Chemistry Notes

ZNOTES.
ORG
UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE
CHEMISTRY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Mwangala Akatama for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY
Condensation
1. States of Matter Condensation is the process by which a gas converts into a
liquid. It happens at the same temperature as the boiling
point.
1.1. Solids, Liquids and Gases
As temperature decreases, the energy of particles will
States of Matter are the different forms in which matter
decrease, making them move more slowly.
can exist
Condensation and Freezing are both energy-given-out
The three states of matter are Solid, Liquids, and Gases
reactions.
Properties of Solid, Liquid and Gases Freezing, Melting and Sublimation

Solids Liquids Gases 1. Melting is the process in which a solid converts to a
take the shape take the shape liquid. It happens at a set temperature called the
have a definite
Shape of their of their melting point.
shape
container container 2. Freezing is the process in which a liquid converts to a
Density high medium low solid. It happens at the same temperature as the
have a fixed have a fixed no fixed freezing point.
Volume 3. Sublimation occurs when a solid has enough energy to
volume volume volume
convert into a gas or gas converted into a solid.
particles can particles are
particles can
Particle vibrate about mobile and
move past one
Motion their fixed move
another
positions randomly
particles are
particles are particles are
Particle arranged
randomly randomly
Arrangement regularly in a
arranged arranged
lattice
Diagram
https://ludensoexplore.com/ModelViewer/? 1.4. Cooling and Heating Curves

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Cooling Curves
1.3. Changes of States
1. On cooling, the particles of a gas move slower and
Boiling and Evaporation slower and the gas contracts
2. The particles are now closer together, and inter-
Boiling and Evaporation are both endothermic processes: molecular bonds start to form between them once the
condensation point is reached
Boiling and evaporation are processes that involve the 3. The temperature of the substance stops falling; the
conversion of a liquid into a gas. energy released by bond formation cancels out the
Both processes allow molecules to move further apart energy lost due to cooling
from each other. 4. Once all the gas has turned into liquid, the
temperature starts to fall again, and the liquid begins
Boiling Evaporation
to contract until the freezing point is reached
occurs at any temperature 5. At the freezing point, inter-molecular bonds between
happens at a set temperature below the boiling point and the liquid molecules start to develop to form a solid
called the boiling point above the freezing point 6. At the freezing point, the temperature remains
(liquid) constant until all of the liquid has solidified since the
occurs throughout the liquid only occurs at the surface energy released due to bond formation cancels out
relatively faster process a slow process the energy lost due to cooling
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The following curve is obtained if this phenomenon is plotted -

the cooling curve:
1.5. Diffusion
Heating Curves Diffusion: the net movement of particles from a region of

higher concentration to a region of lower concentration as a
1. On heating, the particles of a solid start to vibrate result of their random movement until equilibrium is reached.
faster and faster in their mean positions, and the solid
The rate of diffusion is most rapid in gases > liquids >
begins to expand
solids.
2. Once the melting point is reached, the intermolecular
bonds between the particles begin to break.
Effect of Relative Molecular Mass in Diffusion
3. The temperature of the substance at this point
remains constant until all the solid has turned into a
The rate at which gases diffuse differs and depends on
liquid because the energy received by the system is
the gas's molecular' mass.
cancelled out by the energy used to break
At the same temperature, molecules with a lower mass
intermolecular bonds
move faster on average than those with a higher mass.
4. Once all the solid has turned to liquid, the temperature
starts to rise again, and the liquid begins to expand
until the boiling point is reached 1.6. Pressure and Temperature on Gas
5. At the boiling point, the intermolecular bonds between
the liquid molecules start to break down to form a gas Gases are compressible. By changing the pressure acting on
6. At the boiling point, the temperature of the substance them, their volume may be influenced.
remains constant until all of the liquid has vaporised
1. An increase in external pressure produces a
since the energy absorbed by the substance is
contraction (decrease) in volume. The gas is said to be
cancelled by the energy used for the breakdown of
compressed.
intermolecular bonds
2. A fall in external pressure produces an expansion
The following curve is obtained if this phenomenon is plotted - (increase) in volume. The gas is said to be
the heating curve: decompressed.
The volume of gases may also be influenced by temperature.

The temperature of a gas affects its internal pressure and,
thereby, its volume.
1. When temperature increases, the gas molecules have

increased kinetic energy and hit the walls of their
container more often and with greater force. This
causes an increase in internal pressure and an
increase in volume.
2. When the temperature decreases, the gas molecules
have decreased kinetic energy and hit the walls of
their container less often and with attenuated force.
This causes a decrease in internal pressure and a Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
decrease in volume. Number of protons = mass number – number of neutrons
Number of neutrons = mass number – number of protons
The following format (AZX Notation) is shown below:
2. Atoms, Elements and
Compounds
2.1. Elements, Compounds and
Mixtures
Elements: A substance made of atoms that share the
SAME number of protons and cannot be broken down into
simpler substances by chemical methods.
There are 118 elements in the periodic table, such as
sodium.
Compounds: Two or more elements chemically bonded 2.5. Electronic Configurations of
together (in a fixed proportion).
e.g. Carbon Dioxide, Sodium Chloride Elements & Ions
Mixtures: Two or more elements not chemically bonded
together. Atoms have electrons that orbit around a central nucleus, and
e.g., Sand and Water, Oil and Water these orbits are referred to as electron shells.
The energy levels of the shells increase as their distance

2.2. Atomic Structure from the nucleus increases.
The first shell has a max capacity of 2 electrons, while the
All substances are made of tiny particles called atoms, the subsequent shell can hold up to 8.
building blocks of all matter.
For this syllabus, we only need to know the general complete
The structure of the atom as a central nucleus containing electronic configuration as (2.8.8)
neutrons and protons surrounded by electrons in shells
The characteristics of neutrons, protons and electrons are Group VIII noble gases have an entire outer shell
as follows: the number of outer shell electrons is equal to the group
number in Groups I to VII.
Subatomic particle Relative Mass Relative Charge the number of occupied electron shells is equal to the
Proton 1 +1 period number
Neutron 1 0
Electron 1/1840 -1 2.6. Isotopes
Since electrons and protons have opposing and equal Isotopes: different atoms of the same element with the same
charges, the atom’s overall charge is neutral. number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Neutrons have the purpose of holding the nucleus
The isotopes of an element have the same chemical
together. The larger the nucleus gets, the more neutrons
properties because they contain the same number of
are required to hold the nucleus together.
outer shell electrons and, therefore, have the same
https://ludensoexplore.com/ModelViewer/? electronic configuration.
enrichmentUid=91992c04-1c5c-490b-8a60-08dbf708a0c1 The difference in mass affects the physical properties,
such as density, boiling point and melting point
2.4. Proton and Nucleon Number

2.7. Relative Atomic Masses
The Proton Number (Atomic Number) is the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom. Most elements exist naturally as a mixture of their
It is unique to each element. It is denoted by the letter “Z”. isotopes. Using the data on the abundance of these
For a neutral atom, the number of protons and electrons naturally occurring isotopes, we can calculate the mass
are equal; therefore, the proton number (Z) also relative atomic mass of the element.
corresponds to the number of electrons. The Formula:
The Nucleon Number (Mass Number) is the total number
of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
An example for calculating the relative mass and Diamond

abundance:
Properties
2.8. Metallic Bonding 1. Each carbon atom is joined with four other carbon
atoms
Metallic Bonding: the electrostatic attraction between the 2. High Melting and Boiling Points - Strong Covalent
positive ions in a giant metallic lattice and a “sea” of Bonds
delocalised electrons. 3. No Delocalised/Free Moving Electrons
4. It cannot be scratched easily
5. Transparent colour (Extra information)
6. Cannot conduct electricity due to no free-moving
electrons
7. Hard in structure
8. Giant Lattice Arrangement
9. Uses are for cutting tools
Graphite
Properties of Metallic Bonding
1. Metallic Bonds have good electrical conductivity:

