Since the increase in temperature decreases the density
trical heat energy ratio of these four cogeneration cycles. of the air, more energy has to be spent on the compressor
However, this increase is more in air and air fuel heating for the same mass. In regions such as the Middle East
cogeneration cycles. where the difference between daytime and nighttime
In Figure 6, as the compressor inlet air temperature temperatures is large, this is a situation that must be
decreases, the electrical heat energy ratio of the systems taken into account and greatly changes the costs. In the
increases. This is because, at low inlet air temperatures, literature studies conducted in this thesis, it was found
the electrical power increases and the heat power decreases. that an increase of 1°C in the compressor inlet air tem-
As the air excess coefficient increases in the given range, the perature leads to a decrease of around 0.7% in electricity
electric heat energy ratio increases as the electrical power production, while a decrease of 1°C reduces electricity
130  Rabi Karaali and Arzu Keven

1.45

Electric Heat Rate-EHR=Wnet/Qnet

1.25 bscEHR(288K)
airhEHR(288K)
1.05
airEHR(288K)

0.85 bscEHR(298,15K)
airhEHR(298,15K)
0.65 airEHR(298,15K)
bscEHR(308K)
0.45
airhEHR(308K)

0.25 airEHR(308K)
1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2
Excess Air Rate

Figure 6: Variation of electrical heat energy ratio with air excess coefficient at different compressor inlet temperatures for basic (bsc),
absorption cooling (ab), air (airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles (mfuel = 1.64 kg/s, ηisC = ηisT = 0.86, r = 10, Trecout = 850 K,
Tsteam = 485.57 K, and TExh = 426 K).

production by 0.5–0.9%. It was found to increase by the air excess coefficient at different compressor com-
approx. In the literature, it has been stated that in the pression ratios is given. The exergy efficiency of the
absorption cooling of the compressor inlet air, the elec- systems increases for all cycles as the compressor com-
trical efficiency increases by 6% when the inlet air is pression ratio increases. It is seen that the air-fuel (airfh)
cooled to 15°C [17–19]. heating cogeneration cycle is the most efficient among
In Figure 7, the variation of the exergy efficiency of the cycles examined for a certain compressor compres-
the cogeneration cycles with absorption cooling (ab), sion ratio, followed by the air heating (airh), basic (bsc),
basic (bsc), air (airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating with and absorption cooling (ab) cycles. This shows that the

0.54

0.52 abexef(r=16)

0.5 bscexef(r=16)
airhexef(r=16)
0.48
Exergy Efficiency

airexef(r=16)
0.46
abexef(r=10)
0.44
bscexef(r=10)
0.42
airhexef(r=10)
0.4 airexef(r=10)
0.38 abexef(r=6)
0.36 bscexef(r=6)

0.34 airhexef(r=6)
1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2 airexef(r=6)
Excess Air Rate

Figure 7: Variation of the exergy efficiency with air excess coefficient at different compressor compression ratios for basic (bsc), absorption
cooling (ab), air (airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles (mfuel = 1.64 kg/s, ηisC = ηisT = 0.86, Trecout = 850 K, Tsteam = 485.57 K,
TExh = 426 K, and Tambi. = 298.15 K).
 Evaluation of four different cogeneration cycles  131

0.53

0.51
bscexef(288K)
airhexef(288K)
Exergy Efficiency

0.49
airexef(288K)
0.47
bscexef(298,15K)

0.45 airhexef(298,15K)
airexef(298,15K)
0.43
bscexef(308K)

0.41 airhexef(308K)
airexef(308K)
0.39
1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2
Excess Air Rate

Figure 8: Variation of exergy efficiency with air excess coefficient at different compressor inlet temperatures for basic (bsc), absorption
cooling (ab), air (airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles (mfuel = 1.64 kg/h, ηisC = ηisT = 0.86, r = 10, Trecout = 850 K, Tsteam =
485.57 K, and TExh = 426 K).

preheating of the air and fuel entering the combustion maximum at lower excess air coefficient ratios as the
chamber increases the efficiency. Basic (bsc) and absorp- compressor compression ratios of the basic (bsc) and
tion cooling (ab) cycles reach maximum efficiency at absorption cooling (ab) cycles increase. As the excess
rates where the excess air coefficient is around 2–2.5, air coefficient increases at high compression ratios in air
and then, they decrease with the increasing excess air (airh) and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles, the
coefficient. It is seen that the exergy efficiency will be exergy efficiency also increases. Here, some curves have

0.8
abATE(r=16)

0.75 bscATE(r=16)
Artificial Thermal Efficiency-ATE

airhATE(r=16)
0.7 airATE(r=16)

abATE(r=10)
0.65
bscATE(r=10)

airhATE(r=10)
0.6
airATE(r=10)

