Biology Book

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Lam Peng Kwan
Eric Y K Lam
Consuitant
Dr Geoff Hayward
© 1976, 1978, 1979 Federal Publications (S) Pte Ltd
© 2000 Times Media Private Limited
© 2003 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited
© 2014 Marshall Cavendish Education Pte Ltd
Published by Marshall Cavendish Education

Times Centre, 1 New Industrial Road, Singapore 536196
Customer Service Hotline: (65) 6213 9444
E-mail: tmesales@sg.mceducation.com
Website: www.mceducation.com
First published 1976

Reprinted 2001, 2002, 2003 (twice), 2004
Second impression 2004
Third impression 2004
Fourth impression 2006
Reprinted 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2015
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system

or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the copyright owner. Any requests for permission should be
addressed to the Publisher.
Marshall Cavendish is a registered trademark of Times Publishing Limited.
The websites cited in the book were reviewed and deemed suitable at the
time of printing.
ISBN 978-981-01-9096-5
Printed in Singapore
Preface
BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘O’ Level is an extensively revised version of the highly popular COMPREHENSIVE
BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘O’ Level. This revised edition
* meets the requirements of the new syllabus for the Singapore-Cambridge GCE ‘O’ Level Examination, and
* implements the Ministry of Education’s initiatives, namely Thinking Skills, Information Technology and National
Education.
Care has been taken to ensure that all new topics in the syllabus are adequately covered, for example, requirements in
biotechnology and genetic engineering. The chapter “Effect of Human Activity on the Environment” has been
completely re-written to keep it up to date.
Throughout the book, there is emphasis on the teaching of process and thinking skills. To enable students to learn the
right process skills in practical work, many investigative experiments are included, most of which involve questions that
stimulate thinking and interest.
The Thinking Room at the end of each chapter encourages the student to think and to apply the knowledge acquired to
solve related problems. The scientific methods and thinking skills employed by the student in The Thinking Room include
those of analysis, observation, inference, comparison, classification, planning investigations, decision-making, creative
problem-solving and so on.
It is important that the student has a firm grasp of the basic knowledge or concepts of biology in order to solve related
problems.
Biology should not be pursued only by those who wish to enter the medical profession. It should be appreciated as part
of an all-round education. The author hopes that this book, which has grown out of many years of teaching and research
in biology, will serve the needs of today’s enquiring minds.
To the Student
Before you start looking at the chapters in this book, here are a few suggestions:
It may be a good idea to read each chapter twice. For your first reading, skim through the chapter to get the gist of it.
Then read it carefully for the second time to digest the details.
Some of the details may not be directly required for the examination. Still, you should study them. They are included
to illustrate important points in biology. Some of these details may be for enrichment, to widen your knowledge
especially on current issues.
You need to master certain basic concepts before you can use them in new situations, or to apply them to solve related
problems.
Apart from the above points, it is a good idea to familiarize yourself with the main features of the book. These are
summarized below for you.
SECTIONS
This book is divided into sections as follows:
Section I Organization and Maintenance of the Individual
Section II Microorganisms and Biotechnology
Section III Relationships of Organisms with One Another and with the Environment
Section IV Development of Organisms and Continuity of Life -
Each section is represented by a colour as shown above. Chapter 1 gives an overview of the basics, essential for a proper
understanding of the four sections.
me CHAPTERS
IV
The chapters in each section have most of the following features in common:
Learning Objectives
These are the learning objectives you are required to achieve by the end of the chapter. By listing them at the beginning,
we want you to focus on what you have to master.
Introduction
Each chapter has a short section that serves as chapter opener. This is intended to help you to think about the work you
are going to cover in the chapter. It may involve your doing simple “ass such as reading some text, looking at pictures,
finding information or handling data. The section is designed to help you think about biology and what it means to you.
Read the text and look at the pictures, then answer the questions at the end of the section and discuss your answers in class.
The Text
The body of the chapter is the text introducing concepts and essential supporting facts. Throughout the chapter, the text
is supported by full colour diagrams and photographs with explanatory labels and captions. Key words are also
highlighted and explained.
Definition
Words or concepts that need to be clearly understood for a meaningful reading of the text are defined and displayed
prominently.
Key Ideas
Presented in marginal boxes, these summarize the main ideas in the text.
Spotlight
This contains enrichment materials which provide a coverage of the topics in the syllabus in depth. A better understanding
of the concepts and topics of special interest—historical features, practical techniques or modern applications of biology
are included.
Note
This provides extra explanatory or interesting information related to the topic under discussion.
Investigation
Investigative experiments are a central feature of any science course. Although this book is not a practical book,
experiments related to the topics in the text are featured because of their importance in the understanding of concepts.
Test Yourself
In this feature, the self-test questions are intended not only for you to assess your own progress but also to make you
think. You should write down your answers and then check them against those provided at the Publisher’s website.
Assignment
This exercise focuses on the application of the concepts taught. Assignments are intended to help develop thinking,
investigative and research skills. They also encourage the use of technology to help you to obtain information, gather
data and manipulate graphic images.
Analysis and Comprehension
In these exercises, a piece of information is provided, followed by carefully designed questions to test analytical and
comprehension skills.
Summary and Concept Map

The essential points in the chapter are listed to allow for a quick revision at the end of the main text. Wherever
appropriate, a concept map is included which systematically organizes ideas/information within a topic.
The Thinking Room
Here, a graphic organizer is used to provide a visual, holistic representation of facts and concepts and their relationships
within an organized frame. Through them, the invisible process of thinking is made visible. They show how you ‘think’
as you manipulate and process information and, thus, enable you to visualize and control your thinking process.
Exercise
This is a selection of examination-type questions that are intended to provide practice in meeting the assessment
objectives specified in the syllabus.
MOE Initiatives
The infusion of the three MOE Initiatives, namely:
* Thinking Skills/Processes (TS)
* Information Technology (IT)
* National Education (NE)
is identified by the use of the following icons:
for applying thinking skills
for applying information technology
for National Educational messages
Publisher’s Online Material

This book is also supported by resources which can be found at the Publisher’s website <http://www.teol.com.sg>.
These resources include:
¢ Enrichment materials
* List of relevant website addresses (URLs)
The following icon found throughout the book indicates the presence of such online resources related to the topic under
discussion. A brief outline/description of the material usually accompanies the icon.
Website addresses (URLs) are indicated by the following icon.
corn =T
They are listed in Appendix 1 and at the Publisher’s website, where they will be constantly updated.
Besides these features in the chapters, a glossary and index are provided at the end of the book.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the following who have helped in Royal Netherlands Embassy, p262 Figure 17.9(b)
one way or another in the preparation of this manuscript:
Singapore Anti-Narcotics Association, p245 (bottom right)
Huang Jiang, Christine Lam, Li Yumei, Agnes Poon and
Veronica Wong. Health Sciences Authority, p121 (bottom right);
p136 Figure 8.13
The author and publisher would like to acknowledge the
following who have kindly given permission for the use of Science Photo Library, p16 Figure 2.3(b) Dr Jeremy Burgess;
copyright material: p19 Figure 2.4(b) Andrew Syred; p24 (top left) Astrid & Hanns-
Frieder Michler; p112 Figure 7.5(c) Dr Jeremy Burgess;
American Cancer Society, p248 Figure 16.4(a) & (b)
p125 (top right) National Cancer Institute; p127 (bottom left)
Anglo Chinese School (Independent), p165 Figure 10.1 Dr Tony Brain, p149 Figure 9.6(a) Andrew Syed;
p149 Figure 9.6(b) Bruce Iverso; p212 (bottom) Scott Camazine;
Australian Antarctic Division, p194 (bottom right) M Hesse
p256 Figure 17.2 (left) Omikron; p256 Figure 17.2 (right)
Dr CC Booth, p92 Figure 6.6(b) Department of Microbiology, Biozentrum; p256 (middle)
Dr Gopal Murti; p264 Figure 17.11 James Holmes/Celltech Ltd;
Dr Lim Chuan Fong, p291 (bat, mousedeer, hornbill);
p268 (bottom right) Sinclair Stammers; p272 Figure 18.1(b)
p324 Table 20.3; p337 (bottom right)
Sidney Moulds; p295 Figure 19.4 Thomas Nilson/JVZ;
Dr N Manokaran, p292 Figure 19.2(b) (left) p298 Figure 19.9 Michael Marten; p319 (middle right) Claude
Nuridsany & Marie Perennou; p380 (middle left) Prof. K.
Dr Shawn Lum, p291 Figure 19.1 (forest & spider)
Seddon & Dr T. Evans, Queen’s University Belfast;
Department of Microbiology, NUS, p242 (middle left); p 369 Figure 22.8(a) Biophoto Associates; p369 Figure 22.8(b)
p255 (bottom right); p256 (top right) Biophoto Associates; p372 Figure 22.11 Science Source;
p376 Figure 22.14 Claude Nuridsany & Marie Perennou
Embassy of Republic of Indonesia, p162 (middle right);
p378 (bottom right) Singapore Tourism Board, p3 (bottom left & right);
p57 Figure 5.1; p234 (middle right)
Hulton-Deutsch, p295 Figure 19.5
The Hulton Picture Library, p68 Figure 5.6
Lim Kai Chuan, p148 Figure 9.5
The Straits Times, p62 (middle left); p307 (article)
Mrs Sarojinithevi Ramalingam, p362 Figure 22.2
The Sun (Petaling Jaya), p296 Figure 19.6(a);
Ministry of the Environment, p287 Figure 18.12;
p297 Figure 17.7(b); p304 (bottom left)
p297 Figure 19.7(c) and (d)
Traffic Police Department, p243 (middle right)
Ministry of the Environment, Sewerage Department,
p260 Figure 17.8 Wellcome Eistoneal and Medical Museum, p372 Figure 22.10
Monsanto Company, p383 Figure 22.21 World Health Organisation, p78 Figure 5.11
Ministry of Health, National Health Education Department, USA, NOAA/produced by Meteorological Service Singapore,
p76 (bottom); p77 (top); p246 (left); p250 (top); p293 (top right)
p352 Figure (left); p373 Figure 22.12
Past-year examination questions marked C are reproduced by
National Kidney Foundation, p182 (bottom right); permission of the University of Cambridge Local Examinations
p191 (middle right) Syndicate.
National Parks Board, p303 Figure 19.13(a) While every effort has been made to contact copyright
holders of material reproduced, we have been unsuccessful in
Nature Society (Singapore), p270 (top left)
some instances. To these copyright holders, we offer our
Primary Production Department, p116 (bottom left) sincere apologies and hope they will take our liberty in good
faith. We welcome any information which would enable us to
contact the copyright holders/owners concerned.
Acknowledgements (Comprehensive Biology: A Course for ‘O’ Level)

The author wishes to thank Agnes Poon, Anne Cheah, Chang Ong Ying, Chua Chin Kwee, Chua
Kim Soon, Leong Mei Ling, Lim Poh Im, Lye Heng Fong, Poong Kee Eng, Tan Hee Neo, Tan
Swee Heah, Tina Chia and all those who have helped in one way or another during the preparation
of the original manuscript, and Teo Keng Hock for his constant encouragement throughout this
project. In addition, during the preparation ofthe third edition ofthe original book, the author
wishes to thank Lim Kai Chuan for taking photographs ofplant sections, and Eric Lam Yew Khuen
and Christine Lam Cheng Yoke for their help in the preparation of the manuscript.
Contents vi
Chapter 1 What Is Biology?
1.1 Why Study Biology?
1.2 The Living Organism
13 Classification in Biology pe
ON
OR
SJ
SECTION I: ORGANIZATION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL
Chapter 2 Cells : The Building Blocks of Life 12

2.1 Cell Structure and Organization 13
2.2 Specialized Cells, Tissues, Organs and Systems 18
Chapter 3 Diffusion, Osmosis and Surface Area : Volume Ratio 23

3.1. Diffusion » 24
3.2. Osmosis 26
3.3. Active Transport 33
3.4 Surface Area : Volume Ratio 33
Chapter 4 Enzymes 40
4.1 What Are Enzymes? 42
4.2 Classification of Enzymes 44
4.3. _ Characteristics of Enzymes 44
Chapter 5 Nutrition 55
5.1 The Need for Food 56
5.2 Nutrients in Food 57
5.3. Food Values and Diet 72
Chapter 6 Nutrition in Mammals 82

6.1. Holozoic Nutrition 83
6.2 Mammalian Digestive System 84
6.3 Digestion in Humans 88
6.4 Absorption Aan eeAl
6.5 Assimilation 94
Chapter 7 Nutrition in Plants 99

71 Photosynthesis 100
72 The Leaf: Nature’s Food-Making Factory 111
73 Mineral Nutrition in Plants 115
Chapter 8 Transport in Mammals 120

8.1 The Need for a Transport System 122
8.2 Blood Ee
8.3. The Circulatory System 128
8.4 Double Circulation in Mammals 131
Chapter 9 Transport of Materials in Flowering Plants 143

9.1 The Structure of Flowering Plants in Relation to Transport 145
9.2 Moving Water against Gravity 152
viii 161
Chapter 10 Respiration
10.1 Why Do Living Organisms Respire? 162
10.2 Gaseous Exchange in Animals 169
10.3. Gaseous Exchange in Green Plants 178
Chapter 11 Excretion 182

11.1 What Is Excretion? 183
11.2 Excretion in Mammals 184
Chapter 12 Homeostasis 194

12.1 The Need for Homeostasis 195
12.2 The Mammalian Skin 199
Chapter 13. Co-ordination and Response: I The Nervous System in. Mammals 208
13.1 What Is Sensitivity? 209
13.2 The Nervous System of Mammals 210
Chapter 14 Co-ordination and Response: IT Animal Receptor Organs 221

14.1 What Are Sense Organs? 222
14.2 The Mammalian Eye 222,
143 Vision 226
Chapter 15 Co-ordination and Response: [1] Hormones and Endocrine Glands 230
15.1 Hormones oon
15.2 Hormonal and Nervous Control 236
Chapter 16 Drugs 240

16.1 What Is a Drug? 241
16.2. Medicinal Drugs 242
16.3 Alcohol 243
16.4 Drug Abuse 244
16.5 Smoking 245
SECTION II: MICROORGANISMS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
Chapter 17. Microorganisms and Their Applications in Biotechnology 254

171 Microorgansims 255
172 Role of Microorganisms in Decomposition 209
173 Biotechnology 260
SECTION III: RELATIONSHIP OF ORGANISMS WITH ONE ANOTHER AND WITH THE
ENVIRONMENT
Chapter 18 Ecology 268

18.1 What Is Ecology? 269
18.2 The Ecosystem <: 21D
18.3. Nutrient Cycling in Nature vs 281
18.4 Parasitism 284
Chapter 19 Effects of HumanAne on the
ees Ge 290
19.1 Deforestation 291
192 Pollution 294
19.3. Conservation 301
SECTION IV : DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND CONTINUITY OF LIFE
Chapter 20 Reproduction in Plants 309

20.1 Asexual Reproduction 310
20.2 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 314
20.3 Change of Form in Plants during Growth 327
Chapter 21. Sexual Reproduction in Animals 337

21.1 Features of Sexual Reproduction in Animals 338
21.2 Reproduction in Man 340
21.3 Family Planning 349
21.4 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Sol
Chapter 22. Heredity 357

22.1 Monohybrid Inheritance: Past and Present 359
22.2 Multiple Alleles 369
22.3 Mutations 371
22.4 Discontinuous and Continuous Variation 374
22.5 Selection 375
22.6 Genetic Engineering 380
Glossary 388
Appendix 1 391
Index 394
Section I Section II
Organization and Microorganisms and

Maintenance of the Biotechnology
Individual
Section III Section IV
Relationships of Organisms Development of

with One Another and with Organisms and Continuity
the Environment of Life
What Is Biology?
ECTIVES
LEARNING OBJ
The word biology is derived from the Greek: d7os meaning life and /ogos which
means knowledge. Thus biology is the science of life. It is an organized study
of living things and of the theories that men have devised to describe and ’
explain the world of life. :
Biologists, like all of us, share an immense sense of curiosity about life in all of |
its amazing forms. We watch television programmes about animals and plants,
visit zoos and botanic gardens, keep pets and tend gardens.
i Biologists, however, often study life in more exotic places—perched in the >|
canopy of a rainforest tree or diving in special submarines into the depths of
Al the oceans. Wherever they go, biologists are always asking questions about
: living things (also called organisms) such as: :
@ What kinds of organisms exist? How are they recognized, and how can
they be grouped together to show similarities and differences?
@ How are living
organisms constructed 1
and how do they
function?
@ How do organisms
come to be as they are |
in individuals and as a ‘
group? "
Some living organisms around us;

BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘Q’ Level
@ Where do organisms live, and why? How do they interact with one
another and with inanimate objects?
° Generating
f possibilities
- © Comparing
e Identifying
patterns and
relationships
4:1--Why-Study- Biology?
As Man is a living organism, studying biology helps us to understand

our behaviour and ourselves. For many of you, the most interesting
part of biology may be the study of yourself:
@ how your body works;
@ how it reacts to diseases;
@ how you resemble or differ from other people such as your
brothers, sisters and parents.
You will also learn how you and other living things came to be on
this earth, as part of the origin of life and the process of evolution of
organisms. Studying about ourselves is not complete unless we also
make a comparative study of other animals. For example, by studying
the working of the muscles in a frog, or the digestive, respiratory and
nervous systems of a mammal such as the rabbit, we can have a
better understanding of how such systems work in our own bodies.
With the invention of the microscope, we discovered a new world—

the world of microorganisms (i.e. organisms that can only be seen
when magnified greatly under a microscope). Among these are the
organisms that cause many diseases. By studying their life processes,
their reactions to certain chemicals, and how they are spread, we
learn ways of fighting them.
Green plants produce not only the oxygen we breathe but also our
food and many of our beverages. Do you know that 95% of our food
comes from only 20 types of plant? Tea and coffee, two of our
favourite beverages, are obtained from plants. We use extracts from
plants to make paint, plastics, soaps, oils, adhesives, natural rubber,
waxes, dyes, spices and drugs such as morphine, cocaine and most
antibiotics. Even our paper money is made from plants.
What Is Biology?
An ever-increasing human population requires more and more food.

We can increase food production by a careful study of plants and
soil, and improved techniques in animal husbandry. However, an
unlimited food supply is not the final solution to over-population.
The study of reproduction and population growth will help you to
realize that a stable human population is a necessity and also a
responsibility that has to be shared by everyone.
Biological studies help to control pests, including crop pests such as

locusts; pests of stored food such as flour beetles; pests that attack
structures such as termites, fungi and shipworms; and fouling
organisms such as barnacles. They also help to control disease
carriers such as the mosquito, and to reduce water and air pollution.
Some of the ways in which biology advances aesthetic values are the
growing of suitable plants in parks, on beaches and along waterways,
and the keeping of aquarium fish at home.
Above all, biology helps us to understand ourselves and the world

we live in. The great ideas of biology—evolution, the living being in
its environment, the chemical and physical basis of life-have
influenced all fields of human thought.
From these scenes of

Singapore, infer how Biology
contributes to the quality of
life in the country.
ES ASGlgigeit
Li Exploring the World of the Plant Pathologists
We are all familiar with the work of doctors who help to keep people
healthy. But who keeps plants healthy? Who finds out about plant
diseases? The answer is the plant pathologists.
e Data collection
° Inferring In this assignment you are going to use the INTERNET to find out what a
plant pathologist does. Using your computers at school, find a World
Wide Web site that provides this information. To do this you have to surf
the net, using a search engine. Get the net browser to carry out a net
search and follow the instructions that appear in the process. In the
search box, try typing “career, plant pathology” and see what comes up.
Prepare an Information Sheet on what a plant pathologist does by either

printing out the relevant material or copying them into a word processing
document.
1:2--The-Living-Organism-—-
Characteristics of Life
It is not easy to give a precise definition of the term ‘life. However,
by observation and experimentation, we can record the activities that
are characteristic of organisms. Observe the living things around you.
Compare them with non-living things. Try to write down a list of
characteristics that living things have in common. Compare your list
with the characteristics that follow:
Nutrition (Chapters 5, 6 and 7)

ngs have to feed in
in energy and the If you observe the animals around you, you will notice that they all
‘ded to make the have to feed. They must feed in order to survive, to grow and to
carry out their daily activities. Do plants need food? If so, what do
plants feed on? Though plants have no organs of ingestion such as
Figure 1.1 Nutrition is a basic characteristic of life.
What Is Biology?
the mouth, they do take in water and mineral salts from the soil.
Their leaves absorb carbon dioxide from the air. You can take away
certain necessary minerals or nutrients from the soil and you will
Plants and animals
notice that the plants do not grow as well and would eventually die.
Green plants take in the raw materials to make their own food. _ The basic difference between
Non-green plants take in organic food substances. lants and animals is their mode
of nutrition. Plants contain
_ chlorophyll and so can
A non-living thing does not feed. A piece of filter paper can absorb _ photosynthesize. They make food
water and a solution of mineral salts. But, unlike a living body, it is _ substances (carbohydrates) from
unable to convert the substances it has absorbed into a part of itself. _ carbon dioxide, water and
sunlight. Animals have to feed on
_ organic food obtained from plants
Respiration (Chapter 10)
or other animals.
Every organism requires energy to perform its vital activities such as
growth and movement. Green plants derive their energy from
sunlight by means of photosynthesis. Animals obtain theirs from the
complex organic food they feed on. In both plants and animals, the
organic food substances, especially carbohydrates and fats, store up
energy. This energy is set free when they are broken down by
oxidation into simpler substances such as carbon dioxide and water.
We call this process respiration. It occurs in living cells. It can be
represented by the overall equation:
wees e ents
nae
epee
Glucose — an Carbon dioxide Water

organic food pee |
rich in energy simple substances
Excretion (Chapter 11)

There are numerous chemical reactions occurring in the cells of an
organism. These are metabolic reactions. Some of these reactions
produce substances which are useless to the organism or may even .
be harmful. Hence they must be eliminated. The process by which

nese
|
you
yy
y eoteyob
the organism removes such metabolic waste substances is called

excretion.
Most animals have special organs for removing their excretory

substances such as carbon dioxide, water, mineral salts and
nitrogenous waste products. Plants also excrete their waste products,
repeere
but lack specialized excretory organs.
Living organisms are open systems continually receiving and

disposing both energy and materials—this process is basic to their
continued existence. If it stops or breaks down, the organism dies. an organism
on of more body
‘Or example, you
Growth (page 57)
a single cell
Growth is a permanent increase in the mass and volume of an L diameter. Now,
organism as a result of converting absorbed food into living a large organism made
ions of different types
protoplasm. Some of the new living materials formed are used to
repair worn-out parts of the cells, the rest is added to the original
BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘0’ Level
living matter to bring about an increase in size. This may

make the organism more complex or even change its
form, e.g. a seed germinates into a seedling and grows
into a mature plant. The egg of a butterfly hatches into a
caterpillar, grows and changes into a pupa and finally
emerges as an adult insect. The body form of an organism
can change and get bigger, becoming more complex. This
kind of growth is characteristic of most living organisms.
We say most because some parasites actually become
simpler in structure during the later phase of growth.
Non-living matter such as a bicycle does not grow.

However, a crystal immersed in a saturated solution may
increase in size. How does this growth differ from that in
a living organism?
Figure 1.2 What life characteristic(s)
does this animal exhibit?
Movement (page 57)
Movement is a characteristic of organisms. It is more easily detected
in most animals than in plants. The movement of organisms is
independent of external agents such as the wind or water currents.
Most animals are able to move from one place to another. Such a
movement is termed locomotion.
Some animals do not have the power of locomotion, for example,

corals and sponges. They are fixed to one place, but they can still
move parts of their bodies. Most plants are unable to carry out
locomotion but slow movements of their body parts are always
taking place, e.g. the flowers of plants slowly open and shoots bend
towards light as they grow. Some microscopic water organisms, e.g.
Euglena, are able to move freely from place to place, resembling
animals in this respect.
Sensitivity
Animals and plants are sensitive to any changes in the immediate
sponse to that surroundings. They often react to these changes in a way beneficial
to themselves. For instance, cockroaches forage in a dark room but
will find cover immediately when the light is turned on. If you smell
something unpleasant or touch something very hot, you immediately
move away from it. When the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica (touch-
me-not) is touched, its leaves automatically fold up. When a potted
green plant is placed in a closed box the shoots grow vertically
upwards. However, when light is allowed to enter through a hole
made on one side of the box, the shoots grow towards the light.
In all these examples, a change in the environment or an external
influence causes the organisms to react in a predictable way. Such
a change or external influence is called stimulus (plural: stimuli).
The reaction of an organism to a stimulus is known as a
response.
This property of living organisms that results in an appropriate

response to a stimulus is termed sensitivity or irritability .
What Is Biology?
Reproduction (Chapters 20 and 21)

All living organisms are able to reproduce their own kind. In this
way, the species lives on though individuals die. Individuals are never
immortal. They die of disease or old age, in accidents or are eaten by
other organisms. Thus, reproduction is necessary for the species to
survive.
Adaptability
Living organisms are able to adjust and adapt themselves to changes
in their environment This adaptability increases their chances of
survival and the perpetuation of their own species. For instance, a
eee 2a
change of seasons or a shortage of food may cause certain birds to Figure 1.3 Reproduction ensures the
migrate to another place where the conditions are more favourable. continuation of the species.
To get enough sunlight, a plant may grow very straight and tall to be
above the plants around it. Non-living things do not show this
adaptive response.
Distinguishing a living organism from non-living matter oh PmTiel

bees
roduction of new offspring is
Some of the characteristics of living organisms given above can be € hich genetic
found in certain non-living things. For example, a motorcar can assed from one
‘next. For
move and give off waste products when its fuel is burnt. It is also a ther and father
well-organized and complex structure. Indeed men have often used tic information
machines as models to help them understand how living organisms reproduction
work. But machines do not reproduce themselves and do not grow.
Thus all these characteristics must be considered in distinguishing a
living organism from non-living matter.
1.3 Classification in Biology — ynment in which they

nproves their chances
id offspring. For
There are millions of living organisms on earth. It is impossible to
sh that are more
name them easily without putting them into groups. This is called
classification. Biologists try to classify living things in a meaningful
way. They also look for patterns that may help them to explain the
great diversity of life on earth and how organisms are related to each
other. In 1753, the Swedish naturalist, Carolus Linnaeus, invented a
system of classification, based on structural similarities, which is still
useful today.
System of Classification
Artificial classifications group organisms on the basis of properties
useful to humans, e.g. “plants you can eat” or “animals which can fly”.
In Biology, however, a natural system of classification is used—
reflecting the origin or evolution of the organism and providing easy
reference for the identification of organisms.
show the relationships
tween organisms
Living things are first of all divided into a few kingdoms, e.g. the plant ) trace the possible origin of
kingdom and the animal kingdom. Within each kingdom, the organisms
organisms are further classified into several phyla (singular: phylum)
or divisions in the case of plants. Each phylum consists of organisms

that are basically similar although their similarities may not be obvious
at first sight. The phylum is made up of classes and the classes of
orders. Within each order are the families. In the family, as the name
suggests, the resemblance is fairly close. Each family consists of a
varying number of genera (singular: genus) and each genus usually
has several species.
As we go down the scale of classification in this way, we will find that

the resemblance between the organisms becomes much closer. For
instance, it is easy to distinguish one family from another. It is also
fairly easy to separate the different genera but different species may be
more difficult to separate.
The sub-phylum Vertebrata or vertebrates is divided into five classes,

namely Pisces (fish), Amphibia (amphibians), Reptilia (reptiles),
Aves (birds) and Mammalia (mammals).
_ We see that the natural
_ classification is hierarchical, with Figure 1.4 Classification of the cat
~ each level in the hierarchy having
a specific label. Starting from the Class: Mammalia
largest grouping these go in the
Order: Carnivora
following order:
Family: Felidae
Genus: _ Felis
Species: domestica ae
Now you classify the “cats” shown. _Panthera tigris Panthera leo
Binomial System of Naming Species

The common name given to an organism may vary in different parts of
the world. This can cause confusion. Linnaeus used Latin, to give two
names for each organism. This procedure of naming is called the
binomial system.
@ The first name refers to the genus to which the organism belongs.
It always starts with a capital letter.
@ The second name is the species name and it starts with a small
letter.
The Variety of Living Things
For example, the domestic cat belongs to the genus Fe/s and the
species domestica. Therefore its scientific name is ke/s domestica. The
This material on biodiversity
dog is called Canzs familiaris.
includes:
e Classification in Biology
Introductory activity; Thinking How We Classify Organisms Today
through relationships; How to
classify Most biologists recognize five different kingdoms of living organisms
e System of Classification (Fioure:|.5)a Diese are:
Binomial system; Constructing Prokaryotae-the bacteria
dichotomous key; How we Protoctista—a collection of single-celled organisms and some simple
classify organisms today multicellular ones like seaweeds
e¢ Assignments Fungi-the mushrooms, toadstools, moulds and so on
e Exercise. Plantae-the green plants. +
Animalia-the animal kingdom which includes you.
“ interNET In addition, there are the viruses—the smallest “organisms.” They are on
the borderline between the living and non-living world.
What Is Biology?
Figure 1.5 A survey of the main groups of living organisms
i
Viruses ==
(== PYLX
aa868
r= Prokaryotae (Bacteria) oo és
O
ex f.
-— Bryophyta, e.g. mosses and liverworts
YE
S a Filicinophyta Ferns)
—Plantae 2
‘
a
yy
S |__ Gymnosperma Z
(Conifers) GN
wre.
| __ Angiosperma
;
(Flowering plants)
Wg
Kingdoms
-— Porifera (Sponges) f t
t—— Cnidaria He
a Platyhelminthes ¢
(Flatworms) ___ Crustacea, RD
e.g. prawns i
| _— Nematoda rf
(Roundworms) a |_ _ Myriapoda, SMW
® e.g. centipedes sims
|___ Annelida © News
AK
(Segmented worms) ort Arachnida,
e.g. spiders AS :
t— Mollusca Insecta, eS:

, Ls ~~ e.g. butterflies :
— Animalia =
a |— Arthropoda
t— Echinodermata, e.g. starfish AERA

--— Pisces (Fishes) ~\-=
ka Acrania t— Amphibia DS :
== Chordata’ as E. a) a
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+— Aves (Birds) SN N
— Mammalia
AeSGl gigeit “|| @ Identifying ideas

e Analysing
¢ Formulating questions
12 Asking Scientific Questions
The excitement of biology lies in the observations to suggest reasons or hypotheses Py
observations and experiments that biologists that may produce predictions.
do that help us learn about living things.
The important thing is the process of doing For example, | breathe faster to get more
biology—not just knowing facts but understanding | oxygen into my body is a hypothesis. The
how biologists discovered (and continue to harder | exercise the faster | should breathe is *.
discover) those facts. a prediction based upon that hypothesis. To
test whether the prediction is accurate,
The scientific method begins with things that biologists do experiments. If the experimental {
you are already familiar with: observation and results match the predictions, the hypothesis is §
curiosity (asking questions). accepted. If they do not, the hypothesis is
rejected.
The observations can happen anywhere: in the
park, while you are playing, and even while you Throughout this book you will be asked to do
are watching a television programme. For biology; not just learn facts but to actually do
example, you might notice that as you run biology. To begin with, you need to get into the
around playing a game you breathe more quickly | habit of asking scientific questions. Here is
and your heart beats faster. This makes you your first opportunity.
ask a few questions: “How much faster does my
heart beat? How long does it take to slow down | Go back to the list of ways in which organisms
again? Why do | breathe faster?” affect your life that you made at the beginning
of this chapter. Write down three scientific
Biology is about finding answers to these kinds questions you would like to ask about those
of questions. To find such answers, biologists organisms. Discuss your questions with the
use past experiences, ideas and further rest of your class.
5) ummary
M ovEMENT
Fe
E XCRETION Removal of BESe products formed inside living cells

SAA SSE ae z
R EPRODUCTION Production ofnew individuals for the survival of the species
ENSIT i LSS
S Jol Abilityto respond to
tchanges in the environment
<eRERS ;
ROWTH
G A Permanent i
increase in size with change in form and structure
RESPIRATION Breakdown offoodernerenees to release energy in cells
ADAPTABILITY Abiityof species tto change so as to improve its chances of survival

See
UTRITION
N : ere of food into the body and its conversion into new protoplasm
What Is Biology?
ee
The Thinking Roam
be
ili:
How alike?
How different?
et
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Ot
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pois xercise
1 List the characteristics which differentiate a Study this organism and discuss how. you
living organism from a non-living object. think it has adapted to increase its chances
of survival.
Feeding Locomotion Growth
Ingestion Reproduction Respiration
Which of the characteristics listed above are

common to:
(a) both plants and animals;
(b) animals only?
An alien from outer space joins you in your

Biology class. He disagrees when you
classify a motorcar which needs petrol
(food), moves and releases waste products
through the exhaust pipe as non-living but a (a) List three features which distinguish
balsam plant that does not eat, move from plants from animals.
place to place or get rid of waste as living. (bo) Why do biologists find it useful to
classify living organisms?
How would you justify your classification? (C) Science
i.e. ee * *& #64 «@
Pa at Se at ees ae ee
Cells: The Building

Blocks of Life
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You and I and the majority of other animals and plants are made up of —
billions of tiny cells just as a house is built of bricks. The term “cells”
was first introduced by Robert Hooke, an English botanist, in
1665, after he had examined thin slices of cork from the bark of
a tree using one of the earliest microscopes. He saw that the
cork consisted of closely packed little boxes with thick walls
which appeared to be empty. The boxes looked like a
honeycomb and he called them cells. However, it took many
years of study and experimentation before there was any clear
idea of their real nature. What Hooke saw was only the dead
cell walls. Today our idea of a cell is quite different because we can
study the living cell with more refined techniques.
Imagining Cells as Chemical Factories
Before you start studying what a cell is and its parts you need to get an idea
of what a cell does. This will require you to use your imagination to think
about something which is so small that it can only be seen with a
microscope. The ability to use imagination 1s absolutely essential for a biologist. To
see how good your imagination is, read the following. paragraph and then
carry out the task at the end.
Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Cells SN Ne Se oflife:thesoe
units that can live independently. Inside the cell
thousands, literally thousands, of chemical os
‘reactions occur every second. Itis these reaction ease
which keep the bodies of animals an cs
plants working. All ofthese reaction, |
taken together, form the metabolism of |
the cell. The cellis literally a chemical _ }
= factory. Like such aifaetoryss ok oS
—@ itbrings iinraw materials suchas
ea molecules li
-’ itul ses.‘these raw eee

‘ PTheilnside ofa ietoryabustine. es “new molecules, such :
as Proteins, eee
it receives are reassembled into sen aiwhere iin the body. . eae
; new products and sent out
; d For ne. cells inside your bones ees a
_ very special substance called a This is the substance that makes your 4
_ blood red. These cells in the bone marrow make haemoglobin by combining —
iron with an organic molecule. However, they do not use the haemoglobin—
_ themsélves. Rather, they package it into other cells, red blood cells, and the
haemoglobin is then carried round your body in your blood system. Thus, the
haemoglobin carries oxygen from your lungs to all the cells in your body.
Generating
possibilities
2.1 Cell Structure and Organization
Structure of the Cell
A cell is a unit of life. It consists of amass ofliving matter called

protoplasm (Greek: /rotos = first, plasm = form).
Protoplasm is a complex jelly-like substance in which endless chemical
activities are carried out that ensure the life of a cell. It is a mixture of
many compounds arranged in an orderly manner. 70% to 90% of the sg
protoplasm of a cell is water; the rest consists of mineral salts and iy
organic compounds (compounds of carbon) such as carbohydrates,
fats and proteins. Since protoplasm is a mixture, its composition .
varies from plant to plant and from animal to animal. The | oe tt g essence of a
protoplasm of cells that makes up one part of our body may be the cell Bo
different from that of cells found in another part of our body. For Bee eussand tne
example, the protoplasm of muscle cells is different from that of
brain cells.
BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘O’ Level
Protoplasm exists in two forms:

@ Sol state (or liquid state);
@ Gel state (or semi-solid state), so-
called because its consistency
cell surface membrane ——— resembles that of jelly.
nuclear
Whether protoplasm is in the sol
envelope or the gel state depends on the
chromatin physiological state of the cell.
nucleus
nucleolus
Though scientists know the various
compounds that make up
a pair of centrioles
protoplasm, no one has been able to
mitochondrion prepare a mixture which can really be
called protoplasm. This is due to the
cytoplasm
vacuoles following limitations:
@ The exact nature of protoplasm is still
Figure 2.1 Section of a generalized unknown. It is very complex and we do not as yet fully
animal cell
understand all the details of its organization.
@ So far we have not been able to reproduce the environmental
conditions under which life can originate.
The protoplasm of a cell consists of three parts, namely: the nucleus,
_ cytoplasm and cell surface membrane (plasma membrane).
(Figures 2.1 and 2.2).
Nucleus
The nucleus consists of a small spherical mass of denser protoplasm,

the nucleoplasm, surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear
_ envelope. It is embedded within the cytoplasm of the cell and
ng (quiescent) cell, controls the normal cell activities. Within the nucleus are the following:
esent in the nucleus
—@ A network of long thread-like structures called chromatin. The
chromatin. It is only
chromatin threads contain hereditary materials, i.e. materials
inherited from the parents. These materials control the activities
of the cell. During cell division, the chromatin threads condense
and become highly coiled structures called chromosomes.
Under the microscope, the chromosomes appear as thick rod-
shaped structures.
@ Spherical structures called nucleoli. Each nucleolus plays a part
in the building up of proteins.
_@ A nuclear envelope which separates the nuclear content from
Chemical analysis shows that the surrounding cytoplasm.
each chromatin thread is made up
of proteins and a compound The nucleus is responsible for cell reproduction. It is also needed for
called deoxyribonucleic acid or _ the continued life of the cell, as well as for the repair of worn-out
DNA. It is in the DNA that parts. Cells without a nucleus, for example, the red blood cells of a
hereditary information is stored. mammal, have a short lifespan and are unable to reproduce.
The DNA contains the instructions
a cell needs to carry out all the
chemical reactions going on inside
_ Cytoplasm
it. Half the genetic material (i.e.
The part of the protoplasm surrounding the nucleus is called the
DNA) inside the cells in your body
came from your mother; the other
_ cytoplasm. It usually forms the larger part of the cell and is the place
half came from your father. where most life processes occur. Embedded in the cytoplasm are
some important organelles:
Small spherical or rod-shaped organelles called mitochondria

(singular: mitochondrion). Mitochondria are involved in the
release of energy from food substances during cell respiration.
The energy released may be temporarily stored in small
molecules called ATP (adenosine triphosphates). ATPs are
like datterres in the cell. They can be transported from one part of
the cell to another. When needed, they can be broken down to
release energy. This energy may be used by the cell to perform =
vital activities such as growth and reproduction. Plant cells may —_ Figure 2.2 Structure of a generalized
plant cell
— cell surface
membrane cytoplasm _
cell wall detached
to show cell surface cellulose
membrane beneath cell wall
nuclear
| envelope ,
a cell surface
S) chromatin membrane
(eg
nucleolus
tonoplast
chloroplast
(structure
containing
chlorophyll) ace
ee 2 mitochondrion
it fe)
Cutting a longitudinal section (L.S.) Longitudinal section (L.S.)

(i.e. cutting along the length of the cell)
Cutting a transverse section (T.S.) Transverse section (T.S.)

(i.e. cutting across the length of
the cell)
n ve Ss #? Eadie & ‘ Po hae 7. a
(a) Animal cells—from lining epithelium of cheek (b) Plant cells—from epidermis of onion leaf
(light micrograph) (light micrograph)
Qo! E also contain the organelles called chloroplasts. They are the
sites where plants make their food, combining together carbon
dioxide and water, using the energy from sunlight, to make sugar.
Microscopes and microscopy Vacuoles. A vacuole is a fluid-filled space enclosed by a
Most cells cannot be seen with
membrane.
the unaided eye. However, cells Animal cells may have many small vacuoles but they are
and their components can be usually not permanent. Vacuoles may contain water and food
seen with light and electron substances.
microscopes. Light microscopes
can magnify objects up to about A plant cell usually has a large central vacuole which contains
41 O00x (spoken: one thousand a liquid called cell sap. Cell sap contains dissolved substances
times); electron microscopes such as sugars, mineral salts and amino acids. This large
can magnify them to more than vacuole is enclosed by a membrane called the tonoplast.
100 OOOx.
Electron micrographs are black
A pair of tiny structures close to the nucleus called centrioles.
and white images. However, they These play a part in cell division. They are absent in most
can be artificially colourized. plant cells.
Cell surface membrane
The cytoplasm is surrounded externally by a cell

surface membrane, also called the plasma membrane.
It is a partially permeable membrane (Chapter 3) which
controls substances entering or leaving the cell. Similar
membranes may also surround large spaces or vacuoles
within the cell.
In a plant cell, there is a cell wall which encloses the
whole cell. This cell wall is made of cellulose. It
protects the cell from injury. (Figures 2.2 and 2.3b).
So
dj ee ee a The plant cells in the electron micrograph on the left are highly
Plant cells—from mesophyll layer in young leaf of magnified, showing the cell structures very clearly. Compare this
Zinnia (colourized electron micrograph) micrograph with those above.
INVESTIGATION
2 5 Draw one cheek cell. Label it as fully as
2 you can. Compare your drawing with Figure
2.1. Which structures shown in the figure
Looking at cells: animal cells
are not visible under the light microscope?
1 Use the biunt end of a clean toothpick to
gently scrape the inside of your cheek.
2 Place the scrapings in a drop of iodine 2.2
solution on a clean microscope slide.
Looking at cells: plant cells
3 Carefully lower a coverslip (at an angle to
prevent air bubbles) over the materials on 1 Obtain a fleshy scale leaf from an onion
the slide. The iodine will spread out bulb.
beneath the coverslip.
Bend the leaf in two, allowing it to break.
Using a pair of forceps, gently peel off the

glass slide
epidermis (skin) from the inner surface of
the leaf.
a- toothpick 4 Cut off a small piece of the epidermis.
—— iodine
solution
Place it on a microscope slide.
coverslip
5 Add a drop of iodine solution (or methylene
blue) and cover it with a coverslip.
6 Examine the epidermis under the
microscope.
7 Draw and label one epidermal cell.
How does this cell differ from the plant

4 Examine your preparation under the cell in Figure 2.2?
microscope. Locate the cells with the lower
power. Then, use the high power to
examine some of the cells.
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Differences between a plant cell and an animal cell

A pliant cell differs from an animal cell in several aspects.
Study Figure 2.2 which shows the L.S. and T.S. of a plant cell. ESO
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Compare this with the animal cell in Figure 2.1.
List four differences between the plant cell and the animal cell.
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| Assignment 2.1 Assignment 2.2 Using your knowledge of cell

NE Build a cell | How big is big? structure, infer if these cells
are of plant or animal origin.
2.2 Specialized Cells, Tissues, Organs

and Systems
Modification of Cell Structure for Specific

mple, human Functions
‘ferentiated to
|Growth in an organism involves cell division. New cells produced
_ may change and develop into new tissues. This process of change is
_ called differentiation.
| There are many different types of cells in organisms. They differ in
size and shape and are adapted to perform specific functions. Table 2.1
_ gives a few examples of cells chosen to illustrate the relationship
between cell structures and their functions within the organism.
| Table 2.1 Examples of specialized cells and how the structure of each has
| been modified for its specific functions
Cell Structure Adaptation to Function
Root hair cell root hair Being long and narrow, the root hair increases”
(long and narrow protrusion) the surface area to volume ratio (refer to
SSS
Chapter 3) of the cell for efficient absorption of
water and mineral salts from the soil.
nucleus
vacuole
Red blood cell The red blood cell contains a red pigment called
haemoglobin, enabling the cell to transport
thinner central
portion oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body.
Its circular, biconcave shape increases surface
area to volume ratio. As a result, oxygen can
diffuse into and out of the whole cell at a
J cytoplasm contains \7 faster rate.
haemoglobin
Surface view Cell cut into two to show its

biconcave shape
Xylem vessels Xylem vessels transport water and mineral salts

Xylem vessels: two different kinds of vessels are shown below from the roots to the stem and leaves. Absence
of cross walls and protoplasm enables water to
lumen move easily through the lumen. Lignin
(space strengthens the walls and prevents collapse of
inside)
the vessel. When bundled together, the xylem
lignin vessels (also called “wood”) provide mechanical
deposited support to the plant.
lignin
absent
here
The xylem vessel is a narrow, cylindrical tube enclosing a

continuous space (due to absence of cross walls) called the
lumen. The vessel is dead because there is no protoplasm.
Deposited on its wall is a hard substance called lignin.
(a) Root hair cell (b) Red blood cells ~

vessels
° What special features do

_ the cells in (a) and (b)
_ fave incommon?
° Identify
the features in (c)
_ that aid the vessels in
their water-carrying
(c)—pasa
Xylem vessels function.
Figure 2.4 Photomicrographs of cells adapted for special functions
Tissues, Organs and Systems
A multicellular organism is made up of many cells. A human body is

made up of about 60 000 billion cells. There are many different types
of cells, varying in size and shape. Different types of cells do different
work. Cells of the same type may be grouped together to carry out a group of cells which
special function. Such a group of similar cells performing a special on origin and a
function is called a simple tissue. An example of a simple tissue is sture, which enables
erform a particular
the epithelial tissue or epithelium. This is a sheet of cells which
covers both the internal and external surfaces of the body.
Plants have similar covering tissues called the epidermis, e.g. the
epidermis of leaves and stems. Another example of a simple tissue is
the muscle tissue. This tissue is a collection of muscle cells which by
their contraction and relaxation bring about movement in our body.
Some tissues may contain several | Figure 2.5 Epithelial tissue
types of cells, for instance, the
connective or padding tissue
within and between organs.
However, the whole tissue has
one function: to connect the
different parts of an organ or
organs together. This kind of
tissue is called a complex tissue.
Epithelial tissue
Other examples of tissues are
nervous tissue, glandular tissue,
bone tissue, etc. In plants, there are also different kinds of tissue, for
example, wood (xylem), phloem, cambium, cork, etc.
Different tissues may be united to form an organ, e.g. the stomach or
the liver. An organ is a group of different tissues working together
and enabling the organ to perform its functions. The stomach, for
ecific function. example, consists of glandular tissues which secrete digestive juices to
stomach is an digest food, muscular tissue which causes the stomach to contract
and mix the food well with the digestive juices, and connective tissue
which helps to connect the other tissues together. The actions of the
stomach are co-ordinated by nervous tissue. So, the stomach is made
up of four different kinds of tissue. Examples of plant organs include
leaves, roots, stems and flowers.
Several organs working together for a special purpose make up an
_ organ system, such as the digestive system or the respiratory system.
Various systems working together constitute the entire organism.
ASG gigeit
215 information Technology Task

Use the World Wide Web (WWW) to find sites preferably
showing the three-dimensional structure of a cell. Learn as
much as you can about the structure of a cell from such sites.
Then write a review of the site which you found most useful
as though you were writing a newspaper article. This should
include information about where the site is, what you can do
— there and what you think of the site. What is useful about it?
e Data collection |;— What did you learn from it? Type your review using a word-
e Inferring processing or desktop publishing program. You can copy
e Analysis images from the site to include in your report if you wish to. |
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This diagram is
Study it careful
mal cell or a plant cell?