Delocalised electrons can move through the
structures and carry current.
2. High Melting and Boiling Point: More energy to
overcome strong forces of attraction between positive
Properties
metal ions and the sea of delocalised electrons and
vibrate/transfer heat
1. Each carbon atom is joined with three other carbon
3. Malleability: Can be hammered into shapes as layers
atoms
can slide over each other.
2. High Melting and Boiling Points - Strong covalent
4. Ductility: Can be drawn into thin wires
bonds within the layers (but the layers are attracted to
each other by weak intermolecular forces)
2.9. Giant Covalent Structures 3. Contains Delocalised/Free Moving Electrons
4. It can be scratched easily
Giant Covalent (Macromolecular) Structures: solids with very 5. Opaque/Black
high melting points, where all the atoms are made of pure 6. Can conduct electricity due to free-moving electrons
carbon. 7. Soft - Layers can slide easily
8. Layers of hexagonal rings held by weak intermolecular

forces
9. Uses are for lubricant and electrode in Electrolysis
Silicon (IV) Oxide
Properties
1. The structure of Silicon (IV) Oxide is

similar/resemblance to that of a diamond.
2. Hard Structure
3. High melting and boiling point - More energy to
overcome
4. Rigid Tetrahedral Structure
5. Does not conduct electricity
Each Silicon atom is covalently bonded with 4 Oxygen

Atoms
Each Oxygen atom is covalently bonded with 2 Silicon
Atoms
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2.12. Simple Molecules and Covalent

Bonds
Covalent Bond: Pairs of electrons shared between two atoms
leading to noble gas electronic configuration (2.8.8)
Covalent Bonds Dot and Cross Diagram
Typical ionic compounds are usually giant lattice structures

with a regular arrangement of alternating positive and
negative ions.
Using an X and a dot in your drawings will help

differentiate the two ions.
Different Types of Covalent Bonds
1. Single Bonds - e.g., Chlorine

2. Double Bonds - e.g., Carbon Dioxide
3. Triple Bonds - e.g., Nitrogen
Properties of Ionic Compound
Properties of Covalent Compound
1. High Boiling and Melting Point: A lot of energy is
needed to overcome the strong electrostatic forces
1. The intermolecular forces in covalent compounds are
between oppositely charged ions
weak but have strong covalent bonds.
2. Good Electrical Conductivity when molten or aqueous:
2. Covalent Compounds have low melting and boiling
As the charges flow, ions can move freely in an
point. They require less energy to break the weak
aqueous/molten state.
intermolecular forces (same as attractive forces).
Ions are not free to move when in a solid state, as
3. Poor Electrical Conductivity - No free electrons or ions
the charges cannot flow.
present to carry an electrical current
Other Properties of Ionic Compound

2.13. Ions and Ionic Bonds
1. Brittle
Cations: Positive Ions 2. Low Volatility
Anions: Negative Ions
Ionic Bonds: strong electrostatic attraction between https://ludensoexplore.com/ModelViewer/?
oppositely charged ions (metals + non-metals) enrichmentUid=ade62296-fb86-4704-8a61-08dbf708a0c1
Ionic Compounds Dot and Cross Diagram

3. Stoichiometry
3.1. Formulae
Charges of Common Ions
Name Formula Charges
Ammonium NH4+ +1
Name Formula Charges A mole of a substance is the amount that contains the same
number of units as the number of carbon atoms in 12 grams
Nitrate NO3- -1
of carbon-12
Hydroxide OH- -1
A mole is the A r or Mr expressed in grams e.g. 1 mole of
Carbonate CO32- -2
Carbon-12 is equal to 12 grams.
Sulfate SO42- -2 It is equal to 6.02 × 1023 particles; this number is called
Avogadro’s constant.
Molecular Formula: The number and type of different atoms 1 mole also occupies a volume of 24dm3 at room
in one molecule temperature and pressure
Empirical Formula: The simplest whole number ratio of the
different atoms or ions in a compound
3.4. Number of Moles
mass
Amount of Substance =
molar mass

Amount of Substance (mol)

Mass (g)
Molar Mass (Mr) in (g/mol)
3.5. Number of Moles in Aqueous

Solution
Moles = Concentration × Volume
Moles (mol)
The formula of a simple and ionic compound from the
relative numbers of atoms present in a model or a Concentration (mol/dm3)
diagrammatic representation Volume (24 dm3)
State Symbols & Chemical Equations 3.6. Moles in Gases

Balancing equations: A chemical equation is balanced when
Volume = No. of Moles × 24dm 3 at r.t.p
there are an equal number of atoms and charges on both
sides of the equation 1 dm3 = 1000cm3
State symbols:
(s) = solid 3.7. Concentration
(l) = liquid
(g) = gas no. of moles
C oncentration =
(aq) = aqueous solution volume

Names of compounds
Moles per dm3
A compound ending with -ide only contains two
different elements 1mol/dm3
A compound ending with -ate contains oxygen Grams per dm3 , g/dm3
Concentration can be measured and converted into g/dm3

3.2. Relative Masses of Atoms and or mol/dm3 , by multiplying the molar mass of the
Molecules compound.
Relative Atomic Mass (A r): the average mass of the 3.8. Moles Calculation in Acid-Base
isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass of
an atom of 12C. Titration
Relative Molecular Mass (Mr): sum of relative atomic
masses of all the atoms in one molecule of the compound.
3.3. The Mole and the Avogadro

Constant
Components of Electrolysis Definition

Positively charged ion that
Cation
moves to the cathode
Note: Reactive electrodes participate in the reaction, while

inert electrodes (Graphite, Carbon) do not react with the
cations or anions.
We will use the formula:
Concentration X Volume
Number of Moles = 1000 (change unit)
20 x 0.0500 divide 1000 = 0.001
3.9. Percentage Composition by Mass

Percentage Composition by Mass =
Mass of Element
Molecular Mass × 100

Example Question (0620/42/F/M/23)
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4.3. Reduction and Oxidation

Reduction of positive cations happens at the cathode
Oxidation of negative anions happens at the anode
Step 1: Calculate the molar mass of (NH4) 2SO4
For example (Ionic Half Equations)
Step 2: Find the mass of Nitrogen
Step 3: Use the formula and multiply by 100. At the anode: 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-
Step 4: That will be the percentage of the question given. At the cathode: 2H+ + 2e- → H2
3.10. Percentage Purity & Yield

mass of product (pure)
Percentage Purity = mass of compound (impure) × 100
actual mass obtained

Percentage Yield = calculated/theoretical mass × 100
4. Electrochemistry
4.1. Electrolysis
Electrolysis: the decomposition of an ionic compound, when
molten or aqueous solution- by passing of an electric current
This is possible due to the presence of mobile

electrons/free-moving ions
An electrolyte is a molten or aqueous substance that
undergoes electrolysis Useful Acronyms
Components of Electrolysis Definition 1. REDCATANOX (Reduction is Cathode, Anode is
Metal or graphite rods that aid Oxidation)
the flow of electricity in and out 2. OILRIG (Oxidation is loss, Reduction is gain)
of the electrolyte 3. PANIC (Positive is Anode, Negative is cathode)
Electrodes 1. Anode: Positive electrode 4. CMAN (Cathode discharge Metals, Anode Discharge
2. Cathode: Negative Electrode Non-Metals)
(PANIC: Positive is Anode,
Negative is Cathode) 4.4. Observations in Electrolysis
Negatively charged ion that
Anion
moves to anode Electrolyte At Cathode At Anode
Electrolyte At Cathode At Anode 2. Reaction at Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e → Cu (mass