0.55 abATE(r=6)

bscATE(r=6)
0.5 airhATE(r=6)
1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2
airATE(r=6)
Excess Air Rate

Figure 9: Variation of artificial thermal efficiency with excess air coefficient at different compressor compression ratios for basic (bsc),
absorption cooling (ab), air (airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles (mfuel = 1.64 kg/h, ηisC = ηisT = 0.86, r = 10, Trecout = 850 K,
Tsteam = 485.57 K, and TExh = 426 K).
132  Rabi Karaali and Arzu Keven

0.8

bscATE(288K)

Artificial Thermal Efficiency-ATE

0.75
airhATE(288K)

airATE(288K)
0.7
bscATE(298,15K)

airhATE(298,15K)
0.65
airATE(298,15K)

bscATE(308K)
0.6
airhATE(308K)

0.55
1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2
Excess Air Rate

Figure 10: Variation of artificial thermal efficiency with air excess coefficient at different compressor inlet air temperatures for basic (bsc),
absorption cooling (ab), air (airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles (mfuel = 1.64 kg/h, ηisC = ηisT = 0.86, r = 10, Trecout = 850 K,
Tsteam = 485.57 K, and TExh = 426 K).

been cut since only the conditions under which the sys- coefficients. In these two cycles, the temperature of the
tems can operate are considered. inlet air is more effective on the efficiency in the air excess
In Figure 8, the exergy efficiency of cogeneration coefficients increasing. In the basic cycle, on the other
cycles with air fuel heating increases as the compressor hand, the exergy efficiency starts to decrease after reaching
inlet air temperature decreases. In Figure 8, the efficiency its maximum value at values where the excess air coefficient
of these two cycles increases with increasing air excess is around 2.5. In the basic cycle, it is seen that the

0.3

abFESR(r=16)
Fuel Energy Saving Ratio-FESR

0.25 bscFESR(r=16)
airhFESR(r=16)
airFESR(r=16)
0.2
abFESR(r=10)
bscFESR(r=10)
0.15
airhFESR(r=10)
airFESR(r=10)

0.1 abFESR(r=6)
bscFESR(r=6)
airhFESR(r=6)
0.05
1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2 airFESR(r=6)

Excess Air Rate

Figure 11: Variation of FESR with excess air coefficient at different compressor compression ratios for basic (bsc), absorption cooling (ab),
air (airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles (mfuel = 1.64 kg/h, ηisC = ηisT = 0.86, r = 10, Trecout = 850 K, Tsteam = 485.57 K, and
TExh = 426 K).
 Evaluation of four different cogeneration cycles  133

0.29

0.27
Fuel Energy Saving Ratio-FESR

bscFESR(288K)
0.25 airhFESR(288K)
airFESR(288K)
0.23
bscFESR(298.15K)
airhFESR(298.15K)
0.21
airFESR(298.15K)

0.19 bscFESR(308K)
airhFESR(308K)
0.17 airFESR(308K)

0.15
1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2
Excess Air Rate

Figure 12: Variation of FESR with excess air coefficient at different compressor inlet air temperatures for basic (bsc), absorption cooling (ab),
air (airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles (mfuel = 1.64 kg/h, ηisC = ηisT = 0.86, r = 10, Trecout = 850 K, Tsteam = 485.57 K, and
TExh = 426 K).

compressor inlet air temperature has an effect that increases The artificial thermal efficiency is the ratio of the
the efficiency at low excess air coefficients, but this effect work obtained in the cogeneration plant to the calorific
disappears as the excess air ratio increases. value of the part of the fuel used for work production, and

1.9

abIHR(r=16)
1.8
bscIHR(r=16)
Incremental Heat Rate -IHR

airhIHR(r=16)
1.7
airIHR(r=16)

1.6 abIHR(r=10)
bscIHR(r=10)
1.5 airhIHR(r=10)
airIHR(r=10)
1.4
abIHR(r=6)
bscIHR(r=6)
1.3
airhIHR(r=6)
1.2 airIHR(r=6)
1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2
Excess Air Rate

Figure 13: Variation of Incremental Heat Rate–IHR with excess air coefficient at different compressor compression ratios for basic (bsc),
absorption cooling (ab), air (airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles (mfuel = 1.64 kg/h, ηisC = ηisT = 0.86, r = 10, Trecout = 850 K,
Tsteam = 485.57 K, and TExh = 426 K).
134  Rabi Karaali and Arzu Keven

1.8

1.7
Incremental Heat Rate -IHR bscIHR(288K)

1.6 airhIHR(288K)
airIHR(288K)
1.5 bscIHR(298,15K)
airhIHR(298,15K)
1.4 airIHR(298,15K)
bscIHR(308K)
1.3 airhIHR(308K)
airIHR(308K)
1.2
1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.7
Excess Air Rate