Inference: Function:
Reasons:
) xercise
1 Name the structure in the cell that: 3 Here is a picture of a typical cell.
; (a) controls substances entering or leaving
F the cell;
) contains hereditary materials;
) concerns cell respiration;
d) is a fluid-filled space;
) is necessary for cell division.
2 Plasma membrane, small vacuoles, large

central vacuole, centrioles, cytoplasm,
nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria.
Which of the terms listed above are:
(a) present in both plant and animal cells;
(b) present in animal cells only; (a) Label the parts A, Band C.
(c) present in plant cells only. (b) Is the cell of animal or plant origin?
Give three reasons for your answer.
—| Study the micrographs of the animal and plant cells shown on page 16.
Based on these observations, comment on the advantages of using the
electron microscope for viewing cell structures.
Diffusion, Osmosis and
Surface Area : Volume Ratio
IVES
LEARNING OBJECT
So far in this book you have found out that:

@ All living organisms are made up of one or more cells.
@ Each cell is surrounded by a cell surface membrane.
Cells are like miniature chemical factories—taking in materials, carrying out
various biochemical reactions to produce new molecules which may be
used by the cell or sent for use elsewhere in the body.
Let us think about these ideas a little more.
We can think of the bodies of animals and plants as pieces of machinery;

machinery that is well engineered to solve the problems of staying alive. This is
a useful way to think about organisms because you can begin to ask thought-
provoking questions like how the organism is designed and built for digesting
food, for reproducing, for moving and so on.
We can also ask the same questions about organs, tissues and cells: how is the
stomach designed to carry out its function; how does nervous tissue work to
carry nerve messages; how are cells of different types—red blood cells, nerve
cells, phloem cells--adapted to their function?
In the next few chapters, these are the sorts of questions which will be answered.
However, in this chapter, we need to answer a very fundamental question.
on
e?
OO
_ You can understand the importance of this Gresdan by, looking at the organism
shown below. This organism is called Amoeba and it lives in water. Everything
the Amoeba needs to sustain itself has to be obtained from the water: water
itself, salts, gen and Opaae molecules. In addition, waste products produced
. by the Amoeba, such as carbon dioxide, have to
leave the cell and enter the water. However, the
inside of the Amocha, the cytoplasm, is separated
from the water eae the cellsurface membrane. So the
question is:
| How do the materials, cabiebthe Amoeba needs get
across that cell membrane and how do waste products
get out?
The membrane is very, very thin but
nonetheless, materials have to be able to move
ie ee ee~—SCé( accross it if the Amocdc is to survive.
‘ Amoeba ti ; sabes .
é Now think about the billions of cells in your body.
_ Each one of them has exactly the same problem as the Amoeba: how to get
substances into the cell and how to get substances out of the cell. To understand
how substances move in and out of cells, we must first of all know how
materials move in non-living systems.
3.1 Diffusion
Imagine that you are sitting in your bedroom reading a book or doing
your homework. Meanwhile, food is cooking in the kitchen. Gradually
_ you become aware of the food cooking: you smell it. How has this
_ happened? You are in your bedroom and the food is cooking in the
kitchen. Somehow, the smell of the cooking food has spread from the
kitchen into your room and into your nose. As the food is being cooked,
the individual molecules of food evaporate from the surface of the
;higher Beet ation food, i.e. they become a gas. What has happened is that this gas, with
y are in lower its associated smell, has spread throughout the house. This “spreading
In liquids and out” of the gas has occurred through a process called diffusion.
Diffusion is the net movement of ions or molecules from a region

é where they are in higher concentration to a region where they
ed when the molecules are are in lower concentration, i.e. down a concentration gradient.
n fact, they are always _ The best way for us to understand diffusion is to picture it as the
ig about but there is the _ random movement of molecules down a concentration gradient.
umber of them everywhere — Look at Figure 3.1. The graph shows a concentration gradient. The
Sede ele Is no net _ substance we are interested in is more concentrated at point 4 (look at
anymore. (This is called ae : : ; ;
le equillbrium.) the x-axis) than at point B-there is a concentration difference between
ay these two points. If we join the concentrations at the two points,
; SEE
ry eR
vs omer
oe +
é I re;
at Dasa PETES
ntation—
EET suet
region of high region of low. —=2Ee = 4

concentration concentration ss
Direction of movement of molecules
of molecules of molecules
molecules diffuse
down this gradient —
Concentration
—
Point B
Direction of movement of molecules ~ Point B Distance
Figure 3.1 Representation of diffusion
where their values are measured by the height of the blue line at each
point, we get a straight line which is sloped or has a gradient. This red
line is the concentration gradient between these two points. So, the
difference in concentration between two regions is known as the
diffusion (or concentration) gradient. Molecules or ions move, i.e.
diffuse down this gradient. Thus, the steeper this gradient is, the faster
the molecules will move. This is an important rule: the steeper the
diffusion gradient for a substance, the faster the rate of
diffusion will be for that substance.
Diffusion of Solutes
A solution consists of two parts, a solvent and a solute. For example,

you made a solution of-copper sulphate in the gas jar in Investigation
3.1. The water was the solvent and the copper sulphate was the solute.
As you saw, the dissolved solid particles (solutes) also diffuse evenly
f
GET
OEEE DEEL ZEEE TIENT OO
INVESTIGATION © cemeeeecmamimmmemenmanns
2%
31
To show diffusion of a dissolved substance
'
1 Drop acopper sulphate crystal into
: a gas jar of water.
| 2 Cover the jar and allow it to stand
sium iodide, break up
| for a few days. gas jar
ns when they are
3 Carefully observe the changes in in water. An ion is a
| the colour of the water. water ——- article. So copper
4 Using the idea of a concentration Bonper DETR
SLES
TRL
SI
LEE
IIR
IIL
TEESE
ESE
REE
EE
'Hy gradient, ’ explain why the blue sulphate SShy 4
| colour gradually spreads throughout °YS*# ww DROSS
the water in the jar. When does S a negative charge. However,

bstances like sugar do not
diffusion stop?
%a te RAEI TOPE LOSPRESET LESLIE ie
SSIES SELLE CT RTOS
LLDIE REE CLLEGE
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throughout the liquid (solvent). If there is more than one substance

dissolved in the same liquid, then the dissolved particles of one
substance diffuse independently of the other.
Diffusion and Cells
The beaker (Figure 3.2) contains two different solutions which are
separated by a permeable membrane, i.e. a membrane that is
permeable to both the solvent (water) and the solutes (the dissolved
substances). The left side of the beaker contains copper sulphate
solution, while the right side contains potassium iodide solution. The
dissolved ions from the copper sulphate particles will diffuse across the
Assignment 3.1 membrane to the right side of the beaker while the ions from the
Modelling diffusion potassium iodide will diffuse from the right side of the beaker across
the membrane to the left side. Eventually, there will be equal
concentrations of copper ions on both sides of the membrane and
Making predictions so both solutions will be equally blue. The same happens with the
other ions.
Now imagine that the permeable membrane in the beaker was actually
the cell surface membrane. The cell surface membrane is partially
| permeable: it will allow some substances through and not others. A
substance could diffuse into a cell or out of a cell if it was one of those
substances which the cell membrane allowed to pass through it, for
_ example, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Diffusion is, therefore, an
important way by which substances move into and out of cells. For
example, the Amoeba you saw earlier gets the oxygen it needs from the
_ water, in which it lives, by diffusion. It also gets rid of the carbon
dioxide it produces by diffusion.
| 0:2) Osnsis ee ee]
You now know that the cell surface membrane is a special membrane
Figure 3.2 Diffusion of potassium
which allows some substances to pass through but not others. Such a
iodide and copper sulphate particles membrane is said to be a partially permeable membrane. If we
through a permeable membrane
f |
O ® © |
—|— water O -) |
© O yon
potassium = 2 ones)
iodide O O O |
particles
copper O O |
sulphate O O |
particles x@) O |
O |
copper sulphate and potassium iodide particles
are evenly distributed throughout on both sides
Diffusion, Osmosis and Surface Area : Volume Ratio
have a partially permeable membrane separating the two arms of a U-

tube (Figure 3.3), with arm 4 containing a 10% sucrose solution and
arm B containing an equal volume of a 5% sucrose solution, what will
happen? Since the membrane is partially permeable, it allows the small
water molecules to pass through readily but not the large sucrose
molecules. The 5% sucrose solution is more dilute than the 10%
solution. This means that the 5% sucrose solution contains more water
molecules for a given volume than the 10% sucrose solution, i.e. the
water molecules are more concentrated in the 5% solution than in the
10% solution. So, water molecules move from the more dilute 5%
solution, across the partially permeable membrane to the more
concentrated 10% solution.
The movement of ‘rise inlevel Steet ts

“of solution teatgteees ices
water into arm 4
dilutes the solution
in 4. The levels of
the solutions in abit ase eitisp fits s eee ; drop in
arms
4 and B will tastes Segre os - 5% SutOSewissites sh Ge
é bee os thet te sce 3 it solusens ernie: Sand eae oe movement
continue to change cca ———— tet wot rese bed Hhesegs Set cage : of water
: SS
3 Seamer Sette tes siseeesbebrecenpenatacteltrons sits-e2 aoe
as there is a net molecules
solution ay Missttte is Paced” SO) Hi
movement of water molecules a Seestriies
i partially permeable
molecules into arm _Aembrane - sphuset-<3
<net movementPotwatermolecules.
Ai. The levels will Steirrae
only stabilize when
the solutions in arms 4 and B have an equal concentration of water |
molecules. This passage of water (or solvent) from a dilute solution to
a more concentrated solution across a partially permeable membrane |
is called osmosis.
J OE RELI LTE I MIF RESFA TIERCE RIE TAR TILE IIRE DIE ORAL BNE REL ORGD AIT OEE DVO NITE TRE 120 SHS ETERS AAPA OS BOREL
32
%
g )
To demonstrate osmosis To demonstrate osmosis
1 Tie a piece of cellophane paper tightly over the

mouth of a thistle funnel.
2 Fill the funnel with 5% sucrose solution. Mark the
level of the solution in the funnel.
NTE
ERTS
LEAT
ARS
SEE
AT 3 Lower the funnel into a beaker of water such
that the liquid levels inside and outside the thistle
funnels are the same. funnel
4 Set up asecond experiment in a similar way but
with distilled water inside the funnel instead of a
sucrose solution.
5 Observe and note down the level of solution water
inside each funnel.
6 What can you say about the cellophane paper? sucrose
7 How do you account for the change in the level of — Slution
the solution inside the funnel? baligohahe
8 What is the purpose of the second experiment? paper
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Water Potential
You now need to think about osmosis in a slightly different, but more
useful way. The term water potential is used to describe the
movement of water molecules. Water potential is a measure of the
tendency for water to move from one place to another. A dilute
solution contains more water molecules per unit volume than a
concentrated solution so it has a higher water potential than a
concentrated solution. When two solutions of different water potential
are separated by a partially permeable membrane, a water potential
gradient is established. Water always moves from a higher water
| potential to a lower one, i.e. down a water potential gradient.
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a solution of

‘higher water potential to a solution of lower water potential
through a partially permeable membrane.
| Osmosis in Living Organisms

Osmotic systems in living cells are similar to the system shown in
Investigation 3.2. The cytoplasm of an animal cell is contained within a
living membrane, the cell surface membrane. This membrane is
partially permeable, allowing water and many dissolved substances
_ such as oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass through readily, but is
_ impermeable to large molecules such as proteins. The enclosed
protoplasm is a complex mixture of various substances which together,
constitute the osmotic concentration of the cell. If such a cell is placed
_ ina dilute solution, we have a system consisting of two solutions of
different concentrations separated by the partially permeable cell
surface membrane. The solution within the cell has a lower water
potential than the dilute solution outside the cell, so water will enter
the cell by osmosis.
_ The importance of diffusion and osmosis in plants and animals will be

dealt with in subsequent chapters.
Hypotonic, lsotonic and Hypertonic Solutions

(These terms apply to animal systems only, and not to plant
systems.)
Consider two solutions X and Y. Solution X has a higher water

_ potential than solution Y. Therefore, solution X is said to be hypotonic
_ with regard to solution Y. If two solutions are of equal concentrations
they are isotonic. Cells immersed in a solution isotonic to their
cytoplasm will not change their size or shape. A solution with a lower
water potential than another is said to be hypertonic. Notice that these
terms are always used in relation ta pairs of solutions. For example, it
makes no sense to say that a solution is hypertonic, unless you have
established earlier what it is hypertonic to. Thus, the cytoplasm of the
Amoeba is a hypertonic solution relative to the water in which it is
living, whilst the water is hypotonic to the cytoplasm of the Amoeba.
Diffusion, Osmosis and Surface Area : Volume Ratio
TEST YOURSELF
Look again at the two solutions in Figure 3.3.
1 At the start of the experiment, which solution has a higher

water potential?
2 Which solution is hypotonic and which solution is hypertonic?
3 When do the two solutions become isotonic? Do their water
potentials differ when they become isotonic? Why?
4 Study the figure below and arrange solutions A, B, Cand Din
decreasing order of their water potentials.
Comparing solutions of different concentrations
partially permeable membrane
ee
VA
i
!
t
I
I
l
B we D
10% 10% 5% 10% 10%
sucrose sucrose ; sucrose sucrose 4 sucrose
| solution solution : solution solution ! solution
1
|
1
1
! i
A is hypertonic with B is hypertonic with B and D are isotonic.
respect to B. respect to C.
SSL
SR SY PSS
What Happens to a Cell in a Solution with High

Water Potential? |
A plant cell behaves differently from an animal cell when placed in a
solution with high water potential. Since the cell sap has a lower water
potential than that of the solution outside the living cell, water enters
the cell by osmosis. The partially permeable
_ membrane here is the cell surface
As water enters the cell, the vacuole increases in size and pushes the | membrane and not the cellulose
cell contents against the cellulose cell wall. The cellulose cell wall _ cell wall. The cellulose cell wall
_ is permeable and allows most
prevents over expansion of the cell by exerting an opposing pressure
_ dissolved substances to pass
preventing the entry of more water. When the cell is in this state, it | through.
becomes turgid. This turgidity of the cell with water is called turgor. |
The pressure exerted by the water on the cell wall is the turgor |
pressure. The plant cell does not burst because the cell wall is strong
and relatively inelastic. |
On the other hand, an animal cell will swell and may burst in a
hypotonic solution (Figure 3.4) because it does not have a cell wall.
What Happens to a Cell in a Solution with Low

Water Potential?
We have seen how plant cells behave when they are placed in a
solution with high water potential. Figure 3.4 also shows you what will
Figure 3.4 The behaviour of cells in solutions of different concentrations
(a) Plant cell

cell sap more concentrated
than outside solution
water enters
PITY by osmosis
it _aial
Ca
eee
cellulose cell wall

osPSD prevents cell from bursting
j
Ee a SOly 4.
PLANT CELL Ith fo Ution
Potengi, Wate, cell sap less concentrated
oe than outside solution
water leaves
by osmosis
plasma
membrane
cytoplasm shrinks Cell decreases in size

e CO CCI
away from ceil wall
--
(b) Animal cell

cytoplasm more
concentrated
water enters
cytoplasm
less concentrated
water leaves
Cell shrinks —
Diffusion. Osmosis and Surface Area : Volume Ratio
PoneER
happen to plant cells when they are immersed in a solution with low
water potential. In this case,the water potential of the cell sap is higher_
than that of the solution outside the cell” Osmosis will still take place,
but this time water moves out of the cell. As water islost from the cell,
the vacuole decreases in size and the cytoplasm shrinks away from the
cellulose cell wall This shrinkage of the cytoplasm away from the cell Preserving food by osmosis
~wall when plant cells are immersed in a solution of low water potential — Humans have always needed to
‘is known as plasmolysis. The cells are-said-to-be plasmolysed.— store food to see them through
~Plasmolysedcells can be restored to their original state by placing times when food is in short
them in water or a solution with high water potential. supply. Unfortunately, bacteria
and fungi attack stored food and
make it go bad. One way of
Placing an animal cell in a hypertonic solution will also cause it to lose preventing this is to store food
water. The membrane of the cell forms little spikes as water is lost and in strong salt solutions (brine)
the cell shrinks, a process called crenation. An animal cell will or sugar solutions (syrups).
become dehydrated when placed in a hypertonic solution and it will These solutions are so
die eventually. concentrated that they will be
hypertonic to the cytoplasm of
any microorganism which gets
importance of Turgor in Plants into the food. The bacterium will
rapidly lose water by osmosis
and die. Foods stored in brine
Turgor plays an important part in maintaining the shape of soft tissues include pork and fish, while fruit
in plants. Young stems and most leaves, especially those of herbaceous |
is often stored in a syrup.
or non-woody plants, are able to remain firm and erect because of the
turgor pressure within their cells. When there is a high rate of
evaporation of water from the cells, they lose their turgidity and the
plant wilts.
The movements of certain plant parts are due to changes in turgor. For
example, changes in the turgor of the guard cells cause the opening
and closing of the stomata (Chapter 7). The folding of the leaflets of
the Mimosa plant (“touch-me-not”) when they are touched is caused
by changes in the turgor of small swellings at the base of the leaflets.
Certain flowers open by day and close at night, while some flowers
close during the daytime and open at night. In these cases, the bending
movement of the petals is due to the changes in turgidity of the cells
on the opposite surfaces of the petals.
Plasmolysed tissues are limp or flaccid, and cells will be killed if they
remain plasmolysed for too long. Thus, it is not advisable to add too
much fertiliser around the roots
=| Explain the condition of the plant (below) because the soil solution then
, and its recovery (right).
becomes very concentrated and
water moves out of the root
hairs. This causes the plant to
wilt, and unless sufficient water
is added to dilute the soil
solution, the plant will
eventually die.
po RET I SRS SOL TS DR ITS EEAT ELLE ALDOI SET TOE RN
Osmosis in living tissues (potato) Osmosis in living tissues (scape)
1 Remove the skin of a potato. Cut the potato 1 Take a scape (inflorescence stalk), e.g.
a
Be
A
into chips 6 cm long and with a cross- Allium tuberosum (Chinese leek) and cut it
section of 0.5 cm x 0.5 cm. transversely to obtain a length of about
<r 326M:
2 Cut the strip longitudinally to obtain 4 equal SERS
TT
LEO
strips as shown in the figure. As you cut the

strip lengthwise, the cut portions
immediately curl outwards. This is caused by
the turgor pressure in the cortex cells
(Chapter 9). These cells are prevented from
RIROR
SSCS
SCH
2 Place one chip into a petri dish of water and expanding by the epidermis whose cells are
another into a dish of concentrated sucrose held by a cuticle and so are less capable of
solution. stretching. The cuticle also protects the
3. After 20 minutes, remove each chip and epidermal cells against water loss. Cutting
measure its length. releases the restraint exerted by the EELS
EESLICES
ETE
EER
_ 4 Record the measurements and note down epidermis. The cortex cells expand and
the texture and appearance of each chip in cause the strip to curl outwards.
the table below. 3 Place one strip in water, another in strong
5 Account for your results with reference to sucrose solution and the third strip in dilute
the cells in the potato chips. sucrose solution (about 0.5M).
4 After half an hour, observe each strip
carefully and make a drawing to show its
curvature.
5 How do you account for the appearance of
the strip in each solution?
Diagram showing how a scape should be cut
plane of ‘4 plane of
first cut “second one strip
cut
Texture and
| appearance
| Chapter
Diffusion, Osmosis and Surface Area : Volume Ratio Pere terres
Thinking through osmosis and diffusion 2 A beaker of distilled water was placed on a
Osmosis and diffusion are such important topics bench. Using a pipette, a drop of red blood
that it is worth spending a little more time to cells was placed at the bottom of the -
make sure you have grasped the ideas. beaker. Explain why the water in the beaker
Remember to draw pictures if you need to solve was uniformly red after two hours.
the following problems. 3 The Amoeba which lives in freshwater has a
41. When a bacterium finds itself in a strong, special structure called a contractile vacuole
hypertonic solution of sugar, which which is used to pump water out of the cell.
substance will leave the cell and which will The Amoeba which lives in salt water, i.e.
move into the cell? What processes are the sea, does not have contractile vacuoles.
involved? Explain these two observations.
| Figure 3.6 Active transport and

3.3 Active Transport | diffusion
Sometimes living cells are able to absorb certain substances even

though these substances are of higher concentration inside the cell .
than they are in the outside environment. This means that the cells are |
absorbing substances against a concentration gradient. Such a process
requires energy and is called active transport. Active transport occurs
only in living cells because only living cells respire. It is during tissue
respiration that energy is set free, and part of this energy is used in |
active transport. | 5
Active transport is the process in which energy is used to move

the particles of a substance against a concentration gradient from tiene ' ere '
= . 2 | r
a region where they are in lower concentration to a region where CONGEEERTIO Hae SS10)ERESEE EON
they are in higher concentration. of solute of solute
molecules, molecules,
e.g. glucose e.g. glucose
Active transport is involved in a number of processes occurring within
an organism. This includes the absorption of
@ dissolved mineral salts by the root hairs,
@ glucose and amino acids by cells in the small intestine of humans.
3.4 Surface Area : Volume Ratio 7

One thing that scientists never do is to take things for granted. They
are always asking the question “Why?”.
For example, we have seen that cells are very small structures indeed.
We should not just accept this. Rather, we should ask: Why are cells so
small?
Put this another way: Why is it that when you go swimming in the
sea, you do not find a gigantic Amoeba, big enough to eat you. Why is
an Amoeba so small that you can only see it with a microscope?
Or, ask the question: Why do all large organisms always have bodies
made up of many cells and not just one cell?
The answers to these questions are related to the rates of movement of

materials across cell membranes which are needed to meet the needs
of cells. This involves another essential idea in biology which is the
ratio of surface area to volume. The rate of movement of a substance
across a cell membrane depends on how much cell membrane is
actually available, i.e. the greater the area of cell surface membrane, the
faster will be the rate of diffusion of a substance for a given
concentration gradient. The following assignment will help you get the
idea of surface area to volume ratios.
ASGigimentt
The cell surface membrane which surrounds the

cell is very thin. All the nutrients and gases the
cel! needs have to pass through this membrane. en = ;
However, the surface area of the membrane can ett Haves Heras see
service only so much cellular volume, i.e. the Simei
ratio between the surface area and the volume of
a cell has to have some lower limit. This exercise Surface area:
will help you get the idea of surface area to volume ratio
volume ratio.
proportion as the volume. The largest cube has
Consider 3 cubes of sides 1 cm, 2 cm and 3 cm. the smallest surface area : volume ratio.
Complete the table given. For example, the cube of sides 1 cm has 6 cm?
of surface area to 1 cm?’ volume. But, the cube
Notice that as the cube becomes bigger, the of sides 3 cm has only 2 cm? of area to 1 cm?
surface area does not increase in the same volume.
| What Does Surface Area: Volume Ratio Mean to a

Cell?
_ It might be easier to consider the cells in two dimensions. Food and

oxygen diffuse into the cell through the cell surface. Waste products
_ also diffuse out through the same cell surface.
| In Figure 3.7, the larger cell B has more surface area than cell_4 but it
_ has less surface area for every unit mass of protoplasm compared to A.
The rate of intake of food and oxygen per unit mass is therefore slower
_ in cell B than in cell 4.
Active cells are small, for example, cells in the root tips or shoot tips.
_ As the cells grow in size their metabolic rate usually slows down. They
stop growing when they reach their maximum size.
|Chapter
Diffusion, Osmosis and Surface Area : Volume Ratio ee
|
|
|
Cell A Cell B Cell C (35

food a Waste food a waste food a waste
+0, | | products +O; | ' products |
loss in
surface
area
Celi A with sides of 1 cm Cell B with sides of 2 cm Cell C with sides of 3 cm

This cell can obtain food and Portion Y has the same volume of Portion Z has an even smaller
oxygen from all sides. protoplasm as X. However, its surface surface area per unit volume.
area has been reduced by half. It can Therefore, it gets less food and
only obtain half the amount of food oxygen per unit time compared to
and oxygen per unit time compared to Y. The whole cell C is even less
X. Thus, the whole cell B can only be active than the other two cells.
half as active as cell A.
SeabedSeah vende teddte stesbese cette sia)

Figure 3.7 Diagrammatic model to explain what surface area:volume ratio means to a cell
INVESTIGATION Le IED SESH A NESS TIDSIT TES LS ELAN RTE TEE IIE
35, 2 Immerse the three agar blocks in dilute

hydrochloric acid and note the time. (As the
Relationship between surface area to acid diffuses into the block, the latter turns ace”
volume ratio and absorption pink.) '

3 Examine them regularly and record the time
The piece of agar provided contains a dye that for each block to turn completely pink.
turns pink when it comes in contact with dilute
hydrochloric acid. (Any dye that changes colour
with the acid can be used to prepare the agar, Surface area i
e.g. screened methyl orange.) }
Volume
1 Use a knife and cut out three pieces of agar Surface area :
with the dimensions (in cm) shown below. Volume ratio 5
Time for block

14 to change i
1 1 1 colour '
NO
N|B
completely
A 4 From the above investigation, what can you

4 say about the relationship between surface
4a
2 ms j):
Zz
area : volume ratio and the rate of
absorption of the acid?
Cc 5 Whatcan you relate about the shape of the

ae ee agar to cells in the body?
4EEE
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TEST YOURSELF
1 Explain why active cells are usually small in size.

2 Why can cells not grow beyond their maximum size?
3 How are the root hair cell, the epithelial cell of the small
|
intestine and the red blood cell adapted for absorption of
materials? :
long protrusion |
root
hair cell
epithelial \
cell
flattened and biconcave

red blood cell
|
(absorbs and transports oxygen)
4 What feature do the three cells have in common?

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But how big can a cell be?

Think about a cell shaped like a cube. Each side is 250 um long. This
means that it has a volume of 1.56 x 10’ um? (250 um x 250 um x
250 um) surrounded by 3.75 x 10° um? of cell surface membrane. Thus,
the surface area to volume ratio is 0.024, which is far too small for most
cells. Such a cell is too big for its cell surface membrane to meet the
|
||
|
cell’s metabolic needs. However, if this overly large cell were to be divided
|
into 1 000 smaller cells, each a cube of side 25 um, then the volume
would remain the same but the surface area of its cell surface membrane
would increase to 3.75 x 10° um?. This gives a cell surface area to volume
— | ratio of 0.24 which is what many plant cells have for the relative area of
On cells and | cell surface membrane to cell volume.
cell membranes
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___ BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘0’ Level
Thinking Skills: Problem Solving, Planning Investigation and Decision

Making
A, B and C are three sugar solutions in three petri dishes. One of them is very dilute, one is
dilute and one is very concentrated.
You are given an experiment to determine the relative concentrations of the solutions A, B and
C. You are provided with a spinach stem 3 cm long and a scalpel/sharp knife.
The problem _ ;
|
The different water potentials of the solutions
The water potential (W.P.) of cell sap
The skin (epidermis) of the plant material is waterproof
¢ Water moves from a solution of higher W.P. to a solution of lower W.P.
e¢¢¢o
=. :
Describe how you would carry out your investigation:

,
;
Results __
Enter your results/observations (including any drawings) below:
Solution A | Solution B | Solution C
( Relative concentration Very dilute ‘Dilute ER Very concentrated

Solution A
Solution B
Solution C
(Put a tick in the appropriate box) |
-~
= —
or
a) Define the!terms sorrnclaosmmosis a
_ gas SS <a
The tetre illustrates an expesimentuBine a
- partially permeable membrane. .
é x)
. How does diffusion differfrom Bence Ss? "greenline on ive‘segments represents t!
he
renee theta ettgsas '
5 *
rt ¢
o ° ‘ é x & 2 - *
Fe de!
oP m 2 a* » > ° A ae **
--
the aneerrneswas set ue as shown in the 4

_ diagram. After some time had elapsed, the —
visking tubing containing liquid 'Vinads = = dandelion stem cut appearance immediately
collapsed while the tubing containing liquid Z into 4 vertical sections after cutting
iC
a :
was firm and hard. Which one of tHe 5 8
following could be a correct description of s
the liquids at the start of theStee =
segment segment
covered in covered in
petroleum petroleum es
jelly jelly a *
tubing
(selectively y concentrated
permeable) water water glucose solution
Bia Se
)
lt ae
7 ; rene appearance after 15 minutes

ay ole og quic tpT wopergees Said [aid ; ;
hanes a. EE CNS Falace
25% sucrose ~ 10% sucrose

(a
a)EDI why the pieces ofstem all curve
c
solution solution —
immediately after cutting. . 9
25% sucrose 10% sucrose _(b) Account for the appearance of the stem
solution solution pieces after 15 minutes in either water
(A and B) or concentrated glucose
10% sucrose 25% sucrose solution (C and D).
solution solution
(c) (i) What does this experiment tell us
about the concentration of dandelion
10% sucrose 25% sucrose
solution solution
cell Sap compared with water and
the glucose solution?
(C) Science (ii) How would you extend the
experiment to get a more accurate
S) (a) List four ways in which a plant cell differs estimate of the cell sap
from an animal cell. concentration?
(b) Where can selectively permeable (C) Science
membranes be found in
(i) a plant cell, (ii) an animal cell?
(c) Draw a diagram to show the appearance
of a plant cell which has been placed in a
concentrated sugar solution. What is the
name given to a cell in this condition?
(C) Science
. :
r, yo u wi ll be able ea
this chapte
ing th function. —
After compl et ec t to it s structure and
with ia
resp
Define the
ter m enzyme y mechanism.
yp
i o n on us in g
usin g th e lock and ke
enzyme acti .
py Explain
the mode of enzyme activity
temperature On
under whic i h enzym es
s conditions
me
optimal enzy
yp Relate
work. V y
y
gg
y So far in this book, we have been using a chemical factory as a model of what
a cell does:
@ It takes in raw materials.
@ It carries out reactions on those substances to produce new
molecules.
It either uses those new substances or sends them somewhere else in
an organism’s body.
However, this model does not quite

work. If you have ever been to a
chemical factory or perhaps studied
chemical processes in chemistry, you
will know that the reactions which go
on in chemical factories occur inside
large metal containers at high
temperatures and pressures. The
chemistry going on inside your cells
cannot be like this or like the strong fire
in the picture on the left!
In this strong fire, the stored energy is

released as heat very rapidly in one big step,
raising the temperature of the surroundings
by several hundred degrees centigrade.
Enzymes
f Let’s examine bei idea a little more using an example of a chemical reaction you. 2
will be familiar with: combustion or burning. You can carry out this experiment
. or just think about it. Sugar will burn according to the following equation:
Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water

q organic food
rich in energy — ~ simple substances
However, to get the sugar

to burn you have to heat it _ 3 phd Teli eone in an evaporating c
atk at it om beel01N US a Bunsen burner. At
__ up (see Activity). uel Be first
athe
st 5
Sugar
ae
elts. 216 when its
$ several hundrec
_ Look at the equation again
though. This is exactly the irt +
same chemical equation | stored in the su;
described in Chapter 1 fora [RUNCMCYqumermterit
biochemical process called |
respiration which occurs in
each cell of your body. Your cells seem to be burning sugar, but they clearly do
not contain Bunsen burners heating the sugar to several hundred degrees
centigrade. After all, your body temperature is only 37 °C.
Here, then, is a great scientific puzzle for a biologist: How do cells carry out
respiration at such low temperatures? The answer is that cells carry out
respiration, not in one big step
but in many steps, releasing
ae gyIP 4 glucose and Biiningoralicoss i the energy in small amounts
oxygen the above activity has which are trapped in special
———— ayy one step and it occurs : =
eae
ana water
very rapidly. high energy molecules.
:
(The
energy trapped in such
Nae ener ran en molecules (ATP) can be used
to bring about other
biochemical reactions in the
body.) These multi-step
fo a ae See reactions are possible because
eet
nergy i
ee cells contain special organic
molecules | oxygen
8lucose and molecules called
;
enzymes, and
you are going to learn about
these in this chapter.
The difference between the

Respiration in living cells occurs in small Carbon diode burning of glucose in the
steps controlled by enzymes, and releases
energy in small controlled amounts. Hence, and water activity above and in a cell
less energy is lost as heat. aia (hasty ee in your body.
4.1 What Are Enzymes?
What are enzymes and what factors affect their actions? To

understand them you need to recall what you might have already
studied regarding catalysts in your chemistry class. A catalyst is a
substance which can alter or speed up a chemical reaction, without
itself being chemically changed at the end of the reaction.
For example, when potassium chlorate(VIJ) is heated strongly in a

test-tube, oxygen is given off:
- strong heat
el
Potassium Z Potassium
chlorate (VII) chloride
This reaction occurs slowly and requires a high temperature. Gentle

heating only melts the potassium chlorate(VII) and no oxygen is
produced, but if a little black manganese(IV) oxide is added to the
melted substance the reaction is speeded up and there is a rapid
evolution of oxygen. Manganese(IV) oxide is therefore an inorganic
catalyst. At the end of the reaction the same mass of manganese(IV)
oxide remains, showing that it has not been changed in the reaction.
There are many reactions that can be speeded up by the use of

_ catalysts. To break down carbohydrates, fats or proteins in the
laboratory without a catalyst requires the use of complex apparatus
and high temperatures. However, the living body can bring about the
same reactions quite rapidly without having to raise the body
temperature. It does this by using organic catalysts mainly made of
protein called enzymes.
Enzymes are biological catalysts made of protein. They alter the

ical or organic
rate of chemical reactions without themselves being chemically
mainly protein
changed at the end of the reaction.
alyse the many
ses occurring
_ Digestion: An Enzyme-Catalysed Process

Many food substances that animals consume are insoluble in water or
are non-diffusible. Their molecules are so large that they are unable to
pass through the living cell surface membrane. For example, imagine a
meal consisting of fish and rice. The rice contains starch, a very large
carbohydrate; whilst the fish contains two types of large molecules:
_ proteins and fats. You eat this meal, and the fish and rice go into your
_ stomach and then into your intestines. Both these organs are lined by
cells. Proteins, fats and many carbohydrates, like starch, are very large
_ molecules and they cannot diffuse across the cell surface membranes
_ of these cells. Therefore, these molecules cannot be absorbed as such
into the body cells. They must be converted into:
Enzymes
® simpler, smaller substances which are soluble in water, and

® their molecules must be diffusible, i.e. small enough to pass
through cell membranes.
This process is known as digestion of food and is brought about by
the action of digestive enzymes (page 90).
' ion isthe process by which large, insoluble food

_melecules are broken down into small, soluble and diffusible
Other Types of Enzyme-Catalysed Reactions

Besides digestion, other biological systems also require one or more
enzymes as catalysts. Many chemical reactions occur within living
cells.
@ Some of these reactions result in the synthesis of complex
substances from simpler ones, e.g. the amino acids taken into the
cells may be used to build up the cell proteins. The cytoplasm
produces special enzymes to bring about such reactions.
@ In others, complex substances may be broken down to simple
substances, e.g. the oxidation of glucose to release energy and
form carbon dioxide and water. This process involves a chain of
chemical reactions. A series of enzymes are involved, each
catalyzing one reaction and acting together with the others to
bring about the complete process. “Without digestive enzymes, this
@ Sometimes during chemical reactions in the cells, hydrogen meal Is useless to the body.”
peroxide is produced. This substance is poisonous to tissues. The Analyse the validity of this
cells produce the enzyme catalase which catalyses the breakdown statement.
of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. In this way, the
poisonous effect of hydrogen peroxide is prevented. Catalase
occurs in plants and in animals. In mammals, it is especially
abundant in the liver and in the blood. The following equation
describes the chemical reaction catalysed by catalase.
| What do you think would

N 7, happen if a drop of blood
Ay ~=1 were added to a solution of
i | | hydrogen peroxide?
ide?
Hydrogen peroxide Water Oxygen |

(H,O,) (HO) (O>)
-icaias 3 = We
poisonous substance non-poisonous substances
From the above functions of enzymes, it is important to note that

enzymes catalyse practically all the numerous reactions that occur in
an organism. However, enzymes are produced only when they are
needed. For example, digestive enzymes are only produced when
there is food to digest in the gut. From this, we see that enzymes play
an important role in controlling the numerous reactions that occur in
a living organism.
4.2 Classification of Enzymes
Enzymes may be classified according to the chemical reactions they

The name of each enzyme: catalyse. Digestion is an example of a chemical reaction called
@ shows the substance on which
hydrolysis (Aydro = water, /ys7s = splitting). In hydrolysis, water
the enzyme acts, and molecules are needed to break down a complex molecule into simpler
@ is denoted by the suffix “ase”. molecules (Chapter 6). Therefore, enzymes that catalyse hydrolytic
Previously, enzymes were named reactions are known as hydrolases.
after the persons who discovered
them, e.g. pepsin. Examples of hydrolases are:
_@ Carbohydrases which digest carbohydrates, e.g.:
e amylases (e.g. salivary amylase in the mouth and pancreatic
amylase) which digest or hydrolyse starch.
e cellulases which digest cellulose. Some bacteria are
able to produce cellulase. Cellulase is not produced by
mammals.
_ Proteases (e.g. pepsin in the stomach) which digest proteins.
® Lipases (e.g. steapsin in pancreatic juice) which digest fats (lipids).
Digestive enzymes are used in some washing powders. They break

down and remove stains caused by organic matter, e.g. sweat, blood,
curry and plant material.
Another class of enzymes is the oxidation-reduction enzymes that are

_ concerned with the oxidation of food during cellular respiration.
B 4.3 Characteristics of Enzymes
Enzymes are very potent. Since they remain unchanged in the

It has been estimated that one _ reactions which they catalyse, the same enzyme molecules can be
eee molecule can break used over and over again. In addition, a small amount of enzyme can
down five million molecules of : : :
oe
hydrogen peroxide in one second! |
bring about a large amount of chemical reactions.
Enzymes and speed of chemical reactions
Enzymes alter or speed up the rates of chemical reactions that

occur in a cell.
Enzymes are required in minute amounts
As enzymes are not altered in a chemical reaction, a very

small quantity of an enzyme is capable of catalysing a huge
chemical reaction.
The unripe fruit of this plant contains a particular type of digestive

enzyme that is often used to tenderize meat. Infer the kind of organic
substance on which this enzyme acts and suggest how it may bring
about its effect.
Enzymes
(a) A “building up” reaction, i.e synthesis
active sites
B ;
enzyme two substrate enzyme-substrate enzyme molecule a new substance
molecule molecules (A and B) complex free to take part in (product) AB leaves
which can fit into another reaction the active sites
the active sites
(bo) A “breaking down” reaction, i.e. hydrolysis
Lior JA active sites

© glucose
iibnete
fructose
‘
eZ
enzyme a substrate enzyme-substrate enzyme free to take two products
molecule molecule complex part in next reaction (glucose and fructose)
(Sucrase) (Sucrose) leave the active sites
| Figure 4.1 Using the lock and key

Enzymes are specific hypothesis to explain how enzymes
work
Enzymes are highly specific in their action, e.g. amylase will only act
on starch, and not on proteins or fats. Similarly, proteases will act only
on proteins, and lipases only on fats.
Think about this for just a minute. This specificity means that each
chemical reaction that occurs inside a cell will be catalysed by a
unique enzyme. The substances on which the enzymes act are called
substrates, e.g. starch, proteins and fats. The specificity of an enzyme
is due to its shape (or surface configuration). How enzymes work is ~ In the lock and key hypothesis,
explained by the lock and key hypothesis illustrated in Figure 4.1. the enzyme action depends on its
active site. These sites are
depressions on the surface of an
Currently, biologists think that when a substrate molecule fits into an
enzyme molecule into which the
enzyme molecule, the enzyme molecule alters its shape slightly so substrate molecule(s) can fit—
that it fits more tightly around the substrate molecule. This facilitates just like a lock and a key. Upon
chemical reaction. substrate binding, the enzyme-
substrate complex brings about
Effect of temperature on enzyme activity the necessary reactions
converting the substrate
Temperature affects the rate of enzyme reactions. Enzymes have an molecule(s) into product
optimum working temperature, often but not always close to that at molecule(s). The product
molecule(s) separates, leaving
which they usually function. the enzyme molecule unchanged
and free to combine again with
An enzyme is inactive at very low temperatures (Figure 4.2). As the more substrate molecules.
temperature rises, its activity increases as indicated by the increase in
_ BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘0’ Level
the rate of reaction. For example, a digestive enzyme

can digest the same amount of food in a shorter time at
a higher temperature than at a lower temperature.
Usually, the enzyme is twice as active for every 10 °C
rise in temperature until the optimum temperature is
reached, point K. For most enzymes, this is about 40-
45 °C. This is the temperature at which the enzyme is
most active. Beyond the optimum temperature, enzyme
of- (enzyme
_
activity)
reaction
Rate activity decreases until at point D the enzyme is
completely denatured so that its activity is destroyed.
& Why do enzymes become denatured?

SS Ce cree eee eee This happens because enzymes are made ofprotein.
Figure 4.2 Graph showing the effect of When protein is heated to a fairly high temperature
temperature on rate of reaction (above 45 °C), it undergoes changes in its shape, i.e. three-dimensional
structure, and is said to be denatured. The protein becomes less
soluble and coagulates. Various chemicals such as acids and alkalis also
bring about denaturation of protein.
The three-dimensional structure of an enzyme plays a very important

role in its function. This is because denaturation results in loss or
_ alteration of its active sites (Figure 4.1). Hence when an enzyme is
denatured, it can no longer act as a catalyst.
An irreversible destruction of an enzyme can be brought about by

extreme heat, e.g. boiling. Each enzyme has its own optimum
_ temperature. In animals this is often the body temperature. Certain
enzymes in plants have a high optimum temperature, e.g. the
Industrial applications of enzymes Diabetics can test their urine for the presence of
lucose using a “clinistix” shown in the photograph.
Clearly enzymes are very useful substances which é é Sep
industrial chemists would also like to use since they
Clinistix™ contains two enzymes: glucose oxidase and
are able to bring about chemical changes at low
peroxidase. Glucose oxidase breaks down glucose to
temperatures. One way of using enzymes is to use
produce hydrogen peroxide. This hydrogen peroxide is
whole organisms in industrial processes, for example
then combined with a dye in the stick by the second
the use of micro-organisms to make cheese, yoghurt
enzyme, peroxidase. The presence of hydrogen
and beer. However, enzymes are increasingly being
peroxide turns the
used in their pure form for industrial processes. For
dye into different
instance, the enzyme catalase is used in the Clinistix™
colours: the more
manufacture of foam rubber. When added to latex
hydrogen peroxide
containing hydrogen peroxide, the catalase catalyses
produced, i.e. the
the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide producing a foam
more glucose
of oxygen bubbles in the latex: foam rubber.
present, the more
intense the colour
Enzymes are both specific and very sensitive: this
of the dye. You
makes them ideal for use in chemical analysis,
can_see the range
especially when only very small samples are available
of colours in the
for analysis. One such application is in the detection of
photograph.
glucose in a liquid, say urine. The presence of glucose
in urine is a sign that blood glucose levels are too
high, an important piece of information for diabetics.
Enzymes
optimum temperature of the enzyme papain found in pawpaw or

papaya is about 65 °C. Most enzymes are completely denatured
above 60 °C.
Effect of pH on enzymes
Enzymes are affected by the acidity or alkalinity of the solutions in
which they act. Some work best in slightly acidic solutions (e.g. pepsin
and rennin in the stomach), others require slightly alkaline solutions
The acidity or alkalinity is
(e.g. intestinal enzymes). Extreme changes in the acidity or alkalinity “measured by a value known as
of the solutions denature the enzymes. pH. The neutral point (pure water)
has pH = 7. If a solution has a
In Figure 4.3, the point M indicates maximum activity of amylase ata | PH value above 7, it is alkaline. If
pH of about 7. As the solution becomes acidic (from pH 7 to 4.5) or the solution has a pH value
Ee 7 it is aclalc.
alkaline (from pH 7 to 9) its activity decreases. At pH 4 or 9, amylase
is completely denatured.
The same kind of curve can be obtained using other enzymes working
in acidic or alkaline solutions. From such curves, we can find out the
optimum pH for such enzymes.
Effects of substrate and enzyme concentrations on rate of reaction
In Figure 4.4, [graph (I)], as the substrate concentration increases, the

rate of reaction increases initially until the point X is reached. A
further increase in substrate concentration does not increase the rate
any further. This is because, at any given instant, all the
enzyme molecules are being saturated or made use of. The
amount of products formed per unit time remains the same.
For example, in this case, let us assume that an enzyme
molecule can act on 10 molecules of substrate and produce 10
molecules of products in one second. If there are 50 molecules
of the enzyme present, only 500 molecules of substrate can be
acted upon, and only 500 molecules of products can be
produced in one second. At point X in graph (1), 500 befeacuon
se
iaaneRRS
molecules of products are produced in one second. The rate
cannot be increased any further because the enzyme
concentration is the limiting factor now. However, when the
enzyme concentration is increased, the rate of reaction Figure 4.3 Graph showing the effect of pH me
increases as shown in graph (II). But when it reaches point Y, the rate of reaction catalysed by amylase
the rate remains constant again as enzyme concentration
again becomes the limiting factor here.
@ What is a limiting factor?

a
Any factor that directly affects the rate at which a process, -.2
x)
such as a chemical reaction, occurs if its quantity is changed is &
®
_
called a limiting factor. The value of this factor has to be i)

—
®
increased in order to increase the rate of the process. ©
~
[ae
Enzymes may need coenzymes for activity

: O Substrate concentration
Some enzymes require another compound called a coenzyme
to be bound to them before they can catalyse reactions. Such _ Figure 4.4 Effects of substrate and enzyme
coenzymes are non-protein organic compounds. Most concentrations on the rate of reaction
vitamins, especially the B complex vitamins, are essential components

of many coenzymes.
Enzymes catalyse reversible reactions
Most reactions in living cells are reversible, i.e.
Enzymes therefore catalyse reversible reactions. However, in living

cells, reactions usually proceed in the forward direction (i.e. from left
to right) because the products (Cand D) are not allowed to build up
but are used up or removed from the cell as soon as they are formed.
A Re RR
spanncae st
Estes
qterncisececanr once
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Pa) S$?
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es Saat: : i aks es
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Sa ee a E 3 racctoetes Seknine woe
SESS Se eee eee : eis aisnese: See Reet beet re
It’s time for you to use the internet to find some resources for yourself
‘interNET about the industrial use of enzymes. Surf the net using a search engine.
Try typing in “enzymes” and then “industry” and see what comes up. Don’t
forget to use those hypertext links to follow interesting leads. Print out
pages which interest you and produce a class folder which shows the
industrial applications of enzymes.
INVESTIGATION
To show the action of amylase on starch at 6 After 20 minutes (longer if necessary), test
the solution in each tube with dilute iodine
room temperature (about 30 °C)
solution. (lodine gives a blue-black colour
with starch.)
1 Prepare a 1% solution of a commercial plant
amylase (diastase). Use about 10 cm® of
7 Record your observations in the table as
this enzyme solution.
shown.
2 _ Divide this solution into two portions. Boil

one portion in a test-tube for five minutes. amylase andstarch |_|
Label this as “boiled amylase”. (8 | bois amviaseandstarch |
3 Take 3 tubes and label them A, B and C.
(_e_ |aistleswaterandstarn [|
4 Fill each tube as indicated below. 8 Which tube shows you that starch digestion
A— 3cm® amylase solution has cccurred? Give your reasons.
B— 3 cm* boiled amylase solution
C— 3 cms distilled water only 9 What purpose does tube C serve?
5 To each tube add 3 cm? of starch solution

(1%). Stir and allow each solution mixture to
stand.
add 3cm? test with

add 3cm? starch solution iodine solution
ec
after
C 20 minutes C
A C
amylase boiled distilled @ @

solution amylase water BOLI.
LODE
DED
SSEBEEN
EOE
ESP
ELLE
DIE
BATES
VIN
IEE
SELES
SORES
ELLE
SEES
IE
PS VEINS
solution
i
enol
inet
aie
tT
iia
inanimate
wa
EE
a
ee
ee
nel
y
ESSE
ENB
DELETES
TSECT
4
ef
i
3 Place the two tubes in a water bath
, BLE
NS
ETRE
To demonstrate the effect of temperature on maintained at 37 °C for 5 minutes.
&
enzyme action Meanwhile take a white cavity tile and place
a drop of iodine solution in each cavity.
1 Prepare a 1% solution of amylase (diastase)
as in Investigation 4.1. You need about 4 Pour the amylase solution into the tube of
40 cm? of amylase preparation. starch solution. Stir weil and using a glass
rod/dropping pipette remove a small
Place 5 cm? of amylase solution in a amount of the mixture and add a drop to the
test-tube and 5 cm® of 1% starch solution iodine solution in the cavity tile. The solution
in another test tube. should turn blue-black.
5 minutes
later
consent
amylase
solution
place in pour amylase solution test sample rinse drop pipette

water bath at 37 °C into starch solution with iodine well before reuse
5 Repeat the iodine test at intervals of one Bunsen burner. Gentle heating at intervals
minute, washing the glass rod/dropping may be necessary to maintain the temperature
pipette with distilled water between each of the water bath. For temperatures lower than CLS
£5
ETE
IIE
LEE,
RONG
SITTER
STP
A
SESE
YS
AITRI
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BIRO
ES IE
test until the mixture fails to give a blue- room temperature, use ice cubes to bring the
black/blue colour with iodine. Record the temperature down.
total time taken between the mixing of the
amylase and starch solutions and the end It is important that for each of these
of the test. This is the time taken for all experiments, the amylase and the starch
the starch to be digested to maltose by solutions are warmed or cooled to the required RIO
ET
ERNE
TEE
amylase at 37 °C. temperature before mixing them.
6 Repeat the whole experiment at different Since the shorter the time taken indicates that
temperatures, e.g. at 5 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, the enzymes are more active, this activity is
45 °C, 55 °C and 65 °C. denoted by 1/7 (the reciprocal of the time TELE
ET
TL
LEF
AEDES,
taken). Plot a graph of 1/T against the

For temperatures higher than room temperature. What do you conclude about the ROTTER
temperature use a water bath, and when the effect of temperature on the activity of amylase?
required temperature is reached remove the
SERED
time
se
in| 1 minutes (T)
ENB
Seer Peres Siete
.~ /T\
43, BRS 2 To each of the four test-tubes, A, B, C and

OOO
ETA
SSR
D, add 3 cm? of cooled egg white suspension.