Molten Lead (II) Bromide Lead Bromine increases)
Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid Hydrogen Chlorine
Concentrated Aqueous Sodium
Hydrogen Chlorine
Chloride (Brine)
Dilute Sulfuric Acid Hydrogen Oxygen
Aqueous Copper (II) Sulfate with
Copper Oxygen
Graphite Electrodes
Aqueous Copper (II) Sulfate with
Copper Copper
Copper Electrodes
Blue copper (II) sulfate doesn’t change as the 4.7. Electrolysis of Brine
concentration of Cu2+ ions remains unchanged.
Inert (Unreactive electrodes) are Platinum, Graphite or Brine is a concentrated aqueous NaCl solution
Carbon Electrodes, So they don’t react with the ions Ions present: Na+, H+, Cl- and OH-
during electrolysis.
4.5. Electroplating
Electroplating: the process of coating the surface of a metal
(more reactive) with another metal (less reactive) using
electrolysis At the anode At the cathode
Made of titanium Made of steel
Components:
Hydrogen cations reduced to H2
Anode: pure/impure metal being used for Cl- ions; Chlorine gas
molecules
electroplating the object
Cathode: object being electroplated
Electrolyte: aqueous solution of the soluble salt of Unreacted ions (Na+, H+ and OH-) move through porous
pure metal (same as anode) membranes due to differences in liquid pressure
Used to:
Left Na+ and OH- which form aqueous sodium hydroxide
Prevent corrosion
Enhance appearance
4.8. Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells
Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells: Uses hydrogen and oxygen as
the main reactants to produce electricity; the only product
released is water.
4.6. Refining Metals

Cathode: a thin strip of pure metal
Anode: impure metal
Electrolyte: Aqueous Salt Solution of metal
Example: Main
Chemical Equation: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
The refining of copper: Impure copper as the anode and Advantages of motor Disadvantages of motor
pure copper as the cathode; the aqueous copper (II) vehicles vehicles
sulfate helps the copper ions move from the anode to the
Renewable source Large fuel tank required
cathode. Here, the ions gain electrons and become
copper atoms, making the pure copper cathode thicker. Emission Free (No carbon
Currently expensive
2+
pollutions)
1. Reaction at Anode: Cu → 2e + Cu (mass
decreases)
Advantages of motor Disadvantages of motor

vehicles vehicles
Lesser Hydrogen Filling
Non-toxic
stations
5. Chemical Energetics
5.1. Exothermic & Endothermic
Reactions
5.3. Bond Energy
Chemical reactions involve energy transfer between the
system (the chemical reaction) and its surroundings. This is the energy required or released when a bond is
Exothermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction formed or broken respectively. The unit measure of this
Heat energy is released into Heat energy is absorbed from energy is kJ/mol.
the surroundings the surroundings The energy change in a reaction is calculated using the
following formula:
Bond making reactions Bond breaking reactions
Surrounding temperature Surrounding temperature ΔH = Bond Breaking − Bond F orming
increases decreases
If the overall heat energy value is negative, the reaction is
exothermic
5.2. Energy Level Diagrams If the overall heat energy value is positive, the reaction is
endothermic
Energy level diagrams represent chemical reactions that
include the relative energies of the reactant and product.
Example
A reaction's energy change (∆H) is represented by the
difference in height between the reactant and its product. H2 + Cl2 ⟶ 2HCl
The activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy
Bond Bond energy (kj/mol)
required for the reaction to take place.
H-H 436
Endothermic Energy Level Diagram Cl - Cl 243
H - Cl 432
The system gains energy; higher activation energy is
required: Energy is taken in. Bond breaking ⟶ 436 + 243 = 679 kj/mol
Bond forming ⟶ 2 (432) = 864 kj/mol
Thus,
∆ H ⟶ 679 - 864 = -185 kj/mol
The reaction is exothermic.
6. Chemical Reactions
6.1. Physical and Chemical Changes
Physical Change Chemical Change
Exothermic Energy Level Diagram The reaction is readily The reaction is harder to
reversible reverse
The system loses energy; lower activation energy is
required: Energy is given out. The product has no new Chemical product has
chemical properties different properties
Ex. dissolving a solute in a Energy change
solvent [exothermic/endothermic]
6.2. Rates of Reaction

Collision Theory
Successful collisions have enough activation energy to break Decreasing the particle size increases the rate of reaction
pre-existing bonds and form new bonds at impact.
Rates of reaction Decreasing particle size increases surface area; more
reactant particles are exposed to collide, so the
The measure of the speed of the collision successful collision rate increases. This results in an
Calculated by the concentration of reactant used up or increased rate of reaction
product produced per unit of time
Unit = (mol/dm3)/s
6.3. Concentration
Increasing the concentration of reactants increases the rate
of reaction
Higher-concentration reactants contain more particles

per unit volume, increasing the successful collision and
reaction rates.
When the concentration changes in the rate of reaction Explosive Combustion
graph, the collision energy will remain the same, but the
Fine particles are combustible in the air due to a larger
collision rate will increase (activation energy does not
surface area
change).
The rate of reaction is high, making them explosive
Examples: methane gas in coal mines and flour milling
6.6. Pressure
Increasing the pressure in a gaseous system increases the
rate of reaction
The distance between particles is reduced under pressure

There are more particles per unit volume; the successful
collision rate increases, resulting in an increased reaction
rate.
6.4. Temperature
Increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction
Increased temperatures lead to increased average kinetic

energy of particles. Particle movement produces energy
greater than/equal to activation energy; an increased
successful collision rate leads to an increased reaction
rate.
Equilibrium moves left in the exothermic direction and
right in the endothermic.
6.7. Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that increases the reaction rate by
lowering the activation energy and is left unchanged at the
end of the reaction.
More particles will have an energy greater than or equal

to the activation energy, therefore successful collision
rate increases, resulting in an increased rate of reaction
For gaseous reactants, if the catalyst is solid metal, the
catalyst provides a surface for the reaction.
6.5. Surface Area of Solids The larger the surface area of the metal catalyst, the
larger the area for the reaction to take place; therefore
higher the rate of reaction
Enzymes Affecting Rate of Reaction
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions 3. An inverted Measuring cylinder to collect gas over
but remain chemically unchanged. water is harder to set up.
Enzymes function best at optimum temperature and pH
level; otherwise, they may denature and completely stop
functioning.
6.8. Rates of Reaction Graphs

Interpreting graphs:
A graph with a steeper gradient at the beginning and
reaching a horizontal gradient faster depicts a high rate of 6.10. Reversible Reactions and
reaction. Equilibrium
Gas Evolved Mass Loss Colour Change
The symbols of reversible reactions are: ⇌
The products can then react with each other or

decompose to form the reactant molecules.
Two equations you should know: \n C uSO4 ⋅
5H2 O (blue) ⇌ C uSO4 (white) + H2 O

C oC l2 ⋅ 6H2 O (pink) ⇌ C oC l2 (blue) + H2 O

(anhydrous by heating; hydrated form by adding water)
If a gas evolves, Reversible Reaction in a closed system when equilibrium:

measure the loss in
If a gas evolves, Rate of forward reaction = rate of reverse reaction
mass per unit time
measure the Concentrations of all reactants and products remain
by placing it on a If a colour change,
volume of gas constant and are no longer changing
balance and then measure the time
produced per unit
putting cotton wool taken to turn cloudy
of time using a gas Equilibrium
on top to allow gas
syringe
to pass but not
Le Châtelier’s Principle: if conditions of equilibrium are
enter
changed, the position of the equilibrium moves to oppose
change
6.9. Evaluating Practical Methods Temperature: Temperature increases equilibrium and
moves in the endothermic direction. When the
1. Change in Mass method temperature is lowered, equilibrium shifts in the
Not suitable for experiments where hydrogen gas exothermic direction.
is given off (because density decreases, too small Pressure: Pressure raised; equilibrium moves to the side
mass) with the fewest gas molecules. When pressure is lowered,
2. Easier to set up the gas syringe and obtain reliable equilibrium shifts to the side with most gas molecules.
measurements Concentration: Decreasing reactant concentration or
increasing product concentration; equilibrium moves to
the reactant side. Increasing reactant concentration or
decreasing product concentration; equilibrium shifts to
the product side.
Catalyst: The presence of a catalyst does not affect the
equilibrium position but increases the rate at which
equilibrium is reached. Therefore, it only increases the Temperature: 450°C