Figure 14: Variation of incremental heat rate with excess air coefficient at different compressor inlet air temperatures for basic (bsc),
absorption cooling (ab), air (airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles (mfuel = 1.64 kg/h, ηisC = ηisT = 0.86, r = 10, Trecout = 850 K,
Tsteam = 485.57 K, and TExh = 426 K).

the variation of the artificial thermal efficiency of the that the power generation efficiency of 25–30% of the con-
systems with the air excess coefficient at different com- ventional thermal power plants established only to obtain
pressor compression ratios is given in Figure 9. As the electricity is close to twice. The emergence of this differ-
compression ratio increases, it also increases the artificial ence alone reveals how necessary cogeneration is in power
thermal efficiency of the systems. Considering that the air- generation. The absorption cooling cycle appears to be the
fuel heating cogeneration cycle converts around 60% of worst. The increase in the excess air coefficient reduces the
the fuel exergy spent to obtain work into power, it is seen artificial thermal efficiency of the systems; especially in

0.55
abSFC(r=16)
0.5
Specific Fuel Consumption-SFC

bscSFC(r=16)
0.45 airhSFC(r=16)

0.4 airSFC(r=16)
abSFC(r=10)
0.35
bscSFC(r=10)
0.3 airhSFC(r=10)

0.25 airSFC(r=10)
abSFC(r=6)
0.2
bscSFC(r=6)
0.15 airhSFC(r=6)
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
airSFC(r=6)
Excess Air Rate

Figure 15: Variation of specific fuel consumption with excess air coefficient at different compressor compression rates for basic (bsc),
absorption cooling (ab), air (airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles (mfuel = 1.64 kg/h, ηisC = ηisT = 0.86, r = 10, Trecout = 850 K,
Tsteam = 485.57 K, and TExh = 426 K).
 Evaluation of four different cogeneration cycles  135

0.34
Specific Fuel Consumption-SFC
bscSFC(288K)
0.29 airhSFC(288K)
airSFC(288K)
bscSFC(298,15K)
0.24
airhSFC(298,15K)
airSFC(298,15K)

0.19 bscSFC(308K)
airhSFC(308K)
airSFC(308K)
0.14
1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2
Excess Air Rate

Figure 16: Variation of specific fuel consumption with excess air coefficient at different compressor inlet air temperatures for basic (bsc),
absorption cooling (ab), air (airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles (mfuel = 1.64 kg/h, ηisC = ηisT = 0.86, r = 10, Trecout = 850 K,
Tsteam = 485.57 K, and TExh = 426 K).

absorption cooling and basic cycles, the efficiency as the compressor compression ratios of the systems
decreases more. increase, the FESR increases, and at high excess air coeffi-
In Figure 10, it is seen that the artificial thermal effi- cients, it decreases in the basic and absorption cooling
ciency of the systems is higher at high compressor inlet cycles. In the basic and absorption cooling cycles, the
air temperatures. It is understood that the increase in the maximum FESR is obtained at the values of the excess
excess air coefficient decreases the artificial thermal effi- air coefficient between 2 and 2.5, while the maximum
ciency of the cycles and this decrease is more in the basic values are obtained between 2.5 and 3 in the air and air-
cycle. fuel heating cogeneration cycles.
The FESR, which is the most explanatory and com- In Figure 12, variations of FESR with excess air coef-
prehensive criterion, is defined as the ratio of the amount ficient at different compressor inlet air temperatures for
of fuel consumed separately for electricity and heat gen- basic (bsc), absorption cooling (ab), air (airh), and air
eration in conventional systems, the difference in the fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles are given. In
amount of fuel used for compound production in the Figure 12, it is seen that the FESR increases as the heat
cogeneration plant, to the total amount of fuel consumed power increases as the compressor inlet air temperatures
in the conventional system. increase in the basic cycle. As the compressor inlet air
Here, the sharing part is the amount of fuel saved temperatures of air and air fuel (airfh) heating cogenera-
compared to the conventional system, and it is obtained tion cycles decrease, although the heat power decreases
by subtracting the amount of fuel spent in the cogenera- (recuperators partially compensate), the fuel energy
tion system from the total fuel spent in the case of produ- saving rate increases as the electrical power increases
cing heat and work separately in the conventional system. more. The air excess coefficients from which the max-
The denominator is the total amount of fuel consumed in imum values are obtained for the basic cycle are as pre-
conventional systems for the amount of work and heat viously described. In air and air fuel heating cogenera-
obtained. For the conventional system, boiler or combus- tion cycles, the FESR increases as the excess air coefficient
tion chamber and electrical efficiency are taken as ηCC = increases.
0.9 and ηel = 0.4. The Incremental Heat Rate (IHR) gives information
In Figure 11, variations of FESR with excess air coeffi- about the increase in electrical energy when the fuel
cient at different compressor compression ratios for basic energy is increased in the cogeneration system. It con-
(bsc), absorption cooling (ab), air (airh), and air fuel cerns the first law. In Figure 13, as the compressor com-
(airfh) heating cogeneration cycles are given. In Figure 11, pression ratio increases, the electrical power obtained
136  Rabi Karaali and Arzu Keven