To demonstrate the effect of pH on enzyme Place the tubes in a water bath at 37 °C.
action
Make up the contents of the 4 tubes as
This experiment is based on the fact that egg shown in the table on the next page. [Use
albumen (egg white) contains proteins. Pepsin is dilute hydrochloric acid (0.1M), pepsin (5%)
a protein-digesting enzyme produced by the and sodium carbonate solution (2%)].
stomach.
Record your observations at the beginning of the
1 Prepare an egg white suspension by experiment and also after 45 minutes. Write
dissolving 1 g dried aloumen in 100 cm? of down your conclusions for each tube. What is
water. Boil the solution for a few minutes. the purpose of Tube B and Tube D?
Enzymes
Test-tube
Contents | 3 cm? egg white 3 cm? egg white | 3 cm? egg white 3 om? eggwhite
st 10 drops dilute HCI + 10 drops dilute HCI + 10 drops Na,Co 3 + 10 drops distilled water
+ 3. cm? pepsin + 3 cm® distilled water _| + 3.cm® pepsin +3 cms pepsin
Observation
|
Conclusion
=
To compare the action of catalase and
manganese(!V) oxide on hydrogen peroxide 4 What type of substance is in the liver which
could bring about the reaction in tube A?
1 Label four test-tubes A, B, C and D.
S How do you account for what you observed
2 To each tube add 5 cm® of hydrogen in tube B?
peroxide.
6 From what you observe in tube D, what can
3 Prepare the contents of the 4 tubes as you conclude about manganese(IV) oxide?
shown in the table below. For each tube
record the observations. Test any gas given ¢ Repeat experiments A and B using a piece
off with a glowing splinter. of potato tuber. BID
LES
LLL
ELLIE
OTT
ALERT
LLED
DLE
LEE
NEE
EET
LL
PRIDE
ELST
AE
PELE
SAT
ESEPA
ETOYS
EPS
BS
Test-tube | A B C D
Contents 5 cm? hydrogen 5Scm* hydrogen —S«||._:« S cm’ hydrogen 5 cm$ hydrogen
peroxide solution peroxide solution peroxide solution peroxide solution
+1 small piece of + 1 small piece of +a little + some boiled i
fresh liver boiled liver manganese(IV) oxide manganese(IV) oxide :
(Boil the liver for 10 (The manganese(IV) |
minutes and cool oxide has been boiled '
before use.) and cooled before use.) ;
—'
Observation
EERE
CRG
ALS
ESL
SL
LE
ISLE
ALELV
ELL
ILL
SOL
LEAL
REE
LLL
LCE
ERAN
SIE
PEEL
IPD
LE
EAS
EL
EN
PS
ESB
RAEN
NEED
DS
SENOS
SETA
EPP
OLS
ESP
LEP
EL
EAT
IORI
IETIRES
LO
LEGGE
IOSEO
ANIME TR
Seen
AAR
aensten
Sook pee Fea Jytgs ye ees eerie eee ewes ere near,
SAS RRS a 22 here PR RS Le eee er ey SE RT LS oR ee ay SE MnP Mee
abethat ithas the same. ‘concentration of

sii catalase in
| it? vee do not need to know the
‘contains ‘the same amount of caaees for

i use in each experiment.
| BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘0’ Level
52 | 2 How many temperatures and pHs are you need to be kept the same for each
going to use? What pH are you going to use experiment?
for the temperature experiments and what
temperature will you use for the pH Carry out your experiments and find the
experiments? How are you going to keep the | optimum pH and temperature. If you work as a
temperature constant? class, each group can do one temperature and
one pH so it will not take long. Share your
3 How are you going to measure the rate of
results. How can you make your experiment
the reaction? Could you use the time it
more accurate?
takes for the foam of bubbles produced by
the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to
If you have time, plan another experiment to
reach a certain point on say the side of a
investigate the effect of enzyme and substrate
test-tube or a small measuring cylinder?
concentration on the rate of an enzyme-
4 How much hydrogen peroxide and catalase catalysed reaction using catalase and hydrogen
solution are you going to use? Do these peroxide. :
Are biological catalysts mainly made of proteins and can

alter the rates of chemical reactions without themselves
being chemically changed at the end of the reaction
‘Characteristics /Functions of | ie “Classes of

Enzymes | Enzymes
RERUN ROT eaURS
le ctio' _ Hydrolases Temperature and pH
Ses Ge * Carbohydrases e High temperature and extreme changes in pH

e Proteases denature the enzymes
Catalyse reactions under
e Lipases e Low temperature inactivates enzymes
relatively mild conditions
eh e¢ Optimal temperature and pH are conditions at
May need coenzymes for activity Others which enzymes work best
Digest food substances E.g: Oxidation—
reduction Substrate/Enzyme concentration
Build up or synthesize complex
substances e.g. proteins from enzymes
y be ion
e Increase in substrate concentration |increases
amino acids in cells rate of enzyme reaction until constant rate is
reached
Break down food substances in e Increase in enzyme concentration increases rate
cells to release energy (cellular of enzyme reaction
respiration) = . =
Control the numerous reactions ie
in an organism
Some concepts to consider
® Bacteria secrete enzymes to digest the food

® Temperature and pH affect enzymes
@ Warm and humid cr moist conditions enhance growth of bacteria
You have 2 options to choose from
“refrigerator
Reason for
choosing
this option
Advantages: Advantages:
What are the
pros and
cons of each | Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
option?
Your final decision and conclusion
=) xercise
41 What is (a) an enzyme and (b) a substrate? 3 State the characteristics of enzymes.
2 Why are enzymes so specific in their actions? 4 Why is digestion necessary?
ial BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘0’ Level
54) 5 In the figure, each graph represents an In graph 2, what effect did increasing
experiment performed to study the time acidity have on the reaction rates?
taken for an enzyme to break down the In what part of the alimentary canal do
substrate. Graph 1 shows the time taken enzymes react in very acid conditions?
under different temperature conditions Under conditions of pH 7.0, the
with the reactions at a constant pH of 6.7. temperature of the enzyme and the
Graph 2 shows the time taken under substrate was raised to 100 °C for 5
different pH conditions at a constant minutes. The temperature was then
temperature of 40 °C. lowered to 40 °C. Suggest what would
happen if this enzyme was pepsin and
Study the graphs and answer the following: the substrate was a protein.
(a) (i) At what temperature did the reaction

(C)
occur in the shortest time?
The figure below represents the action of an
(ii) At wnat pH did the reaction occur in
enzyme.
the shortest time?
(b) In graph 1:
(a) Name two enzymes.
(i) Why did the reaction slow down at (b) Name two properties of enzymes, which
are illustrated in the figure.
higher temperatures?
State another two features of enzymes,
(ii) What effect on the reaction is
not necessarily shown in the figure.
shown by a steady increase from
The graph shows the relationship
low to medium temperatures?
between activity and temperature.
Complete the curve to show the effect
of raising the temperature from 40 °C to
GRAPH 1
at a constant pH 6.7 60 °C.
16 (C)
products
vo}\ |
147
v
substrate
il ‘ |
enzyme/substrate gi
3]
6t
Time/minutes x s
4 S |
2
——— n — L 4 =,
OR 1OM2 Om SONAOM SOR COMO

Temperature/°C
GRAPH 2
at a constant temperature of 40°C
Time/minutes
units)
(arbitrary
activity
Enzyme 1 1
10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature
/°C
Nutrition
JECTIVES
LEARNING OB
There is an old saying which states, “You are what you eat.” But what exactly do
we eat? What is our food made of and why do we need food anyway? These are
the questions answered in this chapter. However, before you get started, you
need to get some idea of what is in the food you eat.
To do this, you need to collect food packaging which contains details of the
composition of the food and its energy value. Try to build up a class data base
using a computerized spreadsheet package which records the name of the food,
its energy value in kilo Joules (kJ) per 100 g of food, the amount of fat, protein
and carbohydrate it contains, and the presence of other nutrients such as
vitamins and minerals. If you do not have a computer, you can record the
information in a large table. If every member of your class gets the
information for three different types of food, then you oT é
will soon build up a large database. Surf the net to get
information about food, like raw vegetables that do not \:
have any packaging.
Most developed countries require
food manufacturers to provide
nutrition information on the
=f packaging of their products, i.e.
a on the cans, bottles, boxes and
other containers used to hold food.
¥
Use the information you have gathered to do the following:

@ Draw a bar chart to show the amount of energy
contained in different foods. Which foods are energy rich
and which ones contain little
fas
: energy? Can you account for
|PASTEURISED HOMOGENI
: these differences in energy SED FLAVOURED.
Ingredients: low fat milk solids
Permi
EIS),
(h
tted flavouring, vitami
content in terms of the chemical 4 (vit PP},vitamin A,Pantothenic n'C, niacin |
acid {vit
vitamin B6, vitamin B1 and vitamin BS)
D3.
composition of the foods? For NUTRITIONAL INFORMATION
Every 200m! of this milk contains:
example, do foods with a lot of Milk Calcium
PMilk Fat 3.0 Ais 4 %
é fat in them contain more energy Protein
P Carbohydrate
94 g
10.2
o f
than ones with little fat? PEnergy
| Plus 7 Vitarnins:
105 keal
| PVitamin A 24001.U,
@ For each type of food, draw a pie | }Thiomine (Vit BY)
| DPyridoxine Acid (Vit 84)
1.0 mg
2.0 mg
| PPanfothenic Acid (Vit BS)
mn chart which shows its percentage | ee
7.0 mg
11.0 mg
Sune
© 2.3%
ton
Low Far
}_ PVitamin C 30.0 mg With onty1.5%fer :
composition of carbohydrate | PVitamin D3 400 LU. '
than RaW thefartn centene, eas
15% EB ERO
Every serving {200mi) provides 9.4g ofprotein bf
(sugars and starches), protein and
Ra 15% BH REM SRS Hoo
¥ HIGH CALCIUM
Essential for strong bones
BOR S3SehnEyR
fat. How do the foods differ? Are HIGH PROTEIN
For healthy growth
some foods better sources of

BGR RRAMNRARK
LOW LACTOSE
Easily digestible
GAS sear
carbohydrate or protein than ( FORTIFIED WITH 7 VITAMINS
For stroag end healthy bodies
others? What is the composition HT OEER emtoaw
of your favourite food?

@ Which foods are rich in vitamins like
vitamins C and D?
Nutrition information panels on the

packaging of some food products
m 0.1 The Need for Food :
Organisms require food for one or more of the following purposes:
Energy is the ability to do work— |

@ ‘To provide energy for the vital activities of the body.
that is, @ To synthesize new protoplasm, i.e. for growth and repair of worn-
@ to bring about change, out parts of the body, and for reproduction.
@ move matter against an e
opposing force such as gravity
To maintain health, i.e. prevent deficiency diseases.
or friction, or
@ maintain a living organism in All living organisms require energy to maintain themselves, and also
its highly organized state. | for growth, movement, etc. Green plants can make use of the energy
Since energy is an ability to do _ from the sun through the process of photosynthesis (Chapter 7) but
work, it is not always as obvious _ other organisms need food to supply their energy needs. Thus the food
to us as matter which has both that organisms feed on contains a store of energy. This stored energy is
mass and occupies space. Energy
called potential chemical energy.
iS measured in units called joules,
after the famous scientist Joule
who studied the processes of Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be converted
energy conversion. from one form to another. This is what happens inside your cells. For
example, muscle cells convert the energy stored in food into
Nutrition
movement energy or kinetic

energy as the muscles in your body
contract to move your skeleton.
However, whenever the form of
Putting heat energy to good
energy is changed, there is some
use
energy “lost” or wasted in the form
of heat energy. Thus the food must Philodendron plants make good
use of the heat energy produced
provide more energy than the
by the chemical processes that
organism uses to make up for this take place in their cells. Their
loss. Energy loss occurs even when large flowers only open for a
the organism is inactive, so even couple of days but they are able
resting organisms require food. to perform a most remarkable
feat: they can heat themselves
up. During the night, where these
The body of a living organism is plants live, the surrounding
like a machine in that it undergoes temperature can drop to nearly
wear and tear. However, unlike a freezing point, but their flowers
machine, it is able to grow, to may reach temperatures
reproduce and to repair its worn- exceeding 46 °C. Other plants
also seem to have internal
out parts. To carry out these
Figure 5.1 Food provides us with heating. For example, the skunk
processes, organisms must make energy and material needed to cabbage and the voodoo lily also
more protoplasm by taking in keep us alive and healthy. generate large amounts of heat.
certain food substances, such as This heat, in the case of the
amino acids, which they can assimilate and convert into new voodoo lily, seems to be
important in the plant’s
protoplasm. For example, amino acids that are taken in are joined
reproduction. The voodoo lily
together to make proteins, a major component of protoplasm. attracts the insect, that
pollinate the flower, by releasing
Mammals have an internal skeleton made of bones and cartilage. They compounds which smell like
have to consume certain mineral salts, especially calcium and rotting flesh. The extra heat
seems to help to vaporize these
phosphorus compounds, which are essential for the formation of
compounds so that the appalling
skeletal structures. Calcium, iron and phosphate are also essential stench of the voodoo lily
minerals needed for many of the chemical processes taking place spreads through the air
within the body. attracting flies to it.
Mammals also need small quantities of vitamins which they cannot

make themselves. If the supply of vitamins is inadequate, they may
‘suffer from deficiency diseases such as rickets, scurvy, beri-beri, etc.
5.2 Nutrients in Food we need food?
ga isms n ed food because:

Nutrients are chemical substances in food which nourish the body, i.e. Food
provide energy and materials needed by the body. The nutrients in the ist J contains
food we eat may be classified as _follows:
Energy and Materials
@ Carbohydrates
These are called organic nutrients 7 used for
@ Fats
@® Proteins because they are obtained from
living organisms. They are _ @ Vital activities to stay alive
@ Vitamins
compounds of carbon. ® Movement
@ Dietary fibre
® Growth, development and
repair
@ Waiter };
- @ Maintaining good health
® Mineral salts Inorganic nutrients
We see that although there is a great variety of food,

there are only a few nutrients. Certain types of food
contain only one nutrient, e.g. sugar. Other types of
food may be rich sources of one particular nutrient but
may contain other nutrients as well, e.g. meat is a rich
source of proteins but it also contains fats, vitamins and
minerals.
Carbohydrates
Figure 5.2 The bread and cereal group — Carbohydrate foods come mainly from plants and are a
is rich in carbohydrates. good source of energy for the body. There are three main
groups of carbohydrates.
(simple sugars) (complex sugars)

selteresies[esectas ness
e.g. glucose, e.g. maltose,
fructose lactose _ starch cellulose —_glycogen
sucrose : a eartee zs
galactose
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made up of the elements

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen and oxygen atoms
are present in the same ratio as in water, i.e. 2 : 1.
The sugar glucose, one of the simplest carbohydrates, has the formula
C,H,,O,. The generalized formula for carbohydrates is CH, O. In the
case of glucose, 7 = 6 and m is also equal to six. But in sucrose (cane
sugar), 2 = 12 and m= 11 and hence its formula is C,,H,,O.,.
Carbohydrates include sugars, starch, the cellulose of plant cell walls

_ and a number of related substances. There are other substances which
are slightly modified carbohydrates, such as the chitin of the arthropod
skeleton.
_ Functions of carbohydrates
_ Carbohydrates are needed:

As a source of energy.
To form supporting structures, e.g. cellulose cell walls in plants.
To be converted to other organic compounds such as amino acids
and fats.
For the formation of nucleic acids (e.g. DNA, see Chapter 2).
¢¢ To synthesize lubricants, e.g. mucus which consists of a
%$¢09%
carbohydrate and a protein. The mucus lining the respiratory
system in Man traps dust particles.
5 To produce the nectar in some flowers. The sugary nectar attracts
feeding insects and enables cross pollination to occur.
Nutrition
Types of sugar
Sugars are sweet crystalline compounds which dissolve readily in
water. Two types of sugars can be distinguished:
H Simple sugars or monosaccharides

There are numerous simple sugars. The most common ones are the
sugars with six carbon atoms, with the general formula C,H,,O,. These
sugars—glucose, fructose and galactose-differ only in details OFHe
arrangement of the various atoms within the molecule which give
them different chemical and biological properties.
Glucose (grape sugar) is found, at least in small quantities, in all

animals. Fructose is widespread in plants, but uncommon in animals.
Galactose is a component of milk sugar or lactose, and is formed when
this is digested. Both galactose and lactose are rather rare in organisms
_ A model of a simple
other than mammals. | sugar molecule
H Complex sugars or disaccharides

Complex sugars are so called because each molecule is made up of two
molecules of simple sugars condensed together. (See condensation
reaction on page 60.) They are called disaccharides and have a more
complex structure than simple sugars.
The common types of disaccharides—sucrose, lactose and maltose—

have 12 carbon atoms, with the general formula C,,H,,O,,. The
differences in the disaccharides are again due to the different atomic
arrangements within the molecule.
@ Sucrose (cane sugar) This occurs in sugarcane stems, sweet fruits

and certain storage roots, e.g. sugar beet and carrots. It consists of
a glucose and a fructose molecule combined together. It is not
found in mammals.
+ &— wes
CgH,20, CgH120¢ C49H520),
Glucose Fructose Sucrose Wee
@ Lactose (milk sugar) This is found in the milk of all mammals,

including humans. It also occurs in some similar fluids such as
pigeon’s “milk”. It is formed from glucose and galactose combined
together.
G& —- Ww & «s
CH 120. CgH1205 Cy9H3.0, HO
Glucose Galactose Lactose Water
@ Maltose (malt sugar) This occurs in malted cereals and sprouting

grains. It is formed from the partial digestion of starch and is a
combination of two glucose molecules. Notice that the formation
of one molecule of a complex sugar (disaccharide) requires two
molecules of simple sugars. Each of the above reactions results in a

loss of a water molecule and such a reaction is known as a
condensation reaction.
' Condensation is a chemical reaction whereby two simple

molecules are joined together to form a larger molecule with the
_ tfemoval ofone molecule of water.
A complex sugar can be split into simpler molecules (i.e. simple sugars)
by heating it with acids or by treating it with a suitable enzyme. Thus,
when sucrose in solution is heated with dilute hydrochloric acid or
treated with the enzyme sucrase, the simple sugars glucose and
fructose are formed:
na : dilute HCI/s::
+ So, sere
Gah H,0. : e “CaHhOs —CgHy205

Sucrose HEWalehk siuieearece Glucose - Fructose
Note that in this reaction, a molecule of water is added to the sucrose

molecule.
A reaction whereby a water molecule is added on to split up a

complex molecule into its component units is known as
hydrolysis or a hydrolytic reaction.
The sucrose solution has therefore been hydrolysed to form glucose

Starch, glycogen and cellulose
and fructose. Similarly we can hydrolyse lactose to glucose and
each are composed entirely of
glucose units, yet their properties
galactose, using the enzyme lactase, and maltose can be hydrolysed to
are very different. This is due to _ glucose using the enzyme maltase.
the different ways that the
glucose units are linked together Types of polysaccharide
and arranged. | , Le
oono00oDO. A polysaccharide is made up of many monosaccharide molecules
ae "joined together. The process of condensing many similar molecules to
_ form a large molecule is called polymerization. Starch, cellulose and
ie) glycogen are polysaccharides formed from the condensation of many
_ glucose molecules.
@ Starch
Starch is one of the most important sources of carbohydrates in our
food. It occurs plentifully in vegetable foods such as cereals, potatoes,
| tapioca, etc. Howerver, starch is not formed or stored by animals.
Glycogen
_ Starch can be detected by the Iodine Test. A few drops of iodine
YONONONONONONO! _ solution added to any substance containing starch will produce a blue-
Cellulose
black colour.
Nutrition
INVESTIGATION
51 Reducing Sugars Benedict’s Test can be used to test for the
STE:
)
of reducing sugars in food
Benedict’s solution contains copper(!l) sulphate
(blue). The copper(I) salt can be reduced to a
red precipitate of copper(!) oxide by a reducing
agent. Some sugars have this reducing property.
| Control Test
| A reducing sugar will produce a red

precipitate when boiled with Benedict’s
experiment experiment
solution.
|
“Benedict’s test
1 To 2cm* of glucose solution in a test-tube
b
add 2 cm? of Benedict’s solution.
2 Shake the mixture and heat it by immersing
4 Record your observations after 5 minutes.
|
the test-tube in a beaker of boiling water for
What conclusions can you draw concerning
5 minutes.
glucose?
3 Repeat steps (1) and (2) using 2 cm? of
5 You may carry out Benedict’s Test on other’
distilled water and 2 cm? of Benedict’s
sugars, e.g. maltose, lactose and fructose.
solution. This is the control experiment.
Xs
EIL SEE EBLESEC E NDIRSO ELT DELA C ISA EIN LOEB ESET ATSESSSSEE
SAN UTNGS REE NS S 2 ERSPEER AT EAL ANTES SRA SEDISTAL LOTTE SELLER IY ASTI MNS ETETSIEN TEER LEIS E
Starch is made up of a very large number of glucose

molecules condensed together to form chains of glucose
units. These chains are a mixture of straight and branched Za Papeot ae aicoimolecia
chains. In Figure 5.3, each hexagon represents a glucose unit.
The glucose units are linked by “bridges” or chemical bonds. \
A starch molecule may contain as many as 200 glucose units.
When starch is hydrolysed by acid, the bonds are broken and QO Le @& @e
Maltose molecules
glucose units are released. This explains why reducing sugars \
are produced when starch is hydrolysed.
We can partially hydrolyse starch by using a suitable enzyme, ®oe ee @e®@

Glucose molecules
amylase, which digests the starch to the sugar maltose.
Maltose can be converted to glucose by the enzyme maltase
Figure 5.3 Stages in the hydrolysis of
or by heating with acid. starch
Starch Maltose Glucose
(where n represents a large number.)

pee eerie) |
@ Glycogen
Glycogen is sometimes referred to as an “animal starch”. It is a storage
form of carbohydrate in animals and also in fungi. In mammals, it is
stored mainly in the liver and in the muscles. It is formed when
numerous glucose molecules condense to form highly branched chains
of glucose units.
Glycogen and starch are suitable as storage materials because:

@ They are insoluble in water so they do not change the osmotic
pressure in the cells.
Running the marathon @ They are large molecules which are unable to diffuse through the
The marathon is an enormously cell membranes.
long race—more than 26 miles or @ They can easily be hydrolysed to glucose when needed.
42 kilometres. Top athletes will @ Their molecules have compact shapes so they occupy less space
run that distance in just over two
than that occupied by all their constituent glucose molecules.
hours. Clearly that is going to
require an enormous amount of
energy. This energy comes from @ Cellulose
stored glycogen which is broken Cellulose is the carbohydrate which forms the greater part of the cell
down to produce sugars which walls of plants. It is similar to starch as it consists of glucose units
are then used to
linked together to form straight chains. However, the two
provide the energy
needed to run the
substances differ chemically because the way the glucose
race. A runner needs units are linked within them differs.
to store as much
glycogen as possible Cellulose is inert and very few organisms can digest it.
before a race. This is Man cannot digest cellulose, but it forms the bulk of
achieved by eating
lots of starchy foods
undigested matter. This fibre is important to the proper
two days before a functioning of the large intestine.
race. The starch is
converted into Fats
glycogen which is
stored in the liver Fats (which include animal and vegetable fats but not
and the muscles. — mineral oils) are also energy—providing foods. They are
commonly used as food stores, especially by animals.
They consist of the elements carbon, hydrogen and
aol E oxygen, but unlike carbohydrates, fats contain much less
_ oxygen in proportion to hydrogen.
Fats are organic compounds made up of the elements carbon,

Tristearin (beef fat) has the |
hydrogen and oxygen but, unlike carbohydrates, they contain
formula C,,H,,,0,. Note how little
much less oxygen in proportion to hydrogen.
oxygen it contains in proportion
to hydrogen. The elements that
make up fats do not occur in _ Fats can be split into simpler compounds by hydrolysis. For instance,
definite proportions, so that _ when tristearin is hydrolysed by the enzyme lipase, stearic acid and
there is no generalized formula | glycerol are produced:
such as one finds in
carbohydrates. |
Tristearin Glycerol is Stearic acid
When fats are hydrolysed, they yield fatty acids and glycerol:
catalyst
Fats + Water a Glycerol + Fatty acids
wo ¥ 2A
+ Uy + 2-2
A model of a
fat molecule
w QF
fat molecule 3 water molecules glycerol 3 fatty acid molecules
Nutrition
The equation on the previous page represents the splitting up of fats RULE
into fatty acids and glycerol. This splitting involves the addition of é
water molecules (i.e. hydrolysis) and occurs readily in the presence of
an enzyme or a catalyst.
Fats and oils ats we Call it a fatty acid. A fatty

acid has an acidic group (-COOH)
Is there any difference between fats and oils? To ask this question is _ linked to a long hydrocarbon chain
|”
_ denoted by R:
just like asking whether there is any difference between ice and
water. We call coconut oil an oil, but when we place it in a
refrigerator, it soon hardens into a mass of fat. Thus the difference
between fats and oils (used in the sense given above) lies in their
state. Fats are solid and oils are liquid at 20 °C or room :
temperature. Here we shall use the term “fat” to refer to both solid | 90 you know what saturated and
and liquid animal and vegetable fats. Sted tats are?
A fat is saturated when the fatty
acids in it cannot take in any more
Functions of fats :
- hydrogen atoms. In an
Fats serve: / es bas fatty acids it
@ Asan efficient source and storage of energy. ee cicateu) or moreot
@ As an insulating material, especially beneath the skin, to prevent 7 (polyunsaturated) of hydrogen
excessive heat loss. In mammals that live in the water, there is atoms.
greater tendency to lose heat since the hair cover isnolongeran ——_ Saturated fatty acid chains are
efficient insulator in water. Thus, animals such as whales have a | straight.
thick layer of blubber beneath the skin which helps to retain body |
heat. :
@ Asa solvent for fat-soluble vitamins and many other vital
substances, including sex hormones and related hormones. tad fate Deaachain’
@ Asaconstituent of protoplasm, especially in the protoplasmic bend at the places where
membranes. _ hydrogen can be taken in.
@ Asameans to restrict water loss from the surface of the skin. The
oily secretion produced by sebaceous glands in the skin forms a
thin layer over the surface, thus reducing the rate of evaporation of
water. This also reduces the rate of heat loss from the skin. Why?
‘Occurrence
Foods rich in fats include butter, cheese, fatty meat, olives, many nuts,
and seeds of castor oil, palm oil and many leguminous plants. Fats are
abundant in the liver of many fish, e.g. sharks. Most fish and “white
meats” are relatively fat free, and they can be eaten by those on a fat-
free diet, but herring-like fishes and salmon often have a lot of fat.
Humans and other mammals can manufacture their own fat
requirements, thus fat is not essential in the diet. Fats should be
Figure 5.4 Examples
avoided in the diet of people who have developed gallstones in their of foods rich in fats
gall bladders.
The types of fats occurring in animal bodies are called saturated

fats. Usually found together with saturated fats is a fatty substance
called cholesterol. Cholesterol may get deposited on the inside of
arteries. This may lead to heart attack (Chapter 8). Vegetable fats
are unsaturated fats. They do not cause heart diseases. In fact, they |
should be substituted for animal fats as often as possible.
> id
— :
‘
52) Test for Fats Add 2 cm® of water to the mixture. What do
you observe?
Ethanol (alcohol) emulsion test
@ On solid food
On liquid food
1 Cut a peanut seed into small pieces and
1 Add 2 cm of ethanol to a drop of coconut oil
|
place them into a test-tube. Add 2 cm? of
in a test-tube.
ethanol and shake thoroughly.
2 Shake the mixture thoroughly and note what 2
Allow the solid particles to settle. Decant
you observe.
the ethanol into another test-tube containing
2 cm? of water. Explain what you observe.
SU
aa
RTE
EE SS NDSELLLEEELE ALS SEESL LLL LEDEEN ENTE ELE ELLE UBS DEEL TESTE SPREE LICE DSN IIE LLL LS IDEM SPEDE LEP EELS LLL IBELLI SSN LBA ESSA NER
Proteins
Proteins are very complex organic substances containing carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Sulphur and phosphorus are also
often present.
Proteins are always present in protoplasm. Their molecules are the

largest and most complicated of all the food substances. Every protein
molecule is built up from simpler compounds known as amino acids—
R may sometimes contain S, the basic units of proteins.
COOH, NH.,, and/or OH groups in
place of one or more (rarely)
_ An amino acid possesses an amino group (—NH,), an acidic group
hydrogen atoms.
_ (-COOR) and a hydrocarbon side chain denoted by R. The general
Although only 22 different amino _ formula for amino acids (with certain exceptions) can be written as
acids are known to occur in shown on the left.
proteins, they are combined in
various ways to form millions of _ There are 22 naturally occurring amino acids in plant and animal
different protein molecules just as
the 26 letters of the alphabet can
proteins. These amino acids link with one another to form long chains.
be used to form a very large When two amino acids link up, there is a removal of one molecule of
number of words. water, i.e. the reaction is a condensation reaction. The bond formed
| between the two amino acids is strong and is known as a peptide bond.
® @e peptide
@ Hydrogen atom (H) of eae : ee pat eeiss
the amino group = * nen.» 8 Cc.” — © *
@ Hydroxyl (-OH) part
of the acidic group
Amino acid 1 Amino acid 2 Dipeptide Water
If three or more amino acids are linked up by peptide bonds, a

polypeptide or peptone (Greek: fo/y = many) is formed. Polypeptides
_ in turn may be linked up to form a very long chain of amino acids. An
average amino acid chain can contain about 500 units.
A protein molecule is made up of one or more such chains. The amino

acid chains in a protein molecule are not straight. In most proteins, the
_ chains are coiled up to give the protein a distinctive three-dimensional
shape. The coils are held in place by weak cross-links (hydrogen
bonds) which are easily broken by heat, acids and alkalis. The breaking
Nutrition
of these cross-links causes the denaturation of the protein. This usually

affects the function(s) of the protein as noted in Chapter 4.
As protein molecules are very large, they cannot pass through living
membranes, so the proteins which are ingested cannot be absorbed
directly into the body of the animal. They have to be broken down by
enzymes. This digestion is another instance of hydrolysis. The
proteins are first split into polypeptides (or peptones) which are in turn
split into their constituent amino acids.
Amino acids are simpler and much smaller molecules. Since they are
soluble in water and small enough to diffuse through living
membranes, they can easily be absorbed into the body of the animal.
When amino acids enter the body cells, they are linked up again to
form the animal’s kind of protein.
Effects of protein deficiency

In human beings, the average adult needs 50 to 100 g of proteins a day.
The deficiency of proteins in the diet of children may lead to a protein
deficiency disease called kwashiorkor. Such children usually have
swollen abdomens. Their skin cracks and becomes scaly.
Functions of proteins
e How a peptide bond is formed
The formation of new protoplasm is essential for growth as the e Essential and non-essential
constant activities within the cell cause the old protoplasm to become |
| amino acids
disorganized or worn out. New protoplasm therefore must be e Quality of proteins
produced to replace it.
Proteins are:
® Essential for the synthesis of protoplasm, for growth and repair of
worn-out body cells.
® Used for the synthesis of enzymes and some hormones (Chapter 15).
@ Used in the formation of antibodies to combat diseases (Chapter 8).
@ A source of energy.
9.3. Test for Proteins Shake well and allow the mixture to stand for |
i 5 minutes.) '
_ Biuret test ee
' 1. To 2 cm? of egg white solution in a test-tube, ea
add 1 cm? of sodium hydroxide solution
] (40% or bench solution). Shake thoroughly. ale
2 Add 1% copper(il) sulphate solution, drop by + TE te
' drop, shaking after every drop.
3 What colour changes do you observe? )
[ (Alternatively, to 2 cm? of egg white solution Egg Biuret Violet
add an equal volume of Biuret solution. white eae) Segal
ssc RASS aR A SREP EU WSUS BRDU ENUM UHL RS LIME PS EIST SW IS DT PR SSRN SEES GNI ANAS TETAS
TEST YOURSELF
Food tests were carried out on three different A contains reducing SUGAD
foods, labelled A, B and C. Each food was tested Bcontains creaunny Sugan € Pra eins
in turn with each of the three tests. The results
Ccontains Starth & pry crews
of the tests are given in the table below.
1 Using the results from the table, state what Describe how you would test a piece of skin
substances are present in each food, from anorange fruit for the presence of fats.
SFAKN PVESA
blue-black
eat with Benedict red precipitate formed red precipitate formed _ solution remains blue
so | eCaAuaag sugars FEAUOWAG — SUYAKS
beast: 3 $3 Serer 9 VASVS able
SYP Blue colour formed violet colour formed violet colour formed
I) no proces ProeRws eresenk PMO CRX\Ny present
SOR
AEBS
NES
OUR
OL
EAD
SOS
sSRseSaSRN?
ER
RSME
EN
ESSERE
SS
SS
DEO
ESN
TEASE
ESET
EASA
SSC
ORAS
SR ORES SDA SINE EDEEL EER ISSAN ELDER ODED LLIN.
You can carry out food tests on a variety of food, To test for fats,
SELLE
SIR
e.g. peanut, cucumber, onion bulb, tomato and Investigation 5.2 (On
banana in order to find out what classes of food solid food) could be
they contain. The following points are worth used.
noting:
EE
PIA
Pia To test for starch, it
1 To test a food for the presence of reducing is not necessary to
sonore
Sugars or proteins, it is necessary to cut the add water. Just add pestle and mortar
mr
rereca
food into small pieces. It is even better to dilute iodine solution
grind the food with a pestle and mortar. This to the crushed pieces of food.
RISER
helps to break the cells and release the
Sugars and proteins, thereby providing a
concentrated solution for testing.
|
eeroes
wus
a
Place some of the pieces of food into a test-

tube. Add 2 cm? of water to dissolve the
Sugars and proteins, if any. Now you can
perform the Benedict’s or Biuret test. In the
Benedict’s test, a green precipitate
indicates that a little reducing sugar is
present. A red precipitate indicates that a
large amount of reducing sugar is present.
TEE DP LOOT TPIT PINTER
TSE BATENT HEEFT SPEEA RINE
|
Nutrition
The experiment illustrated on the right was

visking tubing
set up with the solution of glucose and (a partially
10%
gelatin (a protein) in the visking tubing, and glucose permeable
solution membrane)
water in the beaker. The apparatus was left
for 30 minutes, and then the liquid in the 5% gelatin beaker
solution |-——
beaker was tested for the presence of (a simple
glucose and gelatin. Tests showed that protein) water
giucose was present in the liquid in the

beaker, but gelatin was not present.
(a) Name the process by which glucose 2 Name the type of chemical reaction by
was transferred from the Visking tubing which sucrose is broken down to form
to the water in the beaker. glucose.
(b) Suggest a reason why the gelatin was 3 A solution is strongly alkaline. What would
not transferred from the tubing to the you expect its pH to be?
water in the beaker. 4 Name the type of chemical reaction by
(c) What would be the effect of replacing which amino acids are combined to form
the water in the beaker by a 25% proteins.
solution of glucose? (C) HSB
A sample of a food substance P was placed on (a) Name the food substance P.
a white tile and a drop of iodine solution was (b) Name the solution X.
added to it. The food substance turned blue- (C) Name the solution Y.
black. (d) Solution X functions as ;
What is present in the boiling tube in the
A second sample of P was boiled with solution (e)
water bath after 15 minutes?
Y and the blue colour of the solution remained. (f)
What chemical reaction has occurred in the
A third sample of P was placed in a boiling tube boiling tube in the water bath?
with an equal quantity of solution X and kept (g) Sketch a graph to show how you would
at 36 °C in a water bath. After 15 minutes, a expect temperature to affect the action of
sample of the solution from the boiling tube in solution X on substance P. Label the axes.
the water bath was removed and boiled with
solution Y. This produced a brick-red precipitate. :
(Solution X alone gave no brick-red precipitate
when treated in this way.)
REECE LPN
MII ASIE IONE RAILS
OPBNOSLACLISS PSNISE JESEI.SEPEEEEOE
ESSENCE
NYAEGIS EASED SSSR EBED TSEC VEOUYE BUONO RNR RES SLED INCRE SEM ISI EES SRT OCR ST
)
Vitamins
More than 2 000 years ago, a disease which we call beri-beri

now, was. known amongst the Chinese whose diet consisted
mainly of fish and polished rice, rice with thé outer husk removed.
In this. disease, the nervous: system is affected and paralysis of
the limbs results. In severe cases the patient may die.
In the Middle Ages, it was found that when sailors stayed

aboard ships for months they became seriously ill. Their gums
would swell and bleed. Their teeth became loose and their
joints would swell and ache. They had developed a disease
called scurvy because the food they ate on board was short
red in the diet of of fresh fruit and vegetables. At the end of the sixteenth
mall amounts. century, a British sea captain, Captain Hawkins, discovered
that when his sailors were given limes they did not get scurvy.
We now know that

deficiency diseases such
as beri-beri and scurvy are
caused by the lack of
certain chemical
substances in our diet
known as vitamins.
Vitamins overdose
Vitamins are organic
Vitamins have a reputation of
compounds that are not
being essential for health and
they are often promoted as built in a definite pattern
additional supplements to the like carbohydrates,
diet by drug companies. Indeed, proteins and fats. They
drug companies make a fortune are not energy-providing
each year by selling vitamin pills.
food nor are they body-
Such pills may be needed by
certain groups such as young
building food, yet they are
children, senior citizens or required in small
pregnant women but most of us quantities, by animals, Figure 5.6 The child on the right has rickets,
do not need vitamin supplements: including Man, for normal caused by a deficiency of Vitamin D or
we get all the vitamins we need calcium in her diet.
health and development.
from our diet, provided we eat a
Different vitamins are
good range of foods. In fact, it is
possible to poison the body by _ found in different foods, but if we eat a varied diet which contains
consuming too much vitamins. _ fresh, raw vegetables, we are likely to get most of the vitamins we
This happened on one Polar need. Poor people in undeveloped countries often do not get such a
expedition when a group of Italian diet. Unfortunately, in developed countries people often depend largely
explorers, who had run out of
_ on processed food, so a deficiency of vitamins can arise.
food ate the liver of a polar bear
they had shot. Polar bear liver
contains an enormous amount of | The amount of vitamins required by Man varies with age. Vitamins
Vitamin D and these Polar _ that are soluble in fats, i.e. fat-soluble vitamins, can be stored in the
explorers suffered the effects of | fats of the body, but water-soluble vitamins cannot be stored in the
Vitamin D poisoning, which body, and have to be supplied in the daily diet.
resulted in several of them dying.
_ When a particular vitamin is deficient, characteristic signs or

symptoms will appear and if the deficiency is severe, the particular
deficiency disease will develop. Usually a mild vitamin deficiency is
hard to detect, but it may impair a person’s well-being so he feels run-
down or irritable. Since vitamin tablets are easily available nowadays,
you must remember that only very small quantities of vitamins are
needed. Larger quantities of some vitamins are toxic and may produce
mild diseases, and should only bé taken under medical supervision.
Are vitamin supplements really
necessary? Table 5.1 shows the sources and functions of vitamins D and C.
Nutrition
Table 5.1 Vitamins D and C: Sources and functions
Vitamins = _ Sources Functions

2 :Sees eae a
- Promotes absorption of calcium
os fat-soluble | ates and phosphorus ‘sompounds from SS
~ vitamin eee eS
¢ Uiteviotst 1rays in
inn sung can the |
intestines. | ae
convert a natural. substance © aEnables the.body to use these
(ergosterol) in the skin to vitarr nD compounds in the
oe ‘of
So if one gets enough sunlight, BME Gie Pa
~ teeth and bone.
| vitamin D is not needed ‘in‘thediet. oF
te Lack: Slight defleleney: in| growing
| Note: Relatively resistant to Hee aod children commonly leads to_
_ and oxidation | aesne increased tooth decay. Severe
_ deficiency results in rickets—a_
| disease characterized by poor teeth
and bone formation. In children, the
eke bones are soft and pliable and are —
| / readily bent under the body weight.

Deformities such as bowed legs and
_ knock knees develop. In adults, a
| softening of the bones also occurs—
a disease called osteomalacia. —
Z 1. Excess: This may result in
=demineralization of the bones with
multiple fractures and widespread
calcification of many soft tissues,
including the kidneys and the lungs.
Cc @ Richest sources are fresh citrus @ Needed for the formation of

{Ascorbic acid) fruits (oranges, lemons), other fruits intercellular substances. Such
(e.g. papaya, guava, tomatoes, substances are found in between
A water-soluble bananas) the cells and they nold the cells
vitamin together.
@ Fresh green vegetables
@ Necessary for maintaining healthy
@ Fruit juices such as blackcurrant
epithelial tissues.
juice and rose
hip syrup are _ Lack: Leads to scurvy, characterized
often used as by swollen bleeding gums and
convenient _ loosening of the teeth,
SOUICES haemorrhages or internal bleeding in
_ the muscles and skin, poor healing
Note: Easily
of wounds and painful swollen joints.
destroyed by
heat, e.g. in _ Excess: This is excreted by the body.
cooking and
canning
Vitamin A: This is needed for the formation of Vitamin B complex: Several are important coenzymes
a light-sensitive pigment in the retina and for in cellular respiration. Beri-beri, pellagra and pernicious
maintaining healthy epithelial tissues. Rich anaemia are deficiency diseases caused by a lack of
sources include dairy products, fish liver-oils certain B vitamins. Yeast, liver and bran are rich
and green leafy vegetables. sources.
Water
Water is extremely important to
life because it is an essential
constituent of protoplasm. About
70% of the body weight of a
mammal is water. Man, in most
conditions, can survive longer
without food than without water.
Functions of water Figure 5.7 Besides drinking water, we

get water from drinks and foods that
Many of the functions of water wentawean cally.
arise from the fact that it is one of
the best known solvents for both
inorganic salts and many organic compounds. This property makes
water especially important to life. Thus, water serves as:
@ The medium in which the various chemical reactions of an

organism occur.
@ A transporting agent for:
e digested food substances from the intestines to other parts of
the body;
e excretory products from the tissue cells to the excretory
organs for removal;
e hormones (Chapter 15) from their places of origin (ie.
the glands) to regions of the body which require them.
@ Anessential/major component of:
e lubricant found in the joints;
e the digestive juices;
e blood.
In addition, water has the following functions:

@ It is needed for hydrolytic reactions (digestion).
@ It is an essential reactant in the photosynthetic process in green
plants.
@ it helps to regulate the body temperature—excess body heat is
removed by the evaporation of sweat from the skin surface.
Water requirements
The amount of water needed in the body depends on the activity of

the person and the environmental conditions. More water is needed by
_ active people and by those living in hot and dry climates. Water is lost
from the body daily during breathing, in the urine, the faeces and
through sweating. In some diseases (e.g. diabetes), the volume of urine
passed is greatly increased so that sufferers need more water than non-
Many invertebrates, small desert-
diabetic people. To balance the amount of water lost daily, a normal,
living mammals and some birds healthy and ordinarily active adult in a temperate climate requires
do not need to drink water as about 3 litres of water a day. In hot climates, like Singapore, slightly
they produce enough ‘metabolic more water may be needed. People who habitually live in hot
water’ in the breakdown of food _ conditions become adapted to these conditions and need much less
for their bodily use.
water than newcomers.
Nutrition
Minerals
Mineral elements are inorganic
salts which do not provide
energy but are indispensable to
bodily functions. The nutritional
significance of two of the
important minerals (calcium and
iron) are outlined in Table 5.2.
We obtain minerals from other Figure 5.8 Fresh fruits and vegetables are rich sources of vitamins and minerals.
animals or from plants. In Man
(and other mammals too), some minerals are required in large
quantities but others are only needed in small quantities. Those
mineral elements that are required in large amounts include calcium,
phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, potassium and iron.
Table 5.2 Calcium and iron: their sources, requirements and functions
Inorganic
Sources Requirements Functions
element
Calcium Milk, cheese @ Aboutiga @ Required for the building of bones and
and eggs — day ince: ~ teeth. Ost eee
Small fish Bees @ Needed for the normal functioning of the
; I children.
eaten with their muscles.
bones sg Ser ee Necessary for the clotting of blood to
Cereals, soya erie ae i loss off blood.
prevent excessive bloo
beans and dark required Lack: Severe deficiency results in rickets.
green vegetables during
‘such as spinach pregnancy
and watercress and lactation.
lron Liver, red meat Very little is lron is a structural component of the
and egg yolk required— following and so is essential for their
formation:
@ Bread, flour and abou P02 g
a day in an
@ haemoglobin—the red coloured pigment
Aaliceieen average adult
vegetables 8 ; that transports oxygen in the body.
@ Pregnant
@ myoglobin—a protein in muscle cells
women
which stores oxygen for use in muscular
require more.
contraction.
@ certain enzymes involved in cellular
respiration.
Lack: Results in a lowering of the

haemoglobin level in the blood. The red
blood cells become smaller and fewer in
number—a condition known as nutritional
anaemia, characterized by tiredness and
breathlessness.
Trace elements
Minerals known to be needed in minute quantities are called the trace

elements. Iodine, zinc and manganese are examples of such elements.
_ Trace elements are normally consumed in food and their function in
the bodily processes is not fully understood as yet.
Dietary Fibre or Roughage
Dietary fibre refers to the indigestible fibrous materials, e.g. cellulose,

present in the diet. It is important because it provides bulk to the
intestinal contents and helps peristalsis.
Peristalsis is a series of wavelike, muscular movements of the walls of

_ the digestive tract. Such movements enable food to be mixed with the
digestive juices. At the same time, they cause the food to move along
the digestive canal. If proper peristaltic movements do not occur, the
| undigested matter in the large intestine cannot be moved along fast
enough and too much water will be absorbed. The faeces becomes too
dry and hard and their removal through the anus becomes difficult.
| This condition is known as constipation. It can be prevented by
_ taking enough fibre and drinking sufficient water. Regular exercise also
| helps by promoting peristalsis.
Good sources of fibre are fresh fruits and vegetables, bran, cereals and
- wholemeal bread.
B® 5.3 Food Values and Diet ;

Energy Value of Food
_ Energy-rich organic food substances have different energy values.
When one gram of carbohydrate is completely burnt, about
16 kilojoules (kJ) of energy are released. This is the energy value of
carbohydrates. The energy value for protein is 17 kJ/g and 38 kJ/g
Figure 5.9 Energy released by the | for fat.
three major nutrients in food
Temperature Since fats have the highest energy
rise of 100 g 41 °C 53 °C 92 °C value they should be avoided by
of water people who have a weight
problem.
Energy
released
1 g of
burning
food
7
EEE
Nutrients Carbohydrate Protein

Nutrition
INVESTIGATION
54 Energy Content of Foods reached by the water.

For every 10 °C rise in temperature of the
To find out the amount of heat released by
water that you observe, the water gains 0.8
burning a piece of peanut kilojoules of heat energy. This heat energy
has been released by the burning peanut.
al You are provided with a piece of peanut
Calculate the number of kilojoules gained
which weighs approximately 0.2 g. Spike
by the water. Show your working.
the peanut firmly on the end of the
mounted needle. The test-tube (boiling tube) The peanut in fact contains 25 kilojoules of
provided contains 20 cm of water. energy per gram, so a piece of this size
(0.2 g approximately) should release 5
(a) Place the thermometer into the water
kilojoules of heat energy. Suggest reasons
in the test-tube. Read and record the
why your results differ from this value.
water temperature.
Suggest simple ways in which you could
(0) You are going to ignite the peanut and
improve this apparatus in order to obtain a
allow the flame to play upon the boiling
more accurate result.
tube so as to heat the water. Do this by
holding the boiling tube in one hand Take the whole peanut provided and cut it
and the mounted needle in the other. into small pieces. Crush these pieces as
Set fire to the peanut by holding it in much as possible and use the material to
the flame of the Bunsen burner. (If it carry out food tests using the reagents
goes out, quickly re-ignite it.) Once the provided (Benedict’s solution, iodine
peanut is alight, hold it beneath the solution, ethanol, water). Then, complete
testtube and heat the water. Let the the table given below.
peanut burn away completely until it will From your test results, consider which
no longer re-light. substance provided the greatest amount
(c) When the peanut has stopped burning, of energy to heat the water. Give your
immediately place the thermometer into reasons.
the water in the test-tube and stir (C)
gently. Record the highest temperature
Test Treatment ;
Aa of test reagent Observation Deduction
Benedict’s Add crushed peanut and

i solution 2 cm? water to
' 2 cm? Benedict’s solution.
Heat.
'
are
lodine
aap Add |
a drop of iodine to
=
solution crushed peanut.
| Ethanol Add 2 cm? ethanol

: and to peanut in test-tube.
| water Shake.
Decant into 2 cm? water. 2
A Balanced Diet and Food Values

For healthy growth and development of our bodies, we need a
balanced diet.
A balanced diet contains the right amount of carbohydrates,

fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, water and roughage to meet
_ the daily requirements of the body.
€ occurring
completely at A balanced diet for one person may not be balanced for another. The
| measure _ amount of the various food materials required differs from one
ergy required individual to another. Each of the food nutrients your body requires
daily varies with your lifestyle, activities and age. Your body needs
minerals, vitamins and water with enough protein for tissue growth
and repair, and sufficient energy-providing foods.
Energy is needed to do work while we are awake, and to perform vital

activities when we are at rest or asleep. Even when the body is
_ physically well and emotionally at rest, energy is needed to keep it
_ alive, for example, to keep the heart beating. The amount of energy
needed to carry on vital life processes of the body when it is in
_ complete rest is known as basal metabolism.
Your daily energy needs depend on your basal metabolism and the
physical activities you perform. Basal metabolic rate is affected by the
_ climate, body size, age, sex and health of an individual.
Climate
A person living in a cold country

_ tends to lose more heat to his work
_ surroundings compared to one
living in the tropics, and expends
Study this diagram and deduce the Moderate

4 relationship between metabolic rate (active) work
| and physical activity.
Light work
Sitting-down
4
Basal
metabolism
12-year-old girl
1500 kJ
Nutrition iia
more energy in order to maintain his body temperature. Thus, his

basal metabolic rate is higher than that of a person living in the tropics.
Body size |
People of the same sex and age may have different body sizes and
weights. It is estimated that those with a bigger build require more
energy for their basal metabolism than those with a smaller build.
Age
Growing children normally have a higher basal metabolic rate than

older people because they require more energy for growth. In adults,
the basal metabolic rate tends to decrease slowly throughout life.
Sex
Men normally have a higher heat production than women of the same
body size and age as men usually have a smaller amount of fatty tissue
in their bodies. Thus the prevention of heat loss is less efficient in men
than in women.
Figure 5.10 The SD balance _ Table 5.3 Daily energy needs

Energy Intake oe oe en we “Energy Ex en ture Recommended ae — Allowances
Basal :
metabolism
Food energy -
= Ses 2/12-6/12 - kg x 480

Health SS eS cs =ONG x 400
The thyroid gland in the neck controls the metabolic | Children Rae Boe:
rate by secreting a hormone called thyroxine. If Stee Se
someone has an under-active thyroid, insufficient
thyroxine is produced which results in a lower
metabolic rate. An over-active thyroid produces too
much hormone, thus speeding up the metabolic rate.
Occupation
Having considered the factors underlying basal x
metabolism, you should now consider the activities (The above are the estimated daily energy requirements
you do while awake, i.e. your occupation. If you are for people living in Malaysia and Singapore)
very active and do heavy work, you need more
energy each day than a person who is only moderately active. This
person in turn requires more energy than a sedentary one. Refer to
Table 5.3 and find out your daily energy requirements. (The chart
refers to the energy allowances for average individuals.)
You have to ensure that there is energy balance in your diet, i.e. your
energy intake and energy expenditure should balance.
_ If you use about 12 000 kJ per day and your diet contains energy
_ below this amount you will tend to be underweight. On the other
_ hand, if the energy in your diet exceeds this amount, the excess will be
stored up as fats in your body and you will gain weight. A weight-
reducing programme should be based on a reduced intake of
carbohydrates and fats and not on other food nutrients. For instance,
_ protein intake should not be reduced. However, a very high protein
intake is not advisable as this means that an excessive amount of
nitrogen is taken into the body. Excess nitrogen is removed by the liver
in the form of urea, which is then excreted by the kidneys in the urine.
A very high protein intake will mean that the liver and the kidneys will
have to do extra work. A daily diet high in protein will cause these
_ organs to overwork, resulting eventually in their damage.
On Healthy Lifestyle
Increasing affluence in Singapore has led to a The National Health Education Department of
generally sedentary lifestyle and a change in the Ministry of Health has organized many
the patterns of food consumption. These have activities, e.g. the launching of the Healthy
resulted in an increase in the prevalence of Lifestyle Campaign in 1998, to promote good
obesity among the youths. nutritional status and reduce diet-related
illnesses. For example, the public has been
Singapore is a society that relies on human
resources. A healthy workforce is therefore vital
advised on how to adopt healthy eating
practices.
for its growth and survival.
Obesity, sedentary lifestyle and a family history One way of managing a balanced diet is through
the “Pyramid Way” shown below.
of high blood cholesterol are risk factors for
cardiovascular diseases. To remain healthy, we ‘The Healthy D
must eat wisely and exercise regularly.
Fat, salt LEVEL 4

Study the Healthy Diet
Pyramid and answer
these questions.
Going from bottom
up, what are the q Meat and LEVEL 3
main nutrients 7. alternatives
present in the foods
shown in levels 2 and
3 of the pyramid? :
What main nutrients oo / \ Fruit and LEVEL 2
are present in the <7 Ss, vegetables
foods in levels 1 and <<
4?
Why should our diet
* LEVEL 1
contain the most
amount of food from [% Rice and
level 1 and the least | A ‘ alternatives
amount from level 4? f
Nutrition
Free informative booklets/pamphlets

on Healthy Lifestyle are easily
Weight for height chart for boys (6-17 years) _
available at polyclinics. The public
has been advised to: Borderline
Overweight
@ Take less fat and cholesterol. 70 Weight,

@ Eat more fruits and vegetables. i
60 ee
Underweight
# Consume less salts. = 50 Underweight
@ Maintain a healthy weight. % 40
=
The charts on the right give a rough
guide enabling you to find out if you
have a healthy weight. Use it and
check out your weight. 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185
Height (cm)
sir:ls (6-17wae years) —