rate of the forward and backward reactions by the same Pressure: 2 atm (200 kPa)
amount. Catalyst: Vanadium (V) oxide catalyst
Why are these conditions chosen in the Contact Process?
Oxidising Agents are Electron Acceptors and
Reducing Agents are Electron Donor. 1. Pressure is high - (Increase pressure, more yield)
2. Optimum temperature - (If lower temperature, more
6.11. Haber Process sulfuric acid yield, however too low, the rate is
uneconomical.
N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3 (g) [Exothermic]
6.13. Redox
Materials (Reactants) in the Haber Process
Nitrogen: From the air Redox: A simultaneous oxidation and reduction reaction
Hydrogen: From the reaction between Methane and Steam Oxidation Reduction
Loss of electrons Gain of electrons
Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen
Loss of hydrogen Gain of hydrogen
NOTE: Roman Numerals next to an element’s name are the

oxidation number of an element in a compound, e.g. Iron (II)
and Iron (III). The reaction product formula depends on this.
Reducing agents are oxidised, and oxidising agents are
reduced.
Identifying Redox Reactions
1. Oxidation State:
Conditions
The oxidation state highlights electron movement in a
reaction
Temperature: 450°C
eg. CuO + Mg → MgO + Cu
Pressure: 200 atm (20,000 kPa)
Catalyst: Iron catalyst Cu2+ + Mg → Mg 2++ Cu [oxide is a spectator and is removed
Why are these conditions chosen in the Haber Process? as it doesn’t change its oxidation state]
Here Copper (II) is reduced while magnesium is oxidized; the
1. Pressure is not too high - (Although increased reaction is redox
pressure is more yield, more pressure will require
more expensive equipment, and it can explode). 2. Indicators:
2. Optimum temperature - (If lower temperature, more Acidified Aqueous Potassium manganate (VII) is a
ammonia yield, however too low, the rate is deep purple oxidising agent; when added to a
uneconomical. reducing agent changes from purple to colourless.
Aqueous Potassium iodide is a reducing; when
added to an oxidising agent changes colourless to
6.12. Contact Process yellow-brown.
2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3 (g) [Exothermic] Redox Reactions by Changes in Oxidation Number

Materials (Reactants) in Contact Process Rules Example
Sulfur Dioxide: Burning sulfur or Roasting Sulfide ores
The oxidation numbers of the
Oxygen: From the air In H2, the oxidation number of
element in their uncombined
H is “0.”
state are zero
The oxidation number of a
In Zn2+, the oxidation number
monatomic ion is the same as
is “+2.”
the charge of the ion.
The sum of the oxidation In H2O, the oxidation number
numbers in a compound is of H is +1, and O is -2, (2 x (+1)
zero + (1+(-2)) = 0
Conditions
Rules Example 2. Weak alkalis partially ionize in water producing OH-

The sum of the oxidation In MnO4-, the oxidation ions
numbers in an ion is equal to number of Mn is +7, therefore
the charge of the ion (1 x (+7)) + (4 x (-2)) = -1 e.g: NH4OH (aq) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Chemical properties
7. Acids, Bases and Salts Base + acid → salt + water (+ CO2 when base is a metal
carbonate)
Base + ammonium salt → salt + ammonia gas + water
7.1. Properties of Acids
7.3. Neutral
Acid: a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) when
dissolved in water. Neutral substances are pH 7.
Definition of Acids: Proton donors. pH scale
Indicators
pH is the concentration of H+ ions per dm3 of solution
Have a pH between 1 (strong) and 6 (weak) Universal indicator solution is used to determine the pH of
Turns blue litmus red a substance by matching the color change to the pH color
Turns methyl orange indicator red chart.
Colourless in Thymolphthalein
Weak and Strong Acids
1. Strong acids: completely dissociated in aqueous

solution producing lots of H+ ions
e.g: HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) 7.4. Types of Oxides

2. Weak acids: partially dissociated in aqueous solution
Metal oxides are basic, e.g. Copper oxide and Calcium
producing few H+ ions oxide
Non-metal oxides are acidic, e.g. sulfur dioxide and
e.g: CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq) carbon dioxide
Chemical properties Aluminium and zinc form amphoteric oxides, e.g. zinc
oxide
Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen gas
Oxides that react with neither acids nor bases are neutral,
Acid + base → salt + water
e.g. nitrous monoxide and carbon monoxide
Acid + metal carbonate → salt + carbon dioxide + water
Colours of Transition Metal Compounds
7.2. Properties of Bases
Metal Compounds Colour
Bases: substances which neutralise acids to form salt and
Copper (II) Sulfate Blue
water only.
Copper (II) Oxide Black
Definition of Bases: They are proton acceptors (form OH-
Copper (II) Carbonate Green
ions)
Indicators Manganese (IV) Oxide Black
Iron (II) Salts Pale Green
Have a pH between 8 (weak) and 14 (strong)
Iron (III) Salts Brown or Orange
Turns red litmus blue
Turns methyl orange indicator yellow
Turns Blue in thymolphthalein 7.5. Preparation of Salts
Weak and Strong Alkalis (Soluble Bases) Soluble Salts
1. Strong alkalis: completely dissociates in aqueous Method A: Soluble Salts from Excess Insoluble Bases (metal,
-
solution, producing lots of OH ions metal oxide, carbonates)
1. Warm acid (increases the speed of reaction)

e.g.: NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
2. Add an excess reactant + stir
3. Filter mixture Type of Salt Acid used

4. Transfer to evaporating basin Nitrate Nitric acid
5. Heat using a Bunsen burner
Chloride Hydrochloric acid
6. Leave to cool until crystallisation point
7. Wash crystals with distilled water Ethanoate Ethanoic acid
8. Dry crystals on filter paper
General Solubility Rules
Method B: Titration
Soluble Salts Insoluble Salts
1. Place a known volume of alkali into a conical flask
using a volumetric pipette. All sodium, potassium and
None
2. Add indicator (e.g. thymolphthalein) Ammonium salts
3. Titration: add acid using a burette until the endpoint All nitrates None
has reached Chlorides Except for silver and lead
4. Record the volume of acid added Except for barium, lead and
5. Repeat without indicator Sulfates
calcium
6. Transfer to evaporating basin
Potassium, Sodium and
7. Heat with Bunsen burner All other carbonates
Ammonium Carbonates
8. Leave to cool until crystallisation point
9. Wash crystals with distilled water Sodium, Potassium and
10. Dry crystals on filter paper Ammonium Hydroxides Nearly all hydroxides
(partially calcium hydroxide)
8. The Periodic Table

8.1. Arrangement of Elements
The Periodic table is a method of classifying elements.
Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number (each proceeding element has one more proton)
Made up of rows called periods and columns called
groups, the position of an element helps determine its
Insoluble Salts electronic configuration.
Period number: number of electron shells
Precipitation: Insoluble Solid forms between two aqueous Group number: number of outer shell electrons
solutions.
Elements in the same group have similar chemical
1. Mix two soluble salts properties.
2. Filter to remove the precipitate
3. Wash the precipitate with distilled water
4. Leave to dry
7.6. Water of Crystallisation and

General Solubility Rules
Water of Crystallisation
A salt is a compound formed when a metal replaces all

the hydrogen atoms of an acid.
Naming salts involves two parts: the name of the metal
and the acid-ending
eg. calcium + hydrochloric acid = calcium chloride
Periodic Trends
The Water of Crystallisation is the water molecules
present in hydrated crystals. 1. The table moves from metals on the left to non-metals
on the right.
Type of Salt Acid used
Sulfate Sulfuric acid
2. Down a group of metals, elements become more Properties Patterns

reactive. melting point increases down
3. With non-metals going down a group, reactivity Do not conduct electricity
the group
decreases.
8.2. Group I Properties 8.4. Transition Elements