increases, so more electricity is obtained with a lower fuel among the cycles examined for a certain compressor com-
increase. It is understood that the air and air fuel heating pression ratio, followed by the air heating (airh), basic (bsc),
cogeneration cycles perform much better than the basic and absorption cooling (ab) cycles. This shows that the
and absorption cooling cycles. As the excess air coeffi- preheating of the air and fuel entering the combustion
cient increases, the amount of fuel that must be spent for chamber increases the efficiency. Basic (bsc) and absorption
each unit of excess electricity to be obtained increases, cooling (ab) cycles reach maximum efficiency at rates where
and this increase is faster in absorption cooling and basic the excess air coefficient is around 2–2.5, and then, they
cycles. In Figure 14, the incremental heat rate of the sys- decrease with the increasing excess air coefficient. As the
tems decreases at high compressor inlet air temperatures, compression ratio increases, it also increases the artificial
that is, more electricity is obtained with less fuel increase. thermal efficiency of the systems. The absorption cooling
As the air excess coefficient of the systems increases, the cycle appears to be the worst. The increase in the excess air
rate of heat increase also increases. coefficient reduces the artificial thermal efficiency of the
In Figure 15, variations of specific fuel consumption systems, especially in absorption cooling and basic cycles,
with excess air coefficient at different compressor inlet air the efficiency decreases more than in others. As the com-
temperatures for basic (bsc), absorption cooling (ab), air pressor compression ratios of the systems increase, the
(airh), and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles are FESR increases, and at high excess air coefficients, it
given. As can be seen that increasing air excess coeffi- decreases in the basic and absorption cooling cycles.
cient of the systems decreases the specific fuel consump- In the basic and absorption cooling cycles, the max-
tion. Also, increasing compression rates decreases the imum FESR is obtained at the values of the excess air
specific fuel consumption. coefficient between 2 and 2.5, while the maximum values
In Figure 16, variations of specific fuel consumption are obtained between 2.5 and 3 in the air and air-fuel
with excess air coefficient at different compressor inlet air heating cogeneration cycles. Increasing the air excess
temperatures for basic (bsc), absorption cooling (ab), air coefficient increases the incremental heat rate of these
(airh) and air fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycles are four cogeneration cycles. However, as the compression
given. It is seen that increasing air excess coefficient of ratio increases, the incremental heat rate decreases. It is
the systems decreases the specific fuel consumption. understood that the air and air fuel heating cogeneration
However, increasing compressor inlet air temperatures cycles perform much better than the basic and absorption
increases the specific fuel consumption. cooling cycles. Increasing the air excess coefficient of the
systems decreases the specific fuel consumption. Also,
increasing compression rates decreases the specific fuel
consumption.
4 Conclusions Decreasing the compressor inlet air temperature
increases the electrical heat energy ratio of the systems.
In this study, it is aimed to evaluate four different gas The incremental heat rate of the systems decreases at high
turbine cogeneration cycles which are absorption compressor inlet air temperatures. The exergy efficiency of
cooling, basic, air heating, and air fuel heating cogenera- cogeneration cycles with air and air fuel heating increases
tion cycles by using the most important six evaluation as the compressor inlet air temperature decreases. It is
criteria for different compression rates and different com- seen that the artificial thermal efficiency of the systems
pressor inlet air temperatures. These six evaluation criteria is higher at high compressor inlet air temperatures. It is
are exergy efficiency, electrical heat ratio, incremental seen that the FESR increases with compressor inlet air
heat rate, FESR, artificial thermal efficiency, and specific temperatures increase in the basic cycle. As the com-
fuel consumption. pressor inlet air temperatures of air and air fuel heating
The electrical heat energy rate of the systems decreases cogeneration cycles decrease, the fuel energy saving rate
as the compression ratio of the compressor decreases and increases. The incremental heat rate of the systems
the electrical power decreases. Increasing the air excess decreases at high compressor inlet air temperatures;
coefficient increases the electrical heat energy ratio of these that is, more electricity is obtained with less fuel increase.
four cogeneration cycles. However, this increase is more in Increasing compressor inlet air temperatures increases the
air and air fuel heating cogeneration cycles. The exergy specific fuel consumption.
efficiency of the systems increases for all cycles as the com-
pressor compression ratio increases. It is seen that the air- Funding information: This research received no external
fuel (airfh) heating cogeneration cycle is the most efficient funding.
 Evaluation of four different cogeneration cycles  137

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Raton, Florida: CRC Press; 2008.
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