“Overweight |
me ~ Borderline
Overweight
Healthy
_ Weight
~ Borderline
Underweight
Underweight
Weight
(kg)
105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185
Height (cm)
* Graphs taken from Keeping Fat in Check (Singapore: Department of Nutrition, Ministry of Health)
A@Ss igigeat
51 Diet and Health Diet, nutrition and health in Singapore
me Using the internet, the local newspapers
Is your diet balanced? and magazines, collect information about
nutrition and dietary issues which relate to
Write down the foods you eat daily for
Singapore. What are the major concerns?
breakfast, lunch and dinner. Collect
You can access the Straits Times web
information about the energy value and
page as a Start.
composition of the foods you eat. Record
your information in the form of graphs and oe
charts. Do you think that your diet is a Y sterNET There are many useful
balanced one? Most people tend to be in internet sites including an
good health when they include about 60% award winning site that is ‘
carbohydrates, 25% fats and 15% proteins maintained by the American :
in their diet, in addition to the required National Agricultural Library
which gives you access to a
amount of vitamins, minerals and water.
wealth of information about
diet and nutrition.
Problems of World Food Supplies
_ Starvation, malnutrition and over-nutrition are the main food-supply

related problems that the world faces today. This is due to the unequal
_ The following factors contribute food distribution in relation to population size.
_ considerably to starvation and
_ malnutrition:
Starvation occurs when a human or another animal does not receive
_ © The increasing population
_ growth, especially in enough energy in their diet. To meet basic metabolic needs, the body
_ developing countries starts to use up its energy reserves stored as fat and glycogen. When
_ ® Unequal distribution of food these are gone, the body starts to use proteins. Since muscles are
ee e Growing of cash crops instead mostly made of protein this leads to the muscle wasting seen in people
of food in certain developing who are starving. In addition to the skeletal muscles, the body may
countries start to use the muscle in the heart. This may seriously weaken the
heart.
On the other hand, malnutrition results from dietary imbalance. It

may be due to a deficiency or an excess intake of nutrients over a
| period of time. Deficiency diseases caused by lack of vitamins and
minerals have already been mentioned. Protein deficiency disease or
kwashiorkor is also an example of malnutrition. A lack of dietary fibre
causes constipation.
In contrast, over-nutrition occurs when a person consumes more

energy than he can use up, so he becomes fat. Such a person is said to
be obese. Obesity is one of the most important dietary problems in
developed countries.
Over-consumption of saturated fats and cholesterol increases the risk

of coronary heart diseases (Chapter 8). It has been estimated that
every 500 g of fatty tissue in the body requires a supply of about 1 km
of blood vessels. This means the heart has to work harder to pump the
blood round the body of an obese person.
Studies have also indicated that obese people are more likely to suffer
| from diabetes (Chapter15) and have a shorter life expectancy.
Generally, dietary imbalance may be due to:

* Economic constraints (e.g. eating cheaply to stave off hunger)
_* Poor eating habits due to lack of nutritional knowledge
_* Unwillingness to follow nutritional guidelines
(a) A child suffering from malnutrition

Figure 5.11 (b) The same child
A balanced diet after one month’s
can restore the treatment
health of a
malnourished
child.
Nutrition
Organisms need food. because:
a ccm
Uae Aios| Energy and L Juco | Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, |
bees | materials | === ~~ ‘| vitamins, minerals, water and fibre|
@ Vital activities to stay alive. Maintenance of good health

% Growth, development and repair @ Movement
® Carbohydrates ‘eee For synthesis of other organic

@ Carbohydrates are organic Be ee, Ge alnino.acids
and fats.
compounds made up of the elements : .
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The Sugars in nectar attract insects
hydrogen and oxygen atoms are polation. Hs
present in the ratio 2: 1. Carbohydrates can be classified as
shown below.
* Carbohydrates are needed: Test for carbohydrates:
e As a source of energy for the e A reducing sugar gives a red
vital activities of the body. precipitate when heated with
For the synthesis of the Benedict’s solution.
cellulose cell wall in plants. Starch gives a blue-black colour
As constituents of nucleic acid. with iodine.
As constituents of lubricants,
e.g. Mucus.
simple, e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose |}

reducing Sugars
complex, e.g. maitose, lactose and
Carbohydrates sucrose non-reducing sugar
=]
large molecule; forms cell walls in plants. Mammals are unable to
— Ceilulose digest cellulose but herbivores have bacteria in their intestines to
digest it. In other mammals, it forms fibre in their diet.
large molecule made of glucose units linked together; gives a blue-

. . . Rene STELS EE
t— Starch black colour with iodine solution. Serves as the main storage form of
carbohydrate in green plants.
Polysaccharides large molecule made of glucose units linked together; remains a

— Glycogen brown colour with iodine. Serves as the main storage form of
carbohydrate in animals and fungi.
2
ee
» Breaking down and building up reactions » Fats .
which nutrients undergo in the body: Fats are organic compounds made up of
the elements carbon, hydrogen and
@ Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction
oxygen but, unlike carbohydrates, they
whereby water molecules are needed to
contain much less oxygen in proportion
split up a complex molecule into simpler
to hydrogen.
molecules.
@ Fats are hydrolysed to form fatty acids
Condensation is a chemical reaction
and glycerol.
whereby simple molecules are linked
@ Fats are needed:
together to form a bigger molecule with
e As a source of energy.
water being produced.
' BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘0’ Level
e As an insulating material to prevent Importance of water:

excessive heat loss from the skin of e Essential constituent of protoplasm.
mammals. e As a medium for chemical reactions
e As a solvent for fat-soluble vitamins to occur.
and some hormones. e As a solvent for enzymes, food
e As aconstituent of protoplasmic substances, products of excretion,
membranes. etc. so that they can be transported
@ When the ethanol emulsion test is from one part of the body to another.
performed on fats, a cloudy white e Helps to regulate body temperature.
emulsion is formed. e Reactant in hydrolysis and in the
photosynthetic process.
Proteins
@ Proteins are organic compounds made Minerals
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
@ Calcium: Needed for formation of bones
nitrogen. Sulphur and phosphorus are
and teeth.
often present.
@ \lron: Structural component of
# Proteins consist of amino acids linked
haemoglobin. Deficiency results in
together by peptide bonds. When
nutritional anaemia.
proteins are hydrolysed they are first
converted to polypeptides or peptones
A balanced diet contains the right amounts
and then to amino acids.
of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
minerals, water and roughage to meet the
proteins
—» polypeptides (peptones) —» amino acids
daily requirements of the body.
@ Proteins are needed:

e For synthesis of new protoplasm—
hence for growth and repair of worn-
out parts of body.
e For synthesis of enzymes and some
hormones. ~/ Components \
e As a source of energy. of a balanced }
diet
e For synthesis of antibodies.
# Proteins when tested with Biuret
reagent will give a violet colouration.
Energy value of food:

® 1g of carbohydrate yields 16 kJ. Daily Energy Requirement of a human depends on
bs]
@ 14 of protein yields 17 kJ.
@ 14g of fat yields 38 KJ.
BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate) | [ Occupation
Depends on
Vitamins are organic compounds needed by |
the mammalian body to maintain health | |
Climate Size Age Sex Health
and prevent deficiency diseases.
@ Vitamin C (ascorbic acid): » Nutrition and health
e Needed for formation of intercellular @ Malnutrition: the deficient or excessive
substance and maintaining a healthy intake of nutrients.
epithelium. @ Under-nutrition leads to deficiency
¢ Deficiency causes scurvy. diseases, e.g. protein deficiency disease
@ Vitamin D (calciferol): (kwashiorkor).
e Needed for absorption of calcium and @ Over-nutrition leads to obesity. Obesity
phosphorus. increases risk of heart diseases,
¢ Deficiency causes rickets in children. diabetes and shorter life expectancy.
ae
Enquir ing
Te
Reasons for storing glycogen:
What will happen if animal cells store glucose instead?
Give reasons why living organism require Outline the role of proteins in the life of a
food. mammal.
Explain the importance of including fruits Outline the role played by the following in
and fresh vegetabies in our diet. the life of a mammal: Vitamin D, iron and
calcium.
What do you understand by a “balanced
diet”?
Nutrition in Mammals
“LEARNING OB3I
In this chapter, you are going to find out how food is ecesel in ‘the fusaii te
gut, a nine metre long tube which winds through your body from your mouth to
your anus. Using the machine analogy, food enters in a raw state at the top of
this tube and is processed by the digestive system. Material not absorbed by the _
body is then removed when you go to the toilet. Spread your hands and place |
them on your abdomen. Beneath your hands are your stomach and your
intestines where digestion occurs. How can you find out what is going on in
there?
One early attempt to do this started in June 1822 when Alexis St Martin, an American
—
army porter, was shot accidentally by a musket fired from close range. One of the
wounds he suffered was a large hole in his abdomen through which the contents of his
recently eaten breakfast spilled out. Surprisingly, St Martin survived this horrific injury
and became a walking experiment for an army doctor, William Beaumont.
The hole in Alexis’ abdomen never healed properly and Beaumont, therefore, had a
window through which he could enter and study the inner workings of the digestive
system. Initially the hole was plugged with a tightly rolled bandage but eventually, a flap
of skin grew over the hole. This acted like a sort of valve which could be opened and
closed by pressing on it. With Alexis’ consent, Beaumont carried out a series of
experiments through this valve, lasting nine years.
Beaumont tells how he could press on the abdomen above the liver and obtain yellow
bile through the valve. He also removed and analysed stomach contents. This approach
to analysing digestion is also used in animals where tubes, called canulas, are placed
into the stomach or intestines. The contents of the stomach and intestines can then be
removed through these tubes and analysed.
———
wl5
Nowadays, doctors can use X-rays to study the

workings of the human digestive system. Look
at the photograph which shows a picture of
the stomach and intestines taken after the
patient has swallowed a meal containing ions
of the heavy metal barium. X-rays cannot pass
through barium so the areas it has covered
show as white on the X-ray. Can you make out
stomach
the stomach and the intestines?
Another technique, endoscopy, involves

inserting a camera attached to a long tube
( into the stomach through the mouth. Using
fibre optics, this allows the doctors to see se
inside the stomach. This procedure is useful intestines

|
|
in the diagnosis of various medical
conditions such as stomach uicers.
:
:
i ron
Endoscopy A barium meal X-ray showing the
stomach and intestines
——
6.1 Holozoic Nutrition
The intake of food and the processes that convert food substances into
living matter are known as nutrition. Therefore, nutrition comprises Digestion may be physical or
chemical. Physical digestion is
the following:
the mechanical breakdown of
food into smaller particles. This
@ Feeding—the intake of food into the body. increases the surface area of the
food for enzyme action. Chemical
@ Digestion—the process whereby large food molecules are broken
digestion refers to the enzymatic
down into soluble and diffusible molecules that can be absorbed hydrolysis of food substances.
into the body cells.
@ Absorption—the process whereby digested food materials are taken _
into the body cells.
@ Assimilation—the process whereby some of the absorbed
food materials are converted into new protoplasm or used to
provide energy.
Animals feed by ingesting ready-made complex organic matter (solid

or liquid) obtained from other organisms. This mode of feeding on
ready-made complex organic matter is known as holozoic nutrition.
lex organic nutrients and
Most animals have special organs or organ systems for nutrition, e.g.
stion, absorption and
the mouth and the gut. In mammals, the organ system for nutrition is
especially well-developed.
6.2 Mammalian Digestive System
The mammalian digestive system consists of the gut (alimentary

Intestines canal) and the glands associated with it. Food substances are digested
The small intestine comprises the in the alimentary canal. The tubular gut (Figure 6.2) extends from the
duodenum, jejunum and ileum mouth to the anus, with most of its length coiled in the abdominal
while the large intestine is made cavity. The parts of the gut are as follows: mouth and buccal cavity,
up of the caecum, colon and _ pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus.
rectum. In most mammals, the
jejunum and ileum cannot be
distinguished but they are distinct The Mouth and the Buccal Cavity
in Man.
Food enters the body via the mouth which leads into the buccal cavity.
Gland Around the sides and front of the buccal cavity are the upper and
A gland is a cell, a tissue, or an lower jaws. The upper jaw is fixed while the lower jaw is movable.
organ that secretes a chemical These jaws bear four types of teeth: incisors, canines, premolars
substance. Salivary glands are so and molars.
called because they secrete
saliva.
In the mouth, the solid food is broken up into small pieces by the
chewing action of the teeth. The tongue has special sense cells or taste
INVESTIGATION buds which help you to select suitable foods. Three pairs of salivary
glands open into the buccal cavity via ducts. They produce a secretion
gee oll
called saliva which is emptied into the buccal cavity.
ss:
1 Place your fingers |The Pharynx

against your larynx (voice
The pharynx is the part of the gut which leads from the mouth to the
box). i
SE
LE
LESTE
ELE
ESS
PE
IDV
iL oesophagus and to the trachea (windpipe) by way of the larynx or
2 Swallow your saliva. voice-box. The larynx bears a slit-like opening called the glottis.
Write down the details of
what happens to your The pharynx is a common passage for food and air. There is a
throat. possibility of food passing into the trachea during swallowing. This is
3 Account for the _ usually prevented by a piece of flap-like cartilage, the epiglottis. The
movement in your throat. epiglottis is above the larynx, just behind the root of the tongue.
Dan SoA SSA ONSTAR
During swallowing, the

larynx moves up so that the
larynx is covered by the
epiglottis and no food
particles can enter the trachea.
false palate
pharynx Occasionally, small particles
vertebra of food or water may get
into the larynx or trachea.
This automatically produces
a violent coughing to force
- a
epiglottis — the food particles or water
BOC Se
out and to prevent choking.
larynx (voice-box) ————
trachea (windpipe) —
oesophagus Other structures opening
(a) During breathing, the larynx is (b) During swallowing, the larynx is raised
into the pharynx are the
lowered and the glottis, open. and the glottis, closed by the epiglottis. nasal cavities and the
Eustachian tubes from the ears.
The Oesophagus
The oesophagus or gullet is a
narrow, muscular tube continuing
from the pharynx through the
salivary gland
thorax and the diaphragm to the
stomach. Its wal! consists of four - buccal cavity (mouth cavity)
pharynx
salivary gland
layers which occur along the
whole of the remainder of the gut epiglottis
except for the anus. Serehacene
& The outermost layer is a thin
membrane known as the
serous coat. It is moist and
slippery, so that friction is :
reduced when the organs
slide over one another. Hart 5)
eS Next to this are the muscle ie
layers consisting of an outer died agile!
layer of longitudinal muscles Seem Sine eet
and an inner layer of circular pai Bee a
pancreas
muscles. These are called duodenum
smooth muscles. Their
transverse colon
contractions are slow and
sustained. descending colon
& Then comes a layer of blood
vessels and connective tissues ascending colon
called the submucous coat.
Ad The innermost layer is the caecum ileum
mucous layer. It is folded
extensively and contains eprondls
gland cells, some
of which secrete rectum :
mucus which is @
serous 5, longitudinal oe — anus
slimy. Mucus Vim sap responsible
lubricates the food ~ muscle peristalsis Figure 6.3 Part of the gut wall
so it moves more submucous coat & (transverse section)
easily along the gut.
mucous coat 4)
Peristalsis
|
The two layers of Figure 6.4 The squeezing action of
peristalsis moves food along the gut.
smooth muscles cause
rhythmic, wave-like & wandifatse
contractions of the walls of asreas eae
the gut. Such movements, longitudinal
Palen muscle contracts
known as peristalsis move circular muscle relaxes
food along the gut.
The two sets of muscles

work in such a way that | food mass |
when one contracts, the wall constricts (circular muscle contracts, 1 These arrows show the region of contraction
other relaxes. When the ‘longitudinal muscle relaxes) 4 of the wall of the digestive tract.
|
circular muscle contracts,
the longitudinal muscle relaxes. The wall of the gut (e.g. the
intestines) constricts, i.e. becomes narrower but longer. The food is
thus squeezed or pushed forward. When the longitudinal muscle
- contracts, the circular muscle relaxes. The gut dilates, i.e. becomes
_ wider and shorter. This widens the lumen for the food to enter.
The Stomach
The stomach is a distensible muscular bag, with thick and

well-developed muscular walls. It lies immediately beneath
the diaphragm to the left side of the abdominal cavity,
and is partly covered by the liver.
The mucous coat of the stomach wall bears numerous pits,

the walls of which are lined with gastric glands. These glands
secrete gastric juice which plays an important part in
longitudinal digestion.
muscle
Where the stomach joins the small intestine, there is a

muscular valve called the pyloric sphincter. When this
valve contracts, the entrance to the small intestine closes, and
Figure 6.5 Section of the stomach
when it relaxes, the entrance opens, allowing food to pass
wall (stereogram) - into the small intestine.
| The Small Intestine
The small intestine consists of a U-shaped duodenum (the first part of

the small intestine), the jejunum, and the much coiled ileum. In Man,
the small intestine is about six metres long.
The small intestine (as well as
the large intestine) is attached to The lining of the walls of the small intestine contains glands which
the dorsal body wall by means of secrete digestive enzymes. The detailed structure of the wall of the
thin, transparent membranes
_ small intestine is shown in Figure 6.6 on page 92.
_ called mesenteries (note these in
the general dissection of the
guinea pig or rabbit).
Organs and Glands Associated with the Gut
The Liver and the Gall Bladder
The liver is the largest gland in the body. It is dark red and is made up
of five lobes, three on the right and two on the left. It lies immediately
below the diaphragm, to the right side of the body. Its upper surface
touches the diaphragm and the lower surface is in contact with the
stomach and the small intestine. Attached to the lower surface of the
liver are three blood vessels, the hepatic portal vein, the hepatic vein
and the hepatic artery.
The liver cells secrete bile, an alkaline greenish-yellow liquid

containing bile salts and bile pigments which give the bile its colour. It
does not contain enzymes, so it cannot digest food but it aids in the
digestion offats. Bile pigments are waste products and are removed
with the faeces.
Bile is stored temporarily in the gall bladder. The gall bladder is a

greenish-yellow bag attached to the liver. When the gall bladder
contracts, the bile flows into the duodenum via the bile duct.
The liver has many other important functions to perform apart from
its role in digestion (page 95).
The Pancreas
The pancreas is a gland lying in the loop of the duodenum. It is

connected to the duodenum by means of the pancreatic duct. The bile
duct joins the pancreatic duct just before the latter opens into the
duodenum. The pancreas produces pancreatic juice which contains
digestive enzymes. The pancreas also secretes the hormone insulin
which plays an important part in the control of the blood sugar level in
the body and utilization of carbohydrates.
The Large Intestine
The large intestine is shorter but much broader than the small
intestine. The small intestine opens into the large intestine in the right
side of the abdominal cavity. At the junction between the small
intestine and the ascending colon (part of the large intestine) is a small _ The appendix plays no part in
sac, the caecum and the blindly ending appendix. : digestion but can become
_ infected and inflamed, causing
appendicitis.
The large intestine is about 1.5 metres long and consists of
the caecum and the appendix,
the ascending colon running upwards along the right side of the
abdominal cavity,
the horizontal transverse colon, and
the descending colon which runs downwards to join |
$ethe rectum (a short muscular tube).
$94
Faeces (undigested matter) are stored temporarily in the rectum.

When the rectum contracts, the faeces are expelled through the anus.
The main function of the large intestine is to absorb water and mineral
salts from the undigested food material. It also helps to remove
bacteria periodically during egestion (page 93).
INVESTIGATION
62 _ Humans are omnivores and do
The digestive system not digest cellulose. Herbivorous
mammals have microorganisms
1 Examine a model of the human digestive system.
in their gut to digest the large
Then make a labelled drawing of it.
amount of cellulose in their diet.
2 Examine the digestive system of a freshly dissected This digestion occurs in the
caecum and appendix of the
small herbivorous mammal such as a rabbit.
herbivore, e.g. a horse. Thus, a
Identify its various parts.
large caecum and appendix are
3 Compare the two digestive systems and relate the characteristic features of
differences observed to the diet of the two organisms. herbivorous mammals.
SESSA STOTT
6.3 Digestion in Humans
In the Mouth
Digestion involves two distinct
processes: physical digestion and
Food in the mouth stimulates the salivary glands to secrete saliva
chemical digestion.
Physical digestion involves the
which is mixed with the food. The mucin in saliva helps to soften the
breaking up of food into small food while chewing helps to break the food up into smaller pieces.
particles mechanically. This Saliva contains salivary amylase, the enzyme which digests cooked
occurs: starch to maltose. The food is rolled by the tongue into small, slippery,
@ in the mouth when you chew spherical masses or boli (singular: bolus). These are swallowed and
food, and _ enter the oesophagus via the pharynx.
_ @ in the stomach, where
continual contractions and
relaxations of the muscles in In the Oesophagus
the stomach wall cause a
churning action which mixes Each bolus of food passes down the oesophagus into the stomach
and breaks up the food
partly with the help of gravity and partly by the peristaltic movements
particles.
of the oesophageal walls. It takes about 7 seconds to make the journey.
Physical digestion increases the
surface area of the ingested food
enabling digestive enzymes to act In the Stomach
on it more efficiently.
Chemical digestion is the The food in the stomach stimulates the gastric glands to secrete gastric
breaking down of the large Juice into the stomach cavity. Peristalsis in the stomach wall churns the
molecules, such as proteins, _ food and mixes it well with the gastric juice.
starch and fats, contained in food
into small soluble molecules. This
Gastric juice is a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid (about pH = 2)
involves hydrolytic reactions
catalyzed by digestive enzymes.
and two enzymes, rennin and pepsin. The dilute hydrochloric acid
® stops the action of salivary amylase;
® changes the inactive forms of enzymes in the gastric juice to the
active forms;
® provides a slightly acid medium suitable for the action of the
gastric enzymes;
@ kills germs and certain potential parasites.
The gastric enzymes are produced as inactive

hydrochloric acid pepsinogen and prorennin which are converted by the
acid to the active enzymes, pepsin and rennin
pepsin
respectively. Pepsin digests proteins to polypeptides or
peptones. So it must be formed in the inactive state as
pepsinogen. If it were secreted as active pepsin, it would
digest the very cells that produced it!
hydrochloric acid
—— SS Rennin is an enzyme characteristic of mammals. Young
mammals depend solely on milk for food. Rennin clots or
rennin
‘insoluble mil curdles milk proteins by converting the soluble protein
proteins proteins_ caseinogen into insoluble casein. This process requires
; (caseinogen) (casein) calcium ions. The insoluble casein remains long enough
|pepsin | in the stomach to be digested by pepsin. If the milk
proteins were allowed to remain in liquid form, they
would pass through the stomach to the duodenum as
readily as water and would escape digestion by pepsin.
Protein digestion is completed in the ileum.
The food normally remains in the stomach for about three to four
hours. The partly digested food becomes liquefied, forming chyme
which passes in small amounts into the duodenum when the pyloric }
|
sphincter relaxes and opens. Stomach ulcers

In certain abnormal cases,
In the Small Intestine excess hydrochloric acid is
produced and parts of the stomach
wall become eroded, resulting in
In the small intestine, the chyme stimulates
gastric ulcer. Worry can also
@ the intestinal glands to secrete intestinal juice (succus increase the flow of gastric juice
entericus); into the stomach. Ulcers in the
stomach or duodenum were
@ the pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice which passes through
attributed for years to excess
the pancreatic duct into the duodenum; stomach acid. In the past decade
® the gall bladder to release bile. The bile passes through the bile however, evidence that ulcers are
duct into the duodenum. due to infection has accumulated.
Now, many physicians believe
that all duodenal ulcers are
The food now comes in contact with the pancreatic juice, bile and the
related to the bacteria,
intestinal juice. All the three fluids are alkaline. The alkalis neutralize Helicobacter pylori, the bacteria
the acidic chyme and provide a suitable alkaline medium for the action may also play a role in causing
of the pancreatic and intestinal enzymes. stomach ulcers and chronic
gastritis. The catch is that 90% of
The enzymes present are as follows: the people who harbour the
bacteria in their stomachs do not
® Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase have the disease. The remaining
and trypsinogen (protease). 10% of people, who develop
@ Intestinal juice contains enterokinase, erepsin (peptidase), ulcers in the presence of H.
pylori, may have recurrent ulcers
maltase, sucrase (or invertase), lactase and intestinal lipase.
and need treatment to eradicate
the bacteria.
Carbohydrate digestion in the small intestine
~interNET
The food we eat may contain starch and other carbohydrates such as * Ulcers and
lactose, sucrose, and cellulose. Starch digestion begins in the mouth. digestive disorders
As the food does not remain long there, only a little starch is digested
by salivary amylase to maltose. No digestion of carbohydrates occurs
in the stomach. When the carbohydrates enter the small intestine, the
remaining starch is converted by pancreatic amylase to maltose.
Maltose is broken down to glucose by maltase, lactose to glucose and
Digesting cellulose
galactose by lactase, and sucrose to glucose and fructose by sucrase.
Humans do not digest cellulose
because we do not produce the
Thus, the end-products of carbohydrate digestion are simple sugars
enzyme needed for its digestion.
(glucose, fructose, galactose). Cellulose is not digested in our gut.
— Cellulose digestion is important
in herbivores as they live by
eating plants. Cows, for example,
consume vast amounts of grass
pancreatic which consist mainly of cellulose.
amylase maltase
How do cows digest this
cellulose? Well, in actual fact,
they do not do this. Rather, the
lactase cellulose is digested for them by
microorganisms which live in their
stomachs. These microorganisms
sucrase break down the cellulose to
produce products which can then
be absorbed by the cows.
Fat digestion in the small intestine
Bile emulsifies fats, i.e. it lowers the surface tension of the fats and
breaks them up into minute fat globules suspended in water to form a
stable emulsion. This greatly enlarges the surface area of the fats, and
speeds up their digestion. Emulsified fats are digested by lipases
(pancreatic and intestinal lipases) to fatty acids and glycerol. Thus the
end-products of fat digestion are fatty acids and glycerol.
Protein digestion in the small intestine
Some protein digestion begins in the stomach. The undigested

proteins which enter the small intestine are converted by trypsin to
polypeptides. The enzyme trypsin is produced as inactive trypsinogen
in the pancreatic juice. In the intestine, trypsinogen is converted to the
active trypsin by intestinal enterokinase.
| The polypeptides produced are further digested to amino acids by the

enzyme erepsin in the intestinal juice. The end-products of po
digestion are thus amino acids.
enterokinase
cH ._
trypsin
Analysis E
erepsin
Beaumont’s experiment
Table 6.14 Summary of digestion in the human gut

Region of
Secretion Source | Action
digestion
saliva salivary Salivary starch ———® maltose

amylase
emulsifies fats
pancreatic pancreas amylase starch ——»> maltose

juice trypsin proteins ————» polypeptides
lipase fats —— fatty acids and glycerol
Small
intestine
intestinal intestinal enterokinase trypsinogen ——+* trypsin
juice glands maltase maltose ——> glucose
lactase lactose ———® glucose and galactose
SUCrasSe sucrose. < —— glucose and fructose
erepsin polypeptides ———® amino acids
lipase fats ———» fatty acids and glycerol
Digestion of nutrients
41 Complete the flow chart for the
digestion of proteins in your gut
and then answer the questions
i which follow. { i ame
i (a) What three organs produce eae
: enzymes that digest proteins?
(b) Does the action of the
: enzymes produce physical or
| chemical changes in the
proteins?
(c) What is the final result of
protein digestion?
2 Draw similar flow charts to show
how carbohydrates and fats are
digested.
*~) Sequencing
NERS HIATT LAI SSE DRIAL II NE I ALE EEL NIELS ERNE SASLED LEESON IE IEBLED ETDS SSO
6.4 Absorption — f
The digested foods, i.e. simple sugars, amino acids SPUN
ATA
The rate of absorption of digested products S588
and fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by the villi

depends on the following factors:
of the small intestine, especially of the jejunum and
the ileum. @ Surface area—how large it is.
@ Membrane that separates the food
substances from the blood capillaries—
Adaptations of the Small Intestine for | digested food products take a shorter
LIS
REL
ERNE
ELEY
ILS
STL
PLN
Absorbing Digested Food Products | time to pass through a thin membrane

than through a thick one.
The small intestine is well adapted for the 9 DiNusion sragiony (eerie)
absorption of digested food products. The inner
_ 1 Look at Figure 6.6 and state three ways
walls of the small intestine are thrown into
1 in which the surface area of the small
numerous transverse folds and furrows (Figure 6.6).
intestine is increased.
The small intestine also has numerous minute 5 Examine the structure of a villus. How is
finger-like projections called villi, (singular: villus) the epithelium suited for the eee
MORIA
ABSIT
VNS
DS
LOLI
LIND
EATEN
NSE
EMER
IEEE
EY
NUE
LSO
RARE
GIL
PEPER
projecting into the intestinal cavity. These villi Ft fogd cubstancee? 1

further increase the surface area. A microscopic Do tho ailing en ichly supplied with bloo An
examination reveals that the epithelial cells of the capillaries. How does this help to ; :
villi, in turn, bear numerous microvilli. Between the maintain a diffusion gradient for the
bases of the villi are the minute openings of the absorption of digested products?
intestinal glands that secrete intestinal juice. 4 The small intestine is long (about 6 m
in length). How does this help in ¢
The intestinal wall and the villi are richly supplied | digestion and absorption?
with blood vessels and lymphatic vessels to carry
bokpsshalcieendeecahw he Wears
away the absorbed food substances. In each villus is a lacteal or

lymphatic capillary surrounded by blood capillaries. The lymphatic
capillaries of the villi transport fats while the blood vessels transport
Figure 6.6 Fine structure of the small sugars and amino acids away from the intestine. This continual
intestine showing how it is adapted _ transport maintains the diffusion gradient for the absorption of
for both digestion and absorption of
food.
| digested food.
a (a) Feathery pattern of the inner wall of the small (b) Scanning electron micrograph of the small
intestine indicating its extensive folding intestine showing the villi
Epithelial cells digested products

enlarged diffuse into blood
capillaries
microvilli
epithelium
(only one-celled thick)
epithelial cell lymphatic capillary
blood capillaries
intestinal juice
\
intestinal gland
mucosal layer —
to hepatic:
ye j
foldings submucosal layer
y | portal vein
Ae = circular muscle ——
eS \
@, ny N Ss
€ Us
rE ree
longitudinal muscle
serous coat Se a
Section of a villus (highly magnified)
(c) Small intestine with portions cut off to show
transverse folds and villi (d) Structure of a villus
Nutrition in Mammals |
The Process of Absorption

Simple sugars and amino acids pass through the walls of the villi into
the blood capillaries. The blood transports them to other parts of the
body. Mineral salts and vitamins also pass into the blood capillaries of
the villi. Active transport (Chapter 3) plays an important role in the
absorption of the digested products, especially glucose, amino acids
and mineral salts.
Glycerol is soluble in water and it diffuses into the epithelium. On the

other hand, fatty acids react with the bile salts to form soluble soaps,
which then diffuse into the epithelium. In the epithelium, the soaps
and glycerol recombine to form minute fat globules, which are
absorbed by the lymphatic capillaries.
Water and mineral salts are also absorbed by the large intestine. The
undigested and unabsorbed matter is stored temporarily, mainly in the
rectum, before it is discharged as faeces through the anus. This
removal of undigested matter from the body is called egestion
(defaecation).
SILO
EOE SLITS NE
63
Pour a solution
J
cotton thread |
visking tubing.
Fella oces
OOIHAVG CEUs
: : test-tube or
which contains boiling tube
i
equal ; solution of starch
concentrations of and glucose
glucose and starch distilled water,
from which test
into the visking samples are taken
(cellulose) tubing
provided. Ensure
that none of the
|
Deduction
liquid is spilled on the outside of the tubing.
| Tie the open end of the tubing with cotton

thread. Rinse the outside of the tubing with OL
EIEN
ECTS
DEAR
EEE
SEED
PEEPLES
ER
water and then place it in the large test-tube

or boiling tube containing distilled water as in
the figure.
i
REREAD
1 Immediately, using a pipette, remove
eee
a little of the distilled water surrounding Observation | '
the visking tubing. | .
(a) Place a drop of this sample onto a
tile and add a drop of iodine solution.
(o) Use the remainder of the sample to
test with Benedict’s solution. Deduction
2 Repeat the above tests after 5, 10 and

20 minutes. (Before each test, rinse the
pipette thoroughly). =< \A\I
meu,
SLT
LEE
DALE
LEAL
LEA
SRR
ID
PLEDGE
LID
ESE
\ f ha {
ry 4, b\ ( WO POPP Oly bay
+4 ‘ 9 4 Y}
Us Cur &\
Salivary amyiaye Crass
4 Suggest suitable controls for this hg Start (b) Name two enzymes involved in
experiment. POL ate nes carbohydrate digestion and state
5 Assume that visking tubing represents a ©Udioc in which part of the gut they would
mammalian gut wall. be found.
(a) Explain your results in terms of (c) If the visking tubing represents a
digestion and absorption of portion of the mammalian gut, what
carbohydrates in the mammalian would the distilled water represent?
gut. \ Ke (C)
6.5 Assimilation :
The transport and utilization of absorbed foods is known as

assimilation.
Sugars
The blood in the villi is now rich in simple sugars. The blood
capillaries unite to form larger blood vessels, which in turn unite to
form a large vein, the hepatic portal vein (Figure 6.7). This vein
_ transports the sugars to the liver.
In the liver, most of the absorbed sugars are

remaining glucose and
hepatic vein| : amino acids leave liver to be converted into glycogen and stored. However,
‘ _| distributed round the body some glucose is carried in the blood leaving
the liver to be distributed round the body.
Excess glucose changed
to glycogen
Excess amino acids
hepatic artery
Glucose is used by all the cells for energy
deaminated to form urea
production. It is oxidized during tissue
(bringing oxygenated respiration to set free energy for the vital
blood)
activities of the cells. Excess glucose is
stored in the liver as glycogen. The
hepatic portal vein conversion of glucose to glycogen requires a
hormone called insulin (Chapter 15)
mainly sugars and mainly water and produced by the pancreas. When the body
amino acids x as salts
needs glucose for energy production, the
liver converts the stored glycogen back into
glucose which is then carried by the blood
to the cells.
small
Amino Acids
~ large intestine
Figure 6.7 The path of absorbed food

Both sugars and amino acids must pass
substances and the blood vessels
|through the liver before they reach the general blood circulation. The
associated with the liver routes for their transport are the same.
_ Amino acids which enter the cells are converted into new protoplasm
_ and are used for growth and repair of worn-out parts of the body.
_ They are also used for the formation of enzymes and hormones.
Fats
The lymphatic capillaries contain a colourless fluid called lymph.

When fats are absorbed into the lymphatic capillaries, they mix with
the lymph to give a milky fluid called chyle. The lymphatic capillaries Other important functions of
join to form larger lymphatic vessels, which discharge the chyle into - the liver :
the bloodstream. The blood carries the fats to all parts of the body.
Protein synthesis
Fats, before they are used, are brought to the liver where they are | The liver manufactures plasma
_ proteins from dietary amino
converted to forms that can be oxidized or stored. Under normal
acids. These proteins include
conditions when there is an adequate supply of glucose, fats are not albumins, globulins, and those
oxidized. They are used to build protoplasm, for example, in cell _ essential for clotting of blood like
membranes. Excess fats are stored in special tissues called adipose fibrinogen.
tissues (fat storage and insulating tissues) which occur beneath
the skin, around the heart, the kidneys and in the mesenteries _ fron storage
binding the intestines. _ The red blood cells of the body
- become worn out after some
Under certain circumstances, for example, in fasting, when there is an time. These cells are not
nucleated and are destroyed in
inadequate supply of glucose, the fats are oxidized to provide the the spleen and their haemoglobin
energy for the vital activities of the body. __ is brought to the liver. The liver
_ breaks down the haemoglobin
and stores the iron released in
The Liver: Functions Associated with Digestion and the process. Bile pigments are
Assimilation also formed from the breakdown
_ of the haemoglobin.
Production of bile Detoxication
The liver plays an important part in the digestion of fats by secreting Harmful substances may be
absorbed into the blood from the
bile, which is stored temporarily in the gall bladder before use.
gut. These substances (e.g.
benzoic acid, picric acid and
Regulation of blood glucose concentration chloroform) are made harmless
by the liver cells. The process of
The liver keeps the amount of glucose in the blood constant. Blood converting harmful substances
normally contains about 70-90 mg of glucose/100 cm of blood. After _ into harmless ones is known as
detoxication. Alcohol is also
a heavy meal, the glucose content in the blood rises. As the blood
broken down in the liver.
passes through the liver, the excess glucose is converted to insoluble
glycogen and stored. The blood leaving the liver contains a fairly Heat production
constant amount of glucose. When the tissue cells of the body are in
Heat is produced as a result of
need of glucose, they obtain it from the blood. As a result, the glucose numerous chemical activities
level in the blood drops. This induces the liver to convert the glycogen occurring in the liver. This heat is
in it back to glucose which enters the blood. In this way, the glucose distributed by the blood to other
level in the blood rises to normal. The deposition and mobilization of parts of the body, thus helping to
glycogen are under the control of the hormones insulin and adrenaline maintain the body temperature.
(Chapter 15). The above points show that the

liver is the major organ involved
The glucose level in the blood accounts for the feelings of hunger. in the regulation of body
Long after a meal or in fasting, the glucose level in the blood drops chemistry.
below average. When the brain receives blood low in glucose, it is
stimulated to send impulses to the empty stomach. Strong contractions
of the empty stomach occur and these are the hunger pangs we
experience. When the blood glucose level rises, e.g. shortly after a
meal, the strong contractions in the stomach stop, and so the hunger
pangs disappear.
Deamination of amino acids
Excess amino acids are brought to the

liver where their amino groups are
| NH,—CH — COOH removed and converted to urea. The
remains of the deaminated amino
\ acids are converted into glucose in the
amino group carbon residue liver. Any excess glucose formed in
this way is converted to glycogen.
; ammonia
(toxic to cells) glucose
y
urea glycogen
(non toxic, excreted (stored in liver
in urine) and muscles)
» Mammals exhibit a holozoic mode

Mouth
of nutrition. Anus chewing and
egestion or action of
defaecation salivary
Concept map (on the right) amylase
showing the parts of the Oesophagus

(food passe
human gut and their
functions
Peristalsis is the rhythmic

wave-like contractions of the absorption of
water and
walls of the gut. It is caused mineral salts Smail intestine
by the alternate contractions of (a) Digestion
the circular and longitudinal e action of bile
e action of pancreatic enzymes
muscles (Smooth muscles) in the ® action of intestinal enzymes
walls. It helps to push the food along ==(b) Absorption of digested
the gut. 4
» List of digestive juices, their sources and contents
Saliva Salivary glands Salivary amylase and mucin
Gastric juice Gastric glands in stomach Rennin, pepsin and hydrochloric acid
Pancreatic juice Pancreas Pancreatic amylase, trypsin and lipase
Intestinal juice Intestinal glands in Enterokinase, maltase, lactase, sucrase,

small intestine erepsin and lipase
ins and fats are:
amylase in saliva maltase in intestinal juice
amylase in pancreatic juice
pepsin in gastric juice i— . erepsin in intestinal juice

proteins ' se polypeptides |—________
_ , amino acids
trypsin in pancreatic juice
Cae lipase in pancreatic and intestinal juice

fats —_—» fatty acids and glycerol
mectes
paihates
diffusion gradient for absorption;
seats ae
ge Bs
ya “=bade
- portal vein brings
nutrients from intestine
5 eat ae proteins ||urea i

‘ é eee || harmless :
glucose Sei Sy = gue le = substances
(when sll / a — z !
glucose
in blood)
heat from
metabolic
reactions
e eo
Hepatic vein carries
puesto rest of oFppay
yap
‘ee
Reagents required
Method used
Teeebees
aes PRESETS,
Results: Record your observations and deductions in the form of a table. )

ik { QIVYA\ Vay < Dre e1yy
Es) xercise
VeCH ,Crna (ror ut Puy att
(a) Describe four ening processes that 5
take place in the buccal cavity. vs
(b) Explain the reasons for parents saying
to their children, “Do not speak with
your mouth full; you will choke”.
(c) Describe how food is moved through the
oesophagus to the stomach.
(C)
of
activity
Rate
enzyme
(a) Draw a fully labelled diagram of a
section of a villus in the small intestine
of amammal.
(60) Explain how digested food substances
are absorbed into the body.
The effects of pH on the activity of three
Describe the digestive processes occurring different enzymes A, B and C, in the human
during the passage of food through the gut body are shown in the figure above.
of a mammal from the oesophagus to the
(a) Which enzyme, A, B or C, is produced
rectum.
n (i) the duodenum, (ii) the stomach?
(C) (6b) Give reasons for your answer to (a).
(a) What part does the liver play in the
(c) Name.an enzyme that is represented by
digestion and utilization of food
B. State the substrate it acts on and
substances?
the products of the reactlon oc uias
(b) What are the functions of bile in the
small intestine?
CHAPTER. dis
(aap msSOSatti
Nutrition in Plants
BJECTIVES
LEARNING O able to:
work in this chapter, you will be a
:
3oceess of P tosynthesis and expla in the need es
eae senses
in e th e pr ophyll , and the production 0 Buy OF
ye Outl ae chior opny" !;
di ox id e, su nlight an d and the |
carbon nthesis
factors needed for photosy
the various
» Investtigate
limiting, fact s. or
r life on eart
h.
essential fo ‘i
wh photosynthe sis iS f0 nd in: a leaf.
ious cellular and tissue structures
ss ea label the vari
Id en ti fy and to photosynthesis.
ee
y» the leaf | p :
of
> Relate the aaap daptations of the structure
ei ere nutrition, in par i
minerals and t
the importance soe g the nee d for such
xplainin
minera|ls.
z ee ts ca us ed by a lack O £
or oft an
ple
de
e ficienes
Plants are vital to humans. We eat them, use them to make things like paper and
cloth, and they supply an enormous number of drugs. Understanding as much as
we can about plants is essential if we are to ensure
for example, that there will be enough food for
f everyone in the next century. You already know
| about plant cells. In this chapter, you are going to find
out how plants feed. It is only very recently that
biologists have begun to work this out.
So where do you think plants get their food from?

The Ancient Greeks observed that fertilizing the soil
increased plant growth, and that the lives of the
animals they kept depended upon the food (ie. these
plants) they ate, so they reasoned that plants must
> eat the soil”. How could we test this idea that plants
are “soil eaters”? What sort of an experiment could
you do? This was the question asked by the Dutch
i physician Jan-Baptista van Helmont. He carried out
an experiment of amazing ingenuity to test the idea
How do plants feed?

100
that plants get their food ae
the soil.
The details of his experiment

are shown in the diagram.
Look carefully at the UES:
given for the masses. . 5 years later
ae ov much diden mass

_ of the willow tree increase over
leaves shed
the five years of the experiment? in 4 autumns
By how much did the mass of (not weighed)
the soil decrease?

Do plants get their food from
“eating” the soil?
Suggest another hypothesis
which could explain how the tree Jan-Baptista van Helmont’s willow experiment 4
grew so much but the mass of the
soil decreased so little.
) ° Predicting 4
| ¢ Making deductions,
7.1 Photosynthesis :
In order to live or to perform the various vital functions of the body, a
_ living organism must be provided with sufficient energy. This energy is
_ obtained from energy-yielding foods. Animals are constantly in search
of food, and there is an endless struggle for survival. If we trace a food
chain (Chapter 18), we will always come at some point to green plants.
_ So where do green plants obtain the energy and the raw materials
required for the building of plant matter?
_ We can put this in a slightly different way. How do plants make

_ organic molecules and where do they get the energy they need to
| make those organic molecules? In particular, where do plants get the
carbon to make organic molecules? Experiments have shown that
_ plants can grow well with their roots in a carbon-free solution of
_ mineral salts. The water and mineral salts that the plants obtain from
_ the soil are not rich in energy, unlike the energy-rich compounds such
_as carbohydrates found in the plant body. Furthermore, the plant is
clearly not getting carbon from the water needed to make the carbon-
rich organic molecules, such as cellulose, found in their bodies.
In view of the above, the energy and carbon in the plant body must
therefore have come from sources other than the soil. We know that
_ air contains carbon dioxide.
—@ Could air be the source of carbon for green plants?

Nutrition in Plants )
Green plants are exposed to sunlight in the day.

101
® Could sunlight be the source of energy for green plants?
We have asked two questions which might provide us with the

answers we are looking for. If carbon dioxide and sunlight are the ‘up the organic
sources of carbon and energy for making carbohydrates, olecules it requires from
@ how is the energy in sunlight transformed into the chemical si norganic molecules, such
energy stored in carbohydrate molecules, and |
@ how is the inorganic carbon dioxide in the air converted into these many autotrophic
large organic carbohydrate molecules? s is light energy, in
e type of nutrition is
The answer is an amazing process called photosynthesis (Greek: utotrophic nutrition:
toautotrophs. For
photos = light; synthesis = putting together or manufacture), the process ource of energy
on which practically all life on earth ultimately depends. hemical reactions
e organisms are
To find out whether sunlight and carbon dioxide are needed to make
carbohydrates, we have to design experiments to verify them. But,
before you can do that, you need to have certain basic knowledge ¢ nutrition, as
autotrophic nutrition,
about photosynthesis. |
Basic Knowledge Required for Doing

Photosynthetic Experiments | tion (Chapter 6) is one type
eons Fd
& The simplest carbohydrates are sugars. If photosynthesis has |
taken place then sugars must first be formed from carbon
dioxide.
® If sugars are formed faster than they are used up, the excess
sugars are changed to starch for storage. Starch formation is not
photosynthesis. It can occur even in the roots or underground
storage organs.
ca In darkness, when photosynthesis stops, enzymes in the leaves
change starch to sugars which are transported to other parts of
the plant. To destarch or remove the starch in leaves, you can put
the plants in darkness for about two days.
For convenience, people usually

Making carbohydrates ; test for the presence of starch in
iv: ; leaves to show that excess
We learnt about carbohydrates in Chapter 5. A simple sugars have been produced by
carbohydrate, like glucose, has the chemical formula C,H,,0, photosynthesis. Starch may be
whilst carbon dioxide has the chemical formula CO,. — identified by the iodine test.
(Investigation 7.1)
1 How many carbon atoms does one molecule of glucose
contain? How many molecules of carbon dioxide will be For experiments in photosynthesis,
needed to make one molecule of glucose in terms of number you may need to make sure that
of carbon atoms? at the beginning of the experiment,
2 What chemical element does a carbohydrate molecule Starch is absent from the leaves.
So if starch is formed in these
contain that is not found in carbon dioxide? leaves at the end of the
3. This element is not found in the air. Suggest where a experiment then photosynthesis
pla mayntobtain this element from. must have taken place.
_ Hint: Look carefully at the name, carbohydrate. ]
Ai Then remove one leaf and test it for starch

as described in Investigation 7.1.
To test for starch in a leaf Why is this step necessary?
1 Remove a green leaf from a plant that has 3 Sandwich a leaf, which is still attached to
been exposed to sunlight for a few hours. the plant, between two pieces of black
paper. Each paper has a certain pattern cut
2 Immediately put the leaf in boiling water for out from it. Fasten the papers with paper
2 minutes. Why do you need to do this? clips. Place the plant in strong sunlight.
[Ciue: Recall knowledge (3) on page 101.]
3 Put the boiled leaf in a boiling tube
containing some alcohol or ethanol. Place
the boiling tube in a beaker of hot water.
Caution: Never
heat the tube of
alcohol directly
with a Bunsen
flame. Turn off
the Bunsen
After a few hours, remove the leaf and test
flame before
it for starch.
putting the tube
in hot water. Make a drawing of the leaf to show the
Alcohol is highly regions that are stained blue black.
flammable.
What conclusion can you draw from this
investigation?
4 What is the colour of the alcohol
(a) before the leaf is put in, and
(6) 10 minutes after the leaf is put in?
5 What is the colour of the leaf after 10
To find out whether carbon dioxide is
minutes?
necessary for photosynthesis
6 What has the alcohol done to the leaf?
1 Destarch two potted plants as in the
The leaf is now very brittle. Gently remove
previous experiments.
the leaf and put it back into the hot water.
This softens the leaf and makes it more Cover the pots with polythene bags. Secure
permeable to iodine. them tightly to the plant stem to prevent
carbon dioxide from escaping from the soil.
8 Remove the leaf and place it in a petri
dish. Add a few drops of iodine to the Place one pot in the bell jar as shown in the
leaf. Explain your observation. To diagram on the next page.
The soda lime absorbs carbon dioxide from

12 the air. Only air without carbon dioxide
passes into the bell jar. The dish of
To find out whether sunlight is necessary for potassium hydroxide in the jar absorbs the
carbon dioxide in the jar.
photosynthesis
Place the whole apparatus in strong sunlight
1 Destarch a potted plant by placing it in a for a few hours.
dark place for about 2 days.
Nutrition in Plants
103
6 Suggest an explanation for your observation.
15,
.To find out what gas is given off during
photosynthesis
1 Obtain some freshwater plants, e.g. Hydrilla

or Elodea.
2 Place the water plants under an inverted
filter funnel in a beaker of water as shown
in the diagram. Make sure that no air is
trapped in the test-tube at the beginning of
the experiment.
5 Set up a control with pebbles instead of
soda lime, and water in the dish in the bell 3. Dissolve a little sodium hydrogen carbonate
jar. Place the control apparatus in sunlight. in the water in the beaker. This provides
carbon dioxide to the plant.
(This control contains all the conditions
essential for photosynthesis.)
6 After a few hours, remove a leaf from each
plant. Test them for starch.
7 What do you observe?