Physical Properties
Group I metals: Lithium, sodium and potassium
High melting & boiling points
Chemical Properties Physical Properties
Malleable and ductile
Readily react with oxygen and Good conductors of heat and Good conductors of heat & electricity
water; stored in oil electricity High density
React violently with chlorine Soft and easy to cut
Chemical Properties
Burst into flames when
heated with oxygen[red flame Act as catalysts
for lithium; yellow flame for Shiny when freshly cut Form coloured compounds
sodium; lilac flame for Variable Oxidation Numbers (Iron (II) or Iron (III) )
potassium]
Produce soluble white Melting points decrease down 8.5. Noble Gases
compounds. the group.
React with water to form Properties Uses
Increase density down the
alkaline metal and hydrogen
group Density increases down the
gas Helium-filling balloons
group
Monoatomic and colourless Argon – Lamps
Predicting the properties of other Group I alkali metals:
Rubidium, Caesium and Francium [reactivity increases M.P. and B.P. increases down the
Neon – advertising signs
down the group]
group
Don’t conduct electricity
Element Reaction with Water Inert & stable due to full outer
Floats and gives off hydrogen gas shell electrons
Lithium
(effervescence)
Sodium Vigorous Reaction and moves very quickly
Potassium Explosive Reaction, lilac flame
9. Metals
8.3. Group VII Properties 9.1. Properties of Metals
Properties Patterns Metals

States and Colours, at RTP: Physical Properties
Fluorine- Yellow-green gas
Chlorine- Pale Yellow-Green Down the group, size, mass 1. Good conductors of heat and electricity
gas and density increase 2. Lustrous
Bromine- Red-Brown liquid 3. Malleable and Ductile
Iodine- Grey-Black solid 4. High densities and High Melting Points
Down the group, the colour 5. Solids at room temperature (except mercury is liquid)
Poisonous
darkens
Chemical Properties
Reactivity decreases down the
group, 1. Metals + Acids → Salt + Hydrogen
because it has to gain an 2. Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide
electron, 3. Metal + Water → Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen
Diatomic; form halide ions in
so the closer the electron is to 4. Metal + Steam → Metal Oxide + Hydrogen
a displacement reaction
the positive nucleus, the more
easily it will be gained, Properties of Non Metals
so atoms with fewer shells will
react more easily. Physical Properties
1. Poor thermal conductor NOTE: Aluminum - despite its high placement in the reactivity
2. Poor conductor of electricity (Except graphite) series, it is seemingly unreactive due to its protective
3. Low Density and Low Melting Point aluminium oxide layer.
4. Brittle and not malleable General Reactivity Series (descending The Chemical
5. Solids and gases at room temperature (bromine is order of reactivity) Reactivity of Metals
liquid) K - Potassium
Na - Sodium
9.2. Uses of Metals Ca – Calcium
Mg – Magnesium Water:
1. Aluminium Al – Aluminum 1. metal + cold water
Manufacture of Aircraft/Cars (Low density) C – Carbon → metal hydroxide +
Food Containers (Resistant to corrosion) Zn – Zinc hydrogen
Overhead electrical cable (Good conductor of Fe – Iron 2. metal + steam →
electricity/ductile) Pb – Lead metal oxide +
2. Zinc H – Hydrogen hydrogen
Galvanizes Iron = coats it to stop it from rusting Cu – Copper
(protective coating) Ag – Silver
Alloys – brass/bronze Au – Gold
Batteries Everything above hydrogen can Oxygen:
Sacrificial Protection displace hydrogen from its acid, and metal + oxygen →
3. Copper hydrogen cannot reduce its oxides. metal oxide
Electrical Wiring (Good conductor of
Dilute acids:
electricity/Ductile)
In a metal and acid
reaction, the
9.3. Alloys and their Properties Metals above carbon, their oxides hydrogen atom in the
cannot be reduced by carbon acid is replaced by the
Alloy: a mixture of two or more metals or a metal and non- metal atom to form a
metal product of salt and
hydrogen
Alloys are useful because they are harder and
stronger/useful than pure metal; they can also resist
rusting with air and water. Copper, Silver and Gold cannot react with Dilute Hydrochloric
acid because its too unreactive
Special
Alloy Made from Uses Displacement Reactions
Properties
Stronger and Electrical
In these reactions, metals compete for oxygen or anions
Brass Copper and zinc more resistant to fittings, car
corrosion/rusting radiators Oxidisation is the loss of electrons
Iron, carbon, Kitchen sinks, Reduction is the gain of electrons
Stainless resistant to
chromium and cutlery, surgical The more reactive metal will displace the less reactive
steel corrosion/rusting
nickel instruments metal from oxygen or an anion.
If the more reactive metal has oxygen or an anion, no
Due to the irregularity in atom sizes and structure, metal reaction occurs
alloys, which stop layers from sliding over each other, are The bigger the difference in reactivity between the two
stronger. metals, the faster the reaction
This is what the structure of an alloy (a) looks like
compared to a pure metal (b). Example: Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Here magnesium is oxidised while the oxygen atom is
reduced
9.5. Corrosion of Metals

Rusting: the corrosion of iron and steel to form rust (hydrated
iron (Ill) oxide) via oxidation
9.4. Reactivity Series
zinc being more reactive than iron, corroding in preference to

iron.
9.6. Extraction of Aluminium

The main ore of Aluminium Oxide is bauxite
Aluminum (III) oxide (alumina) is dissolved in molten
cryolite (Na3AlF6) – this mixture has a lower melting point
(industrially preferred)
The conditions for rusting to occur:
1. Water
2. Air containing oxygen
The Equation for Rusting of Iron
Iron + Water + Oxygen → Hydrated Iron (Ill) Oxide

4Fe (s) + 2H2O (l) + 3O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3·H2O (s)
During electrolysis, aluminium ( Al3+ + 3e- → Al ) is produced
Two Ways of Preventing Rust at the carbon cathode, and oxygen (2O2- → O2 + 4e-) at the
carbon anode.
1. Barrier Method
Coating a material to prevent the iron/steel from Molten Cryolite
being in contact with water and oxygen (Painting,
Greasing & Plastic Coating) High temperatures are needed to melt, which is
2. Sacrificial Method expensive. Therefore, molten cryolite lowers the melting
When more reactive metals corrode to less point/operating temperature and increases conductivity.
reactive metals, they lose electrons in preference Due to the high temperature, the oxygen reacts with the
to iron. carbon in the graphite anode to form CO2, so the anode
must be periodically replaced.
Galvanisation of Iron
9.7. Extraction of Metals
It is the protection of iron and steel objects by coating them
with a layer of zinc.
Process of separating a particular metal from its
compound; metal ore
Ore is more difficult to ‎decompose from gold to
potassium (expensive)
Metal Extraction Method

K - Potassium
Na - Sodium
Ca – Calcium Reduction via electrolysis
Mg – Magnesium
Al – Aluminum
Carbon
Zn – Zinc
Fe – Iron Reducing by Carbon
Pb – Lead
Hydrogen
Cu – Copper
Ag – Silver Occur naturally
Au – Gold
The barrier method is due to the zinc layer preventing 9.8. Extraction of Iron
exposure to air and water and sacrificial protection due to
Ore haematite (Fe2O3) + Impurities 1. Dissolved Oxygen (this is important for aquatic life)
Burning of coke (Carbon) to provide heat and produce 2. Metal Compounds (Provide essential minerals for life -
carbon dioxide however, some are toxic)
3. Plastics (harm aquatic life)
1. Ore is crushed and mixed with carbon and limestone 4. Sewage (contains harmful microbes which cause
(CaCO3) and transferred into the blast furnace diseases)
5. Harmful microbes
C + O2 → CO2 (exothermic) 6. Nitrates from fertilisers
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 (thermal decomposition) 7. Phosphate from fertilisers and detergents (leads to
CO2 + C → 2CO deoxygenation of water and damage to aquatic life
(Eutrophication)
2. Carbon monoxide reduces Iron(III) oxide from the ore
to iron Treatment of Domestic Water Supply
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
1. Water is pumped into screens to remove solid,
3. The Calcium oxide reacts with impurities like silica to
insoluble impurities.
form slag (a waste product)
2. A sedimentation process makes small clay pieces stick
CaO + SiO2→ CaSiO3
together and are then removed.
4. Uses of slag include making roads and cement
3. The water then undergoes filtration through layers of
sand and gravel to remove larger, insoluble debris.
4. Carbon is also added into filtered water to remove
taste and odour.
5. The chlorination process adds chlorine gas bubbled
into the water to kill bacteria and other microbes; the
acidic effect on the water is reversed by adding an
alkali, sodium hydroxide.
Step one and five, chlorine is added before going to domestic