8 What conclusion can you draw from the
experiment?
Ly Place the apparatus in strong sunlight for a

To find out whether chlorophyll is necessary
few hours.
for photosynthesis
5 Set up a control in the same way but place
1 Destarch a plant with variegated leaves, e.g. it in darkness.
Duranta in darkness for two days. (In a 6
1
You will notice that gas bubbles form on the
variegated leaf only certain parts are green, leaves in the beaker placed in sunlight. &
the rest of the leaf does not contain These bubbles will rise up the test-tube and 2
chlorophyll.) displace the water downwards. When the :

2 Expose the plant to strong sunlight for a few tube is about half filled with the gas remove i
hours. the tube by placing a thumb over its mouth.
3 Remove one leaf. Make a drawing to show 7 Test the gas with a glowing splinter. Record
the distribution of the green parts, i.e. the your observation.
LER
ERLE
MEE
END
parts that contain chlorophyll. 8 What gas is given off by the water plants
pra
4 Kill the leaf, decolourise it and test it for exposed to sunlight?
Sey 9 What happens in the control experiment? |

ESENEI
SEMecca
5 Make a drawing of the leaf to show the ene

distribution of the blue-black colour. Am
Compare this with your drawing in (3) above.
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Conditions Essential for Photosynthesis
Investigations 7.1 to 75 demonstrate the necessity for sunlight, carbon

dioxide and chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
Another factor affecting photosynthesis is temperature. Photosynthesis

depends on enzyme reactions in the chloroplasts. The effect of
temperature on enzyme activity has already been considered in
Chapter 4. Therefore, a suitable temperature is required for
photosynthesis to occur.
Water is also essential for photosynthesis. However, it is beyond the

scope of this book to demonstrate the necessity of water for
photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages

Photosynthesis Photosynthesis occurs in two stages, namely the light-dependent
stage and the light-independent or dark stage.
iscovered that: In the light stage, light energy is absorbed by the chlorophyll and then
Sis uses carbon converted into chemical energy. Light energy is also required to split
_ the water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen, i.e. photolysis of
requires light
_ water. Note that all the oxygen is derived from water.
releases
The hydrogen produced is then used to reduce carbon dioxide to

senyee carbohydrate (glucose). The chemical energy required for this process
to occur comes from the light stage. Since the formation of glucose
oxygen released during _ from carbon dioxide does not directly require light, it is called the dark
ynthesis comes from
_ stage or, more correctly, light-independent stage. Enzymes play a
part in the dark stage.
Photosynthesis is the process whereby light energy is absorbed by

chlorophyll and transformed into chemical energy used in the
synthesis of carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen
__ Is liberated during the process. Water and carbon dioxide are the
raw materials for photosynthesis.
Shit ae la See
Thetsist sowie sons sent ereeanenh
asiceestoess Sy
——el
See ae went
Se eel
light energy )
epender
or dark stage
carbon dioxide
Thus, in photosynthesis, the active energy of light is transformed and

stored in the carbohydrate molecules. The first stable form of
Nutrition in Plants
carbohydrates formed during photosynthesis is glucose. It has been

found that all the oxygen evolved in photosynthesis comes from water 105
as shown in equation (b). To form 1 glucose molecule, 12 molecules of
See page10
water are split to yield 6 molecules of oxygen and 24 atoms of
hydrogen. The hydrogen is used to reduce 6 molecules of carbon
and(c).
dioxide to form 1 molecule of glucose and 6 molecules of water as
shown in equation (c). Combining equations (b) and (c), we have an
overall equation for the process:
OR (simplyasa word equation) =

carbon dioxide + water 9=§ ————
The actual process is much more complicated than that represented by

the above equation. Many intermediate steps are involved before
glucose is formed. Based on present-day knowledge, what do you
think is wrong with the old equation given below?
Old equation —
Are all the wavelengths of light used in photosynthesis?
Ifa spectrum of light is passed through a chlorophyll extract it will be

found that not all the colours of light are absorbed to the same extent.
Most of the light in the blue and red regions of the spectrum is |
A (absorption spectrum)
B (action spectrum: rate of

photosynthesis)
of
photosynthesis
rate
or
Amount
light
of
absorbed
violet blue blue- green yellow orange red

green
Wavelength of light
Figure 7.1 Comparison between absorption spectrum and action spectrum

of chlorophyll
absorbed. Green light is hardly absorbed at all. Chlorophyll appears

green because it reflects most of the green light. An absorption
spectrum showing the extent to which different wavelengths of light
ie
are absorbed by chlorophyll is illustrated in Figure 7.1 (Graph 4).
Light and photosynthesis
Light is absorbed by the pigment
Are all the wavelengths of light absorbed by chlorophyll used in
chlorophyll. Light moves in waves photosynthesis? Experiments have been performed by exposing green
and its energy is contained in leaves to lights of different colours and then measuring the rate of
packets called photons. The photosynthesis in each case. These give us an action spectrum
energy of a photon is inversely
(Figure 7.1, Graph B). It shows us that blue and red lights are the
proportional to the wavelength of
the light: the longer the
most effective wavelengths in photosynthesis. By plotting the action
wavelength, the less energy per spectrum and the absorption spectrum together, we can see the close
photon. Sunlight consists of a similarity between the two. The wavelengths that are absorbed most
spectrum of colours of light. Red effectively (i.e. the blue and red lights) by chlorophyll are also the
light (longest wavelength) and wavelengths that give the highest rates of photosynthesis.
blue light (shortest wavelength)
are the most effective for
photosynthesis and these Limiting factors
wavelengths are mostly absorbed
As explained in Chapter 4, any factor that directly affects a process if
by chlorophyll.
its quantity is changed is called a limiting factor. The rate of
photosynthesis is affected by external factors such as the concentration
_ of carbon dioxide, light intensity and temperature. The effects of these
factors on the rate of photosynthesis are shown in Figure 7.2.
Consider Graph 1. Initially, as the light intensity

increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases from 0
344
to A. Here light is the limiting factor. Beyond point 4,
= | light is no longer the limiting factor since the rate
remains constant even though the light intensity
increases. Some other factor, possibly the temperature
or the carbon dioxide concentration, becomes the
limiting factor that causes the levelling off of the
graph along AB.
of
Rate
photosynthesis
0.03% CO, at 20°C Increasing the temperature from 20 °C to 30 °C, with
in tne qr the carbon dioxide concentration remaining constant,
O
—+ | does not bring about an appreciable increase in the
Light intensity
rate as shown in Graph 2. This shows that
Figure 7.2 Effects of various factors temperature is not the actual limiting factor. But,
on the rate of photosynthesis
_ when the temperature remains constant and the carbon dioxide
concentration of the environment is raised to 0.13%, the rate of
_ photosynthesis increases to a very great extent, as shown in Graph 3.
_ This indicates that carbon dioxide concentration is the limiting factor in
AB in Graph 1.
In fact, under natural conditions, carbon dioxide is an important

limiting factor since atmospheric carbon dioxide remains constant at
about 0.03%. It is only under experimental conditions that its
concentration can be raised well above 0.03%.
f photosynthesis are
re, water availability, The limiting factor in EF in Graph 3 is the temperature of the
ee
surroundings. Increasing the temperature from 20 °C to 30 °C causes an
centration of carbon dioxide. appreciable increase in the rates of photosynthesis as shown in Graph 4,
though the carbon dioxide concentration remains constant at 0.13%.
Nutrition in Plants |
To investigate the effect of different

light intensities on the rate of
photosynthesis
1 Cut out a piece of water plant about

5 cm long. (Hydrilla, Cabomba or
Elodea is suitable for the experiment.)
2 Set up the apparatus as shown in the
diagram with the cut end of the plant
facing upwards.
From your investigation,

what is the effect of light
intensities on
photosynthesis? (The
experiment is based on
the assumption that the
higher the rate of air
water Aes lanypalrieatestats bubbles given off, the
eg. ana) 3 (e.g. 60W bulb) | higher the rate of
photosynthesis.)
water bath (tokeep Q Why is sodium hydrogen

temperature constant) carbonate solution used
instead of water?
TSANG
GNI
PES
NS
ORY
BERS
SERIE
ETE
LPL
EGR!
LE
LLL
SEY
TOR
EOE
IE
ENOL
RIO
ELE
GSS
TILE
SRB
SLT
AA
IE
DEERE
EDS,
NITES
ETEIII
OLLLEEY
E CLE
1
3 Place a lamp (e.g. 60 W bulb) about 50 cm
from the plant.
4 Air bubbles are given out from the cut end

of the plant. Allow some time for the plant To investigate the effect of different
Sspcree
to adapt to the conditions provided before temperatures on the rate of photosynthesis
taking readings. When they are coming
Repeat steps (1) and (2) as in Investigation 7.6.
out at a regular rate count the number of
air bubbles over a period of time, say 3 Place a lamp (e.g. 60 W bulb) 10 cm from
5 minutes. Repeat this a few times to the plant. Keep this distance constant
obtain the average rate. throughout the investigation.
RSS
ANSSORES
ESE
RE
5 Repeat step (4) with the light source closer 4 Add ice-cold water to the water bath to keep
to the plant, say 40 cm, 30 cm, 20 cm and the temperature at 5 °C.
10 cm. Note that every time the light source 5 Allow some time for the plant to adapt to
is placed nearer the beaker, the plant is the conditions given. When the bubbles are
exposed to a higher light intensity. coming out at a regular rate, count the
6 Tabulate your results. number of air bubbles over a period of
5 minutes.
Plot a graph to show the rate of bubbling
against the distance between the lamp and Record your results in the table on the next
the plant. page.
108
To investigate the effect of different carbon

dioxide concentrations on the rate of
photosynthesis
Repeat steps (1) and (2) as in Investigation 7.6

and (3) as in Investigation 7.7.
4 Conduct the experiment at room

temperature.
5 Use different concentrations of sodium
6 Repeat step (5) at different temperatures,
hydrogen carbonate solutions: 0.01 M,
CetOr G2 GSD 3Cy 45°C 557°C.
0.02 M, 0.03 M, 0.04 M, 0.05 M, 0.06 M
OS °C and 7.5: °C.
up to O.1 M. (These are proportional to
7 Tabulate your results. the carbon dioxide concentrations in the
solution.)
8 Plot a graph to show the rate of bubbling
against the temperature. 6 When bubbles are coming out regularly,
measure the rate of bubbling in the
9 From your investigation, what is the effect
experiment for each concentration of
of increasing the temperature from 5 °C to
sodium hydrogen carbonate solution.
Sorc
¢ Plot a graph to show the rate of bubbling
10 What is the temperature at which the rate
against the concentration of the solution.
of bubbling is the fastest?
8 How do the concentrations of sodium
11 What happens when the temperature is
hydrogen carbonate solutions affect the
increased beyond the optimum
rate of photosynthesis?
: temperature?
SOS
y ane
SLO
EASES
TIRES
IND
AE
Seas
ES
AA
RES
REE
STG
CE
IRS
ANT
RIE
ET
OI
ATR
ARSEII
SRS ARS RS SESS | 4 & & ‘§
REREAD RAASLAN AERIALS BAI IR NDIA TINN WD OPES LISS SARWAN:
(
5 The experiment could have been used to
show the necessity of one factor essential
N
| 1 You are provided with two colourless leaves
cance
for photosynthesis. Name two such possible
labelled LA and LB. factors.
' 2 Describe practical details to make them 6 Which leaf could serve as a control? Give
colourless after they had been removed your reason.
from the plant on which they grew. Give a
reason for each stage in your description. RENT
SPIES
LS
LILY
NLL
DOLE
NOTE
—— blue-black
3 A few drops of iodine solution were added
to the two leaves. The results of each leaf
are shown on the right.
4 From the appearance of the two leaves TEES
EE
TIO
LEE
OLE
SISTER
| stained with iodine, how do you think the

t leaves were treated before they were
| plucked from the plants?
LA LB
Chapter Vitis ase)
Nutrition in Plants
The Fate of Glucose in Leaves |

What happens to the glucose formed during photosynthesis? Figure 7.3
summarizes the fate of glucose.
ay | ey =| Cellular
| carbon dioxide and water : respiration
|Forming
: protoplasm,
Nitrates e.g. cell
absorbed a
from soil
Glucose in
- Green Leaves
Amino
acids
in leaves
= Used in tissue Transported to

respiration to 3: other parts of plan
provide energy to e.g. to growing
for cellular Peer transported to 342 New protoplasm | organs, for
activities, or storage organs, | in leaves protoplasm
for formation of é.g. seeds, tubers, synthesis or for
cellulose cell walls corms, etc. storage as proteins
ee Figure 7.3 The fate of glucose in

@ When glucose is first formed in the leaf, it is used by the cells _ leaves
during tissue respiration to provide energy for cellular activities. |
@ It is used to make cellulose cell walls.
@ Excess glucose is converted to sucrose which is transported to |
storage organs, e.g. the seeds, stem tubers, root tubers and corms,
to be stored as starch or in other forms, depending on the plant. In |
the sugarcane plant, it is stored in the stem as sucrose. |
@ During the day, the rate of photosynthesis is so great that sugars
are formed faster than they can be removed. A large amount
accumulates in the leaf and is converted into starch for temporary
storage in the leaf. At night, photosynthesis stops and the starch is
reconverted by enzymes in the leaf to simple sugar.
@ The glucose in the leaf can react with nitrates and other mineral
salts brought to the leaf to form amino acids. These are then
combined to form proteins, which are converted into new
protoplasm within the cells.
Excess amino acids are stored as proteins in the leaves, or they are
carried to the growing regions of the plant (e.g. the stem and the
root apices) where they are used to build new protoplasm or
stored as proteins.
@ Fats are also formed from glucose in the leaves. Some of the sugars
110
that reach the storage organs may also be converted to fats and
stored within these organs.
The Digestion and Utilization of Stored Food in

Plants
Proteins, fats and starch are derived from the glucose formed in leaves.
Any excess is stored as insoluble products in the storage organs. When
needed, the cells in the storage organs produce enzymes to digest the
stored food into soluble and absorbable substances. Starch is digested
by diastase to maltose and maltose by maltase to glucose. Glucose may
be changed to sucrose and transported away. Proteins are changed to
polypeptides and amino acids by pepsin and erepsin respectively. Fats
are digested to fatty acids and glycerol.
The digested food materials are carried to all parts, especially the
growing zones, of the plant. Sugar and digested fats are used mainly
for energy production. Some sugars are used for the building up of cell
walls. Amino acids are assimilated to form new protoplasm.
Though plants have no digestive system, the digestive processes are

similar to those of animals.
The Importance of Photosynthesis

_ @ During photosynthesis, carbohydrates are formed. From
carbohydrates, fats, proteins and other organic compounds are
formed. All these food substances eventually become the food of
animals, since animals depend directly or indirectly upon plants.
@ Sunlight is the ultimate source of energy for living things. It is
during photosynthesis that radiant energy is converted to
chemical energy, which is stored within the carbohydrate
Animals depend directly or indirectly molecules. When animals feed on plants, they obtain this energy
on green plants for food. directly from them.
@ Coal is a “fossil” fuel formed from
trees and it contains a store of
energy derived from sunlight
through photosynthesis. When
coal is burnt, the energy is set free.
We use this energy in cooking, in
driving machines to work and so
on.
@ Photosynthesis helps to “purify”
the air in the sense that it removes
carbon dioxide from the air. At the
same time it produces oxygen.
This oxygen is used by living
organisms in respiration and thus
is used to sustain most life forms.
Nutrition in Plants
4.2 The Leaf: Nature’s Food-Making Factory 111
The leaf is sometimes referred to as one of the principal “factories” of

the world because it is the organ in which photosynthesis occurs. It is
also the organ where other food substances such as fats and proteins
are formed. These substances eventually become the food of all other
living organisms, either directly or indirectly.
As a “factory”, the leaf must be well-equipped with the machinery of

food manufacture. A close examination of a leaf shows that it is indeed
well adapted to its function of food making.
As a whole, a typical green leaf consists of the leaf blade or lamina,

the petiole or leaf stalk and the leaf base.
The petiole holds the lamina away from the stem so that the lamina
can obtain sufficient sunlight and air. In some leaves (e.g. grasses,
maize) the petiole is absent. These leaves have long laminae.
The lamina of the leaf has a large flat surface compared to its volume.
This enables it to obtain the maximum amount of sunlight for
photosynthesis. A thin, expanded lamina also means that carbon
dioxide can rapidly reach the inner cells of the leaf.
Venation
Veins carry water and minerals salts to the cells

in the lamina and carry manufactured food from
it to other parts of the plant. In a simple leaf,
such as that of Hzdzscus, there is a main vein
(mid-rib) giving off branches repeatedly, _ branch veins
forming a network of fine veins. >
See
Internal Structure of the Lamina
A transverse section of a leaf (Figure 7.5(b))

shows that the lamina on either side of the mid-
rib has an upper epidermis. This is made up
of a single layer of closely packed cells, covered
on the outside by a cuticle. The cuticle protects
the leaf, prevents excessive evaporation of water,
and “focuses” the light onto the mesophyll
layers. Figure 7.4 External features of a
simple dicotyledonous leaf
The mesophyll lies just below the upper epidermis. This region is
the main site of photosynthesis. Two regions of the mesophyll can
be recognized, namely the palisade tissue and the spongy tissue.
The palisade tissue consists of one or two layers of closely packed,
long and cylindrical cells with their long axes at right angles to the
epidermis. These cells contain numerous chloroplasts which enable
them to absorb maximum sunlight for photosynthesis. Chloroplasts

are oval-shaped structures which contain chlorophyll. The cells of the
spongy tissue are irregular in shape and they are loosely arranged so
that numerous large intercellular air spaces occur among them. They
also contain chloroplasts.
Below the mesophyll is the lower epidermis which, like the upper
epidermis, also consists of a single layer of closely packed cells covered
by an outer layer of cuticle. The lower epidermis contains many
minute openings called stomata (singular: stoma). In most
dicotyledons, the stomata are more abundant in the lower epidermis
of the leaf. The stoma (Figure 7.6) is bounded by two guard cells.
Figure 7.5 Structure of a leaf
/ : chloroplasts
(a) A dorsi-ventral leaf sue =
upper |.
epidermis
petiole
palisade
cells
nucleus
T.S. of leaf
(b) Portion of the lamina as seen under } ee

the microscope (T.S.)
(c) Scanning electron micrograph of a section

of a leaf
PS
RES
spongy phloem
mesophyll
lower —
epidermis
me arrows show
path of water
cell vapour
|
stomatal pore
Nutrition in Plants
The guard cells differ from the epidermal cells in the following aspects: |
| 113
@ The guard cells are bean-shaped in surface view, while the
epidermal cells are irregular in shape.
# The guard cells contain chloroplasts, so they can manufacture
food by photosynthesis. (The epidermal cells do not contain
chloroplasts.)
@ Guard cells are the only epidermal cells which can make sugar.
According to one theory, in sunlight the concentration of
potassium ions (K*) increases in the guard cells. This, together
with the sugars formed, lowers the water potential in the guard
cells. As a result, water from other cells enters the guard cells by
osmosis so they swell and become turgid. Because the guard cells
have a thicker cellulose wall on one side of the cell, i.e. the side — mner Side
around the stomatal pore, the swollen guard cells become more
curved and pull the stoma open.
At night, the sugar is used up and water leaves the guard cells, so they
become flaccid and the stomatal pore closes. In this way, they reduce
the amount of water vapour escaping from the leaf. Figure 7.6 Stomata
The epidermal cells do not regulate the amount of water lost from the
leaf. They merely protect the inner regions of the leaf:
The entry of carbon dioxide into the leaf
In daylight when photosynthesis occurs, the carbon dioxide in the leaf

is rapidly being used up. The carbon dioxide concentration in the leaf
becomes lower than that in the atmospheric air, i.e. a diffusion gradient
exists. So carbon dioxide diffuses from the external environment
through the stomata into the systems of air spaces in the leaf: The
surfaces of the mesophyll cells are always covered by a thin film of
water so that the carbon dioxide can dissolve in it. The dissolved
carbon dioxide then diffuses in solution into the cells.
The entry of water and mineral

salts into the leaf Surface view chloroplasts
of guard cells
The veins in the leaf form fine
branches which end among the
mesophyll cells. They contain ae sete
xylem and phloem. The xylem pore
brings water and dissolved pone)
minerals salts to the leaf froin the
soil via the roots. Once out of the
veins, these raw materials diffuse
from cell to cell right through the
mesophyll of the leaf.
Cross section
Once the green cells receive the Of Suan cals
essential raw materials (carbon guard cells
dioxide, water and mineral salts), eae flaccid,
they can manufacture food by stoma open stoma closed
photosynthesis and the sugars (b) Structure of stomata (surface view)

made are transported via the
phloem to all the plant cells.
INVESTIGATION
what happens during that minute. Remove
container X from the water.
To demonstrate the presence of stomata in
(a) Record your observations during the one-
a leaf
minute period.
The figure below shows the apparatus used in (0) How do you account for your
this experiment. Before placing the small observations?
container X in the water, as shown in the figure,
check that the temperature of the water is not (a) Pick up a fresh leaf with the forceps
below 75 °C. Reheat if necessary. provided, and hold the leaf below the
surface of the water which should be
1 Hold the small approximately 75 °C. Observe carefully
container X with a what happens. Remove the leaf from
test-tube holder with the water. Record your observations.
its opening downwards
in the beaker of water, — With the result of part (1) in mind, and
as shown in the figure, remembering the structure of a leaf,
for about one minute explain as fully as you can what has
and observe carefully taken place.
How Is the Leaf Adapted to Photosynthesis?
| The main features of the leaf and how they are adapted to
Table 7.1 Adaptations of leaf to _ photosynthesis are summarized in Table 7.1.
photosynthesis |
Structure Adaptation
ies Large flat surface To absorb maximum light energy.
@ Thin lamina Allows carbon dioxide to reach inner cells rapidly.

Enables sunlight to reach all mesophyll cells.
L—
® Chloroplasts containing chlorophyll, found in all Chlorophyll absorbs and transforms light energy to
mesophyll cells chemical energy used in the manufacture of
sugars.
1s
@ More chloroplasts in upper palisade tissue More light energy can be absorbed near the leaf
surface.
Fue
@ Inter-connecting system of air spaces in mesophyll | Allows rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide to
mesophyll cells.
® Stomata present in the epidermal layers Open in sunlight, allowing carbon dioxide to
| diffuse in and oxygen to diffuse out of leaf.
Veins containing xylem and phloem Xylem transports water and mineral salts to
mesophyll cells.
Phloem transports sugars away from leaf.
+
Petiole (leaf stalk) Holds leaf in position to absorb maximum light
“ienergy.
Nutrition in Plants
115
| .Plants have a real problem. To get the carbon dioxide they

need for photosynthesis, they have to keep the stomata in their
_ leaves open. Carbon dioxide diffuses in through the stomata to
,- teach the chloroplasts in the photosynthesizing palisade cells.
® However, water vapour will diffuse out of the stomata and be
lost to the air. 1f the plant loses water faster than it can
replace it from the soil, the plant cells will begin 4 plasmolyse
and the plant will wilt.
EEE NON + eS ERS
Some plants open their stomata at night,

take in carbon dioxide and‘store it in a
chemical form. When the sun rises, they
close their stomata and use the stored
carbon dioxide to photosynthesize throughout
the day.
7.3 Mineral Nutrition in Plants
We have seen how green plants make use of inorganic materials such
as carbon dioxide and water to manufacture complex organic
substances. Nitrates are required for the synthesis of amino acids and
proteins. However, a chemical analysis of the plant body shows that
besides carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, it contains a number
of other elements. Some of them are necessary for healthy plant
growth, hence they are known as essential elements. ae aE
__Essential eler
Certain elements occur only as traces in the plant body, and are also Pea a etMt
essential for healthy plant growth. The essential elements of most hydrogen
plants are shown on the right. | oxygen See ea
nitrogen —
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are vital for the building of phosphorus
carbohydrates which are the starting blocks from which all the other sulphur
compounds in the plants are made. Photosynthesis cannot take place
in the absence of carbon dioxide. Hydrogen and oxygen are obtained | potassium
from the water which the plant takes in. Water is vital for the healthy | _calcium i apatlio
functioning of the plant. | magnesium
| iron
SST
Culture experiments
Distilled water We can find out whether certain elements like nitrogen
Potassium nitrate 0.25 g and magnesiumi
are essential for healthy plant growth by
E :
Magnesium sulphate 0.25 g culture experiments. In these experiments, suitable
Potassium acid phosphate 0.25 g plants, e.g. balsam, are grown with their roots immersed
Calcium nitrate Es. in different solutions of mineral salts. In each solution, a
lron(Ill) chloride solution certain element is absent and the effect of the lack of
that element on the growth of the plant is noted. The
Note that the chemicals should be added to abnormal growth of these plants is compared with the
the water in the order shown above.
normal growth and development of a plant whose roots
To prepare a culture solution which lacks: are immersed in a complete culture solution, i.e. a
@ Nitrogen:
culture solution containing all the essential elements in
omit the nitrates and use
potassium chloride and the correct proportions (shown on the left).
calcium sulphate.
@ Magnesium: omit magnesium sulphate,
E Assignment 7.2
use potassium sulphate.
Living in the dark
A Solgig@ett
71 Agriculture in Singapore 3 What sorts of food can be grown using

hydroponics.
The island city-state of Singapore has a 4 What the advantages and SE of
population of 3.04 million (1996) on a total hydroponics are.
land area of about 640 square kilometres. Only
about 2 percent of this area is used for Locate a well-known hydroponics farm in
farming. Despite this, the amount of food Singapore. See what you can find out about it.
produced is enormous. One way of achieving
this is through the use of hydroponics: growing Surf the internet to
plants without soil. rg
interNET obtain information on
hydroponics.
Produce a report about your findings. Include

| Vegetables grown Statistical information, graphs, photographs and
| by the hydroponics drawings. Try to use a computer to produce
method your final report using a word processing r
package. Remember that spreadsheet packages
can be used to make graphs and you can draw
on the computer using a drawing software. You
may have a word processing package which
contains these features. Otherwise, you can
import the diagrams and graphs into your word
In this assignment, you have to find out:
processing package.
1 What hydroponics is.
2 How hydroponics is used to grow food in
Singapore.
Nutrition in Plants
INVESTIGATION
710 Water Culture Experiment 8 Cut off the root system. Measure the length
of all the roots (including the main root and
To find out whether nitrogen, phosphorus branch roots) in each plant.
and magnesium are essential for plant 9 Record your investigation in the table.
growth
1 Prepare the culture solutions as described.

Take three gas jars and jabel them from A to
Size and colour
C. Fill gas jar A with the complete culture
of leaves :
solution, and each of the gas jars B and C
with a culture solution in which one of the Total leaf area”
essential elements is absent. Total root length
2 Select four seedlings of balsam of about the
same size. Wash their roots with distilled 10 Which jar acts as a control? Give your reason.
water. Fit the mouth of each jar with a three- 11 Suggest an explanation for your results in
holed cork. Place the seedling in the central Jar B.
hole and hold it with a piece of cotton wool
such that its roots are immersed in the 12 What can you say about magnesium and
culture solution as shown. chlorophyll formation?
(Check your results with the relevant text in
ees > S
fas delivery tube through the SUMMARY.)
seedling
=z which air is blown into
solution
Precautions
dry cotton wool plugs
e Before setting up the experiment, sterilize all the
gas jars, corks and delivery tubes. This ensures that
the apparatus used is free from micro-organisms
gas jar which might multiply and interfere with the growth of
the seedlings.
e Cover the gas jars completely on the outside with
black paper to
prevent algae growth black paper to screen off light. This prevents the
growth of microscopic algae in the solution. The
algae may grow around the roots and hinder their
normal functioning. :
culture solution e Place the jars such that they receive enough
sunlight. However, placing the jars in direct sunlight
should be avoided as this will scorch the leaves and
heat up the solutions, thus killing the seedlings.
* Keep the cotton wool around the seedling dry to
3 Put the gas jars in a suitable place so that prevent the stem from rotting.
they receive sufficient sunlight. e Aerate the solution by blowing air through the
delivery tube daily. This supplies oxygen for root
4 Leave them to grow for about two months. respiration.
e Renew the culture solution every 2 weeks.
5 Examine the seedlings. Note the colour and
size of the leaves.
The water culture experiment shows that healthy
6 At the end of the experiment note down the
plant growth can only take place if the plant is
colour and size of the leaves.
provided with the essential elements. It also
7 Remove the leaves from each plant. Place shows that these elements (with the exception
each leaf onto a graph paper. Draw the of carbon) occur as inorganic compounds in
LIES
SAIS
SD
EPEC
SORES
PLEDGE outline on the graph paper. Record the total dilute solutions which are absorbed by the
surface area of the leaves in each plant. roots.
2 YR SRE ER TSS SE TEED SELI FS ER

AN EY LEIS LISLE
EE E RE DELLE OA ELLE DS
“BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘0’ Level
|
|
) ummary
SS
SONS
» Concept map on photosynthesis
Light-dependent Stage Light-independent Stage

e Light energy converted to chemical energy e Carbon dioxide and hydrogen —- glucose
e Splitting of water molecules to release hydrogen
and oxygen moiecules
Occurs in 2 stages
Factors affecting Maintains oxygen and carbon

photosynthesis include: dioxide balance in atmosphere
e Carbon dioxide
Sunlight
Suitable temperature Glucose Produced
Water =F
Chlorophyll en,
Fate of Glucose
Broken down to release

Excess stored
Used in synthesis Converted to amino
temporarily as
energy for vital activities of cellulose cell wall acids and proteins
starch in leaves
» Photosynthesis is a multi-step process and contain numerous chloroplasts.

whereby light energy is trapped by Spongy mesophyll where cells are _
chlorophyll and converted into chemical loosely packed with numerous
energy which is then utilized to manufacture intercellular spaces for diffusion of
organic carbohydrates from inorganic carbon gases. These cells also contain
dioxide and water. Oxygen is released as a chloroplasts.
by-product during this process. @ Veins containing xylem and phloem.
Equation for photosynthesis: oa
q a y » In addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen ’
Lanviiees nitrogen and magnesium are also essential

6CO, + 12H,0 EN CAn Os + 60, + 6H,O for healthy plant growth.
light energy @ Nitrogen is essential for synthesis of
protein, protoplasm, enzymes and
» A leaf lamina has these structures: nucleic acids. Seedlings grown in a
@ Upper epidermis protected by a cuticle culture solution lacking nitrogen exhibit
that prevents dehydration. Few stomata. Slo UNS SNES BYE uot god Pele
@ Lower epidermis with a cuticle and many Sgt Be muey tne peceles oe
arate @ Magnesium is an essential constituent
@ Each stoma is guarded by two bean- of neeDme scl oN. 0 3
shaped guard cells which control its size, UMUC sollnonplacking MegnestamM
and hence the rate of diffusion of gases exhibit stall Yellow leaves ee
through it. chlorophyll cannot be synthesized. .
Mesophyll which is divided into: Palisade Instead, a yellow pigment is deposited,
tissue where cells are closely packed and the plant is said to be chlorotic.
119
Materials Provided:
aa de co lO¥
| ® A solution of decolourised
methylene blue which in the
merneiyr’ and
inyed ils Cl
presence of oxygen will turn
: aris CAV Lover
blue
@ Three testtubes with rubber
ws itn Coll
bungs
@ Sheets of aluminium foii
& Hydrilla plants doa a hs MANAYN
What results do Ks COLOUE
you expect to see? STUN eS Less
Set up the experin complet What reasons can

the drawing on the right. (All ite ind | you give for your
contents should be labelle nee predictions?
> xercise
1 Photosynthesis may be represented by:
BCs ier a we PU TO. + COP OHO

6, “12-6
(a) State three conditions necessary for

photosynthesis that are not shown.
(b) State three possible fates of the sugar
formed in photosynthesis. ° SEGKH
(esd 7SUES
Qua) 0.03% CO, at 20°C
of
Rate
photosynthesis
Examine the graphs and answer the

following parts (a) to (d). Light intensity
(a) What two other factors (besides CO,)
affecting photosynthesis are indicated
(d) Carbon dioxide is described as a
on the graphs or their axes?
limiting factor under natural conditions.
(b) Name the environmental factor
By reference to the figure and your
necessary for photosynthesis that is not
knowledge of photosynthesis explain
included in the graphs.
what this means.
(c) Name an internal factor essential for
photosynthesis that is not included in (C)
the graphs.
Transport in Mammals
,
OBJECTIVES
LEARNING you wilt be ab
le to:
th is ch ap te r,
ng th e work in works and
After completi y SY st em of mammals
le circ:ulat or
how the doub eir function
s.
a Understand e tw circul ts to th
fference s of th arteries,
relate the di ma n bo dy and com pare
the hu
d vessels in and function
.
Na me th e main bloo to structure
i th re sp e ct
pillaries wi ncti on in term
s of
veins and ca nd ex pl ai n it s fu
the heart a
s tr ucture of lves.
De sc ri\ be th e in of the va
g
Y
ntraction and th e work
muscular co On heart rate.
ical e xercise
ig at e th e effect of phys arteries an d
» Invest oc cl us ion of coronary
e tO
heart diseas measure Ss.
ca us es an d preventiive
peenepo rssible
nt
aneal
Shbe yse oth eir functions.
oo d ce ll s and state th
of bl sSue fluid.
fferent ty pes llaries and ti
>» Identify di be tw ee n ca pi
terials
transfer 0 f ma
) Describe the
Sally is 16 and she is making her first blood ~

Giving blood, Saving lives donation with the consent of her parents. She
is particularly welcomed as a blood donor
Blood, as you will find out in this
because women only form 32% of blood
chapter, is essential to human life. donors in Singapore. When she arrives at the
However, sometimes, during an blood donation centre, the first thing Sally has
operation or as a result of an accident to do is show her NRIC to get registered. After —
filling in a brief health questionnaire, she sits
for example, we lose blood from our with a doctor who asks her some questions to
body. If too much is lost then it may make sure she is eligible to give blood. In.
need to be replaced using blood addition, Sally has her blood pressure and
donated by fellow citizens. But how pulse taken, and then she is weighed. You
need to weigh at least 45 kg to give blood.
does this blood get to the hospital? Sally weighs 50 kg.
How is its quality assured?
Next a small drop of blood is taken to check
the level of haemoglobin in Sally’s blood.
Blood is supplied to all hospitals in
Haemoglobin is a pigment which makes
*
Singapore by the Bloodbank@HSA, blood red and carries oxygen around the
Centre for Transfusion Medicine in body. As a woman, Sally must have at least
Health Sciences Authority (HSA). Let 12.0 grams of haemoglobin per decilitre of
A us follow the blood from the time it is

blood if she is to give blood. There is no.
‘
donated to when it is used in the
hospital.
Transport in Mammais
@ Every hour each day in

Singapore, eight units
of blood are used. How
many units of blood
will be used in a year?
You have to wait 3
months between blood
donations so how many
blood donors does
Singapore need to
match the requirements
for blood?
@ Do you think you

should become a blood
donor in the future?
Discuss in your class
the reasons why
everyone should try to
become a blood donor
and perhaps some of
the reasons why people
might not wish to give
blood. How would you
convince people to give
blood?
@ Find out more about

blood transfusion in
Singapore. One way
would be to visit the
website set up by HSA.
NET
What else is blood used for?

Why might people not be
able to give blood even if they
wanted to?
8.1 The Need for a Transport System
In a simple unicellular animal there is no part of the body protoplasm

which is far away from the plasma membrane or body surface.
Oxygen can diffuse through the body surface and easily reach the
centre of the cell. Similarly, the waste products can be rapidly
_ removed from the body by simple diffusion. In contrast, in complex
| multicellular organisms such as man and other mammals, numerous
_ cells are situated at the centre of the body far away from the outside
environment. Simple diffusion alone cannot bring enough oxygen and
food materials to these cells nor remove waste products with sufficient
speed. There must be a transport system to carry substances from one
part of the body to another. In mammals, the transport system
consists of the blood system and the lymphatic system. The fluids
contained in these systems are blood and lymph respectively.
m 8.2 Blood
To many, blood is just a red fluid, but it is more accurately called a

fluid tissue. Why is the word “tissue” used here? Does blood contain
cells? Find out by doing Investigation 8.1.
The Structure and Composition of Blood

You have seen that blood is not just a liquid. It consists of a fluid in
which are suspended blood cells and platelets. The presence of these
cells accounts for the blood being called a fluid tissue. The fluid part of
blood is known as the plasma and constitutes about 55% by volume of
whole blood, the other 45% being made up of blood cells or
corpuscles and platelets.
lis (erythrocytes)
sells(leucocytes
| Plasma
| Plasma is a pale yellowish liquid. About 90% of plasma is water in

which a complex mixture of various substances are dissolved. These
The amounts of mineral salts, substances include:
eee o> and glucose in _ @ Soluble proteins such as serum albumin, serum globulin
the blood are relatively constant, Sbrnowe d th bin. Fibr; d f aj
Beenie helps to keep the | gen and prothrombin. Fibrinogen and prothrombin play
osmotic pressure of the blood an important part in the clotting of blood. Also present are
constant. | antibodies which are involved in fighting disease.
_@ Dissolved mineral salts, e.g. chlorides, bicarbonates, and sulphates
| and phosphates of sodium and potassium. All these occur as ions
in the plasma. Calcium salts are also present. Calcium is essential
for blood clotting.
INVESTIGATION fa
123
81 They can be recognized by their size and
Stained nuclei. Make a drawing of these cells.
Examination of mammalian blood stained white blood cell unstained red blood cells
een /\
1 Examine a prepared slide of a blood smear
using a light microscope under a low power,
and then under high power. Note:
(a) the shape and colour of the cells;
(6) whether the cells contain any nucleus.
2 Draw one red blood cell.
3 Examine the slide under the microscope

again. This time you may notice that
scattered among the red blood cells are a BL __ ee a ee i 2A
small number of cells with purplish nuclei. Blood smear showing a white blood cell with its nucleus
These are white blood cells. stained purple and numerous unstained red blood cells.
Why are the red blood cells unstained

4 Look for different types of white blood cells. in the above blood smear?
Nreerceamernmnnt RIERA: SORES TLS LSE ILE LER LEBEEN NOSES EEENAGE RRLATE NIIP COE IEE ELBE IES IIE PLEAD IBLEED EB RODS ELELEEPER EERE LEE BEET IED ADDS ELE RIES
LEELELEI EI LEA PEOAIS
@ Food substances such as glucose, amino acids, fats and

vitamins.
® Excretory products, e.g. urea, uric acid and creatinine.
Carbon dioxide is present as bicarbonate ions.
@ Hormones.
thinner central cytoplasm
portion | contains
Red blood celis or erythrocytes : 3 | haemoglobin
Each mammalian red blood cell is a circular, flattened, biconcave Surface view Section of red blood corpuscle
disc making the centre of the cell thinner than its edge. It does
not possess a nucleus. Its diameter is less than 0.01 mm. As it is °
elastic, it can squeeze through capillaries smaller than itself in

diameter. There are about 5 000 000 red blood cells in each ey
Qa eae
cubic millimetre of blood. The exact number varies according to
A group of red blood corpuscles Platelets
sex and the state of health.
Figure 8.4 Human red blood cells
Red blood cells are produced by the bone marrow. Their lifespan is "and platelets
about 3 to 4 months. When they are worn out, they are destroyed in
the spleen and the liver.
Red blood cells are essentially small packages containing the red
pigment haemoglobin, a special kind of protein containing iron. This
pigment enables red blood cells to transport oxygen from the lungs to fo hecrce ofa nucleus is a
all cells in the body. Haemoglobin is broken down as shown: characteristic of mammalian red
| blood cells. The red blood cells of
other vertebrates possess a
nucleus.
Haemoglobin breakdown eee Sane During its lifetime, a red blood

cell will travel about 1 100 km
around the human body.
124 non-granular White blood cells or leucocytes

Sa eee The white blood cells are colourless and do not contain haemoglobin.
Fenn They are larger than red blood cells and fewer in number. For every
nucleus white blood cell present in the blood, there are about 700 red blood
cells, ie. the ratio of red to white blood cells is 700:1. Thus in each
Lymphocyte cubic millimetre of blood, there are only 5 000 to 10 000 white blood
cells to about 5 million red blood cells.
plasma
Beare Each white blood cell is irregular in shape and contains a nucleus. It
can move. It can change its shape and squeeze through the walls of
the fine blood capillaries into the spaces among the tissue cells.
S Ae There are two main kinds of white blood cells: lymphocytes and
8 granular phagocytes. Lymphocytes are produced by the lymph glands or
Z ora _ lymph nodes. Each lymphocyte has a large, rounded nucleus and a
nucleus _ relatively small amount of non-granular cytoplasm. Lymphocytes tend
to be nearly round in shape and only show limited movements.
plasma
meyrtale Phagocytes are produced by the bone marrow. They are so called
eevee because they can ingest foreign particles like bacteria. There are two
FE TraLa onan TeNciaca celle. _ kinds of phagocytes, namely, monocytes and polymorphs. A
monocyte has a bean-shaped nucleus. A polymorph has a nucleus
_ with many lobes and granular cytoplasm.
The white blood cells play a vital role in keeping the body healthy by
fighting disease. Though they contain a nucleus, their normal life span,
at least in the blood stream, is only a few days. Exactly how the worn-
out white blood cells are removed is not clear, though some believe
that they are ingested by the active white blood cells.
Diseases of the bone marrow However, if anything goes wrong with the precious stem
cells then blood disorders will arise. For example,
The bone marrow, a spongy red tissue, is found in the
aplastic anaemia, a rare illness, occurs when stem cells
centre of bones. The marrow of the vertebrae, ribs and
are damaged or the environment in the bone marrow
pelvis contains specialized stem cells which produce
inhibits their divisions. Normal blood levels of red blood
red and white blood cells and the platelets. We make
cells, white blood cells and platelets begin to fall as
about 20 million red blood ceils every second, i.e.
these cells are destroyed faster than they are replaced.
25 g of cells every day! Different sorts of stem cell
A blood sample will detect this fall in the counts of
produce red and white blood cells and platelets.
blood cell types. The diagnosis of aplastic anaemia can
Continuous production of blood cells is necessary all
be confirmed by a microscopic examination of a bone
through life because each cell has a limited lifespan:
marrow sample (biopsy). To obtain a biopsy, a sturdy
@ Red blood cells: 120 days needle is inserted into the large pelvic bone on one side
@ Platelets: 6 days of the spine. Local anaesthetic is used so discomfort is
@ White blood cells: 1 day or less minimized. The bone marrow is then examined under a
microscope. If the bone marrow biopsy shows a great
Your body replaces about 1% of your red blood cells
reduction in the number of cells in the marrow then the
everyday. Fortunately, the bone marrow is a superb
patient is likely to be suffering from aplastic anaemia.
blood factory and is usually able to supply as many
This is a medical emergency which requires immediate
cells as the body needs, especially increasing
hospitalization.
production after blood loss, for example after
7;
donating blood. Surf the internet if you want to find
out how aplastic anaemia is treated. es
Blood platelets or thrombocytes

These are not true cells but fragments of cytoplasm from certain bone
marrow cells. They play a part in the clotting of blood.
The Functions of Blood
The blood performs two important functions. Firstly, it acts as a

transport medium carrying various substances from one part of the
body to another. Secondly, it protects the body against disease-
causing organisms (pathogens).
The transport function of blood
The blood transports the following:

ei a
~ | Study this scanning

@ Digested food substances from the intestines to all parts of the body. electron micrograph of
@ Excretory products from the tissues to the respective excretory human blood showing
red blood cells, white blood cells
organs for removal. Nitrogenous waste materials (urea, uric acid,
and platelets.
creatinine) are removed mainly by the kidneys. Carbon dioxide
from the cells enters the blood and is carried as bicarbonate ions Based on your observations:
¢ list their features,
in the blood plasma. As the blood passes through the lungs, the
¢ comment on their
bicarbonate ions dissociate to release carbon dioxide which then composition in blood.
diffuses into the lung cavities. The carbon dioxide in the lungs is |
Red blood cells can change their
expelled during expiration. |
shape. Can you spot a bell-
@ Hormones from the glands which produce them to parts of the shaped red blood cell in the
body which require them. above micrograph? Infer the
@ Heat produced in respiring body tissues, especially the muscles advantage of this characteristic.
and liver, and distributes it throughout the body, thereby
maintaining a uniform body temperature.
® Oxygen, combined with haemoglobin, from the lungs to all parts Spo.
of the body.
The food substances, excretory products and hormones are carried in Carbon monoxide poisoning
solution in the plasma. Oxygen, however, is carried in the red blood
Haemoglobin combines even’
cells. Haemoglobin has a great affinity for oxygen. As the blood passes more readily with carbon
through the lungs the oxygen diffuses from the lung cavities into the monoxide than with oxygen to
blood. Haemoglobin combines loosely with the oxygen to form an form a bright pink compound
unstable compound called oxyhaemoglobin. Oxyhaemoglobin gives called carboxyhaemoglobin. Unlike
oxyhaemoglobin, this compound
the blood a bright red colour. It is then transported to all the tissues of
does not readily give up its
the body. As the blood passes through tissues containing very little | carbon monoxide, so the
oxygen, the oxyhaemoglobin releases its oxygen. The oxygen then haemoglobin becomes useless.
diffuses in solution into the tissue cells. In this way, every cell in the This is why people can be
body receives its supply of oxygen. The haemoglobin without oxygen poisoned by the fumes of gas or
is purplish red. It is this difference in colour which accounts for the car exhausts in a confined space.
Treatment for carbon monoxide
red colour of arteries but bluish colour of veins.
poisoning consists of placing face
masks on the patients and
[ (in tissues of high oxygen but low carbon dioxide concentrations, e.g. lungs) supplying them with air containing
Ke
a much higher proportion of
oxygen than usual. Why is this
Haemoglobin -Oxyhaemogiobin treatment needed?
(purplish red) (bright red)
(in tissues of low oxygen but high carbon dioxide concentrations)

126 Acciimatization to high altitudes

if
aad
ee
soos (ad
People living at high altitudes usually have a larger number of red
blood cells in their bodies. This is because at high altitudes the
Phagocytosis
concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere is low. Increasing the
Phagocytosis is an important haemoglobin content and the proportion of red blood cells will mean
biological behaviour exhibited by
that more oxygen can be transported to the tissue cells per unit time.
certain types of cell or
microorganism. For example, in This process is used by long distance runners who train at high
mammals, phagocytosis by altitude for several months prior to a big race. Such training increases
certain white blood cells is a very _ the amount of haemoglobin in their blood. Hence, when they run the
important mechanism in _ race at a lower altitude, their bodies are able to carry oxygen more
immunity. However, in the case of
_ efficiently which means that they can run much faster.
Amoeba, phagocytosis is a vital
mode of feeding. Here, the The protective function of blood
Amoeba will engulf the food and
ingest it in a food vacuole. The
resulting digested products are phagocytosis ¥
absorbed directly into the Protective : antibody production =f
cytoplasm of the Amoeba and Function
assimilated. blood clotting ¥)
In humans, certain cells die after

a given period and are replaced B Phagocytosis
by new ones. Here, the
neighbouring cells will Certain types of white blood corpuscle (the phagocyte) can ingest and
phagocytose these dead cells so destroy foreign particles, e.g. bacteria, that gain entry into the blood.
as to clean up the mess and
prevent inflammatory reactions by
the body’s immune system. This The process of engulfing and ingesting foreign particles, like
is yet another case where bacteria, by the white blood cells is known as phagocytosis.
phagocytosis is important.
In the process of “fighting” with the bacteria at the site of the wound,
some of the phagocytes are killed. These dead cells, together with the
_ dead bacteria, form pus.
@ Production of antibodies
When disease-causing germs gain entry into the blood stream, they
may produce poisonous substances called toxins. The toxins induce
bacteria
the blood to produce certain chemical substances called antibodies.
ae These are produced by the lymphocytes but can be found freely in the
bacteria ingested
gE or taken into _ plasma. They act as antitoxins which neutralize the poisonous effect
‘ cytoplasm
_ of the toxins. The antibodies can also kill the bacteria in the blood.
Phagocyte Antibodies may cause foreign particles, e.g. bacteria, to clump

engulfing
bacteria
together. This is called agglutination. The bacteria can then be easily
ingested by the phagocytes.
SS
Antibodies may persist long after the disease has been overcome so
a person who has recovered becomes immune to that disease.
_ Antibodies can be produced in the serum of suitable animals, Ca
_ horses, and this serum is extracted and injected into man to protect
him. Certain dead bacteria are sometimes injected into the body to
induce the formation of antibodies in the blood. These processes
_ confer immunity to disease-causing organisms and so are referred
Blood groups
to as immunizations.
2 Clotting or coagulation of biood

Blood exposed to air will soon clot. The clotting of blood seals the
wound, preventing excessive loss of blood. The clot also stops
foreign particles from entering the blood stream. In exceptional
cases, e.g. people suffering from a hereditary disease called
haemophilia, the normal blood-clotting mechanism is greatly _
impaired and these people may bleed to death or die of internal
bleeding after slight injuries.
The mechanism of clotting is a

complicated one. When blood |Damaged tissue ||__
vessels are damaged, an enzyme {| and platelets |
known as thrombokinase is
released by the damaged tissues
| Prothrombin ~ thrombin
SS
and blood platelets.

eri 9 (inactive
Thrombokinase converts the )
and calcium ions |j_ _ (active)
protein prothrombin, normally
present in the plasma, to =
thrombin. Calcium ions must be : pthrombin insoluble

present before this can take place.
Thrombin is also an enzyme. It
catalyses the conversion of the
soluble protein fibrinogen to a meshwork of insoluble threads of fibrin.
These fibrin threads entangle the blood corpuscles and the whole
mass forms a clot. Vitamin K is also essential for the process of
blood clotting. The clotting process can be summarized in the
Animals which feed on blood,
three reactions shown above (right). - such as leeches, also produce
substances to prevent clotting.
Normally, in undamaged blood vessels, the blood does not clot This is why wounds bleed so
because of the presence of an anticlotting substance called heparin. freely and for such a long time if
the leech is removed before it
Heparin is produced by the liver. When thrombokinase is released,
has finished feeding.
it neutralises the action of heparin so that clotting can take place.
When blood clots, a yellowish liquid called serum is left behind.
Serum has the same composition as plasma except that it lacks the | Figure 8.4 Clotting of blood is due to
_ the formation of insoluble fibrin
clotting constituents.
threads from fibrinogen, a soluble
blood protein
(a) Red blood cell enmeshed in fibrin blood clot (a) Diagrammatic representation of how insoluble fibrin
Ay 3 2 a “gg a threads are formed
“a% 2 my 7,
¢
-—— 2)
n molecules of fibrinogen (soluble)
’
SO thrombin
long fibrin thread (insoluble)

Organ transplant and tissue rejection
When a person’s organ or tissue is damaged or diseased it may be

replaced by a healthy one. This is called organ or tissue transplant.
The organ to be transplanted must not be rejected by the recipient’s

immune system. Any organ from another person may be treated as a
foreign body by the recipient’s immune system. His lymphocytes may
respond by producing antibodies to destroy the transplanted organ.
Tissue rejection will not be a problem if the tissue to be transplanted

comes from the same person. For example, a blocked or damaged
coronary artery may be replaced by an artery from another part of the
person’s body.
@ Prevention of tissue rejection

® ‘To reduce the risk of rejection a tissue match is necessary. The
tissue of both the donor and recipient must be genetically as close
as possible. People likely to have similar genes are brothers, sisters,
parents and close relatives.
_@ Another way to reduce tissue rejection is the use of immuno-
suppressive drugs which inhibit the activity of the immune system
of the recipient. However, there are problems such as:
e The recipient becomes susceptible to many kinds of infection,
and
e He has to continue treatment for the rest of his life.
| @ X-ray radiation of the bone marrow and lymphoid tissue may
inhibit the production of blood cells. This slows down the
rejection process.
8.3 The Circulatory System

_ Blood is used to transport various substances from one part of the
body to another by flowing continuously around the body. In
_ vertebrates, the blood flows through a closed system of blood vessels
called the circulatory system.
_ This blood flow is called blood circulation. The blood is kept

_ circulating throughout the body by means of a muscular pump, the
heart. When the heart relaxes it fills up with blood, and when it
contracts the blood is squeezed out with great force. It then circulates
through the blood vessels which direct the blood flow round the body.
_ The blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart are
_ called arteries. The large artery that leaves the left side of the heart
is the aorta. It branches to form smaller arteries. These arteries branch
_ again to form tiny arteries called arteriolés. The arterioles divide and
_ ultimately their branches become very tiny blood vessels called
_ capillaries (Figure 8.5a). Capillaries are microscopic blood vessels that
_ are found between the cells of almost all the tissues. They have walls
made up of only a single layer of greatly flattened cells called
endothelium (Figure 8.5b). The endothelium is selectively

(a) How aca4 pi ar
netw
ll orky links 129
permeable. It enables certain substances to diffuse quickly at riete
| Tisseressttes
and veins
through the capillary walls. Capillaries branch repeatedly, and
the numerous branches provide a large surface area for the
exchange of substances between the blood and the tissue
cells. When an arteriole branches into capillaries the total
cross-sectional area increases. This lowers the blood pressure
in the capillaries. The flow of blood is slowed down, giving
more time for the exchange of substances.
Before the capillaries leave an organ or tissue, they unite to

form small veins called venules, which in turn join to form
bigger veins. The veins carry blood back to the heart.
To summarize, the vertebrate blood circulatory system

consists of:
@ The heart—This is a muscular organ which drives the
blood round the whole body.
@ Arteries—These are the blood vessels which carry the
blood away from the heart.
@ Veins—These are the blood vessels which convey blood
towards the heart. cut end of capillary
_ showing single layer
@ Capillaries—These are the microscopic thin-walled (one- of endothelial cells
cell thick) blood vessels which carry blood from a small
artery (arteriole) to a small vein (venule). “ Figure 8.5 Capillaries
Arteries INVESTIGATION i)
Since arteries receive blood directly from the heart, they

must be able to withstand the immense pressure of the
blood as it is forced out of the heart. Arteries have walls To demonstrate capillary
that are thick, muscular and elastic (Figure 8.6). The circulation of
PSA
LAETITIA
BSS
SPAY
strength of an artery to resist the pressure comes largely

A live tadpole or a small fish, e.g.
from the elastic fibres. The elastic layer is much thicker in
guppy, can be used.
the great arteries near the heart.
1 Place the tadpole in a petri dish
EIS
AE
RE
LORELEI
PLL
The thick elastic walls help to maintain the high blood containing enough saline
SONUE
LR
pressure in the artery. The elasticity permits stretching and solution to keep its body wet.
recoiling of the artery wall. These help to push the blood 2 Examine the tail fin under low
along. power using a light microscope.
3 What are the structures that you
The constriction and dilation of an artery are brought about see flowing rapidly through the
capillaries?
by the contraction and relaxation of the muscles in the
arterial wall. When an artery constricts, its lumen becomes 90 TE
narrower and less blood flows through it in a given time. The
paleness that one experiences at times is due to the
constriction of the arteries near the skin. On the other hand, F
when an artery dilates, its lumen becomes wider and more After the experiment, release the
blood flows through it per unit time. What do you think has animal back into its natural
habitat. The animal will not die if
happened to the arteries when a person blushes? Do the
you handle it with care.
arteries constrict or dilate?
(a) Artery Veins

wavy elastic
membrane
The blood in the arteries is under high pressure, but when it reaches
external layer the veins the blood pressure is low. The blood flows more slowly and
(connective tissue
smoothly so the walls of the veins need not be as thick and muscular
middle layer
(smooth muscle
as those of the arteries of comparable size. Veins also contain less
and elastic fibres) elastic tissues. Instead, most veins have internal valves along their
~ endothelium length to prevent backflow of blood (Figure 8.7). These valves are
folds of the inner walls, shaped like halfmoons, hence, they are called
semilunar valves. The movement of blood along the veins is assisted
by the action of the skeletal muscles on the veins. Muscular exercise
(b) Vein :
increases the pressure exerted on the veins and moves the blood along
external layer — more quickly.
(connective tissue) ~
middle layer
(smooth muscle
and elastic fibres)
endothelium
Ee
Figure 8.6 Transverse sections of
blood vessels
Figure 8.7 Valves in veins
al
(a) How the semilunar valve in a vein works (b) How skeletal muscles help blood flow in the vein
skeletal muscle (contracting Direction of

and compressing the vein) blood flow
in vein
direction
of flow
of blood
section
of valve
3 a
Valve open Valve closed Vein cut open valve (closed) valve (open)
to show valve
Demonstrating the presence of valves in veins

The presence of valves in veins was first demonstrated up to a point X. He found that the blood flowed back
by the English physician William Harvey (1578-1657). from X to b and no further. This is shown by the
He bandaged the upper arm of a person so that the apparent disappearance of the vein between b and c.
valves in the veins showed up as small swellings (see The valve at b had prevented the blood from flowing
points a, b, c and d in the figure). He placed two back to c.
fingers at point Y. With one finger, he pushed the blood
The action of valves in the veins in the arm
bandage valves direction of movement of finger valve here prevents backflow of blood to c.
Table 8.1 Differences between arteries and veins
es+ Carry edoxygenated blood (exception: \ = ce luish-red Geox senatetioited ~ ~*

pulmonary arte eins whic sar i
ies whic carry deoxy enated | _ (exce ion: oe
___Dlo
fromtheod
hearttothelungs) | __oxygenated161
bloodfrom thelungs
tote heart) —
8.4 Double Circulation in Mammals
In animals, such as fish, the blood flows through the heart once during
each circuit of the body. They are said to have a single circulation
(Figure 8.8). From the heart, arteries carry the blood to the gills where
the blood takes up oxygen. The arteries that leave the gills carry
oxygen-rich blood to various parts of the body. The blood from the
body cells is collected by the veins. By the time the blood enters the
veins, it is poor in oxygen content and the veins carry the
deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
In mammals, there is a double circulation (Figure 8.9) because of the

lungs. Blood passes through the heart fwice in one complete circuit. —
Blood flows from the main circulation of the body to the heart, then
to the lungs and back to the heart again before it is pumped into the
main circulation. Large veins carry deoxygenated blood from various
parts of the body to the heart. From the heart, the pulmonary arteries
carry the blood te the lungs. Oxygenated blood is returned to the
heart by the pulmonary veins. The circulation linking the lungs to
the heart is known as the pulmonary circulation. |
Oxygenated blood leaves the left side of Figure 8.8 Single circulation in a fish
the heart and is distributed by arteries to
all parts of the body (except the lungs). head end arteries carry blood
around the body
Veins carry the blood from all parts of the oe
body back to the right side ofthe heart.

This is the main circulation, called the
systemic circulation. Lf
heart
The pulmonary and the systemic

circulations make up the double .
yj ion j ‘ = aveins returning
ee blood
circulation in mammals.
The advantage of a double circulation is that

jugular
7 a xi blood can be pumped around the body at a
vein ae faster rate. Blood is sent to the lungs to be
P oxygenated and then it is returned to the
subclavian — subclavian heart. The heart pumps the blood at high
vein
Aas pressure to the rest of the body. This ensures
pulmonary pulmonary | that oxygenated blood is distributed to the
artery
ee body tissues at a faster rate, which helps to
deoxygenated ea
maintain the high metabolic rate in
blood Bowes il mammals.
right atrium =
posterior
vena cava ee The Heart
Structure
hepatic hepatic
vein
artery The heart of a mammal is a complicated
hepatic
portal vein
organ. Its size varies with the animal and in
artery man it is about the size of a clenched fist. It
to gut
lies in the thorax behind the chest-bone and
between the two lungs. It is roughly conical
renal
p
renal in shape and slants with its apex directed
vein artery
slightly towards the left side of the body. The
whole heart is surrounded by a two-layered
bag known as the pericardium, the inner
iliac
:
iliac membrane being in contact with the heart.
vein artery
Between the two pericardial membranes is
the pericardial fluid which helps to reduce
Figure 8.9 Double circulation in a friction when the heart is beating.
mammal
Figure 8.10a is a diagrammatic representation of the mammalian

heart with the main blood vessels. It shows the passage of blood
_ through the heart. Figure 8.10b is a more detailed diagram ofa
human heart that has been cut open to show the four chambers
and the blood vessels.
The mammalian heart has four chambers: the two upper chambers
_ called the auricles or atria, below which are two large chambers
_ known as the ventricles. The right side ofthe heart is completely
_ separated from the left side by means of amuscular wall (the
median septum) which runs down the middle of the heart. In this
way, deoxygenated blood in the right side is unable to mix with the
oxygenated blood in the left side.
Se | Blood from various parts of the body is returned to the right atrium.
The words “right” and “left” apply Blood from the head, neck and arms is returned to the right atrium
to the organs in the animal’s
by a large vein called the common anterior or superior vena cava.
body, which means that you are
actually looking at the heart
| Blood on the other parts of the body (excluding the lungs) is brought
dissected from its ventral _ back by the posterior or inferior vena cava. Thus, the right atrium
surface. Thus, the right side of _ receives deoxygenated blood from the two vena cavae.
the animal’s heart will be facing
your left and vice versa. _ When the right atrium contracts, the blood flows into the right
ventricle. Between the right atrium and the right ventricle is the
|Chapter
Transport in Mammals |_
nik
seas
Facts and figures about your heart @ Is the number of beats the same for
each student in your class? ‘
1 The size of the heart is ciosely related to
@ What variables might affect the heart
body size. Generally the heart weighs 0.59%
rate?
of the total body mass. Calculate the mass
@ How would you go about investigating
of your heart using this formula.
which variables affect the heart rate?
2 Take your pulse while you are sitting quietly
Assuming your
by placing the fingers of your right hand on
heart beats at position of
the inside of your left wrist. Find the two radial artery
the same rate as
structures, ligaments, which run down the
what you have
centre of your wrist just below the skin. The
just measured,
radial artery runs just to the left of the two
how many heart
ligaments.
beats do you
® How many times does your heart beat in
have in one day?
one minute (the heart rate)?
| Figure 8.10 Mammalian heart

tricuspid valve, which consists of three
(a) Diagrammatic representation of a mammalian heart
flaps. These flaps are attached to the walls
of the right ventricle by cord-like tendons pulmonary
arteries -semilunar valves
called chordae tendineae.
;
They point superior | — aortic arch
downwards to permit easy flow of blood or antonen sulinoneeyweine
from the atrium into the ventricle. see
inferior — right
(or posterior) atrium
When the right ventricle contracts, the eos bicuspid valve
blood pressure forces the flaps to close the ecu
- : ; 5 vaive
opening into the atrium. This prevents night left
backflow of blood into the atrium. The Ventricle ventricle
chordae tendineae prevents the flaps from

(b) Section of a mammalian heart
being reverted into the atrium when the
right ventricle contracts. The blood leaves aortic-areh ly Ee éxguenated
the right ventricle by only one other route, ' é Bae
namely the pulmonary arch. The latter Preaeaes pone.
leaves the heart and divides into two vena cava
pulmonary arteries, one to each lung. tangy
|==pulmonary
Return of blood into the ventricle is : artery
prevented by the semilunar valves in the plete pegs Li
pulmonary arch (Figure 8.12). Siete ras pee
Oxygenated blood from the lungs is — semilunar

brought back to the heart by way of the fe a re Naltes
pulmonary veins which open into the left eS eee — bicuspid or
atrium. When the left atrium contracts, the | tricuspid = iumalvane
blood enters the left ventricle. Between the | valve ea enter
left atrium and the left ventricle is the
bicuspid valve (or mitral valve). This is Barcuetlenie
similar in structure and function to the renee Be cardiac
tricuspid valve except that it has two flaps E go muscle
instead of three. When the left ventricle Ee
contracts, blood leaves by way of a large
134
Figure 8.11 The heart and its | artery, the aortic arch. From the aortic arch, blood is distributed to all
associated blood vessels
parts of the body (except the lungs). The aortic arch curves upwards
pulmonary artery from the ventricle as a U-shaped tube. Like the pulmonary arch, it
aortic arch also possesses semilunar valves to prevent the backflow of blood into
the left ventricle. The blood entering the aorta is at a very high
pressure.
superior —
vena Cava —
arteries The right ventricle has thinner walls than the left ventricle. It pumps
blood to the lungs which are a short distance from the heart.
Therefore, the blood in the pulmonary arteries is at a lower
pressure than the blood in the aorta. This gives sufficient time for
gaseous exchange to occur in the lungs (e.g. absorption of oxygen
into the blood).
vena Cava
aorta
Two small coronary arteries originate from the aortic arch. They give
Photograph of a sheep’s heart off branches that supply oxygen and food substances to the heart
showing the extensive branching
muscles (Figure 8.11).
of one of the coronary arteries
aortic arch
The atria have comparatively thin walls as they only have to force
blood into the ventricles and this does not require much power. On
pulmonary
the other hand, the ventricles have to force blood out of the heart,
artery
hence they have relatively thick walls, especially the left ventricle
atrium which has to pump blood round the whole body.
> branching
coronary
artery
ventricle ; INVESTIGATION
'i
o
i§
y
3 Examination of a mammalian heart
ss
|
i
if 1 Examine a model of a mammalian
s
heart. acna
ae
2 Examine and draw the external features of a sheep’s

heart, noting the size of the atria and ventricles and the
blood vessels connected to it. LESL
REIL
OES
EIEN
Examine and note the internal features of a dissected

heart. Note the thin-walled atria and the thick-walled
ventricles, especially the left ventricle. By means of a
( wire, trace the path of the blood through the heart.
Also, look at the semilunar valves in the arteries and
; find out how they work.
LEER
LED
CEEOL
EIB
EFESL
IEEE
IONE
| Mode of action of the heart
The two atria of the heart work simultaneously. They relax at the
_ same time to receive the blood from the veins. The right atrium
_ receives blood from the two vena cavae while the left atrium receives
blood from the pulmonary veins. The two atria then contract at the
same time, forcing the blood into the relaxed ventricles. After a slight
pause, the two ventricles contract simultaneously forcing the blood
_ from the left and right ventricles into the aortic arch and pulmonary
_ arch respectively. Meanwhile, the backflow of blood into the atria is
prevented by the sudden closing of the tricuspid and the bicuspid

valves. The closing of these valves produces a loud “lub” sound which
we can hear in a heartbeat. After the ventricles have fully contracted,
they start to relax. As they relax, the blood in the arteries tends to
flow back into the ventricles, but this is prevented by the sudden
closing of the semilunar valves. The closure of these valves produces a
soft “dub” sound. Therefore, ventricular contraction or systole makes
a “lub” sound and the ventricular relaxation or diastole makes a “dub”
sound.
A systole and a diastole make up one heartbeat. There is a short

pause between two heartbeats. The rate of heartbeat varies with age
and the size of the individual. The average normal heartbeat of an
adult is about 72 times per minute.
Notice that the atria and the ventricles work alternately. When the
atria contract, the ventricles relax and vice versa.
aortic arch aortic arch

|
pulmonary pulmonary pulmonary — pulmonary

arch vein arch vein
— atrium atrium ©
contracting relaxing
vena cava vena cava
™ semilunar
valve
Ventricular relaxation Ventricular contraction
| Figure 8.12 Mode of action of the

_ heart
Blood pressure
Blood pressure is the force of the blood exerted on the walls of the
blood vessels. The blood pressure in the arteries is highest during
ventricular systole when the blood is forced into the arteries. It
decreases during ventricular diastole. Blood pressure varies in different
parts of the body, being highest near the aortic arch and becoming
weaker the further away the arteries are from the heart. It is low in
veins and it reaches almost 0 mm of mercury in the vena cavae, just
before the vena cavae open into the right atrium ofthe heart.
Blood pressure varies with the individual person. An average person

has a systolic pressure ranging from 120 to 140 mm of mercury and a
diastolic pressure ranging from 75 to 90 mm of mercury. High blood
pressure may occur temporarily even in normal people, e.g. after
heavy exercise or when they are angry. However, persistent high
blood pressure which may occur in middle-aged or elderly people is a
dangerous condition. However, it is easily controlled if we see the
doctor in time and follow the advice given. A person’s blood pressure
_ can be measured by an instrument called sphygmomanometer.
The pulse
Every time the ventricles contract, blood is pumped into the aortic
arch and into the arteries which are already filled with blood. The
sudden increase in pressure causes the arteries to dilate. After each
dilation, the walls of the arteries recoil and force the blood along in a
series of waves. Each wave is called the pulse wave or the pulse. The
pulse rate is thus the same for all arteries, though the pulse is weaker
Figure 8.13 Using a in the parts of the artery furthest from the heart.
sphygmomanometer to measure
blood pressure A pulse is produced after every ventricular contraction. By counting
the number of pulse beats per minute we actually get the number of
heartbeats per minute. Even in physically healthy human beings the
_ pulse rate varies considerably. It is high after exertion and low during
rest. However, some physically healthy people, e.g. athletes, have
relatively low pulse rates.
84
To investigate the effect of physical exercise on pulse rate
| 1 Feel your own pulse by placing your right fingers over your
left wrist.
2 Count your pulse rate while you are sitting quietly. Record it
in beats per minute.
3 Stand up slowly. After about 15 seconds start counting

your pulse. Record your pulse rate. Why does the pulse
Hl
rate change when you stand up? 8
_ 4 Exercise: Start running on the spot for 2 minutes. Then

| stand still and count the pulse rate for the first 5 seconds.
Convert this into beats per minute. Continue recording your 22
pulse rate every 5 seconds until your pulse rate returns to

normal.
5 (a) Why does your pulse rate increase after running?

(6) How long does it take for it to return to normal? :
(c) Compare your results with those from people who
exercise regularly.
Is there any relationship between the pulse rate and '

the standard of fitness of the people concerned?
Oe
Chapter
Transport in Mammals —_
Coronary heart disease

By far the most common heart disease is heart attack, the blood flow to a particular part
— coronary heart disease. The coronary arteries of the heart may be completely blocked and —
lie on the outsideof the heart and carry blood that region of the heart muscle dies. The body
to the muscles in the walls of the heart. If can recover if only a small area of muscle dies
these arteries become blocked or narrowed by, | but extensive muscle damage is often fatal.
for example, the build-up of fatty deposits in the
arteries, the blood supply to the heart muscles endothelium or folded inner wall
can be greatly reduced. This can cause two
problems: angina and heart attack. Angina
pectoris literally means chest pain. Blood flow
to the heart muscles is sufficient at rest. -
However, during exercise when the heart rate is
much higher, the coronary arteries are unable —
to deliver the extra blood, and the all-important Re
oxygen carried in the blood, to meet the
demand imposed. Consequently, any physical
activity, even walking in severe cases, causes
chest pain. 1 Study the figure above and state the
differences between the two arteries.
These obstructions in the coronary arteries can 2 Which of the two arteries do you expect to
be caused by arteriosclerosis, a condition have a higher blood pressure?
where the arterial walls are thick and hard. In 3 The condition you see in the abnormal
one form of this condition, known as arteryis called atherosclerosis. Name one
atherosclercsis, fatty material is deposited in factor that may cause atherosclerosis to
the lining of the arteries. The rough inner develop.
surface of such an affected artery increases 4 What do you think might happen if
the risk of a blood clot being trapped in it. atherosclerosis occurs in: Chea"
(a) the coronary arteries that bring oxygen-
This condition can be treated with drugs and, rich blood to the heart muscles, and
increasingly, by a very clever surgical procedure (0) the arteries POnEINE blood to the brain?
which does not involve cutting open the Ly Skrc
patient’s chest. Rather, a bailoon attached to a Atherosclerosis afer Reels early in life. A
fine wire is inserted into an artery in the leg. proper diet is therefore important in reducing
The balloon is then pushed through the arteries the risk of atherosclerosis. A diet rich in
towards the heart until it reaches the narrow saturated animal fats should be avoided. It
part of the coronary artery. The position of the should be substituted by polyunsaturated plant
balloon is constantly checked using X-rays. fats (Chapter 5). The latter may lower the
When it is in the right place, the balloon is cholestero! level in the blood.
inflated opening up the artery, and thus
improving the blood flow. The balloon is then Other factors that increase the risk of coronary
pulled back out of the body. Surgeons hope to heart disease are stress and smoking (Chapter
do less heart operations using this technology 16).
in the future.
Find out:
The formation of a local blood clot in an artery How commen is heart disease in Singapore?
is called a thrombosis. If it occurs in the How can you help to keep your heart healthy?
coronary arteries, the supply of blood and ‘
\
yo
oxygen to the heart muscles may be completely fe
cut off, resulting in a heart attack. During a Y interNET

FEY the Main Arteries of the Body blood from various parts of the body. Amongst
these veins are:
The arteries leaving the heart are the pulmonary @ The iliac veins bringing blood from the
arteries from the right ventricle and the aortic hindlimbs.
arch from the left ventricle. @ The renal veins bringing blood from the
kidneys.
From the aortic arch, the following arteries arise: @ The hepatic vein bringing blood from the liver.
@ The carotid arteries which supply blood to
the head and neck. The veins from the gut do not open directly into
@ The subclavian arteries which supply blood the inferior vena cava. Instead, they unite to form
to the arms or forelimbs, one subclavian artery the hepatic portal vein which enters the liver and
to each arm. breaks up into numerous capillaries there. A
@ The dorsal aorta. The aortic arch curls “portal” vein is so-called because it carries
backward to the left side of the heart and blood from one capillary network to another.
continues downwards or posteriorly as the Thus, the hepatic portal vein arises from capillaries
dorsal aorta. The dorsal aorta lies on the left in the gut wall at one end and gives rise to
side of the backbone and runs backwards capillaries in the liver at the other end.
parallel to the backbone.
Thus, we find that the blood from the posterior
From the dorsal aorta, the following main arteries parts of the body is eventually brought back to the
are given off: heart by the inferior vena cava.
® The hepatic artery to the liver.
@ The mesenteric arteries to the intestines.
@ The renal arteries, one to each
kidney.
® ‘The iliac arteries, one to each
hindlimb or leg.
carotid artery
The Main Veins of the Body aortic arch
subclavian
jugular vein
Blood is returned to the heart by the artery
subclavian
main veins as follows: vein ;
@ The pulmonary veins bring vena cava pulmonary artery

pulmonary veins
blood from the lungs to the left pulmonary
atrium of the heart. ere heart
@ The jugular veins collect blood hepatic dorsal aorta
hepatic artery
from the head and neck. eat
mesenteric artery
@ The subclavian veins bring Uistseas renal artery
blood from the forelimbs.
(The jugular and the subclavian renal vein kidney
veins unite to form the superior

iliac artery and vein
vena cava which opens into the
right atrium of the heart.)
@ The inferior vena cava which runs Note that the
forward along the mammal’s back, pulmonary artery
parallel to the dorsal aorta and ia oxygenated carries deoxygenated
blood blood while the
close to the vertebral column.
[=] deoxygenated .3 pulmonary vein carries
blood oxygenated blood.
As the inferior vena cava travels
forward through the abdominal cavity, Figure 8.14 The human circulatory system showing the principal arteries
it isjoined by several veins bringing and veins
Handling INformMdkon and saving Passe hw CAG

TEST YOURSELF
your knowledge of biology, to answer
the following questions.
\ C 4\. © 0 Cy 1 In which region of the circulatory
system is the pressure lowest? \\ C\\)
2 In which region of the circulatory
system is there the greatest fall in
Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Veins Right
atriumRightarteries
Pulmonary
ventricle Lung
capillaries
Pulmonary
veins Left
atrium
Left
ventricle
pressure? Qrryex oie $
Arteries
140 3 How many times is the rise in

pressure in the left ventricle
greater than the rise in pressure in
the left atrium? S HM
(o>)oO
4 (a) What is the approximate
systolic pressure in the
Blood
in
of
pressure
mm
mercury\
NO (a)
systemic (non-pulmonary)
[N.B. “Arteries” = systemic (non-pulmonary) arteries]
arteries?
(b) What
|QO -\Aa%
is the diastolic Bee
er SG
pressure in these arteries?

The figure above shows a diagrammatic
representation of blood pressures in the 5 How is the blood pressure of a
circulatory system of a mammai. Use the ge easter OEY
information given in the diagram, together with Seas (C) HSB
TREO IRIN
Transfer of Materials between Capillaries and

Tissue Cells
The minute spaces between tissue cells contain a colourless liquid, the —
tissue fluid (intercellular or interstitial fluid). In certain tissues,
e.g. nerve tissue or cartilage, the tissue cells do not have direct contact
with the blood capillaries which may be a considerable distance away.
However, in every tissue, the cells are bathed by tissue fluid which
carries substances in solution between the tissue cells and the blood
capillaries. These dissolved food substances and oxygen diffuse from |
the blood into the tissue fluid and then into the cells. Waste products
diffuse from the cells into the tissue fluid and then through the |
capillary walls into the blood and to the excretory organs for removal |
(Figure 8.15). |
|
Since the blood capillaries are narrow, the red blood cells can move
through the lumen of the blood capillaries in single file.
The red blood cells may become bell-shaped as they pass through
narrow blood capillaries. The advantages of this are:
@ The diameter of the red blood cells is decreased so that it can pass
easily through the lumen of the capillaries.
® The cell increases its surface area to speed up absorption or
release of oxygen. Assignment 8.1
@ Rate of blood flow is reduced, giving more time and so increasing Designing a blood and circulation
game
the efficiency of gaseous exchange.
140
white blood cell bell-shaped
squeezing through _ red blood cell
red blood cells capillary wall endothe
direction blood
of blood paren ‘ capillary
flow
movement of oxygen movement of excretory

and dissolved food waste products
substances
Figure 8.15 The

relationship between a vi
tissue fluid tissue cells
blood capillary, tissue
fluid and tissue cells
| Lymph and the Lymphatic System
_ Lymph is formed from blood. The blood pressure at the arterial end of
_ the capillaries is high, so blood plasma (usually without its proteins) is
In the lymphatic system, the forced out through the capillary walls into the spaces between the cells
lymph capillaries unite to form (intercellular spaces). The white blood cells (phagocytes) can also
bigger lymphatics. These empty
the lymph into the left and right
move out of the blood vessels. They can change their shape to squeeze
subclavian veins respectively. _ through the capillary walls. Tissue fluid is diluted plasma containing
white blood cells. It contains no red blood corpuscles because these
are too large to be able to pass through the capillary walls.
If the blood plasma continuously moved out of the blood capillaries,

the blood would lose far too much liquid. To prevent this, a small
_ amount of tissue fluid is absorbed into the blood capillaries at the
venous end where the blood pressure is lower than the osmotic
pressure in the blood capillaries. Most of the water is absorbed back
Figure 8.16 Blood and lymph _ into the blood capillary by osmosis.
capillaries |
nee Most of the tissue fluid is
ESSE eas eapiianee collected as lymph into
tissue fluid. another system of tubes
2 which return it to the blood.
some tissue fluid enters These tubes are called
arteriole
oe eee lymphatic vessels or the
j-~ | lymphatics.
From the above account, we

see that the tissue fluid,
lymph and blood are in
continuous circulation
path of fluid (Figure 8.16).
Chapter:
‘ ummary
~ Plasma: Fluid
_ transporting nutrients,
excretory products and 3
hormones 0 Rs me isports oxygen
~ White Blood Cells:

-Phagocytes engulf and ingest
bacteria (phagocytosis).
oe a ymphocytes produce antibodies
* Platelets: Required for esponse to the presence of fore
clotting of blood ticles, e.g. bacteria. These ca
(together with calcium or cause bacteria to clump togethe
& ions and vitamin K) neutralize their toxins.
ee
igserecpeietuaeet ee
rapSitSecanesapeeee es
Red blood cell ihe lesa cal

Contains haemoglobin Haemoglobin absent
No nucleus Nucleus present
Circular, biconcave in shape Irregular in shape
Transports oxygen Phagocytosis or production of antibodies
>» @ Mammals have a double circulation: A heartbeat consists of a ventricular

pulmonary and systemic circulation. systole and diastole.
@ The transport system consists of the
The lymphatic system helps to return most
blood system and the lymphatic system. ene y P
of the excess tissue fluid back to the
®» Essential features of blood circulatory bloodstream.
system:
Tissue fluid is plasma without the
Heart: to pump blood round the body.
proteins, but it contains white blood
Thick-walled arteries: to carry blood
cells. Serum is plasma without fibrinogen.
from heart.
Thin-walled veins: to bring blood back to Atherosclerosis is the deposition of fatty
heart. substances (cholesterol) on the inner walls
Microscopic blood capillaries: to allow of an artery.
exchange of substances. The formation of a local blood clot in an
Valves in heart, veins and the arteries artery is called a thrombosis.
emerging from heart ventricles: to
ensure unilateral blood flow, thus
preventing backflow.
Goes = The problem J
John discovered that one of his ody! arteries OSHbecome narrower because of fatty deposits
due to the high cholesterol content in his blood. His doctor informs him that he faces a high risk
of getting a heart attack. What should he do?
Possible solutions
Reason for choosing reauce fat anacard —

| this option INTAKE
Pros: Geposits RECTSUSE
What are the pros and
cons of each option? Cons: \ESS SNE TAY ; CeerAiN] Cons: EXPENSIVE ; Sie ef ees
STAICEUKES WON Cm . CAN be AN SUC SSF
Your final decision and conclusion
=) xercise
MANNA jy MAM CE UWE) ;
CONE CRLLEG) SURSTANCTES all GigE ‘oar RG aacbs
1 Why does a mammal require a transpo heart leading into it has three semilunar
system whereas a one-celled organism such pockets.
)
as Amoeba does not: (a) In the region of the blood vessels 4 and
(a) What is meant by a double circulation in 8, draw arrows to show clearly the |
mammals? direction of flow of the blood.
(b) State the function of the coronary (6) Name the blood vessels or organs
arteries. marked by the following numbers: 2, 3,
(c) State the routes through which glucose 4,6, 7 and 8.
travels from the small intestine to the (c) Give the number of the structure which
arms. represents the right-hand side of the
heart.
Draw labelled diagrams to show the
differences between an artery, a vein and a (d) Give one reason why you have selected
Capillary. the structure in (c).
The figure shown on the right is a simplified

diagram of the circulation of blood in the
human body showing the heart, lungs, body
tissue and the main blood vessels. The
blood vessel labelled 4 conducts
deoxygenated blood, and the valve in the
Transport of Materials in
Flowering Plants
cons
TIVES
LEARNING OBJEC
apter, yOu
ti ng th e work in this ch irs to their
Afteer comp le
su rf ac e s ee of ro ot ha
rms of
he structure (in te up take).
te r mi neral salts
andid mi rcellu lar
. aot e a g e(i .e . wa
s to ce : rfaces; iinte
ll su
pr oc es
d relate this
De fi ne tr anspiration an
y
d stomata. plain the
air spaces an cu t stem and ex
oe rin a ll.
e the pare : spiration pu
y» Investigat terms of tran
and
t of water UP io ns of ro ot s, stems
in cross-sect
an d ph io e m tissues
> e tify xylem
Idene
tyledons. molecules ar
e
leaves of dico s and organ! ic
ra l sa lt
ter, mine
y» Understatand how wa
.
inside plants
transported
A Thought Experiment
Scientists are very imaginative people who often use what are
called “thought experiments” to help them see what are the
problems that plants and animals have to solve. This is what you
are going to do here. This exercise will also help you to
f recapitulate and think about some ideas presented earlier in the
| book.
Imagine looking up at a tall rainforest tree and thinking about

answers to these questions:
o Where is photosynthesis occurring in these huge trees?

® What raw materials are needed for plants to
photosynthesize?
t @ What are they producing as a result of this process?
> Having some basic biological knowledge, you would know the
yr answers to these questions: in the leaves; water, carbon dioxide,
sunlight; organic molecules like sugar and starch.
. But you begin to realize the problem the tree has. Carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis comes from the air and there is plenty of sunlight up there in the
canopy of the forest. But where do plants get the water from? Well, obviously from the
ground. But how does it get into the plant? Perhaps by osmosis from the soil into the
roots?
But how does water then get to the leaves, one hundred metres above the ground?
Osmosis is far too slow a process to supply water in sufficient quantities to meet the
needs of those rapidly photosynthesizing leaves. Perhaps, like humans, these trees
contain vessels or pipes, a sort of plumbing system, which carry the water to the leaves.
But how does it move through these pipes? Trees don’t have hearts to act as pumps.
The largest trees on earth are the giant redwoods found on the west coast of the
United States. Everyday, each of these huge trees will move 1 000 kg of water from the
soil to the canopy 100 m above the ground. The amount of energy required to do this
is enough to launch a can of soft drink into a low orbit around the earth. Where does
this energy come from?
Now let us think about the organic molecules that are being made in the leaves. They
need to be transported to the roots to provide materials to make new root cells and to
supply energy. Could the products of photosynthesis also be carried in a set of vessels
from the leaves to the roots? Are these the same vessels that water is carried in or does
the tree need a different set of vessels?
Plants also need to make proteins, but these contain nitrogen apart from the usual
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Where does the plant get its nitrogen from? Well, air
contains plenty of nitrogen gas but this is very unreactive. It would require an
enormous amount of energy to get nitrogen gas to react with sugar molecules to make
amino acids, the building blocks used for making proteins. Could the plant be using
some other source of nitrogen, perhaps nitrate ions from the soil? But how do these get
into the plant and how are they transported around the tree?
You now have four sets of problems, problems which biologists need to solve if they
are going to understand how plants work. And all of this came from a little bit of
imagination combined with a little bit of knowledge. That is how science works: what
you see makes you think and analyse the problems and how they can be solved. Now
the hard work begins. Biologists would work by looking for relevant structures and
carry out various experiments. You can find the answers to these problems in the rest
of this chapter. To help you summarize your answer, write each problem at the head of
a single sheet of paper. Collect information relevant to each problem as you read
through the chapter and record it on the relevant sheet. You will see reminders in bold
italic letters and the icon shown on the right to remind you about this, (>
nim Ba nee ee ee ,
Transport of Materials in Flowering Plants ner
9.1 The Structure of Flowering Plants in

Relation to Transport
Herbaceous and Woody Plants
The plants which are the most highly evolved have a complex body
A woody plant has shoots that
consisting of leaves, roots, stems, flowers and fruits. These plants can persist year after year, during
be classified as being either herbaceous or woody. In addition, they can which time the stems increase in
be classified as perennial, biennial or annual depending on how long thickness and become hard and
they live. woody. Trees and shrubs are
woody plants. Trees are tall
woody plants which usually
Let us now think about solving the problems outlined in the branch after they have grown to a
introduction. First of all, let us think about the system of vessels which height of several metres above
we imagined must run up and down a plant to carry materials. These the ground, e.g. flame of the
are called transport or vascular tissues. forest and angsana trees. Shrubs
are smaller and they develop
large branches close to the
Transport or Vascular Tissues ground, e.g. hibiscus.
A herbaceous plant or herb is a

The vascular tissues of flowering plants are the xylem (or wood) and plant with relatively little woody
the phloem. They are responsible for transporting materials in these tissue and no persistent woody
plants. shoots. Some herbs die at the
end of the growing season. tn
Xylem other herbs, parts of the aerial
shoots die at the end of the
Xylem tissue has two functions: growing season, leaving the
underground parts alive to
@ Conducting water, with its dissolved mineral salts, from the roots produce new shoots for the next
to the stems and leaves. growing season. The balsam,
@ Providing mechnical support within the plant. sunflower and canna lily are
examples of herbaceous plants.
The xylem consists mainly of vessels. A vessel is a long hollow tube
stretching from the root to the leaf: The hollow space or lumen in the
xylem vessel is continuous. The vessel is a dead structure. Its wall is
strengthened by a substance called lignin that is deposited on it.
Lignin may be deposited in various ways. It may be deposited in the
form of rings or spirals. The whole wall of some vessels may be
lignified except in regions called pits (Figure 9.1).
Perennials, Biennials and

Annuals
Perennials are plants that survive

year after year. Trees and shrubs
lignin
deposited are woody perennials. Examples
in rings pits of herbaceous perennials are
pa (unlignified) canna, onion and ginger.
Some herbaceous plants live for

only two growing seasons. At the
end of the second year the plants
die, leaving seeds behind. These
plants are called biennials, e.g.
carrot, radish, beetroot.
| annular Spiral ; pitted Annuals are herbaceous plants

that live for only one growing
Figure 9.1 Xylem vessels showing the different patterns of lignification season, e.g. balsam, sunflower.
Remember to fill in your sheets. Adaptation of xylem vessel to transport water:

You already have answers to @ A continuous lumen without any partition wall or protoplasm
some ofyour problems. within to hinder passage of water and mineral salts.
@ Walls lignified to prevent collapse of the vessel. (The vessels
collectively provide mechanical support to the plant.)
Phloem
The phloem conducts manufactured food (sucrose and amino acids)

from the green parts of the plant, especially the leaves, to other parts of
the plant. It consists mainly of sieve tubes and companion cells
(Figure 9.2).
A sieve tube consists of a single row of elongated, thin-walled living

cells called the sieve tube cells. The cross-walls separating the cells are
perforated by minute pores like a sieve and so are called sieve plates.
A mature sieve tube cell has lost its central vacuole and most
organelles including its nucleus but has a thin layer of cytoplasm. The
transport of manufactured food occurs through the cytoplasm of the
sieve tube cells and sieve plates by diffusion and active transport.
Because of its degenerate protoplasm, each sieve tube cell has a

companion cell beside it to keep it alive. Each companion cell is a
narrow, thin-walled cell with abundant cytoplasm and a nucleus.
Companion cells assist the sieve tubes in the transport of
manufactured food.
sieve plate sieve tube

“phloemtissue
=e companion cells
Figure 9.2 Some es of phloem Figure 9.3 Photomicrograph showing xylem and phloem
tissue tissues in a dicotyledonous stem (T.S.)
The Internal Structure of Plant Organs

| We shall now look at the distribution of tissues in a stem and a root.
_ The distribution of tissues in a leaf has already been dealt with in
Chapter 7.
Transport of Materials in Flowering Plants
> INVEST IGATION
Stems and fibres

To show the path of water through a plant Several types of tissue in the
stem such as the xylem vessels
1 Take a young balsam plant and and phloem tubes can form very
wash its roots with water to long fibres as they develop.
remove the soil. Humans have been using plant
fibres for more than 10 000
2 Allow the plant to stand with its
years. The xylem fibres from sisal
root immersed in dilute red ink plants are used to make hard
(or methylene blue) solution. ropes. The fine linen cloth is
woven from the phloem fibres of
3 After a few hours you can see
the flax plant. The first two drafts
that the red ink has risen up of the American declaration of
the plant, right up to the veins independence were written on
in the leaves. Cut transverse sections of the stem and the paper made out of hemp fibres.
portion of the root not immersed in the ink.
4 Place the sections on a glass slide. Examine the sections
under a microscope.
Which tissue has been stained red?
What conclusion can you draw from your investigation? 5 Structure of a root
Which problem have you now solved? ee -Each root tip is a growing zone.
_ This consists of small young cells
Write the evidence down.
that are actively dividing to form
~ new cells by a cell division
_ process called mitosis.
The internal structure of a dicotyledonous stem Just behind the growing zone is
_ the zone of elongation. The cells
In a dicotyledonous stem, the xylem and phloem are grouped together here elongate, hence bringing
to form vascular bundles. The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring - about an increase in the length of
round a central region called the pith. In each vascular bundle, the _ the root. When the root lengthens,
xylem and phloem lie along the same radius. The phloem lies outside the root tip will push against the
soil particles. To protect the
the xylem with a tissue called the cambium between them (Figure
young cells from injury, the root
9.4). The cambium cells can divide and differentiate to form new tip is covered by the root cap.
xylem and phloem tissue, giving rise to a thickening of the stem.
- Behind the zone of elongation is
the zone of maturation or root
The stem is covered by a layer of cells called the epidermis. The hairs. This is the region where
epidermal cells are protected by a cuticle which prevents evaporation most of the water and mineral
of water from the stem. The region between the vascular bundles and salts are absorbed.
the epidermis is the cortex. Both the cortex and the pith serve to store
up food substances, e.g. starch.
zone of
maturation
The internal structure of a young dicotyledonous root
~~ root hair
In the dicotyledonous root, the xylem and phloem are not bundled
together. Instead, they lie on different radii, alternating with each other. }zone of elongation
(See Figure 9.5.) growing zone
} (zone of cell
multiplication)
The cortex of the root is also a storage tissue. The epidermis of the } root cap
root bearing root hairs is called the piliferous layer. Each root hair is
a tubular outgrowth of an epidermal cell. A cuticle is absent in the Regions of a root
piliferous layer. Can you give a reason for this?
phloem
cambium vascular
bundle
phloem
cambium
cortex
epidermis
|Protomieroran of a vascular bundle
Figure 9.5 A young dicotyledonous root

-
root hair
Root cut
transversely
endodermis
xylem
cortex
Root cut phloem
longitudinally
root apex
piliferous layer
cortex root cap
xylem
phloem
endodermis Root cut lengthwise to show internal structure
Have you recorded the relevant / a)

Photomicrograph of section of a young root information on your e
if J sheets
‘
Translocation of Organic Food Substances
The transport of manufactured food substances like sugars and amino

acids in plants is known as translocation. What evidence is there to
show that transport of manufactured food substances occurs through
the phloem?
Using aphids in translocation studies

Insects like aphids feed on plant juices. The mouthparts (proboscis) of |
the aphid penetrate the leaf or stem. The aphid can be anaesthetized
with carbon dioxide while it is feeding. The body of the animal is cut
off, leaving only the proboscis in the plant tissues. A liquid will exude
from the cut end of the proboscis. An analysis of this liquid shows that
it contains sucrose and amino acids.
Sectioning of the stem and examining it under the microscope shows

that the proboscis is inserted into the phloem sieve tube (Figure 9.6b).
This shows that the translocation of sugars and amino acids occurs in
the phloem.
Figure 9.6 An aphid

feeding
(a) An aphid with its
feeding stylets
inserted through a
leaf epidermis
(b) Feeding stylets of
an aphid inserted into’ —
a sieve tube
“Ringing” experiment
41 Cut off a complete ring of bark including the | 5 What does

| phloem and cambium from the main stem this
‘ of a woody twig (e.g. hibiscus) so that the experiment
! xylem is exposed. Place the twig in water tell you =
: with the ring immersed (A). about the SSS i nih
} phloem? fe bark
_ 2 Compare this with another twig that has a . removed
cut ring above the water level (C). 6 foarte | : ananees
i - . ae : : stem
3 Set up a control using an unringed twig (B). PR your
' 4 Observe the twigs daily. Note where observations.

adventitious roots or swelling appear. Make
drawings of your observations.
"in ee SPIRES NESSIE INSEE RESTA OTE ELBA LIAS PEELE
8TAS LES LNGLEILA III NEE LL BSE
TEST YOURSELF
This figure is a diagram of the structure of a root.

1 What type of section is shown at the face X?
What type of section is shown at the face Y?
Name the structure D. What is its function?
Name the shaded tissue labelled B. What are its functions?
fB
ao
NY
W Draw a simple labelled diagram to show in detail structure A :
and its attachment to the root. (Do not draw any soil \\ I
structure.)
\ F
(C)
CC Le a nena e nee a
Figure 9.7 A simplified diagram

showing the use of radioisotopes in Use of isotopes in translocation studies
translocation
“C is a radioactive carbon isotope. Its presence can be detected by
X-ray photographic film. (See Figure 9.7)
A leaf is fed with carbon dioxide containing the radioactive carbon,

8C, When photosynthesis takes place, the sugars formed will contain
flask
radioactive carbon. The stem is later cut and a section of it is exposed
contains onto an X-ray photographic film. It is found that the radioactive
EZCOn
substances are present in the phloem. (See Figure 9.7)
section obtained So what is the answer to the problem ofhow organic molecules are =)
from stem here
moved around inside plants? What evidence could you use to argue
phloem that your answer is the correct one?
The Entry of Water into the Plant

_ Absorption of water and mineral salts takes place mainly in the zone of
root hairs. Each root hair is a fine tubular outgrowth of an epidermal
T.S. of stem cell. It grows between the soil particles, coming into close contact with
_ the water surrounding them (Figure 9.8). Mineral salts are dissolved in
the soil water. Thus, the thin film of liquid surrounding each particle is
a dilute solution of mineral salts.
_ The sap in the root hair cell is a relatively strong solution of sugars and
X-ray film —4— various salts. Thus, the sap has a lower water potential than the soil
>
/
9 solution and these two solutions are separated by the plasma
/
membrane of the root hair cell which acts as a partially permeable
only phloem shows
membrane. Water therefore enters the root hair by osmosis. The entry
radioactivity of water dilutes the sap, so that the sap of the root hair cell is now
more dilute than that of the next cell (cell B, Figure 9.9).
Transport of Materials in Flowering Plants :
Hence, water passes by osmosis from the root hair cell into the inner Figure 9.8 Root hairs
cell., Similarly, water passes from cell B to the next cell (cell C ) of the
cortex. This process continues until the water enters the xylem vessels (a) A section of a root hair cell
and moves up the plant. CROpIaem soil particles
vacuole
Figure 9.9 The path of water through thie root
plasma —
\ ; nucleus membrane
of root hair
* water entering root hair I—— cellulose
cell wall
phloem cortex _piliferous layer (b) A bean seedling showing root

hairs
sieae
A section of root to show path of water through it
Diffusion and active transport in the absorption of dissolved

mineral salts
The partially permeable cell surface membrane in the root hair cell
does not allow substances such as sugars and starch to pass out of the
root hair into the soil. However, it allows dissolved mineral salts in the
soil solution to pass through by simple diffusion into the root hair.
From there, they diffuse inwards through the cortex and into the
xylem vessels to be carried upwards. |
This intake of mineral salts by diffusion is only possible when the

concentration of such minerals in the soil water is greater than that in
Have you recorded this information
the root hair cells. For instance, when there are more calcium ions in
_ about how water enters the plant on
the soil solution than in the root hair cell, calcium ions will diffuse into
| the relevant problem sheet? Dont
the root hair. However, the root hair is able to absorb calcium ions
Just copy. Try and summarize -sxre.
from the soil solution even though there are more calcium ions in the
_ in your own words. sess
root hair cell than in the soil. This means that the root hair is now
absorbing calcium ions against a concentration gradient, i.e. active
transport of calcium ions takes place. This type of transport requires
energy and therefore occurs only in living cells, because only living
cells respire. Tissue respiration is a process whereby energy is set free.
Part of this energy can be used in active transport.
Though simple diffusion does play a part in the absorption of mineral

salts, present indications suggest that the absorption of mineral salts by
the root hairs is brought about mainly by active transport.
Adaptation of root hair cell to absorption |
@ Root hair is long and narrow. This increases the surface

area : volume ratio which in turn enhances the rate of absorption d require you to use energy.
of water and mineral salts.
@ The cell sap contains sugars, amino acids and salts. It is more
152
concentrated than the soil solution and it is prevented from
leaking out by the cell surface membrane. This results in water
entering the root hair by osmosis.
@ Since the root hair cell is living, it is able to provide energy for
active transport. This energy comes from cellular respiration.
9.2 Moving Water against Gravity
So far you should have answers to most of the problems we generated

_ in the introduction to this chapter. In fact, there is only one major
_ problem left and that is the most intriguing of all: how does water, and
the mineral salts dissolved in it, get from the roots to the leaves of the
_ plants where photosynthesis takes place?
| Root Pressure and Capillarity in Water Transport
The living cells around the xylem vessels in the root use active
transport to pump ions into the vessels. This lowers the water
| potential in the xylem vessels. Water, therefore, passes from the living
_ cells into the xylem vessels by osmosis and flows upwards. This is
called root pressure.
_ Root pressure alone is not sufficient to bring water up to the leaves in

tall trees. Other factors which are also at work are capillary action
_ and transpiration pull.
Water tends to move up inside fine capillary tubes by capillary action.

Since the xylem vessels in the plant are very narrow capillary tubes,
To demonstrate root pressure
1 Cut off the shoot of an actively growing potted

plant, leaving a portion of the stem of about 5 cm
above the soil.
2 Firmly fit a glass tubing about 30 cm long to the RE

ILIA
IEE
ENTER
IIE
OIC
REET
INES
cut end of the stem by means of a rubber tubing

as shown. rubber tubing
3 Partly fill the glass tubing with water and support stem
it with a retort stand. Mark the level of the water
in the glass tubing. LAER
PELEEE
ARE
RID
TORI
BELL
LOVES
4 Water the soil well and place the apparatus in a

warm place. What happens after a few hours?
Explain.
PEI LES ES SAP POLES

capillary action helps in moving water up the vessels. Capillary action

plays a part in upward movement of water in small plants. It cannot
account for water rising up a tall tree.
How do we account for water rising up to the leaves of tall plants?