The remaining waste gases that leave the blast furnace are areas.
Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, and Nitrogen.
10.2. Fertilisers
10. Chemistry of the
Fertilisers: Substances added to the soil and taken up by
Environment plants to increase crop yield.
Substances contain inside fertilisers are Ammonium Salts
and Nitrates.
10.1. Water
Chemical Tests for the Presence of Water
Type of
Test Positive result
test
Anhydrous Cobalt (II) It turns from blue to
Chemical
Chloride pink
Anhydrous Copper (II) It turns from white to
Chemical
Sulfate blue
Test Melting and Boiling M.P at 0℃ and B.P at
Physical
Point 100℃
Distilled Water is used in practical chemistry rather than

tap Water because it has fewer chemical impurities.
N.P.K - Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium Fertilisers are
found inside fertilisers, essential to improve plant growth.
Water from Natural Sources
Functions of Elements
Water is an essential source in the natural world. However,
with the changing world and massive urbanisation. Our water
1. Nitrogen - Makes chlorophyll and protein. Promotes
may contain substances such as: healthy leaves
2. Phosphorus - Promotes healthy roots Impact of Greenhouse Gases

3. Potassium - Promotes growth and healthy fruits and
flowers 1. Short wavelength radiation from the Sun reaches the
Earth's surface
Reaction with any alkali substance (except ammonia) 2. Some thermal energy is absorbed and heats
displaces ammonia from its compound, for example: oceans/lands
Calcium hydroxide + Ammonium chloride → Calcium chloride 3. Earth radiates some thermal energy as more
+ Ammonia + Water prolonged wavelength radiation
4. Greenhouse gases absorb some of the infrared
10.3. Air Quality and Climate radiation and re-emit in all directions
5. Some infrared radiation comes back to Earth's
The pie chart below presents the components present in surface, and this reduces the heat loss to space and
clean air: leads to global warming
Primary: Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%)

Secondary: Noble gases (mainly Argon) and Carbon
Dioxide (1%)
Strategies to Reduce the Effect of Environmental

Issues
Air Pollutants and their Adverse Effects
1. Climate Change: planting trees, reducing livestock
Pollutant Source Negative impact farming, decreasing the use of fossil fuels, increasing
Incomplete Binds with the use of hydrogen and renewable energy, e.g. wind,
combustion of haemoglobin, solar
Carbon 2. Acid Rain: use of catalytic converters in vehicles,
carbon-containing constricting oxygen
monoxide (CO) reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide by using low-
fuels (ex. Internal supply in cells; leads
combustion engines) to fatigue/ death sulfur fuels and flue gas desulfurisation with calcium
oxide
Complete
Increased global
Carbon Dioxide Combustion of
warming leads to Photosynthesis
(CO2) Carbon Containing
climate change.
Fuels
Photosynthesis: the reaction between carbon dioxide and
Decomposition of water to produce glucose and oxygen in the presence of
Increased global
vegetation and waste chlorophyll and using energy from light.
Methane (CH4) warming leads to
gases from digestion Word Equation: Carbon Dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen
climate change.
in animals Balanced Chemical Equation:
Combustion of fossil 6CO2 + 6H2O → C 6H12O6 + 6O2
Sulfur Dioxide
fuels which contain It causes acid rain.
(SO2)
sulfur compounds 10.4. Catalytic Converters
Causes respiratory
High temperatures
problems and 1. Present in car exhausts; contains transition metal
Nitrogen Oxides that trigger a
photochemical smog; catalysts of platinum and rhodium
(NO2) reaction between N2
contributes to acid 2. Aids redox reactions to neutralize toxic pollutants
and O2 (from air)
rain formed as a result of incomplete fuel combustion: (a)
Damages brain and Carbon Monoxide, (b) Nitrogen Oxides, (c) Unburned
Lead Combustion of
nerve cells in young hydrocarbons
Compounds leaded fuels 3. Reaction equations:
children
(a) 2CO+ O2 → 2CO2 Petroleum Fraction Uses

(b) 2NO+ 2CO→ N2+ 2CO2 Refinery gas heating and cooking
(c) C 8H18 + 12½O2 → 8CO2 + 9H2O
Gasoline fraction fuels for cars
Naphtha fraction chemical feedstock
11. Organic Chemistry Kerosene/Paraffin fraction jet fuel
Diesel oil/Gas oil fraction fuel in diesel engines
11.1. Formulae, Functional Group and fuel in ships and home heating
Fuel oil fraction
systems
Terminology Lubricating fraction lubricants, waxes and polishes
Organic Chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, Bitumen making roads
properties, and reactions of organic carbon compounds.
Complete & Incomplete Combustion
Suffix Compound type
-ane Alkane Complete Combustion
A complete combustion reaction with any organic compounds
-ene Alkene
will produce Carbon Dioxide and Water as its product. The
-anol Alcohol general equation is:
-anoic acid Carboxylic acid C XHY + O2 → CO2 + H2O
-yl/-anoate Ester Incomplete Combustion
An incomplete combustion reaction with any organic
Homologous Series: a group of organic compounds that have compounds will produce Carbon Monoxide and Water as its
similar chemical properties due to being part of the: product. The general equation is:
C XHY + O2 → CO + H2O
Same Functional Group
Same General Formula
Differing from One member to the next by a CH2 unit
11.3. Alkanes
Displaying a trend in physical properties
Alkanes: saturated hydrocarbons [single carbon bonds] that
Sharing similar chemical properties
are generally unreactive; however, they do undergo
combustion reactions
Essential Terminology
General formula = C nH2n+2
1. Functional Group: an atom or group of atoms that Methane: CH4 (n=1) Ethane: C 2H6 (n=2)
determine the chemical properties of a homologous
series
2. Structural Isomers: compounds with the same
molecular formula but different structural formula.
Propane: C 3H8 (n=3) Butane: C 4H10 (n=4)
3. Saturated Compounds: molecules in which all carbon-
carbon bonds are single bonds.
4. Unsaturated Compounds: molecules where one or
more carbon-carbon bonds are not single.
Substitution Reaction
11.2. Fuels
Alkanes go through substitutional reactions, where the atom
Common fossil fuels include: coal, natural gas [main
of another element under UV light replaces the hydrogen
constituent: methane] and petroleum
atom. (Photochemical)
Petroleum: a mixture of hydrocarbons (Carbon and Hydrogen
ONLY) which can be separated into useful fractions by The presence of UV light is to provide activation energy
fractional distillation
Going down the fractions CH4 + Cl2 → (light) → HCl + CH3Cl / CH2Cl2 / CHCl3 / CCl4
Compounds = chloromethane/di/tri/tetrachloromethane
Increasing chain length
Increasing temperature
Lower volatility
11.4. Alkenes
Increase Boiling Points
Alkenes: unsaturated hydrocarbons [at least one double bond
Increase Viscosity (harder to flow)
between 2 carbon atoms]
Have isomers: same molecular formula but different 1. With Bromine: (the test for saturation - orange brown-
structural formula (placement of double bond shifts), e.g. but- colourless)
1-ene and but-2-ene e.g. ethene (g) + bromine (aq) → 1,2-dibromoethane (l)
General formula = C nH2n 2. With steam (hydration): forms alcohols with heat
Functional group: C=C bond (300°C), pressure (60atm/6000kPa) and an acid
(n=1) Ethene:C 2H4 (n=2) catalyst (phosphoric acid)
e.g. ethene (g) + steam (g) ⇌ ethanol (l)
3. With hydrogen (hydrogenation), a double bond breaks
down to form an alkane with a heat of 200 degrees
N/A
and a catalyst (nickel)
e.g. ethene (g) + hydrogen (g) → ethane (g)
Propene:C 3H6 (n=3) But-1-ene:C 4H8 (n=4)
11.8. Alcohols
General formula = C nH2n+1OH
Functional group: OH
Methanol: CH3OH (n=1) Ethanol: C 2H5OH (n=2)
Catalytic Cracking (Alkane)
Thermal decomposition reaction, in which an alkene (and