Well, transpiration pull is the strongest force that causes water to rise
up to the leaves of tall trees. It will be discussed on page 155.
Transpiration
Green plants are continuously absorbing water from the soil. Not all wl’
the water absorbed will be used by the plant. The excess water, ‘di
together with the water produced by the cells during tissue respiration, \
has to be removed. It is removed mainly when it evaporates from the
aerial parts of the plant. It has been estimated that one
hectare of maize plants loses,
in one season, more than
The loss of water vapour from the aerial parts of a plant, especially 3 600 metric tons of water by
through the stomata of the ieaves, is known as transpiration. transpiration.
INVESTIGATION
94 5 Test any liquid on the inside of the bell jar

with anhydrous copper(I!) sulphate. What do
To show transpiration in a potted plant you observe? Give an explanation for your
observation.
1 Take a potted plant-and wrap a polythene
bag round the pot and the stem of the
plant. This prevents loss of water from the 3.9
soil surface. wa
2 Place the pot on a glass plate and cover To show that transpiration occurs mainly
with a dry bell jar. through the leaves
3 Set up a control using similar apparatus but |1 Take two leafy twigs of about the same size
without a plant. Place the two bell jars side from the same plant. Cut the end of each
by side near an open window for two hours. twig under water to prevent air from entering
the xylem vessels which would interfere with
4 What do you observe after two hours?
the absorption of water by the twig.
Control
belljars ——>
(7 : Y leafless twig
\ la with cut ends
of petiole
vaselined
— leafy twig
with stem
—— |e DOteciplant vaselined
oil
Te polythene ——_j ag
bags Ve
pot of soil Ni
2 Place each twig in a beaker of water and

add a little oil onto the water to prevent
evaporation as shown on page 153.
ROY
OPES
PECTIC
S
3 Strip off all the leaves of one twig and put

vaseline on the ends of the petioles. Also This experiment can only be performed on a warm,
OSE
LOT
OOOO put vaseline on the stem of the leafy twig. dry day. If the atmosphere is damp, e.g. early in
the morning, the experiment cannot be carried out
Place each beaker under a large bell jar and
successfully since the cobalt chloride papers will
allow to stand so that they receive sunlight.
turn pink the moment they come in contact with
4 What do you observe after a few hours? damp air. In this case, cobalt thiocyanate papers
Explain your observation. may be used.
97
So
To demonstrate transpiration, i.e. comparing To show that transpiration occurs largely

rate of transpiration of upper/lower surfaces through the stomata
of leaf using cobalt chloride papers
1 Choose leaves in which the stomata are
mainly confined to the lower surface of the
dry cobalt
leaves. (Broad dicotyledonous leaves
chloride paper — Sectional view
— rubber band across length normally have most of their stomata on the
of slides
lower Surface.)
How can you test for the presence of
stomata?
2 Take three leaves of about the same size

and surface area and coat the petioles with
glass slides
vaseline to prevent loss of water by
evaporation.
3 Treat the three leaves as follows:
Use a plant with stomata mainly on the lower Leaf A Cover the upper surface with
surface of the leaves. Cobalt chloride paper is a layer of vaseline.
blue when dry and turns pink when it comes in Leaf B Cover the lower surface with
contact with water vapour. vaseline.
Leaf C Cover both surfaces with
1 Place an intact leaf between two pieces of
vaseline.
dry cobalt chloride paper. Then sandwich
the leaf between two dry glass slides held Weigh each leaf.
in position by rubber bands as shown. The
Hang up the three leaves near the window
glass slides prevent the cobalt chloride
where they can get some sunlight.
paper from coming in contact with the water
vapour in the air. 6 After a few hours, note down the condition
of the three leaves.
2 After a short while note the colour of the
papers. What can you conclude from your 7 Weigh the three leaves again. Which leaf
observations? has lost the most weight? Why?
2 IS SEENON OME EAD

NTT ITER
AE ERA USO TY
Transport of Materials in Flowering Plants |
The previous experiments show that,

during transpiration, most of the water
vapour is lost from inside the leaf, not
from the leaf surfaces, since the cuticle
covering the leaf surfaces is relatively
impermeable to water. However, a very
small amount of water may evaporate
directly from the surfaces of the
epidermal cells. This is cuticular
transpiration. The mesophyll of the leaf
has numerous intercellular spaces among
the mesophyll cells. Water continuously
moves out of the mesophyll cells to form — leaves —
a thin film of moisture over their surfaces. e 2
From the wet cell walls, water evaporates

into the intercellular spaces, and from —srABtoom thesis moves
4 both up and
ee the stem in phloem | miesi
there it diffuses through the stomata to
the drier air outside the leaf. As water Sate and minerals ficial up the
evaporates from the mesophyll cells, the —| | — stem in vessels composed of dead
secells:oem) ;
celi sap becomes more concentrated. The
cells therefore draw water by osmosis
from the cells deeper inside the leaf.
These cells, in turn, remove water from r ak of ay
the veins, i.e. from the xylem vessels. and minerals
——__»> 7 : :
pathof manufactured
food from the leaves
The column of water in the xylem vessels
is continuous from the roots right up to
Figure 9.10 The circulation of gases
the leaves. As the mesophyll cells suck water from the xylem vessels and liquids in plants
the whole column of water moves up in the vessels from the roots to
the leaves (Figure 9.10). The evaporation of water from the leaves
results in a suction force which pulls the water up the xylem
vessels. This suction force due to transpiration is known as the
transpiration pull. It is the main force in drawing water and
mineral salts up the plant. The stream of water up the plant is
called the transpiration stream.
The importance of transpiration
Though excessive transpiration is harmful to the plant, transpiration

has certain uses:
@ The suction force due to transpiration is the main factor in lifting

water and dissolved mineral salts up the plant from the roots to
the leaves. In this way, the leaves are supplied with sufficient water |
and salts for photosynthesis.
@ As water evaporates from the leaves it removes latent heat,
thereby cooling the leaves and preventing them from being
scorched by the hot sun.
Investigations 9.8 to 9.10 are some ways of measuring the rate of

transpiration. We can use these methods to find out how much water
is lost from a plant or shoot during transpiration under different
external conditions.
a
pLEDO RTORI RIOT LEE EOD PELELET EEE NII SEER IDRALR
EEEEISITE:
INVESTIGATION PPB SS SEEESELLOT OLD DELLE TIES SE ECLED DOSED E EDEL,
_y
To measure the rate of transpiration of a To measure the rate of transpiration of a
shoot using a spring balance potted plant under jaboratory conditions
1 Take a well-watered potted plant and wrap a

' spring
balance polythene bag round the pot and the stem
of the plant.
2 Weigh the potted plant and then place it
| near the window in the laboratory. Weigh it
em
RES
ORE
SB
again after about 5 hours. The loss in mass
is due to the loss of water vapour during
leafy shoot
transpiration. DDL
TEER
IS
oil
boiling tube 3 Record your results and calculate the rate

of transpiration of the plant under iaboratory
water conditions.
Mass of potted plant (initial) = ag
[ome he Mass of potted plant after 5 hours = bg
P aoe loss in mass

1 Cut a leafy shoot under water. Immerse the Rate of transpiration = ———__—_ cre
a
seme
em
time taken
cut end in a test-tube of water and add a
little oil to the water surface to prevent
(a — b)
evaporation (see figure). Sipser sates tctase (27/l
2 Tie a string to the mouth of the test-tube
and weigh the test-tube on a delicate spring
9.10 5
balance as shown. Record the mass. To measure the rate of transpiration using a
3 Place the test-tube in a test-tube rack near potometer
the window. After a few hours weigh the
A potometer is used to measure the rate of
test-tube and the shoot again. (The loss in
absorption of water by the plant and not the
weight is due to transpiration).
rate of transpiration. In this experiment, we
Calculate the rate of transpiration as shown shall assume that, in a steady state, the rate of
below. absorption of water is proportional to the rate
of transpiration. Can you suggest under what
Mass of the tube with shoot (initial) = ag
Mass of tube with shoot after 5 hours= b g conditions these two rates are different?
— loss in mass
E
Rate of transpiration = ————————
time taken ao
(a—b)
ae ee 5 g/ o/h
Steady state
A shoot that is to be used in a potometer must be
cut under water and the cut end kept immersed in
water for a few hours ‘before use. This is to allow
the shoot to adjust to the conditions in the
potometer (new environment), i.e. to reach a
steady state.
A potometer potometer to replace that which is lost

during transpiration. This causes the water
column in the capillary tube to move from B
to A. The rate of movement of the water
column gives the rate of water absorption
water reservoir by the shoot.
on tap 3
Note the reading of the water column at B.
graduated capillary tube (cm*) Record the time taken for the end of the
2 water column to move from B to A.
\ 4 Calculate the rate of transpiration.
end of water col
ee Volume of water column from B to A
zea cm:
Time taken b minutes
Rate of transpiration ll be cm?/minute

1 To measure the rate of water absorption of b
a shoot, prepare the shoot as explained in
the note on page 156. The end of the water column can be pushed
2 Insert the shoot through the hole in the GSS - By Chee ie ae fescue 8
cork of the potometer. Smear vaseline allow a little water to flow down. In this way,
round the region of the shoot which passes eG Ata ae! 3 ee eBORG 4 teee
through the cork-to make the apparatus Sncsiiiabaed Lal ee Ae Ge eS
airtight. Open the tap of the reservoir to fill A potometer can also be used to compare the
the graduated capillary tube with water. rate of transpiration under different
Close the tap when the tube is full. As the environmental conditions, e.g. in still air, under
shoot transpires, it absorbs water from the a strong fan, etc.
RSE ASAE NRA” PT SES DDE IESN NS EST SR DENG ESI SSO ESP IS LASTS RCE
EOS SSDS PED I ISTE DSSS ESET SSTPERS ts REE CaCCCCaEnENCECEGIE
Factors Affecting the Rate of Transpiration
Transpiration is dependent upon evaporation. Therefore, any factor

that affects the rate of evaporation of water will affect the rate of
transpiration. External factors that influence the rate of transpiration
are:
M@ Humidity of the air
The intercellular spaces in the leaf are normally saturated with water
vapour. If the air outside is dry, water vapour will diffuse more rapidly
out of the leaf, ie. the rate of transpiration will increase. On the other
hand, if the air is damp or humid, it hinders evaporation. Therefore,
the more humid the air, the slower the rate of transpiration, assuming
that other external factors remain constant.
@ Temperature of the air
Assuming that other factors remain constant, a rise in the temperature

of the surroundings increases the rate of evaporation, thus the rate of |
transpiration is greater.
@ Strong wind
In still air, the water vapour that diffuses out of the leaf makes the air
_ around the leaf moist. This decreases the rate of movement of water
Assignment 9.1 _ vapour out of the leaf: If there is a wind, it blows away the water
Transport in plants vapour around the leaf, making the air less damp. This increases the
_ rate of transpiration. The stronger the wind, the higher is the rate of
_ transpiration. However, if the wind is very strong, the stomata may
close because the guard cells lose too much water.
@ Light
Light affects the size of the stomata on the leaf. It will, therefore, affect
the rate of transpiration. In sunlight the stomata open and become wider.
This increases the rate of transpiration. In darkness, the stomata close.
Wilting
| The turgor pressure in the mesophyll cells in the leaf helps to support
_ the leaf and keep the leaf firm and widely spread out to absorb sunlight
for photosynthesis. In strong sunlight, excessive transpiration causes
Diagram B the cells to lose their turgor. They become flaccid and the plant wilts.
| a Advantages of wilting
Rate of transpiration is reduced because the leaf folds up reducing the
| surface that is exposed to sunlight. This causes the guard cells to
become flaccid and the stomata close.
ts wilted
B Disadvantages of wilting
Figure 9.11 Diagrams A and B show Rate of photosynthesis is reduced because water becomes a limiting
parts of the same plant at different
_ factor. Also as the stomata are closed, the amount of carbon dioxide
times of the day.
_ entering the leaf is also reduced.
concentration, i.e. against a concentration * Temperature

gradient. Energy is utilized in the process. © Sunlight
¢ Humidity
» Factors that assist the movement of water
e Wind velocity
up the xylem:
* A potometer is used to measure the
® Transpiration pull (main factor)
rate of transpiration in a shoot.
@ Root pressure
@ Capillary action
Concept map showing the transport of materials in a flowering plant
fi erter
+ Section of leaf
water movement
by osmosis
intercellular space
xylem vessels
= 5 Z water evaporates
phloem === | O° jes ai from surfaces of
mesophyll cells
water vapour
diffuses out of leaf
through stoma
Xylem conducts
| water and mineral
7— from roots
‘ranspiration
translocates
sucrose and
| amino acids
| from the leaf to
thick lignified walls ——— |

t collapse of
Brevesee “2 / Root hair absorbs water by
-. : osis and dissolved
ral salts by active
Water and mineral salts flow

oss cortex down a
entration gradient.
Section of root
—AN
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A HS
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1 YAN =
SRR ETO
tubing
I—— mercury
In what way are the two designs similar?
ce
—-)
it
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ny
Bf
1 (a) Make a labelled plan drawing Oasis: 3 ) The concentration of salts in the cells of
of a young dicotyledonous stem. some seaweeds may be much higher than
(6) How would you show espe Hen ayy the that of the sea water. Yet such plants are
path of water up the plant? \\ ~ee able to absorb salts from the sea water.
‘ = (a) How do you thin tale are able to do
2 (a) With the help of diagram(s) explain how . this? A&C .
water is absorbed by the roots of a (b) In what ways is the process ITA
plant. |” | ~ to the life of seaweeds?|
fy C0
(b) Explain how the absorbed water fi CIN o MIN. CO
eventually reaches the leaves and is \4/ State the facioe which munca the rate of
transpired. . transpiration. Indicate how the rate is
affected by each factor.
Biologists need to have lots of ideas and know how to apply them in new ways if
they are to be good scientists. For example, you have learnt that the food you eat
contains energy stored in organic molecules such as starch and sugars. But how
does this energy stored in these large molecules get “used” in cells? Why does the
body need energy? Indeed what is energy? You have probably learnt about energy
in your physics lessons. Whatever you have learnt there, you can apply in biology
too.
As you sit reading this book, you probably don’t even think that you need energy.
When thinking about ourselves, we tend to associate the word energy with
playing games or being very tired because we have “run out of energy”. This is
not a correct way to think about humans and energy. Your body needs a
constant supply of energy. Like any machine, your body transforms one form of
energy into other forms of energy so it can do work. Here are some examples of
the work your body is doing right now:
You are breathing.
Your heart is beating.
Food is being pushed along your intestine.
Food is being absorbed into the cells lining the walls of your intestine by
¢¢¢¢
active transport.
ao
er
Ee
Nerve cells in your brain are carrying nerve impulses from one place to
another.
Your body is losing heat to the surroundings unless you are sitting outside on
a very hot, humid and still day.
New cells are being produced and new molecules are being synthesized in
those cells.
ge
:
ee
:
et
All of these processes and many more require energy. All living organisms need
energy all of the time to carry on living. So understanding energy is fundamental
to understanding biology. In particular, you needtoknow about the process TEER
called respiration which converts energy in food into a form which the body can
“
use” more easily.
” =
4: Give three reasons why we need

energy when we are asleep.
Why is it better to think of
organisms as energy-
transforming machines rather
than energy-“using” machines?
List as many different forms of
energy as you can think of.
Which types of energy would
biologists be interested in?
(Look at the photograph!)
Think about all the food you ate
Rice plants convert light energy into chemical
yesterday. Since energy cannot
energy that is locked up in large organic molecules.
be created or destroyed, where
has the energy in that food
gone? Produce a diagram or flow chart to explain your answer.
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btn
ah
10.1 “Why Do Living Organisms Respire?
_ In order to maintain itself, to move, excrete, grow and reproduce, an

_ organism must be supplied with energy. The ultimate source of energy
_ is the radiant energy from sunlight. Green plants transform this energy
_ during photosynthesis into chemical energy which they can store up
_ in the organic foods. Animals obtain this stored energy (potential
energy) by feeding on organic foods made by green plants, or on other
- animals.
_ Since the energy is locked up in the organic food molecules, an

organism will have to break them down to release it. This breakdown
of complex organic substances (mainly carbohydrates) is by oxidation.
It occurs within every living cell. This applies not only to animals but
Sos.
Respiration
also to green plants. The process normally occurs inside the cell. It is
called respiration. Thus,
0 a ion is the oxidation of food substances with the release

ergy in living cells.
There are two forms of respiration: aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration is the breakdown of food substances in the

presence of oxygen with the release of a large amount of energy.
} Carbon dioxide and water are released as waste products.
The overall equation for aerobic respiration is:
carbon dioxide -—water large amount of

energy released
The process is much more complicated than that shown by the above
equation. Many reactions are involved. Each reaction is catalysed by
an enzyme system. The mitochondria in the cells are “factories”
containing these enzymes. Thus the mitochondria are important in
aerobic respiration.
Most animals, including man, and green plants respire aerobically.

They are comparatively active organisms. They need a lot of
energy to survive.
Some Uses of Energy
Many processes in the human body consume energy. For example, the Loss in dry mass
synthesis of proteins from amino acids, the building up of protoplasm
When we weigh ourselves, the
for growth, and cell division require energy. Heartbeat, respiratory mass we obtain is due to all the
movements and other muscular contractions are all energy-consuming materials in our body including
processes. water. Our body mass without the
mass of water is known as the
Active transport whereby substances are transported against a dry mass of the body. During
respiration, when sugar is broken
concentration gradient require energy from respiration. For example,
down to release energy, the
the absorption of certain food substances by the small intestine and the resultant carbon dioxide and
absorption of mineral salts by the root hair cells involve active water leave the body as waste
transport. Transmission of nervous impulses (Chapter 13) is another products. This results in a loss of
process that utilizes energy. dry mass. We can carry out
experiments to show that there is
a loss of dry mass in respiring
During respiration, some energy is released as heat. The heat is needed tissues.
to keep us warm (Chapter 12: Regulation of body temperature).
A mole is the amount of a

substance which contains
6.023 x 107° particles (atoms or
molecules) of that substance.
Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of food substances with

the release of a comparatively small amount of energy in the
absence of oxygen.
Therefore, anaerobic respiration is less efficient than aerobic

respiration in terms of energy yield. It occurs in certain
microorganisms, e.g. yeast.
Yeast can respire both aerobically and anaerobically depending on

whether oxygen is present or not. Without oxygen, yeast carries out
anaerobic respiration. The little amount of energy released is enough
for the yeast to survive. But it cannot be very active under such
conditions. Yeasts release ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide as
waste products. Anaerobic respiration in yeast is also called alcoholic
fermentation.
The equation for anaerobic respiration is:

Fermentation and wine
making
Man realized the importance of
fermentation. By cutting off the
oxygen supply to the yeasts, he glucose Be ethanol carbon dioxide small amount of energy
makes them respire eR
anaerobically. The alcohol

produced is used for brewing,
Note that the glucose molecule is only partially broken down. The
e.g. in making wines and beers. ethanol produced still contains much energy. This explains why only a
small amount of energy is set free in anaerobic respiration.
Respiration
Anaerobic respiration in muscles

Muscle cells normally respire aerobically.
Anaerobic respiration may continue for a
short period of time when there is a
shortage of oxygen. For instance, during
vigorous muscular contractions, the
muscle cells first use oxygen to respire
aerobically. The person may start panting
in order to remove carbon dioxide and
take in more oxygen at a faster rate.
The heart also begins to beat faster so rT! Ore my, ee a

that oxygen can be brought faster to the
muscles. However, there is a limit to the Figure 10.1 Running involves vigorous
rate of breathing and heartbeat. They cannot keep on increasing. What | muscular contractions.
happens if muscular contractions are so vigorous, e.g. in a 200-metre
race, that maximum aerobic respiration cannot produce energy fast
enough to meet the demand?
If such vigorous muscular contractions are to continue, extra energy

has to be produced. The muscle cells then carry out anaerobic
respiration to produce the extra energy. Lactic acid is formed in
the process.
glucose lactic acid small amount of energy
|
Only a small amount of energy is released in anaerobic respiration. But |
this amount of energy, together with that produced in aerobic | Figure 10.2 Changes in the muscles
respiration, is sufficient to keep the muscles contracting during vigorous contractions
(Figure 10.2). Lae
glucose glucose
Since there is insufficient oxygen to meet the demands
in vigorous muscular contractions, lactic acid slowly
builds up in the muscle. The muscle is said to incur an
oxygen debt. Lactic acid may reach a concentration aerobic | anaerobic
respiration
high enough to cause fatigue. The body then needs to bastecetit
rest and recover. The muscular pain experienced is due
to the lactic acid which is toxic.
During the period of rest, the lactic acid is removed

from the muscles and transported to the liver. Some of
the lactic acid is oxidized to produce energy. This
energy is used to convert the remaining lactic acid to
glucose. Glucose is then transported back to the Seas
muscle. The body is now ready for another race. PACA aunt Or enn
visorou
Tissue Respiration, Gas Exchange and Breathing
Aerobic respiration involves two processes: tissue respiration and

gaseous exchange.
Precise use of scientific
language
& Tissue respiration
Scientists often use words which This is the oxidation of organic food molecules with the liberation of
have a slightly different meaning energy, carbon dioxide and water. It occurs within the living cells or
in everyday conversation. It is
tissues of an organism and is termed tissue or internal respiration. All
important, therefore, that you
learn to be precise in your use of
the energy a higher animal or plant makes use of is made available by
scientific language. This can be this means.
demonstrated in this topic.
Gaseous exchange (external respiration)
Scientifically, respiration is a Oxygen has to be brought to the cells of an organism. The process of
chemical process that occurs in
cells and which releases energy,
the transfer of oxygen from the surrounding air or water to the cells
while breathing is a mechanical and the transfer of the products of respiration (carbon dioxide and
ventilating process that serves to water) from the cells back to the surrounding medium (air or water) is
supply the body with the oxygen called gaseous exchange. Breathing is part of the process of gaseous
needed to drive this cellular exchange. It refers to the muscular contractions and movements of the
chemical process. However, in
ribs which result in the movement of air in and out of the lungs.
everyday language we sometimes
refer to breathing as respiration—
this is scientifically wrong. How do we know that living organisms respire?
In respiration, oxygen is consumed and energy, carbon dioxide and

water are liberated. Therefore, if we can show that an organism
consumes oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide and heat, we can say
that it respires.
INVESTIGATION
10.1
SENS
To show respiration in an animal

rubber
bung
Use a small animal such as a cockroach or a
wire
Snail in this experiment.
conical
1 Take two conical flasks. Place a live flask
cockroach in one flask and a dead
cockroach, that has been soaked in candle
formalin to prevent decay, in the other flask.
Fit a rubber bung in the mouth of each flask
Ament
and make sure that the apparatus is
airtight.
Leave the flasks for a few hours.

4 Record your observation. Suggest an
After a few hours, introduce a small lighted explanation for your observation.
candle into each flask as shown in the
5S What is the purpase of setting up the second
figure. Immediately after introducing the
candle, close the mouth of the flask tightly. flask containing the dead animal?
Note the time taken for the candle flame to | 6 What do you think are the limitations of the
go off. experiment?
Respiration
10.2 6 You need to set up a control. What would

Me you put in flask C?
To find out whether carbon dioxide is given 7 If a potted green plant is used in your
off during respiration investigation, what precautions must you
take? Explain your answer.
Method (a)
1 Set up the apparatus as shown. Method (b)
2 Place a few small animais, such as snails, | An alternative method to find out whether living
in the conical flask C. Use a suction pump _| things give off carbon dioxide is to use a
to suck out the air through delivery tube E. | hydrogen carbonate indicator. The colour
This causes air to be drawn into flask A. changes in the indicator are shown below:
3 What purpose does the caustic potash
solution serve?
What purpose does the lime water serve? ” | (neutral) | (alkaline)
S What happens to the lime water in flask D
after some time? Explain your observation.
1 Set up the apparatus as shown.
(The air flows through the apparatus as
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GLAD shown by the arrows.) 2 What changes do you see in the tube after a
few hours? Why?
i
: Method (a) apparatus Method (b) apparatus
Ye meat a, a
; tightly fitting
: bung i
TAH
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: testtubes :
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| support-
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f hydrogen i
: — carbonate ]
indicator ery) |
5 caustic potash lime water snails lime water
' solution Control '
: ii
q
i
f 4
i
- delivery
_ To find out whether carbon dioxide is given K tube
off during fermentation Pines eter |
i ; tube :
Pot Add a few grains of dry yeast to some thin layer —fo=
j distilled water in a boiling tube. Stir well. ofoil ry uJ
i 6 @® | =
_ 2 After 20 minutes, add an equal volume of gues Se : lime water
i dilute glucose solution to the yeast yeast o’st
j Suspension and mix well. Add a little oil. Suspension \*,¢7 ue
_ 3 What does the layer of oil serve as?
y
: What do you observe after some time? 5 What would you add to the boiling tube in a
i Explain your answer. control experiment?
The cotton wool helps to insulate the
apparatus and support the seeds. What
other purpose does it serve?
To find out whether heat is produced during
respiration 4 Set up flask B using the same number of
seeds but killed by boiling, cooled and then
1 Soak some pea seeds in water. Then, add soaked in dilute Milton solution. This acts
a little 1% Milton solution to the seeds as a control.
which will kill any microorganisms present
without killing the seeds. Note the readings in the thermometer after
one or two days. What conclusions can you
2 When germination begins, place some of draw?
the seeds in the vacuum flask A as shown
in the figure. Insert the thermometer in What are the advantages of inverting the
such a way that its bulb is completely flasks?
surrounded by wet germinating seeds and
Control
its stem supported by cotton wool.
thermos flasks
pea seeds dead pea

in Milton seeds
@ Germinating seeds are best used for this solution soaked in
Milton
experiment because they are in a state of solution
active growth. —— cotton wool —
@ The Milton solution is an antiseptic. It prevents plugs
decay of the dead seeds which may produce a —_— thermometers
rise in temperature.
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)
Four tubes were set up as shown in the
diagram. All the tubes contained the same indicator
-— indicator |
amount of neutral indicator (red). solution | solution
Tube A contained a snail. snail 3 — snail

Tube B contained a green water plant.
Tube C contained a green water plant and a
Snail.
Tube D contained only the indicator.
The colour changes in the indicator are shown.

2 What colour change would you expect in
PITT
PELE
LIS
PI
EE
LICL
SPE
Lc
BRITE
ELAS
P
tube B? Why?
(acidic) |<—|(meutraly |—> (atkatine)| 3 If the indicator in tube C did not change,
|
what explanation could you give?
The four tubes were left in sunlight for about 4 Would you expect the indicator in tube D
one hour. to change?
1 What colour change would you expect to

occur in tube A? Why?
ELLIO LEG E OLOD
LLINLLNS ALAND IE AE ESSERE DIV AIEEE NEE ASIEN LEVEE ELL LLL DED ELLE LETT
NDA NLNALS NEO
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Respiration
10.2 Gaseous Exchange in Animals
In unicellular aquatic organisms, their surface area is large compared to

their volume. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the _ The importance of a transport
animal and the surrounding water can be carried out efficiently by _ system (blood-vascular system) in
diffusion through its cell surface membrane. Such organisms do not carrying oxygen to and carbon
require any special gas exchange system or oxygen transport _ dioxide away from the cells of the
_ body was explained in Chapter 8.
mechanisms. In large animals (e.g. fishes, amphibians and mammals),
their surface area is small compared to their body volume. Moreover,
this surface is often thickened for protection or to prevent water loss
and is not suitable for gaseous exchange. These animals possess special
organs, such as lungs and gills, where the gas exchange surface (i.e. the
surface where the exchange of gases occurs) is greatly enlarged and its
covering is thin. In this way, more oxygen can be absorbed and more
carbon dioxide removed from the body per unit time. Special
breathing movements help to bring about a rapid exchange of gases
between the animals and their surroundings.
Breathing Mechanisms
Many animals possess special breathing mechanisms which increase
the rate of exchange of gases between the animals and the external
environment. The breathing motions of an animal consist essentially of
two phases:
@ The taking in of air or water called inspiration (or inhalation).
@ The giving out of air or water called expiration (or exhalation).
There is normally a short pause between these two phases.
The Gas Exchange

System of Man | | On epiglottis
larynx
The organs involved in gas incomplete ring of cartilage

exchange in Man and trachea
other mammals are the
two lungs in the thorax
and the air passages
leading to them. The air
passages consist of the
nasal passages, pharynx, bronchus
larynx, trachea, bronchi external —— cut end of rib

and bronchioles. The intercostal muscle pleural membranes
thoracic cavity, ribs, internal
diaphragm and related intercostal muscle alveoli
muscles are also vital parts ‘lung

pleural fluid
of the system. —— bronchiole
diaphragm
Usually air enters the body
through the two external
nostrils (external nares)
Figure 10.3 The gas exchange system in Man (left lung cut open to show alveoli)
|| whose walls bear a fringe of hairs. The nostrils lead into two nasal
170
| passages which are lined with a moist mucous membrane. Breathing
through the nose has the following advantages:
|@ Dust and foreign particles, including bacteria in the air, are trapped
by the hairs in the nostrils as well as by the mucus on the mucous
membrane.
@ As the air passes through the nasal passage it is warmed and
moistened before it enters the lungs.
@ Harmful chemicals may be detected by the sensory cells (small
receptor cells) in the mucous membrane.
| At the end of the nasal passage are two openings, the internal nares,
_ through which air passes into the pharynx. From the pharynx, the air
passes first into the larynx and then into the trachea through an
opening known as the glottis (Chapter 6).
| The trachea lies in front of the oesophagus and extends from the
_ larynx downwards into the chest cavity. It is supported by C-shaped
rings of cartilage which ensure that it is always kept open. The lower
end of the trachea divides into two tubes, the bronchi (singular:
_ bronchus), one to each lung. The right bronchus divides into three
| bronchial tubes, one to each of the three lobes of the right lung. The
_ left bronchus divides into two as the left lung has only two lobes.
mucus from gland cell Epithelium enlarged
gland cell
r to pharynx
ligament (throat)
connective
tissue
lumen
(cavity in thin epithelium ————+
trachea)
C-shaped
cartilage
T.S. of trachea
From lungs
Figure 10.4 cytoplasm

Structure of
cell surface membrane nucleus
the trachea
|The epithelium lining the thinner walls of the trachea and bronchi
_ bears cilia. There are also gland cells in the epithelium that secrete
mucus (Figure 10.4) which traps dust particles and bacteria. The cilia
|help to sweep these particles up the bronchi and trachea into the
pharynx. From here, they are swallowed into the oesophagus.
| Within the lungs, the bronchial tubes divide repeatedly, giving rise to
smaller and smaller tubes. The smallest bronchial tubes are known as
_ bronchioles (Figure 10.3) and are not supported by cartilage. Each
_ bronchiole ends in a cluster of air sacs or alveoli (singular: alveolus).
The alveolar walls are very thin, moist and well supplied with blood
capillaries—all suited for gaseous exchange. The elastic nature of the
Respiration
lungs enables them to expand and contract easily during breathing.

Gaseous exchange takes place through the walls of the alveoli (Figure
10.7b). Thousands of alveoli‘are found in the lungs, providing a very
large surface area for gaseous exchange. The total surface area of the
alveoli in both lungs has been estimated to be fifty times greater than
the whole area of the skin or equal to the surface area of a tennis court.
Each lung lies in the pleural cavity, and when expanded both lungs
almost fill it. The pleural cavity is lined by two transparent elastic
membranes called the pleura (singular: pleuron) or pleural INVESTIGATION
membranes. The inner pleuron covers the lung, while the outer one is
in contact with the walls of the thorax and the diaphragm. The thin
layer of lubricating fluid between the pleura allows the membranes to
glide over each other easily when the lungs expand and contract Examination of the
during breathing. respiratory system of a
mammal
The chest wall is supported by the ribs. They are attached to the
backbone dorsally in such a way that they can move up and down. In 1 Examine the model of the
front (or ventrally), the ribs are similarly attached to the chest bone or |
| respiratory system of Man.
sternum. In Man, there are 12 pairs of ribs but only the first 10 pairs Note the positions of the
(counting from above) are attached to the sternum, the remaining pairs larynx, trachea, bronchi,
being free ribs. Between the ribs can be found two sets of muscles, lungs and diaphragm. Note
namely the external and internal intercostal muscles (Figure 10.3). how the lungs and heart
When the external intercostal muscles contract, the internal intercostal | are protected by the rib
muscles relax and vice versa. cage. |
|| 2 Examine a dissected
The thorax is separated from the abdomen by a dome-shaped sheet of
muscle and elastic tissue, the diaphragm. When the diaphragm
|CPE
|
_SST
IGE
SR
ES
TOTES
EEE rabbit. Compare its
respiratory system with |
muscles contract, the diaphragm flattens downwards and when they
relax the diaphragm arches upwards again. The working of the
|___ that of a man.
Netiee |
intercostal muscles and the diaphragm changes the volume of the
thoracic cavity.
Breathing mechanisms
@ Inspiration or inhalation
When we breathe in, the external intercostal (rib) muscles contract
while the internal intercostal muscles relax. As a result, the ribs swing
upwards and outwards. Accordingly, the sternum is moved up and
To avoid confusion, the words
further away from the backbone. This increases the dorsoventral
‘ h A a baciieeahenien upwards, downwards, etc. used
diameter of the thorax. The upward movement o Tibs als ie, © a person standing in
increases the breadth of the thorax, the movement being similar to the the upright position.
lifting of the handle of a bucket shown in Figure 10.5.
As the ribs move upwards, the diaphragm contracts and flattens and so |
enlarges the thoracic cavity. (The action of the diaphragm on the lungs |
may be compared with a model system using a rubber diaphragm and
balloons in a jar, (Figure 10.6)). Increasing the volume of the thoracic
cavity lowers the pressure inside the thoracic cavity so that it is now
less than the external air pressure.
As the thoracic cavity enlarges, the air pressure in the alveoli causes
the lungs to expand to fill up the enlarged space. The expansion of the
: ry eT ists iitteittegraisreca tans : ests Seppe teeeeety Sybheer ltt a Pet

172
vertebral ; : iss, rach cbt breed ogey
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during 4; 4332
! inspiration eat cba hes:
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|
-
|
position
| during
i expiration
external sternum / ait

intercostal eh:
INUSEICS — external —
To show how a rib rotates rans b c gt Bae ; os intercostal
To show movement of ribs and expands sideways Part of rib cage to show = Lae ee ernuUscles
during breathing during inspiration intercostal muscles : :
air entered lungs air expelled from lungs
Ve ribs and
ribs and bee [O/ f sternum
sternum ff returned to at \ sitters st
raised \. [Y// original “Sg / 1 sy volume of
O/ ff | f position Of J \ thorax
ta O} / || MOHINE ©.
thorax | decreased
j — increased
rib cage — y
| diaphragm diaphragm
contracted relaxed and
and depressed
INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
Figure 10.5 The mechanism of |
See AE Man lungs reduces the air pressure in the alveoli. The alveolar air is now
| at a lower pressure than the atmospheric air outside the body
| which rushes into the lungs until the air pressure in the lungs and
glass tube
(trachea) that in the atmosphere are equal. Thus, the air is actually sucked
into the lungs.
Then, there is a short pause during which gaseous exchange

glass tube between the alveolar air and the blood occurs. Oxygen dissolves in
wb ToocHuS) the moisture lining the alveolar walls. The dissolved oxygen then
diffuses into the blood where it combines with haemoglobin to
fae form oxyhaemoglobin. At the same time, carbon dioxide diffuses in
the opposite direction, i.e. from the blood into the alveolar cavity.
. yO 7 |e wvell jar
ae” See” (thoracic wall) Saar) v
@ Expiration or exhalation
+} rubber sheet ene : ‘
(diaphragm) Expiration then follows. The diaphragm relaxes and arches
—— at upwards. The external intercostal muscles relax while the internal
: intercostal muscles contract. The ribs and sternum return to their
original positions pressing on the lungs. Air is forced out of the
Figure 10.6 A model imitating the
lungs as the latter are compressed.
actions of the diaphragm
Respiration
Gaseous exchange in the lungs

Gaseous exchange in the lungs takes place by diffusion. Blood entering
the lungs contains little oxygen but much carbon dioxide. Air taken in
during inspiration contains much oxygen but little carbon dioxide.
Such a diffusion gradient with an oxygen concentration higher in the
alveolar air than in the blood and a carbon dioxide concentration
higher in the blood than in the alveolar air can be maintained in two
ways:
® continuous flow of blood through the blood capillaries and
@ breathing air in and out of the alveoli.
The one-cell thick membrane separating the blood capillaries from the
alveolar air is permeable to the two gases, allowing easy diffusion of
these gases. As the alveolar air contains more oxygen than the blood,
the oxygen will diffuse into the blood after dissolving in the moisture
lining the alveolar walls. The oxygen combines with haemoglobin in
the red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin, thus:
This reaction is
reversible.
Whether it goes to
the right or left
depends on the
amount of oxygen
in the surroundings. In the lungs where the oxygen concentration is
high, the reaction is shifted to the right and oxyhaemoglobin is
formed. When the blood passes through oxygen-poor tissues, the
reaction is shifted to the left, so that oxygen is liberated. It then diffuses
through the walls of the blood capillaries into the cells (Chapter 8).
Figure 10.7 Alveoli
ie heart : |
to heart
air in and out
thin film
of moisture
alveolar wall
(one-celled thick)
blood
capillary
(a) A cluster of alveoli with blood supply (b) A section of an alveolus (enlarged)
174 Carbon dioxide produced by tissue cells diffuses into the blood plasma
where it is carried in the form of hydrogen carbonate ions to the lungs.
In the lungs, the hydrogen carbonate is converted back to carbon
dioxide. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood capillaries into the
alveolar cavities.
Some water evaporates from the walls of the alveoli. Some heat also
_ escapes from the blood into the alveolar air.
Inspired air and expired air

_ Inspired air is different in its composition from expired air. The
_ differences between inspired and expired air can be investigated by
| performing the following experiments.
f OCIS SEEN RESELL SNE SEE BILEDRESS LES OTE Susteren a ee

a
_ 10.6 Demonstration experiment in flask B and out into the atmosphere

oes through tube F. The lime water in flask B
i will absorb any carbon dioxide present in
_ To compare the amount of CO, in inspired the expired air.
i
valigig enurexpired (extialed). alt 3 After a few minutes, what do you observe in
For this experiment, we make use of the fact the two flasks?
that lime water absorbs carbon dioxide and
produces a white precipitate. 4 What can you conclude from this
SSE
OTIS
RIIEEE investigation?
1 Fit two conical flasks, containing about the
| same volume of lime water, with glass 10 rs
tubing as shown. tid
tube placediin mouth | | To compare the amount of 0, in inspired air
— C D ill E 3 and expired air
i ar
1 Fill a graduated tube with water and invert
|
rubber tube it in a beaker of water as shown.
2 Blow air through a delivery tube so that it

collects in the graduated tube by the
downward displacement of water. Record
the volume of expired air in the tube.
ho expired
phosphorus air
2 Place the open end of the T-tube in the
mouth and breathe air in and out through
the mouth very gently. As air is breathed in, aa
|
graduated
atmospheric air (i.e. inspired air) is drawn tube retort
stand
into tube C. It bubbles through the lime water iy
in flask A and up through tube D into the delivery
mouth. Any carbon dioxide present in the tube
inspired air will be absorbed by the lime water.
beaker -
When air is breathed out, the expired air
passes through tube E into the lime water
Respiration
3 Tie a small piece of yellow phosphorus to 108

the end of a wire and introduce it into the ‘3
air in the tube. You can see white smoke as
To compare the water content between
the phosphorus is oxidized. The water level
inspired and expired air
in the tube rises gradually as the oxygen is
used up. 1 Take two pieces of dry cobalt chloride paper
4 When there is no more smoke emerging (blue) from a desiccator. Hold one piece of
remove the phosphorus and note the new the paper with forceps and wave it gently in
volume of air in the tube. the air.
5 Calculate the percentage of oxygen in the 2 Hold the other piece close to the mouth and
‘
OT
LIEN
LIL
ETE
ELD
ELE
ELE
LE
PELE
TO
RAE
TNA
LEE
ILRI
POET
EI
FATE expired air. blow air onto it for some time.
Volume of expired air at beginning of 3 How have the two pieces of paper changed?
: experiment = acm? What can you deduce from the experiment?
Volume of expired air at end of experiment |
= bcm 10.9
Volume of oxygen absorbed
ATCA
REAR
BN
OEE
ARE = (a— b) cm? To compare the temperature of inspired and
; expired air
Percentage of oxygen in expired air
e
‘
aU) i 1 Use a thermometer to find the temperature
Sree LO of the room. i
6 Repeat the experiment using atmospheric 2 Then hold the bulb of the thermometer
air (inspired air) and calculate the close to your mouth and breathe air onto it :
i percentage of oxygen. Compare the two continuously. Record the temperature of the :
results. What do you find? expired air.
3 Which has a higher temperature, inspired or
expired air? :
‘
STOO SEE OSE LEED SE SEETIEE LEED BB BDO GLB ESLE EDD DORSET LS
TERE AE ELLE ELELEE LCD DEE EDEL NOEEEL LE LE LE ILE EDIE ASSNELEEL SESE LEDS
DENIES TLE ELLE ELE ELL DDI LES ELL LDP LEE LEED
ss ATED
Table 10.1 Composition of expired and inspired air

Inspired air Expired air
Carbon dioxide about 0.03% about 4.0%
about 78.0% about 78.0%

Water vapour variable (rarely saturated) saturated
Temperature variable about body temperature (37 °C in Man)
Dust particles variable but usually present little, if any
@ Lung capacities
Only some of the air in the lungs is changed in each breathing cycle.
The amount of air changed varies with the depth of breathing. It has
been estimated that in each normal, quiet breathing cycle about
500 cm’ of air enters the lungs, and about the same volume of air is
breathed out. This volume of air is known as tidal air. It must be noted
that any figure given here is only an approximation as it varies for
different individuals.
By taking a deep breath,

an extra volume of air, in
addition to the tidal air,
complemental air
can be taken in. This
additional volume of air,
7 vital capacity called the complemental
eaNG) Se NEN wenger He air, is about 1 500 cm’.
Similarly, about 1 500 cm?
supplemental air of air can be forced out
after normal expiration

of 1 500|----------------1/_______
Volume
lungs
(cm? and this is called
supplemental air.
residual air
By taking the deepest
breath, one can take in a
Time total of about 3 500 to
4 000 cm’ of air. This is
Figure 10.8 Lung capacities ihe vial capacity ofthe
lungs, i.e.
[ita eanty = tidal air + complemental air + supplemental air |
No matter how hard a person tries to force all the air out of his lungs
_ there is always some left behind. This volume of air, estimated to be
_ about 1 500 cm‘, is called residual air.
Stimulus for breathing

_ The stimulus for breathing is a high concentration of carbon dioxide in
the blood or in the alveolar air, not a lack of oxygen. No breathing
_ movements occur when there is too little carbon dioxide in the lungs,
hence there is a distinct danger in “over breathing” and people have
been known to collapse and die because of this.
lo Lrritant particles
There is a danger of too many irritant particles entering the lungs and
_ respiratory tubes. When breathing is normal, i.e. via the nose, most of
them are filtered off by hairs in the nose or trapped in mucus.
_ Sometimes irritant particles do enter the respiratory passages.
Normally, their presence causes an automatic violent coughing
_ reaction, resulting in their expulsion. However, in certain industries,
especially those involving grinding or stone-breaking, so much dust is
produced that the defence mechanisms cannot fully cope. Long
_ exposure can give rise to serious lung damage, and thus workers in
_ such industries should wear protective masks.
Smoking and respiratory diseases are discussed in Chapter 16.

PS
Respiration
1 How many breaths per minute was the man

taking while at rest?
A spirometer is an instrument used to measure 2 What was his tidal volume?
the volume of air that enters and leaves the
How much air was taken into the lungs
lungs during breathing. In an experiment, a man
during the 1 minute at rest?
was at rest for one minute and then exercised
for one minute. His rate of breathing was 4 What changes took place in his breathing
recorded on the diagram below. during exercise?
= |
5 Which part of the graph,
A or B, represents
exhalation?
, 47 A i
| 6 Name the chemical
iS \ y
= WWW produced
during the
by his muscles
exercise which
is
a)
stimulates the change
=
o 2 4 observed in his breathing
= pattern.
S
1 : 7 State 4 differences
between inspired and
T T oats oat os he T expired air.
30s 1 min 1 min 30s 2 min
Time in minutes (min) and seconds (s)
92% 0, + 8% CO,
Air: 21% O, + 0.03% CO,

of min
breaths
per
Number
—~ 100% 0,
Time
]
The figure above shows three curves, drawn 1 (a) What happens to the breathing rate
from data which was obtained in the following when the subject is breathing 100%
manner. At the beginning of the experiment, a oxygen?
human subject is breathing in atmospheric air (bo) Suggest what happens in the lungs and
and the breaths per minute are plotted over a the blood of the subject that accounts
period of time. The experiment is repeated for your answer in (a) above.
using 100% pure oxygen and then a mixture of 2 When the breathing rate increases in a
gases, 92% oxygen and 8% carbon dioxide. confined space, it is sometimes suggested
that this is due to a lack of oxygen. By
Examine the figure and answer the following reference to the data shown in the figure,
questions. explain why this is an incorrect hypothesis.
(C) EME
ELE
LLL
IDEAL,
LL
IIL
EL
LEVIN
ESAS
ESSENSE
LLL
AN
LAL
DIEGO
ALLE
LEAL
LEDS
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IEICE
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DRL
LL
LIC
SIL
SIL
ESR
LILLE
GOEL
ESSE
SLIITELNB
RSON
LIGA
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SLND
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OL
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EDENTAL
BTC
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i
OO
sssccreae
Saggy WMA yA BEER NOAA RA RAINE NSS PCARRD UES LSIO DINE DEANE SRS EN
si ieee cat
ASSilgigent
101 Respiratory Disease which ones apply to them. Since this is a
medical condition, it is important that you
Smoking is bad for you. The cigarette smoke keep the questionnaires confidential.
enters the lung and poisons the cells leading to 3 Enter your data in a spreadsheet package
the development of a number of illnesses. In
and produce graphs to illustrate your data.
particular, there are three common respiratory
Do more boys or girls have asthma? What
diseases associated with smoking: bronchitis,
is the average age at which asthma begins
emphysema and lung cancer. You can find out
in your school? What are the most
more about the nature of these illnesses and
commonly used drugs?
their relation to smoking in Chapter 16.
However, in this assignment you are going to 4 Asthma is an illness which is increasing in
find out about another common illness: frequency worldwide. One reason for this, it
asthma. is suggested, is the increasing levels of air ¥
pollution. What steps is Singapore taking to —
1 Using a library or the internet find out first reduce air pollution?
what asthma actually is and what causes it.
5 Finally, complete a report of the work you
2 Now organize a survey in your school to have done so far to include details of the
find out how many people suffer from symptoms and causes of asthma, the
asthma, how long they have had it, when occurrence of asthma amongst your fellow
they first noticed they had the problem, students, and the role of air pollution in
what drugs they use to control it and how causing asthmatic attacks and how
often they take them. Also, ask if particular Singapore is tackling this issue.
things in the environment trigger an
asthmatic attack. You can research the
types of factors which may trigger an
asthmatic attack and ask them to identify “9 Gnenics
10.3 Gaseous Exchange in Green Plants
_ Green plants do not have specialized breathing mechanisms for gaseous

_ exchange. Plants have a large surface area in proportion to their
_ volume, so the simple diffusion of gases is sufficient to meet their needs.
_ In leaves and young stems, the exchange of gases takes place mainly
through the stomata. The cuticle hinders the movement of gases,
_ though cuticular respiration does occur and is extremely important at
_ night when the stomata are closed. In old woody stems, a layer of
_ waterproof cork tissue develops beneath the epidermis. Openings
called lenticels are formed in the cork for the exchange of gases.
Oxygen from the surrounding atmosphere diffuses into the inter-
_ cellular spaces among the cells of the leaves and stems. The oxygen
Respiration is a process which
_ dissolves in the moisture on the walls of the cells and then diffuses
occurs continuously, day and into
night, in all living cells. _ the cells. It diffuses from cell to cell to reach those tissues which are
not directly connected to the air.
Respiration
The carbon dioxide produced by tissue respiration diffuses out of the

cells through the system of intercellular spaces into the atmosphere via
the stomata.
Roots require oxygen for tissue respiration. It is obtained from the soil
water as dissolved oxygen which diffuses into the root hairs and
inwards to the inner cells of the root. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of
the roots through the surfaces of the root hairs.
The intake of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide by green plants
can only be detected at night or when the plant is placed in darkness.
If the plant is placed in bright sunlight, photosynthesis and respiration
occur at the same time. During photosynthesis oxygen is set free.
Some of this oxygen is used for tissue respiration. But in bright
sunlight, the rate of photosynthesis is much greater than the rate of
respiration. More oxygen is set free than the cells can retain for
respiration. As a result, the excess oxygen diffuses out of the leaves
through the stomata. Since the amount of carbon dioxide produced ee
during tissue respiration is not sufficient for food-making, more carbon | “interNET
dioxide has to diffuse into the leaf from the outside atmosphere. Process of respiration
Table 10.2 Differerices between respiration and photosynthesis
Respiration Photosynthesis
@ Energy is liberated. @ Energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules.
@ Oxygen is used, and carbon dioxide and water | @ Carbon dioxide and water are used while
are given off. oxygen is given off.
@ A catabolic (destructive) process, resulting in @ An anabolic (constructive) process, resulting
the breakdown of carbohydrate molecules. in the building up of carbohydrate molecules. :
@ Occurs at all times in all cells, independent of | @ Occurs only in cells containing chlorophyll
chlorophyll and sunlight. and in the presence of sunlight.
@ Results in a loss in dry mass. @ Results in a gain of dry mass.
2 "summary
a
a organism and the environment. The. Waeculatzed alveolar male

organism takes in oxygen and gives out @ Moist surface for oxygen to dissolve
carbon dioxide. In mammals, special provided by thin film of moisture lining
respiratory movements help in this alveolar walls
exchange of gases.
» The exchange of gases in green plants
@ Inspired (inhaled) air contains more
occurs through the stomata in leaves and
oxygen, less carbon dioxide and less
young stems and through lenticels in old
water vapour than expired air. It is also stems. In roots, oxygen dissolved in the soil
at a lower temperature.
water diffuses into the root hair cells.
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Respiration | *¥.
“ xercise
ib (a) What do you understand by respiration? (a) Describe how oxygen from the
(0) Describe how you would show that a atmosphere gets into the mesophyll
green plant respires. cells in a green plant.
(bo) In what ways are the lungs adapted for
2 (a) What is the importance of respiration to the efficient absorption of oxygen?
living things? (c) In what form are oxygen and carbon
(b) How does aerobic respiration differ from dioxide carried in the blood of a
anaerobic respiration? mammal?
(c) Describe an experiment to show that
yeast can respire anaerobically. How does expired air differ from
atmospheric air? Account for these
differences as far as you can.
This diagram shows the apparatus used to

investigate the release of energy in living
organisms. (The peas had been rinsed with
an anti-bacterial agent.)
(a) (i) Why is a vacuum flask used in this

experiment?
(ii) Why is it placed in an inverted
position?
(b) After the apparatus is set up, the
The figure above shows a diagram of an temperature rises steadily by 3-4 °C
alveolus and its blood supply. each day.
How does this measurement indicate
(a) Name the structures labelied A, B and
that the pea seeds have released
C.
energy?
(b) Name the large blood vessel through
(c) The temperature of the pea seeds rises
which blood travels from the heart to
in the day and drops a little each night.
the lungs. How could you be sure that this is not
(c) (i) Name the process in which oxygen
simply related to daily fluctuations of
and carbon dioxide enter and leave
temperature, and that energy has in fact
the blood at an alveolus.
been released by the peas?
(ii) For this process to work effectively,
there must be differences in
(C)
concentration between the gases in
the blood and in the alveolus. Give
two ways in which these — retort stand
differences are maintained.
(d) State three adantations, shown in the 2569)
vacuum flask
diagram, which enable the alveolus to see
function efficiently. —— germinating
peas
(e) In which parts of the blood, and in what
cotton wool
forms, are the two gases carried to and
from the lungs?
(i) Carbon dioxide is carried mainly in thermometer
the as ;
(ii) Oxygen is carried mainly in the
as
(C)
Excretion
ES ,
LEARNING OBJECTIV
~~
The kidneys are a pair of organs that clean the blood as it passes through
them, producing a concentrated solution called urine. Urine is mainly water
with waste products, such as urea, dissolved in it. We get rid of urine when
we go to the toilet.
Esmond Lim, a 30-year old man, had a bacterial infection that damaged one of
his kidneys so that it stopped working. However, because the other kidney
continued to work normally, Mr Lim was able to live a normal life. Unfortunately,
eight months after the infection, the undamaged kidney started to fail. Mr Lim
{ now faces a crisis. His body can no longer get rid of excess water, salt and urea
which accumulate in his blood. Mr Lim can still produce urine but he cannot get
rid of all the waste products, many of which
are poisonous, produced by the chemical
reactions occurring in his cells.
Mr Lim is hoping for a kidney transplant but

in Singapore, as in other countries, there is a
shortage of donors. Until the right kidney can
be found, Mr Lim has to rely on dialysis to
clean his blood. As the photograph shows,
this involves being connected to a dialysis
machine. ws.
To reduce the amount of time he has to

A person undergoing dialysis
spend in the dialysis centre, Mr Lim has to
Excretion
follow a strict diet. He is allowed to drink about half a litre of liquid a day, about
one quarter of the normal intake of an adult human. He is also only allowed to
eat 30 to 40 grams of protein per day, the amount of protein in a small egg. He
also cannot eat potassium-rich foods like citrus fruits, bananas, instant coffee,
peanuts and chocolate. By sticking to this diet and undergoing dialysis three
times a week, Mr Lim is being kept alive until a kidney transplant can be
arranged.
Hopefully, Mr Lim’s big day will come when a donor kidney will be available.
When this happens, the surgeons will attach the new kidney to blood vessels
flowing through Mr Lim’s groin. The new kidney will be able to clean his blood.
Discuss and investigate

You can find information about kidneys and kidney disease at the National
Kidney Foundation’s world wide website. Visit this site and other similar sites to
collect information to answer the following questions.
Why are kidneys essential for human life?