sometimes hydrogen) is produced from an alkane.
Hydrocarbon is heated, and vapours are passed over a
catalyst (alumina (Al2O3 and silica)
Cracking always produces a short-chain compound with a
Propanol: C 3H7OH (n=3) Butanol: C 4H9OH (n=4)
C=C bond (matches the supply of fractions with demand
and produces alkene for feedstock.)
e.g. Cracking of ethane will give ethene and hydrogen
Methods of Production
Fermentation of Aqueous Catalytic Addition of

Glucose (for Ethanol) Steam to Ethene
The ethene reacts with
steam (reversibly) to form
Butane → Ethane + Ethene ; C 4H10 → C 2H6 + C 2H4
Yeast is added to dissolved ethanol in the following
How do we distinguish between saturated and unsaturated glucose. \n Products: ethanol, conditions: 300°C, 60 atm
hydrocarbons? carbon dioxide and the (6000 kPa) \n Catalyst -
Using Bromine water (reddish-brown):
Temperature between 25-35 °C phosphoric acid [while low
for optimal enzyme activity. temp. Gives better yield,
Saturated: remains reddish brown (unreactive) high temp. is used for a
Unsaturated: turns colourless/decolourises faster rate of reaction]
The slow reaction produces a
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dilute solution that requires
enrichmentUid=06c7cef2-12e1-46f4-8a65-08dbf708a0c1 pure ethanol. Continuous
processing. Can only be
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produced in batches
enrichmentUid=ea678265-5ede-4686-8a66-08dbf708a0c1
Produces greenhouse gas (CO2) No greenhouse pollutants
11.7. Alkenes’ Addition Reactions Uses non-renewable

Uses renewable resources
resources (crude oil)
Alkene addition reactions only form one product.
Uses of Ethanol:
Solvent in glues, printing inks & perfumes
Fuel Large molecules are built up from small units known as

monomers.
11.9. Carboxylic Acids Monomers are a single unit of a substance.
General formula: C nH2n+1COOH

Functional group: COOH
Ethanoic Acid: CH3COOH
Methanoic Acid: CH2O2 (n=0)
(n=1)
Polymers can have different linkages depending on the
type of polymerisation and monomer
Example:
Small units (monomers) Linkages
Polyester (PET) Ester
Polyamide & Protein Amide
Propanoic Acid: C 3H6O2 (n=2) Butanoic acid: C 4H8O2 (n=3) Plastics (PET)
Plastics (polyethylene terephthalate) are made from
polymers. However, they are not biodegradable. (NOTE: PET
can be hydrolysed back to monomers and re-polymerised)
Properties of Ethanoic Acid
Weak acid with high pH and low dissociation

Formed by:
Bacterial Oxidation of Ethanol (Vinegar Production)
With acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII)
(Good Oxidising Agent)
Carboxylic acids react with alcohols (with an acid

catalyst/Heat) to give esters in a condensation reaction, for Environment Challenges caused by Plastics
example:
1. Disposal in Landfill sites
Ethanoic acid + ethanol ⇌ ethyl ethanoate + water 2. Accumulation in Oceans
(alcohol = -yl & carboxylic acid = -anoate) 3. Formations of toxic gases from burning
Carboxylic Acids also have different structural isomers.
11.12. Properties of Polymers
Reactions with Carboxylic Acid (Ethanoic Acid)
It can be moulded under heat and pressure due to its low
Magnesium reacts with ethanoic acid to form magnesium density
ethanoate and hydrogen gas. Low conductivity (retain heat)
2CH3COOH + Mg → (CH3COO) 2Mg + H2 Resistant to corrosion
When ethanoic acid reacts with hydroxides, it will form Non-biodegradable and lead to plastic waste
salt and water (Neutralisation reaction)
CH3CH2COOH + KOH → CH3CH2COOK + H2O
11.13. Addition and Condensation
When ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates, it will form
salt, water, and carbon dioxide. Polymerisation
2CH3CH2CH2COOH + K2CO3 → 2CH3CH2CH2COOK +
H2O + CO2 Addition Polymerisation
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enrichmentUid=5c010373-239e-4915-8a67-08dbf708a0c1 (C=C) bonds
Polymers produced using alkene monomers
11.11. Polymers Forms only a polymer molecule
Poly(ethene): is a polymer produced from ethene by

12.1. Measurement
addition polymerisation
Use Structure
Plastic bags and
gloves, clingfilm (low
Poly(ethene) density), mugs, bowls,
Double bond splits, and the polymer is formed. (Polymers chairs, dustbins (high
have no double bonds) density)
Condensation Polymerisation Variable Unit(s) Apparatus

Time min/sec Stopwatch
When two different monomers are linked together with
Temperature ºC Thermometer
the removal of a smaller molecule, usually water (forms
one H20 molecules per linkage). Mass grams Balance
1. Nylon (polyamide) is made from a dicarboxylic acid
monomer and a diamine monomer (a compound Measuring Volume in Liquids
with an NH2 functional group). Forms amide
Approximate measure to most accurate measure.
linkage.
Measuring Volumetric Pipettes Burettes
Name
Cylinder (fixed volumes) (variable volume)
2. PET (polyester) is made from a dicarboxylic acid

monomer and diols (alcohol with an -OH functional
group). Forms ester linkage.
Image
11.14. Protein & Natural Polyamides

Proteins act as the natural polyamides formed from amino
acids monomers.
General Structure of Amino Acids:
Measuring Volume in Gases
Proteins:
Proteins contain the same linkages (amide links) as nylon

but with different units from amino acid monomers. Their A gas syringe is used to measure the volume of
main structure you should know is: gases gradually
12. Experimental Techniques 12.2. Mixture of Substances
and Chemical Analysis Mixture: A mixture is a substance made from two or more
other substances not chemically bonded together
Solution: A mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a Crystals are filtered from the solution, washed with
solvent distilled water, and dried between the filter paper.
Solute: A substance that dissolved in a solvent
Solvent: A substance that dissolves a solute
Saturated Solution: A solution containing the maximum
concentration of the solvent that can be dissolved in it.
12.3. Acid-Base Titration

A method of quantitative chemical analysis where an acid is
added slowly to a base until it has been neutralised.
12.6. Simple Distillation
Used to separate a solvent from a solution
The impure liquid is heated in a round bottom flask

When it boils, the steam rises into the attached condenser
Condenser cools the steam to a pure liquid, and it drops
into the beaker
A thermometer is placed to ensure the highest boiling
point is not exceeded.
In Acid-Base Titrations, we must add a few drops of indicator
(passes the endpoint) to check whether there are colour
changes in the chemical reaction.
Colour in Colour in Colour in
Indicators
Acid Neutral Base
Thymolphthalein Colourless Colourless Blue
Methyl Orange Red Orange Yellow
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12.4. Filtration enrichmentUid=9f673b79-02f4-476d-8a68-08dbf708a0c1 >
Used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid 12.8. Fractional Distillation

The mixture goes through a funnel with filter paper into a
Used to separate miscible liquids
flask.
Insoluble residue remains in the funnel Mixture is heated
Filtrate flows through the funnel and gets collected in the Substances, due to their different boiling points, rise in
flask or test tube or a beaker different fractions.
A mixture of gases condenses on the beads in the
fractional column.
The beads are heated to the boiling point of the lowest
substance so that the substance being removed cannot
condense on the beads.
The other substances continue to condense and will drip
back into the flask.
The beaker can be changed after every fraction
12.5. Crystallisation
Used to separate dissolved solid from a solution
The solution is heated to increase concentration (solvent

evaporates)
A drop of solution is placed on a slide to check for crystal
formation
The solution is left till it reaches the crystallisation point.
12.9. Chromatography
Used to separate substances in a solvent with different Component Component

Technique Example
solubilities. 1 2
1. Drop the substance onto the start line (pencil) drawn Crystallization -
on chromatography paper. Soluble Liquid is Copper (II) sulfate
Liquid
2. Paper is placed in a beaker with solvent; the paper Solid evaporated to from water
must touch the surface of the solvent (water or leave the solid
ethanol) while the line must be above the liquid. Distillation (2
Ethanol & Water
3. The solvent travels up the paper. Liquids) or
Liquid (Simple), Crude
4. Different solubilities lead to different travel rates (high Liquid Fractional
(Miscible) Oil (Fractional
solubility -> high travel rate) Distillation (More
Distillation)
The stationary phase is the material on which than two liquids)
separation takes place
The mobile phase is the mixture you want to
12.11. Purification
separate, dissolved in a solvent.
Purity in Substances
Assessing purity
Pure substances Have a definite, sharp m.p./b.p.

Interpreting simple chromatograms: Impure substances Have a lower m.p and a higher b.p
Chromatograms are the visual outputs on the
chromatography paper This assessment of substance purity is important, especially
Number of rings/dots = number of substances in food consumption, as its intake can be dangerous.
If two dots travel the same distance up the paper, they
are the same substance. 12.12. Identification of Ions and Gases
The pure substance only gives one spot.
Retention Value:
Test for Cations
Used to identify a substance, calculated by the formula:
Distance moved by substance With aqueous

Rf Value = Cations With aqueous NaOH
Distance moved by solvent

Ammonia
Aluminum White soluble

White precipitate,
Locating Agents precipitate turns
(Al3+) insoluble in excess
colourless in excess
Used to make colourless chromatograms visible Ammonium Ammonia gas
Dry paper in the oven
(NH4+) produced on warming
Spray it with locating agent
Heat it for 10 minutes in the oven Calcium White precipitate,
Faint or no precipitate
(Ca2+) insoluble in excess
12.10. Separation Techniques Light Blue precipitate,
Light Blue precipitate, soluble in excess to
Copper (Cu2+)
This can be done by dissolving one in an appropriate insoluble in excess give a dark blue
solvent solution
Then filter one and extract the other from the solution by Green precipitate, Green precipitate,
evaporation Iron(II) (Fe2+)
insoluble in excess insoluble in excess
If one solid is magnetic, it can use a magnet, e.g. sand and
Red-brown precipitate, Red-brown precipitate,
iron fillings Iron(III) (Fe3+)
insoluble in excess insoluble in excess
Component Component White precipitate, White precipitate,
Technique Example
1 2 Zinc (Zn2+) soluble and turns soluble and turns
colourless in excess colourless in excess
Solid Solid Use a solvent Sand and Salt
Chromium Green precipitate, Green precipitate,
Use Filtration -
Insoluble Separating the Copper (II) Oxide (Cr3+) soluble in excess insoluble in excess
Liquid
Solid residue and the and Water
filtrate Test for Anions
1. Sulfate ions (SO42-): If bubbles/ gas produced turn limewater cloudy,

carbonate ions present
Add dilute nitric acid, then add aq. barium nitrate
White precipitate formed Gas Tests
2. Sulfite ions (SO32-): Gas Test and Test Result

Ammonia (NH3) Damp red litmus paper turns blue
Add acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII) and
heat Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Turns limewater milky
Colour changes from purple to colourless Chlorine (Cl2) Bleaches red/blue litmus paper
Hydrogen (H2) Place lighted splint, squeaky pop
3. Halide ions:
Oxygen (O2) Place glowing splint, splint relights
Add nitric acid, then aqueous silver nitrate Turns Acidified Aqueous Potassium
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Manganate (VII) from purple to
Chloride (Cl-) White precipitate colourless
Bromide (Br-) Cream precipitate
Flame Tests
Iodide (I-) Yellow precipitate
Metal Ion Flame Colour

4. Nitrate ions (NO3-):
Lithium Red
Add aqueous sodium hydroxide, then add warm Sodium Yellow
aluminium foil Calcium Orange-red
The pungent gas produced turns damp red litmus blue Potassium Lilac
Barium Light-Green
5. Carbonate ions (CO32-):
Copper (II) Blue-Green
Add dilute hydrochloric acid
CAIE IGCSE
Chemistry
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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

Properties of Solid, Liquid and Gases Freezing, Melting and Sublimation

https://ludensoexplore.com/ModelViewer/? 1.4. Cooling and Heating Curves

The following curve is obtained if this phenomenon is plotted -

Heating Curves Diffusion: the net movement of particles from a region of

The volume of gases may also be influenced by temperature.

1. When temperature increases, the gas molecules have

The energy levels of the shells increase as their distance

2.4. Proton and Nucleon Number

An example for calculating the relative mass and Diamond

Properties of Metallic Bonding

1. Metallic Bonds have good electrical conductivity:

8. Layers of hexagonal rings held by weak intermolecular

Silicon (IV) Oxide

1. The structure of Silicon (IV) Oxide is

Each Silicon atom is covalently bonded with 4 Oxygen

2.12. Simple Molecules and Covalent

Covalent Bonds Dot and Cross Diagram

Typical ionic compounds are usually giant lattice structures

Using an X and a dot in your drawings will help

Different Types of Covalent Bonds

1. Single Bonds - e.g., Chlorine

Other Properties of Ionic Compound

Ionic Compounds Dot and Cross Diagram

Amount of Substance (mol)

3.5. Number of Moles in Aqueous

State Symbols & Chemical Equations 3.6. Moles in Gases

Concentration can be measured and converted into g/dm3

3.3. The Mole and the Avogadro

Components of Electrolysis Definition

Note: Reactive electrodes participate in the reaction, while

20 x 0.0500 divide 1000 = 0.001

3.9. Percentage Composition by Mass

4.3. Reduction and Oxidation

3.10. Percentage Purity & Yield

actual mass obtained

This is possible due to the presence of mobile

Electrolyte At Cathode At Anode 2. Reaction at Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e → Cu (mass

4.6. Refining Metals

Advantages of motor Disadvantages of motor

6.2. Rates of Reaction

Higher-concentration reactants contain more particles

The distance between particles is reduced under pressure

Increased temperatures lead to increased average kinetic

More particles will have an energy greater than or equal

higher the rate of reaction

Enzymes Affecting Rate of Reaction

6.8. Rates of Reaction Graphs

The products can then react with each other or

5H2 O (blue) ⇌ C uSO4 (white) + H2 O

C oC l2 ⋅ 6H2 O (pink) ⇌ C oC l2 (blue) + H2 O

(anhydrous by heating; hydrated form by adding water)

If a gas evolves, Reversible Reaction in a closed system when equilibrium:

equilibrium is reached. Therefore, it only increases the Temperature: 450°C

NOTE: Roman Numerals next to an element’s name are the

Identifying Redox Reactions

2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3 (g) [Exothermic] Redox Reactions by Changes in Oxidation Number

Rules Example 2. Weak alkalis partially ionize in water producing OH-