What are the different types of dialysis?
After a transplant will Mr Lim be able to live a normal life again?
Noe How has Singapore tried to ensure that there are sufficient kidneys for
Ww
mem
transplantation?
11.1 What Is Excretion?

In tissue respiration, complex substances are broken down into simpler
substances with the release of energy. The chemical processes which
cause the breakdown of complex substances into simpler ones are
called catabolic activities. For example, tissue respiration and the
deamination of proteins and amino acids to form urea in the liver are
catabolic processes.
Complex substances can be formed from simpler ones within the cells.
Such activities in which simpler substances are built up into more
complex ones are called anabolic activities. The formation of new
protoplasm from amino acids, the conversion of glucose to glycogen in
the liver and muscles, and the process of photosynthesis in green Cl lD6
plants are all examples of anabolism. Such chemical changes occur Bx
continuously in living organisms.
“ Metabolism
The sum total of all the chemical activities within the body is known This refers to all the chemical
changes, both anabolic and
as metabolism, i.e. catabolic, that go on in the cells
of an organism which keep it
alive.
Metabolic processes produce waste products which can be harmful if

allowed to accumulate in the body. They must either be removed or,
in some plants and animals, deposited as harmless insoluble
substances.
You must distinguish excretion
_ from defecation or egestion.
_ Egestion is the removal of
Excretion isthe process
| by which metabolic waste products and
_ undigested matter from the
poe materials are removed from the body of an organism.
_alimentary canal. The bulk of the
- faeces (undigested materials) is
_ not formed from substances
In the animal kingdom, several excretory devices have evolved. In
-within the cells. They have never
_ been absorbed into the cells,
most unicellular organisms, the simplest device is by diffusion into the
_ hence they are not produced as a surrounding water. In larger animals or animals with an impermeable
result of metabolic changes. skin, special excretory organs are needed.
11.2 Excretion in Mammals
The main excretory products and excretory organs of mammals (e.g.

Man) are as shown in Table 11.1. The parts played by the liver and the
lungs have already been studied. We shall now consider the kidneys
and learn about the skin in Chapter 12.
_ The Mammalian Urinary System
The urinary system of a mammal consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of

ureters, a urinary bladder and the urethra (Figure 11.1).
The kidneys of mammals, such as Man and rabbits, are bean-shaped

organs usually embedded in a mass of fat in the abdominal cavity.
Figure 11.1 The urinary system in Man
| They are attached to the dorsal body wall, one
— = on each side of the vertebral column. In Man, the
kidneys lie just above the waistline. The left
aon kidney is slightly higher (or more anterior) than
the right one.
aorta
inferior vena cava | The concave surface of each kidney faces the
left renal artery vertebral column. At the centre of this surface is
right kidney left renal vein a depression, the hilus, where the renal artery,
the renal vein and the nerves are connected to
the kidney. From the hilus, a narrow tube, the
ureter, emerges and travels downwards to join
the dorsal surface of the urinary bladder. Urine
left ureter
from each kidney passes through the ureter to
the urinary bladder. The bladder is an elastic,
muscular bag, ventral to the rectum. It stores
urine. At the bottom of the bladder is a sphincter
urinary bladder muscle. When the-bladder is full the sphincter
muscle relaxes to allow the urine to flow into the
urethra epulncteneees) urethra and pass out of the body.
Excretion
Longitudinal section of a kidney as seen

with a hand lens
A longitudinal section of a mammalian
kidney shows that it consists of two main
regions:
@ An outer dark-red region called the
cortex.
@ An inner thicker region paler red in Rie
colour, known as the medulla. In Man
and most large mainmals the medulla
consists of 12 to 16 conical structures,
the pyramids, projecting into a funnel-
like space in the kidney called the renal
pelvis.
Figure 11.2 Section through the
The renal pelvis is the enlarged portion of the ureter inside the kidney. kidney showing the regions and the
The medulla pyramids possess radial stripes due to the presence of position of a nephron (L.S.)
numerous uriniferous tubules or nephrons. These are the tubules
where urine is formed.
Tabie 11.1 Excretion in mammals

INVESTIGATION
i Excretory
Excretory product organ Remarks
Carbon dioxide Ais | lungs | gas in expired

air
_ Mammalian urinary system
1 Examine a dissected
Nitrogenous waste products _ rabbit. Note the position
of the kidneys in relation
@ = mainly urea (from deamination to the other organs.
|
of proteins) AssitFiatbeoeet Pea Ee at ht tot eta teat
@ creatinine (from muscle | constituents of 2 Make a drawing of the
breakdown) > Ss sweat, ontyuin -i: urinary system. Label the
-| small quantities following parts: kidneys,
uric acid (from breakdown ureters, urinary bladder,
of nuclear materials) urethra, renal artery, renal
| vein, dorsal aorta, inferior
vena cava.
3 Obtain a sheep’s kidney.
Cut it longitudinally into
two halves. Observe and SE
LS
ISOS
LS
REE
AT
PESTS
RES
EN
ESS
SSSS
RY
draw the cut surface with

Bile pigments (from the help of a hand lens.
haemoglobin breakdown)
STE
Label the following SeREREAD
TRESS structures: capsule,

cortex, medulla, pyramids,
renal pelvis. PRESIDE
ARERR
Z. . 4 State the function of the

| following structures: NRE
PD
|| ureter, urinary bladder and

| | urethra.
186 | The structure of a nephron
Each kidney tubule (nephron)

begins in the cortex as a cup-
glomerulus and like structure called the renal
. Each kidney contains about one
renal capsule cortex
~million nephrons which are (Bowman’s) capsule (Figure
_ Narrow tubules surrounded by 11.3). The capsule leads into a
blood vessels. short, convoluted tubule (i.e. a
coiled tubule) before it
medulla
straightens out as it passes
into the medulla. In the
medulla, the tubule makes a
U-turn and passes back into
loop of the cortex where it becomes
Henlé
convoluted again. It then opens
collecting into a collecting tubule
duct
which runs straight through
renal
pelvis the medulla and eventually
pyramid opens into the renal pelvis.
The U-shaped portion of the
tubule in the medulla is
branch of
renal artery
known as the loop of Henlé.
(ee sail
Figure 11.3 Portion of a kidney showing the position of a few kidney tubules and The blood enters the kidney
the arterial supply (L.S.) | by the renal artery which
|
Figure 11.4 A kidney tubule Qo! E
afferent
arteriole
efferent
arteriole \a
The Malpighian corpuscle is
renal
capsule Malpighian
named after the Italian, Malpighi,
corpuscle who, in the early days of the
: glomerulus microscope, discovered it and
first ;
(proximal) second (distal) “many other structures previously
convoluted convoluted unknown.
tubule
branch of blood
renal artery capillariess wider narrower
afferent efferent
arteriole arteriole
branch of Pea
renal vein
glomerulus
loop of
Henlé
i \e z collecting +—
i, duct
SS
A nephron with its blood supply Details of a Malpighian corpuscle
Excretion
blood containing
metabolic waste
products
from renal
artery
glomerulus
Ultrafiltration renal
capsule
filtrate
Selective
reabsorption
ee
er ee gonethe
ee ood inthe: :
‘human body pass through the oe
kidneys in one hour? What
Figure 11.5 can you infer from this”
How urine is purified blood
to renal vein observation?
formed
gives off numerous branches. Each branch breaks up into a mass of

blood capillaries in the renal capsule. This mass of blood capillaries is
called the glomerulus. The capsule with its glomerulus is termed the
renal or Malpighian corpuscle. Blood leaving the glomerulus enters
blood capillaries surrounding the tubule. These blood capillaries then
unite to form a branch of the renal vein.
The Formation of Urine
Two main processes are involved in the formation of urine within each
tubule:
@ A simple mechanical process of ultrafiltration (filtration in kidney).
¢@ The selective reabsorption of useful materials.
The blood that enters the kidneys contains more oxygen and less
carbon dioxide. It usually has a larger concentration of water, mineral
salts and nitrogenous waste products than the blood that leaves the
kidneys. Excess mineral salts and nitrogenous waste (urea, creatinine,
uric acid) are of no value to the body, so they are removed.
Ultrafiltration
From the branches ofthe renal artery, the blood passes into the UESTION
glomeruli in the renal capsules. In each glomerulus mechanical
filtration occurs. This is usually called ultrafiltration because the filter is During a car accident, Ms Tay
very fine and only very small molecules are filtered off from the blood. loses a large amount of blood.
All solids and large molecules are retained. Blood plasma is also What effect is this likely to have
filtered off into the tubule. The blood pressure or hydrostatic pressure on the process of ultrafiltration in
in the glomerulus is high because the afferent arteriole is wider than her kidneys? What
problems might this
the efferent arteriole (Figure 11.4). It is this blood pressure that cause?
provides the main force required for the filtration process. Blood cells,
platelets and large molecules, such as proteins and fats, are not filtered
off in a healthy individual. They remain in the glomerular capillaries.
The filtrate flowing into the tubule contains water as its main
constituent, mineral salts, glucose, amino acids and nitrogenous
waste products.
Selective reabsorption
_ Ina normal adult, about 120 cm’ of filtrate is formed in the kidneys
_ every minute. If this amount of filtrate were allowed to pass out as
| urine, the body would lose far too much water and other useful
substances, and would soon be dehydrated. Thus, as the filtrate passes
through the tubule, a selective reabsorption of useful materials occurs.
This means that useful materials are taken back into the bloodstream.
Most of the water is reabsorbed by osmosis. Some mineral salts and, in

a normal individual, all of the glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed
through the walls of the tubule into the surrounding blood capillaries.
The selective reabsorption of these solutes requires energy. Hence, the
process involved is active transport. It is a highly selective process, and
only those substances which the body requires are reabsorbed readily.
_ Excess water, mineral salts and nitrogenous waste products (e.g. urea)
Biosensors
are allowed to pass along the nephron and out through the collecting
Monitoring the concentration of a tubule into the renal pelvis as urine.
substance, such as glucose, in
the urine or the blood can tell us
a lot about metabolism and The normal constituents of urine
whether the body is working _ The average composition of normal human urine in grams per 100 cm
properly. Biosensors are very
sensitive equipment that can be
is approximately:
used to measure very low
concentrations of substances. A Water
biosensor consists of a probe Mineral salts (mainly sodium chloride)
containing immobilized enzymes. Urea
When the substance you are Other nitrogenous substances 0.26
interested in measuring touches
the probe, it reacts with the
enzymes. This reaction is turned
into an electrical signal the size
However, the composition of normal urine varies considerably
of which is a measure of the _ depending on several factors. For instance, taking a protein-rich diet
concentration of the substance. will result in more urea being present in the urine. This is because
The device shown in the
proteins are deaminated in the liver with subsequent urea formation.
photograph is used to measure Even sugar can appear in a normal person after a heavy intake. If other
the concentration of glucose in conditions are constant, a larger intake of liquids or water-rich food
the blood and helps diabetics to increases the volume of water in the blood, hence more urine is
manage their diabetes. _ excreted. This also happens in cold weather when sweat secretion is
reduced. Similarly, if you take in salty foods, the excess salts will be
excreted in the urine.
Abnormal constituents of urine are found in certain diseases. For

_ Biosensor example, in sugar diabetes (diabetes mellitus), the urine contains a
| used to considerable amount of glucose. This is because the body is unable to
measure blood store up excess glucose in the form of glycogen. This may be due to
4 J glucose level the inability of the pancreas to secrete insulin. Insulin is the hormone
needed by the liver to change glucose to glycogen (Chapter 15). The
Excretion
_ glucose is filtered off in the glomerular filtrate. As the kidney tubules

are unable to reabsorb all the glucose fast enough, a lot of glucose UESTION
passes out in the urine.
Imagine a man floating on a raft |
in the middleof the sea after his
The Kidneys as Osmoregulators boat has sunk. He is very thirsty |
and starts to drink the
The water potential of the blood has to be kept relatively constant. salty sea water. Explain
Drastic changes of water potential can cause serious problems. For why this is not a very
good idea.
example, if the blood plasma becomes too dilute, the blood cells will
swell and burst. The tissue cells would also swell because of
endosmosis. Ifthe blood plasma becomes too concentrated, osmosis
will cause the blood cells and tissue cells to become dehydrated and
shrink.
The water potential of the blood depends on the amount of water and
salts in the plasma. The water content of the blood is controlled by
vasopressin or anti-diuretic hormone (ADH). It is produced by the
posterior pituitary gland (Chapter 15) and increases water reabsorption
by the kidney tubules.
In hypothalamus of brain
Osmotic pressure in
plasma increases Pituitary gland
(i.e. water potential
decreases)
secretes less
ADH
secretes more
ADH into
(1) Loss of water
blood stream
through sweating
Osmotic pressure.
in plasma decreases _
kidney tubules
(i-e. water potential reabsorb more
/increases) > kidney tubules water (i.e. less
reabsorb less urine produced)
water (i.e. more
urine produced)
(2) Large intake of water

(e.g. drinking)
Osmotic pressure
returns to normal
Figure 11.6 Osmoregulation in mammals

The regulation of the water potential in mammals is summarized in

_ Figure 11.6. The kidneys, by helping to regulate the water or the salt
concentration in the blood, are called osmoregulators. This is an
What causes a hangover? example of homeostasis (Chapter 12).
Drinking too much alcohol is bad
for you. One effect of drinking too
The Functions of the Kidneys
much alcohol is the unpleasant
feeling of having a hangover. The
symptoms include a headache, a
@ The kidneys are excretory organs, removing mainly nitrogenous
feeling of nausea and, in extreme waste products (e.g. urea) and excess water and mineral salts in
cases, shaking of the limbs. the form of urine.
Many of the symptoms of a
By the selective reabsorption of useful substances along the
hangover are the result of
dehydration rather than the direct
nephron, the kidneys help to maintain the pH and composition of
effects of the alcohol itself. the blood plasma.
Alcohol reduces the production of The kidneys regulate the salt and water balance of the body fluid.
ADH.
When other conditions are constant, an increased intake of liquid
@ Why does the body lose more
food, an increased rate of tissue respiration or a reduction of sweat
water than it needs to in a secretion by the skin would increase the amount of water present
hangover? in the blood. The kidneys would remove more water in the urine.
@ What changes to the urine do When there is a reduced intake of liquid food, or an excessive loss
you expect to find in a person of sweat, the kidneys remove much less water. This results in more
with a hangover?
water being reabsorbed into the bloodstream to maintain the
® How do you solve the problem
of a hangover? normal level of water in the body.
Kidney Failure
As we saw at the beginning of this chapter if one kidney fails to
_ function, the person can still lead a normal life with the other kidney.
But if both kidneys fail to work, e.g. in a severe infection or an
accident, the person will die unless prompt medical treatment is given.
The patient can be treated with a dialysis or kidney machine.

Blood is drawn from an artery in the patient’s arm and is allowed
to flow through the tubing in the dialysis machine. The tubing is
bathed in a specially controlled dialysis fluid. The walls of the
tubing are partially permeable. They allow small molecules, like
urea and other waste products, to diffuse out of the tubing into the
dialysis fluid. Big molecules, like proteins and blood cells, remain in
the tubing. This process is called dialysis, hence the name dialysis
machine. (See Figure 11.7.)
_ Dialysis fluid contains essential salts for the body. This ensures that
_ such salts do not diffuse out of the blood and into the bathing fluid.
_ Further, if the blood lacks such salts, the latter will diffuse into the
UESTION blood in the tubing. The tubing is narrow, long and coiled to
increase the surface area to volume ratio. This speeds up the rate of
The darker the colour of urine, exchange of substances between the blood and the dialysis fluid.
the more concentrated it is. The direction of blood flow is opposite to the flow of the bathing
Explain how you could monitor
fluid. This maintains the diffusion gradient for the removal of waste
how dehydrated your body p=
is by examining the colour products. The filtered blood is then returned to a vein in the
of your urine? patient's arm. The patient needs to be treated about two to three
_ times a week. Each treatment takes several hours.
Excretion
steaks artery tities tb stistl apseeses

ete
Controlling blood pressure

The kidneys remove metabolic
waste and control water and
solute levels in the blood. As a
result, the kidney also plays a
vein Sas
vital role in the control of blood
filtered 7 blood volume and pressure. If the blood
blood | removed ite pape fe volume is increased, then the
returned : from patient partially blood pressure will rise.
to patient a a} : :
a Fe eee es sy __ Alternatively, if the blood volume
| . NOE Bet ai | stays the same but the diameter
: atetebdeee eresticshcustts tse of the blood vessels decreases,
then the blood pressure will also
urea & other rise. This increased blood
1 A ee pressure can cause the blood
a diffuse out of | vessels in the brain to burst
Berne causing a stroke. To combat this,
doctors can prescribe drugs
called antidiuretics which reduce
the production of ADH. This
means that a large amount of
dilute urine is produced and the
- dialyser ' volume of water in the blood is
decreased.
Figure 11.7 How a dialysis machine works
kidney
The diagram shows a section | Capsule, Regular monitoring of blood
of a kidney. pressure is very important to
prevent strokes. Here, a doctor
1 Label the parts A to E.
_ checks the blood pressure of a
2 State the function of D. | patient as part of a medical
check-up.
3 State two differences
between the blood in B
and F.
IRN
LSE
ADIGA
AG
LEE
LSS
LONE
LD
SLE
II
SENN
SEL
DEA
4 What would be the effect
on urine volume: c
(a) on a hot, windy day? UESTION
(ob) on a cold day?
(c) if the blood pressure in a body falls? Why could a large amount of salt
in the diet lead to an increase in
5 Name a substance normally present in the urine of a blood pressure? fr
diabetic person.
I
SS
NAEP
LAE
zTILE
ENP
REIN
SRN HOSESSBERSSEUA SSN NAHAS? SEED SGN NLS SEEDS GOED LIDS ELE DESELRLEELL NLL ELE RELL EADERIE LE scm”
55 |
>) ummary
» Concept map on excretion
Removal of metabolic waste products and toxic substances from the body
Excrete metabolic Excrete carbon Produces and Excretes bile via

waste products, dioxide and gets rid of sweat the intestines
e.g. urea, uric water (water containing waste
acid, creatinine vapour) products, e.g.
urea
oe = ad
Other Functions
i e | we ;
@ Osmoregulation ® Gaseous @ Regulation of See Chapter 6 on
@ Regulation of pH exchange: pea : liver functions
in blood Absorption of Se ale
@ Regulation of oxygen ae ¢ ichectien
composition of Ss NISMS LO) Oe vee
blood plasma carbon dioxide mechanical
1 injury,
ultraviolet light
of sun, attack
by bacteria
The urinary system consists of a pair of > Urine formation involves ultrafiltration and
kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. selective reabsorption of useful materials.
@ The kidney consists of a fibrous capsule, > Osmoregulation is the regulation of the
cortex, medulla consisting of pyramids water or salt concentrations in the blood
and renal pelvis. to keep the water potential of the
® The kidney contains numerous tubules internal environment constant.
called nephrons. Each nephron consists @ The amount of water reabsorbed by the
of a renal (Bowman's) capsule kidney tubules depends on the amount
containing the glomerulus, first of ADH secreted.
(proximal) convoluted tubule, loop of 5
Henlé and second (distal) convoluted

tubule.
Excretion
imagine a man has landed on a tropical island after his boat has sunk.
There is no freshwater available there. He has only one bottle of water
left. Apart from this he has only the following: four long sticks, one large
piece of transparent polythene sheet, a cigarette lighter, a metal pot
and a mug.
The problem
What should he do to prevent dehydration in order to stay alive until

help arrives?
Possible solution
“? xercise
(a) What do you understand by the terms (b) Name two substances that pass out of
excretion, metabolism and egestion? the glomerulus into the renal capsule
(b) Distinguish between anabolic and but are normally absent in the urine of
catabolic activities, giving one example Man. What happens to these two
each. substances in the nephron?
(c) State the differences between the blood
(a) Name the excretory waste products in the renal artery and the blood in the
formed from the breakdown of proteins. renal vein.
eed
eepepirist? =
Investigating Huddling Penguins
Emperor penguins are magnificent birds, the largest of all the penguins. They live
in Antarctica and have evolved a very complex system for raising their offspring.
At the beginning of the Antarctic winter, the
birds walk about 100 km from the sea, where
they feed, to their breeding grounds. Here the
female penguin lays one egg, hands it over to
the male, and then returns to the sea.
The temperature of the environment can drop

to -40 °C or even lower in the fierce Antarctic
snow storms. The egg must not touch the
ground or it will freeze instantly. So the male
penguin holds the egg on his feet. Despite the
intense cold, the temperature of the egg is
maintained at 38 °C. The core body
temperature of the penguin too never falls
below this level.
This process of maintaining a constant body

temperature is an example of homeostasis. You
will learn how it works in this chapter. The
basic principle is simple: do the opposite to
what is happening. If the penguin’s Be
temperature goes above 38 °C, then it pants to

Emperor penguins huddling together
par
cheaper
p
together. Could this be a homeostatic adaptation which helps them toconserve
Study the task on the right.

Once you have designed
your experiment, carry it
out. Record your results in
a spreadsheet and use the
graphic package to produce
Dhara
Rep
Aes
Ses
2)
graphs of changes in’
adil temperature of different
penguins over time.
@ Which penguins cool

down the slowest? Why? _ i
@ Why do the real penguins continually change place in the group with the
inner ones moving to the outside of the group and the outer ones moving
te
tre
Sy
>
cetet
VTEOS
ere
ogy
-
inwards? . tirergagteate
This process is called thermoregulation. What are the problems of

thermoregulation encountered by humans living in Singapore?
ETI
BAGEL
CE
yy
eee
6
go
12.1 The Need for Homeostasis
Conditions in our bodies are constantly changing. Built-in mechanisms

help to adjust and prevent drastic changes within our bodies. Any
drastic change in the blood and surrounding tissue fluid will affect
chemical reactions in the tissue cells and will harm the body.
Homeostasis is therefore needed because cells in the bodies of animals
to
such as mammals and birds are efficient but demanding. They have
in tissue fluid of |
be kept at the right temperature, and must be bathed
the correct pH and water potential. This means that these animals
fluid |
which include humans, have to keep the composition oftissue
|
within very narrow limits.
kept
For example, you have already seen that one factor that must be
constant is the temperature of the body. Enzymes in the body work
atures
within a certain range of temperatures. Changes in body temper
the enzyme s.
may result in an inactivation or even denaturation of
a
This explains why people suffering from high fever must consult
doctor as it can be fatal.
tenance of a constant internal
By internal environment, we mean the body fluids, i.e. the tissue fluid
and blood. Blood is a connective tissue. As it flows continuously round
the body, any change in the blood will inevitably affect the tissue fluid
which will, in turn, affect the tissue cells.
Negative Feedback
_ Homeostatic control involves an important principle called negative
| feedback. For example, if the water potential of the blood increases
above the normal (or norm), the body will correct this and bring it
down to the normal condition. Similarly, if it decreases below the
normal, the body will respond and cause the water potential to rise to
the normal condition again. So the body always brings about an
opposite effect to the change. This is the negative feedback process.
How does the body know when to react? There must be some organs
or structures in the body that can detect changes in the body
conditions. These organs or structures are called receptors (i.e.
sensors). Any change from the normal condition is called the stimulus.
_ For any homeostatic control to occur there must be:

® astimulus which is a change in the internal environment,
® areceptor which can detect the stimulus,
® an automatic or self-regulatory corrective mechanism, which
brings about
@ anegative feedback.
Figure 12.1 A schematic diagram
to illustrate the principles of y
homeostasis Gers ee aes aay Corrective
mechanism
Normal : i Normal
_ condition (Norm) | | condition (Norm) |
/ Stimulus \
_ (below normal) |
Corrective Negative
mechanism feedback ©
Eas
_Examples of Homeostasis In Man
|Regulation of blood glucose ‘concentration

_ The concentration of glucose in the blood plasma remains relatively
constant. The body cells need glucose for tissue respiration to provide
Homeostasis
them with energy to perform their vital activities. A drastic drop in the
blood glucose concentration can be dangerous. JUESTION
The glucose level in the blood may rise after a meal. It may fall during
vigorous physical exercise or starvation. How can the body keep the
blood glucose level constant?
Some time after a meal rich in sugar or starch, glucose is absorbed into ie why?
ce .
the bloodstream in the small intestine. This brings about:
@ An increase in the blood glucose concentration. This is the
stimulus.
@ The pancreas (receptor) is stimulated.
Figure 12.2 Homeostatic control of blood glucose level
(a) Schematic diagram
Corrective
high blood mechanism
Too ouch
glucose _ Pancreas secretes
concentration ~ more insulin which
causes the liver to
_ convert glucose to
normal variation glycogen
in blood glucose
Normal glucose Normal glucose

¢-~---------S.------47-----5 % level in blood —§----=--"—=-------------- level in blood
(Norm)
Corrective
mechanism y Blood
Too little
glucose in Pancreas secretes : glucose level—
low blood rises (negative ,
glucose blood Stee ieee
i ulus)
(stim
~ causes tne
conve
liver
rt glycogen to
to ial
ff feedback)
concentration
j
glucose
Liver
Liver
aed normal blood

excess ‘ glycogen glucose
Blucose concentration
* 4 leaves liver
more glucagon secreted

more insulin
into blood
secreted into blood
a a
Pancreas high Pancreas low blood
blood glucose ey glucose
: a,
geen
eee eCONCENLLALION
(c) When blood glucose level is lower than normal

(b) When blood glucose level is higher than normal
® ‘The pancreas secretes more insulin into the bloodstream. Insulin is

transported to the liver where it causes the liver to convert the
excess glucose to glycogen (corrective mechanism). Glycogen is
stored in the liver.
The glucose in the blood decreases to the normal level (negative
feedback) before it leaves the liver and enters the general blood
circulation.
A decrease in blood glucose concentration may occur during vigorous

_ muscular contraction or starvation. This time the pancreas is
When we Say the water potential _ stimulated to secrete a hormone called glucagon into the
increases then it means that the | bloodstream. Glucagon is transported to the liver which converts the
osmotic pressure decreases. On _ stored glycogen back to glucose. Glucose enters the bloodstream. Its
the other hand, if we say the
_ concentration increases to the normal level.
_water potential decreases then it
means that the osmotic pressure
increases. (Refer to Chapter 3.) | Regulation of blood water potential
We have seen in Chapter 11 how our kidneys help to regulate the

water potential (osmotic pressure) in the blood. The scheme below
summarizes the homeostatic control of water potential in the blood.
| Temperature regulation
Assignment 12.1
Cholera: a natural killer _ Another important example of homeostasis is the regulation of body
temperature. To understand this, we need to know something about
the structures and functions of the mammalian skin first.
Figure 12.3 Homeostatic control of water potential (osmotic pressure) in Man

t=
—
Cc
Corrective mechanism
More ADH secreted,

more water reabsorbed by
kidney tubules, less water
excreted, urine is more
concentrated, less urine
produced.
5)
OD
U
os condition
condition
Stimulus Corrective mechanism
Water potential of blood 2 Less ADH secreted, ss / Negative feedback

increases, e.g. due to less water reabsorbed by ——_ >| _ Water potential of blood
large intake of water kidney tubules, more water |° ~
decreases
excreted, more dilute
urine produced. |
Homeostasis
12.2 The Mammalian Skin |

The skin not only forms a protective covering over the general body
surface, but it is also an excretory organ as well as a regulator of body
temperature. Any change in the temperature of the surroundings can
be detected by the skin. When you are pricked with a needle you feel
the pain, and when you blush your skin turns red—these indicate that
there is a rich supply of nerves and blood capillaries in the skin. When
you are exposed to sunlight your skin darkens. On a warm day you
sweat more. How and why do such things happen? Before we can
answer such questions, we must know something about the structure
of the skin.
The Structure of the Mammalian Skin
A vertical section of the skin (Figure 12.4) shows that it is composed of

two parts—an outer part called the epidermis, and an inner, thicker
part, the dermis.
Epidermis
This is a complicated epithelium consisting of:
@ The outer cornified layer
The cells in this layer are dead, dry, flat and horny because of the
deposition of keratin, a protein, which is also found in the fingernails.
The cornified layer is water-resistant and prevents uncontrolled water
loss by evaporation. It prevents germs from gaining entry into the
body unless there is a cut in the skin. This layer also forms a protective
covering over the body surfaces, preventing mechanical injury. Its cells
are continually being rubbed off but they are replaced by new cells
from beneath. In regions of the body that are subjected to greater wear
and tear, the cornified layer is thickest, e.g. on the soles of the feet and
the palms of the hand.
@ The granular layer

This consists of living cells, which, as they move upwards, become dry
and horny, giving rise to the cornified layer.
@ The innermost Malpighian layer

This contains living cells that are usually pigmented. It is the pigment
in these cells which give the skin its characteristic colour. The pigment
protects our skin against the harmful ultraviolet light of the sun. The
cells in this layer are the only cells in the epidermis that undergo cell
division. The new cells formed are pushed outwards. As they do so, In the finger of Man, the ridges or
they change their shape and structure. Finally, they form the cornified papillae appear through the
epidermis and are regularly
layer. arranged. The exact pattern is
constant and distinctive for each
Dermis individual — hence the use of
fingerprints for identification in
The dermis consists mainly of fibrous connective tissue. Its upper part Man.
is thrown into ridges or papillae (singular: papilla).
The following structures can be found embedded in the dermis:
@ Blood vessels
_ Numerous blood capillaries are present in the dermis. The arterioles
that carry blood to these capillaries are controlled by vasomotor
nerves. These nerves bring about the reflex contraction and dilation of
the arteries, i.e. vasodilation. When the arterioles dilate, more blood
is sent to the skin. This is shown when a person blushes or becomes
flushed after exertion. The contraction of the arterioles in the skin, ice.
vasoconstriction, reduces the amount of blood flow through the skin
and causes pallor in man. This contraction and dilation of the arteries
help to regulate the body temperature.
@ Hair
The presence of hair is a characteristic feature of mammals. Although
hairs are embedded in the dermis they are produced by the epidermis.
The Malpighian layer of the epidermis sinks into the dermis, forming a
hollow tube called the hair follicle. The hair grows inside the hair
follicle. At the base of the follicle is a mass of tissue containing blood
capillaries and nerves, the hair papilla. It is covered with epidermal
cells which constantly divide, pushing new cells upwards. The cells
that are being pushed upwards soon die and harden, forming the hair.
Attached to the hair follicles are the hair erector muscles whose
contraction causes the hairs to “stand on end”. This raises the skin
Figure 12.4 A section of the human
_ around the hair producing the characteristic “goose pimples” in Man.
skin
4 = _* A= _ = a z a
x * * -
«+ ae w ~**
il
ied e * aide «> = o®
”
ll 4° -* a)
iff ¥
eery of *
ee)
skin papilla
ed .* “*
a” aif ~
* >
» 3 yr APN
uy Epee
blood
py a +g)
nwa
ie
capillaries ar A ra
, Pah
sebaceous —— err gees
gland ; touch receptors
— sweat duct
’
a crecoine
a
muscle =
“s
ae — sweat gland = |
or ) «4 *
°
z to
« * °
ii s
a
: ~ pressure .
= “receptors va
@) @ e ite a+ 7 - y .
BE BE —> adipose tissue }
= <
se Be
° Be weet
pete ea
hair papilla
Homeostasis
B Sebaceous glands
The sebaceous glands are derived from the epidermis. At least two
sebaceous glands open into each hair follicle secreting an oily
substance, sebum, into the hair follicle. Sebum lubricates the hair and
keeps the skin soft and smooth. It prevents dehydration of the skin and ~The number and nature of the
has an antiseptic action, i.e. it prevents the growth of bacteria. _ hairs vary from one part of the
body to another and from one
species to another. In Man, the
@ Sweat glands hairs are relatively scanty. In fur-
The presence of sweat glands is another characteristic feature of - bearing mammals, they are very
mammals. Each sweat gland is a coiled tube formed by a down-growth fine and numerous, forming a
of the epidermis. It forms a tight knot in the dermis and is richly dense coat of fur. The fur serves
not only as a protective covering
surrounded by blood capillaries. From the blood in these capillaries,
over the body surface, but also
sweat is secreted which flows through a sweat duct and a sweat pore as an insulator. Many animals,
to the skin surface. The sweat secreted contains mainly water in which | e.g. most cats, have long stiff
are dissolved inorganic salts (mainly sodium chloride) and very small outer guard hairs which are
amounts of organic matter, e.g. urea. Since sweat may contain a small protective, and inner insulating
amount of metabolic waste products, like urea, the skin is also soft hairs forming fur. Certain
mammals in temperate countries
considered an excretory organ. Sweat is secreted continuously, but develop a dense coat of fur for
sometimes it is produced in very small quantities which evaporate the cold season and shed a great
almost immediately. At other times, more sweat is produced. It may deal of it in summer. Some of
appear as droplets on the skin or in extreme cases as “running streaks” them even change the colour of
of liquid. The amount of sweat produced varies with different their fur to snow white in winter
for camouflage. In this way, they
conditions. It is a means by which the skin helps in the regulation of are not so easily detected by
body temperature as the sweat evaporates on the skin using latent heat their enemies.
of vaporization.
Mi Sense receptors
Nerve endings are found in the epidermis and the dermis. They form
sense organs or receptors. They enable us to sense pain, pressure or
temperature changes in the external environment. For example, the
touch receptor gives us a sensation of touch. The nerve endings in the
skin give us the sensation of pain or temperature changes in the
surroundings.
Sub-cutaneous fat
Beneath the dermis are several layers of adipose cells (adipose tissue)
where fat is stored. The fat in these cells also serves as an insulating
layer. Hence the adipose tissue is also known as the fat storage and
insulating tissue. The Arctic fox in summer and
in winter
Heat Production and Heat Loss Certain hairs are specialized for
particular purposes. These
include the eyelashes and the
Heat is produced within the body as a result of metabolic activities, hairs in the nose and ears which
e.g. tissue respiration. Tissue respiration is most active in the muscles help to keep out dust particles.
and, to a lesser extent in the liver. Thus, large amounts of heat are set The whiskers or vibrissae of dogs
free in these organs. The heat is distributed to all parts of the body by and cats and many other
| mammals are tactile in function.
the blood. In Man, extra heat is gained by eating hot food, from the
sun’s radiation or from the warm air on very hot days. If this heat were |
|
The long stiff spines of
porcupines and the scales of the
not lost, then we would die of overheating. Heat is lost: |
pangolin are modified hairs.
@ Through the skin by convection, radiation and, to a limited extent,

by conduction.
@ By evaporation of sweat from the surface of the skin.

@ In the faeces and urine.
® Inthe expired air coming from the lungs.
_ Milk glands (mammary glands) Fishes, amphibians, reptiles and invertebrates are unable to balance the
are characteristic of mammals.
amount of heat produced with the amount of heat lost. Hence their
_ They are modified sebaceous
_ glands which secrete milk in body temperature is not constant. It varies according to the
_ nursing females. surroundings and to some degree their activities. They are said to be
“cold-blooded” or poikilothermic animals.
Mammals and birds are termed “warm-blooded” or homoiothermic

animals. They can maintain a constant body temperature irrespective
_ of the temperature of the surrounding medium or atmosphere. In Man,
Crocodiles regulate their body the normal body temperature is about 37 °C.
temperature
|| Advantages of a constant body temperature
Crocodiles are large amphibious
reptiles. They can regulate their @ Warm-blooded animals can remain active throughout the day and
body temperature within rather - also throughout the year, irrespective of the environmental
narrow limits by behavioural as
temperature.
opposed to physiological means.
At the beginning of the day, @ Enzymes work best at a constant optimum temperature, which is
crocodiles lie in the warm tropical about body temperature.
sun, warming their bodies up. As _@ Animals can continue to feed throughout the year. They do not
they begin to get too hot, they need to hibernate.
open their huge jaws and lose
@ Animals can exploit and colonize many areas with different
heat through evaporating water
from their mouths. When they get climatic conditions. y
really warm, they move into the
water, cooling down. Once they
have cooled down, they move
_ The Regulation of Body Temperature
back to the river bank or a nearby
sand bar to bask in the sun. You The hypothalamus in the brain (Chapter 13) monitors the temperature
may have noticed cats and dogs of the blood that passes through it. This is done by the heat-regulating
also bask in the sun. They are centre in the hypothalamus which has two parts—the heat loss centre
using the heat energy coming _ and the heat gain centre. The hypothalamus also receives information
from the sun to warm their
bodies. Why will this be an
about temperature changes in the external environment from
advantage to them? temperature receptors in the skin.
_ What happens when body temperature begins to rise?
_ When the body performs vigorous muscular activities, a great deal of

heat is produced. The heat produced may tend to cause a rise in blood
temperature. Immediately, the heat loss centre in the hypothalamus is
_ activated. It sends out nerve impulses to the relevant body parts and
_ the following control mechanisms come into play:
_@ The arterioles in the skin dilate (vasodilation) to allow more blood
to flow through the skin. The skin receives more heat which is lost
by radiation, convection and conduction.
_@ The activity of the sweat glands increases thereby leading to a
greater production of sweat. As more sweat evaporates from the
surface of the skin, more latent heat is removed from the body.
This is an efficient means of losing heat.
Rapid breathing occurs, helping to remove heat.
o¢ The metabolic rate of the body slows down so that less heat is
produced within.
Homeostasis
The result is that the body temperature remains constant. The extra
heat produced during vigorous muscular activity is removed at a faster
rate so that there is no appreciable rise in body temperature.
The same reaction is brought about by a rise in the temperature of the

external environment. Temperature receptors in the skin immediately
send nerve impulses to alert the heat loss centre in the hypothalamus.
If the temperature of the surroundings is higher than body
temperature, the mammal will tend to absorb heat rather than lose it.
Under this circumstance, the main way it can lose heat is by the
evaporation of sweat from its body.
—, What happens on a cold day?

On a cold day, the body may tend to lose a lot of heat, especially at
the skin surface. This drop in temperature activates the temperature
receptors in the skin which then rapidly send nerve impulses to the
heat gain centre of the hypothalamus. Sometimes, the temperature of
the blood drops, and this fall is immediately sensed by the
hypothalamus. In both cases, the heat gain centre of the hypothalamus
will promptly send nerve impulses to the relevant body parts to bring
about the following control mechanisms into play:
@ A reflex constriction of the skin arterioles (vasoconstriction)
occurs. Less blood flows through the skin and less heat is lost by
convection, radiation and conduction.
@ The sweat glands become less active. So less latent heat is lost
from the body.
@ The metabolic rate of the body increases and more heat is
produced within.? _
QoTé ;
How some mammals regulate their body during respiration—the blowing out of air from the
temperature lungs.
In Man, horse, bear and rabbit, sweat glands are In the tropics, large animals are faced with the problem
distributed all over the body. Evaporation of sweat over of losing heat. The elephant has a relatively small
‘the whole body surface greatly increases the rate of surface area: volume ratio so that the rate of heat loss
heat loss. In the dog, sweat glands are found on the is reduced (other external conditions being equal). This
paws, and wet footprints are often seen when dogs is compensated for by hair reduction which also occurs
sweat heavily. To increase the rate of heat loss, the dog in the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, etc., and in some
degree even in the horse. The elephant has large ears
pants and hangs its tongue out. The evaporation of
moisture from its tongue helps to cool the animal. which when they are flapping serve as two large “fans”
more heat with the fanning cool air over its body. It also has the habit of
Heavy panting also helps to remove
breath. spraying water over its body. The evaporation of this
water helps to cool it. Small mammals (e.g. mice) have
a very large surface area compared to their volume, so
In the whale, which lives in cold water, fur is absent as
_ it does not serve to reduce heat itloss and Is a it is difficult to prevent heat loss. This is one reason
They
has a thick layer of for the high metabolic rate in these mammals.
“hindrance in swimming. Instead,
fat, the blubber, beneath its skin to serve as a heat also need a high food intake to provide sufficient
energy for the maintenanceto of body temperature. Many
insulating layer. When the whale is very active, small mammals are able avoid temperature
considerable heat is produced and much of it is lost
extremes by living in burrows, shelters, etc.
Stimulus
Blood and skin

temperatures increase e.g.
| on awarm day Negative
Increase in feedback
¢ Temperature receptors
in skin detect change heat loss | Blood
and send nerve latent heat lost temperature
impulses to brain e Hair erector muscles in decreases.
¢ Brain is stimulated and skin relax
sends nerve impulses e Metabolic rate
to relevant body parts decreases.
Stimulus
Blood and skin
temperatures decrease
on a cold day Jecrease
- Decrease |in Negative
e Temperature receptors heatloss feedback
in skin detect change e Hair erector muscles in Blood
and send nerve skin contract temperature
impulses to brain e Shivering, if very cold increases.
e Brain is stimulated and (contractions of skeletal
sends nerve impulses muscles) Increase in
to relevant body parts ¢ Metabolic rate increases heat
production
Figure 12.5 Homeostatic control of

body temperature in mammals
Fur-bearing animals can fluff up their hairs by a contraction of the hair
muscles on a cold day. The layer of still air trapped between the hairs
becomes thicker. As air is a bad conductor of heat, it takes a longer
time for the heat to travel across a thicker layer of still air than a thin
one. Consequently, heat loss is cut down drastically. In Man, a similar
reaction also takes place but this is a less successful attempt! It merely
produces the characteristic “goose pimples”
Sometimes, the above reactions are not sufficient to prevent a drop in

body temperature. Then, a reflex contraction of the body muscles
occurs which we recognize as “shivering”. This spasmodic contraction
of the muscles increases heat production and helps to raise the body
temperature to normal. In Man, the intake of hot food may also help.
How else does Man behave to counter the cold?
Homeostasis
INVESTIGATION
thermometer as each reading is taken

and do not allow the tissue paper around
Cup B to become dry.
Insulating animal bodies
4 Plot your readings on a graph paper. The
‘3 Each pupil is provided with:
graphs for all 3 cups could be on the
F
i 3 thin plastic cups, 1 piece of corrugated same axes but they should be
a
‘ cardboard (10 x 25 cm) to wrap round a cup, distinguished by suitably different points
toilet paper to wrap round another cup, 4 and axes.
3
t
4
rubber bands, a thermometer, hot water at
i about 70 °C. Time Cup A Cup B Cup C
q
a (minutes) - (Card) sry sz
Read questions 5-7 carefully then carry out
j4 instructions (1) to (4) without delay.
|
1 Wrap the corrugated cardboard around the

first of the 3 cups, holding it in position
with an elastic band at the top and bottom
(Cup A). Wrap the tissue paper around the
second cup and secure it in a similar
fashion (Cup B). The third cup is left as a 5 (a) Which cup cooled least quickly?
control (Cup C). (b) Explain why this happened.
6 (a) Which cup cooled most quickly?

2 Using some of the hot water, thoroughly wet
(b) Explain why this happened.
the tissue around cup B. Then three-
quarters fill each cup with the remaining hot 7 If the cups were left for several hours,
water. Each cup should contain the same what would be the final temperature of
depth of water. each of them?
Record the temperature of the water in each 8 Explain how this experiment helps you to |
3
cup in the table and repeat the readings understand the ways in which mammals
after 4, 8, 12 and 16 minutes. Stir with the maintain a constant body temperature.
ad
The diagram on the right represents a vertical
section through a mammalian skin.
1 Label the structures A to F.
2 Name two structures that are concerned
with temperature regulation in man.
State two functions of D.
What is the function of G?
Where in Man is structure G thickest?
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area
(°C)
temperature
Body
Time (min)
") xercise
af (a) What is meant by the term surroundings, as much as 5 000 cm*

homeostasis? may be lost in a day.
(b) In what situations might a healthy (i) What changes would you expect in
person’s blood glucose level be the urine as a result of this greatly
expected to (i) rise, and (ii) fall? increased loss of sweat?
(c) Explain how blood glucose is normally (ii) How might a great loss of sweat in
maintained at a more or less constant these conditions endanger the life
level. of the person concerned?
(C)
Name three structures in the skin that are
concerned with temperature regulation. For
each structure named, state its functions.
Explain the part played in the following in water

the regulation of body temperature: protein
(a) blood vessels in the skin, glucose
(b) the liver and urea
salt
(c) the muscles of the body. (sodium chloride)
Study the figure on the right and answer the

following:
(a) Name the structures A, B and C.
(b) The concentrations of urea and salt are
higher in urine than in blood plasma. water
How is this brought about? protein
glucose
(c) Give two ways in which the composition
urea
of sweat may differ from that of urine. salt
(d) The average production of sweat is (sodium chloride)
500 cm? per day in Man. In very hot
Co-ordination and Response:
I The Nervous System in Mammals
Thinking through the Nervous System
Human bodies are amazingly complex structures and yet we do so many things
which we find very unremarkable. It is only when we stop to think about them
that we realize their complexity, indeed their beauty. This chapter begins by
helping you to realize how remarkable you are by using another thought
experiment followed by a thought
ee,
experiment for you to try. Remember
good scientists are imaginative Your eyes saw the shuttlecock and sent a message to
scientists! the brain. The brain calculated how fast the shuttlecock
ae
Sy
was moving through the air and predicted where to
ET
Imagine playing a game such as move your body to. The brain then sent messages to
the muscles in your legs and arms to move, bringing
badminton. Your opponent hits the
you to exactly the right place to hit the shuttlecock.
shuttlecock high over the net. You
move effortlessly towards the Your eyes remained fixed on the shuttlecock continually
shuttlecock, and in a matter of providing the brain with information about its position
perhaps just one or two seconds which the brain interpreted, making fine adjustments
later you hit it back. This action to your movements. At the same time you were working
out what sort of a shot to play. A hard smash or a lob
seems unremarkable. But just think
to the back of the court? You remembered your
of what has happened inside your Opponent is not very good at hitting high lobs so you
body to make this happen. selected this shot. Up the shuttlecock went, back
over the net, while you moved back towards the
centre of the court.
Co-ordination and Response: I The Nervous System in Mammals
system and yetwedo

such things
all the time,
often without even
noticing them.
The rest of thischapter will hel
understand how your nervous s°
to do these things.
13.1 What Is Sensitivity?
Living organisms are able to react to changes in the external

environment. This ability to respond to a stimulus is termed sensitivity
or irritability. The response is usually a form of movement beneficial
to the organism. For example, plants grow towards the light, single-
such
celled organisms, such as Euglena, swim towards light and others,
as housefly maggots, move away from the light.
system
Many invertebrates, such as insects and worms, have a nervous
which controls their activities and reactions to their surroundings.
tes, such
However, they do not have a well-developed brain. Vertebra
as fish and humans, not only have a nervous system but also a well-
developed brain and highly specialized sense organs. These enable
them to adjust rapidly to any changes in their environment. The
various
nervous system is a means by which quick co-ordination of the
parts of the body can be carried out.
Many of the activities performed by mammals are automatic or

s such
involuntary, ie. they are not under the control of the will. Action
as the heartbeat, peristalsis and breathing moveme nts are termed
med by |
involuntary actions. On the other hand, many actions perfor
voluntary
mammals are under the control of the will and are known as
ls and
actions. We shall now consider the nervous system in mamma
see how the various actions are controlled by it.
13.2 The Nervous System of Mammals
The nervous system of a mammal comprises:

@ The central nervous system (CNS) consisting of the brain and
the spinal cord.
o The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consisting of the cranial
nerves from the brain, the spinal nerves from the spinal cord and
the sense organs.
The sense organs receive stimuli, so they are also called receptors.
They keep the central nervous system informed of any change in the
surroundings. They do so by producing nervous messages called nerve
impulses. These are electrical impulses (just like electricity). These
impulses are then transmitted to the central nervous system by nerves.
_ A nerve impulse is transmitted within a fraction of a second. For

instance, when a person touches your hand from behind, you feel it
almost immediately. In response to this stimulus, the central nervous
system will send impulses to the muscles. The muscles will then carry
out the required effect, e.g. the muscles in the arm may contract and
the hand is jerked away. Therefore, muscles are known as effectors.
Nerves transmit or carry impulses from the receptors to the central
_ hervous system and from there to the effectors.
Figure 13.1 The general arrangement

The Nervous Tissue
of the brain, spinal cord and nerves
in Man The nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells called neurones. Though
the size and shape of the neurones differ in different parts of the
nervous system, they are basically similar.
| The structure of neurones
ser _ Look at Figure 13.2 which shows three types of neurones:

an nervous system, like
¢ The sensory neurones or receptor neurones so called because
they transmit impulses from the sense organs or receptors to the
central nervous system.
This information is
@ The motor or effector neurones which transmit impulses from
eceptors located on
\ e body, like the the central nervous system to the effectors.
inside
r the body, for @ ‘The intermediate or relay neurones found within the central
> the receptors in blood nervous system.
ur neck which
concentration of _ Each neurone consists of a cell body, containing a nucleus
ide in the blood. This , and a
number of fine cytoplasmic processes. Such cytoplasmic processes
is converted into are
signals called nerve _ called nerve fibres. There is usually one long fibre that transmits
4lses which are then | impulses away from the cell body. This is the axon. The nerve fibres
nitted by the peripheral that conduct impulses towards the cell hody are called dendro
ns.
s to the central nervous Both the axon and the dendron branch at their free ends. The termina
r example the brain. l
branches are called dendrites. Dendrons are usually short though
e pattern of impulses is
sted and the brain some sensory neurones have a long dendron (Figure t392).
7
ecides’ what action to take.

Many nerve fibres are enclosed
by a layer of fatty substances
known as the myelin sheath.
This serves as an insulating layer,
(intermediate
just as a rubber sheath would neurone)
insulate an electricity-conducting
wire. The myelin sheath is in Hit is , ph
turn surrounded by a thin é es Haat HY ceouaceaeee
membrane, the neurilemma. ) ee
The neurilemma provides
nourishment for the fibre. The
myelin sheath is not continuous
but is separated at intervals by
nodes of Ranvier, where the
neurilemma sinks down and
comes in contact with the fibre.
The nodes of Ranvier help to
speed up the transmission of
impulses along the fibre.
The central nervous system

The nervous tissue of the central
nervous system consists of two opeesry ereansatet
distinct regions: the grey matter

and the white matter. The grey
matter consists mainly of the cell .___
bodies of the neurones. It forms | Figure 13.2 The relation between a
sensory neurone, a motor neurone
the outer layers of the brain and the central portions of the spinal cord. and the central nervous system
The white matter consists mainly of nerve fibres. It forms the central
parts of the brain and the outer layers of the spinal cord (Figure 13.4).
The synapse _ 3: araaii:
Impulses are transmitted from the axon of one neurone to the

dendron of another neurone across a minute space called a synapse
(Figure 13.2). A synapse is therefore a junction between two neurones.
It is important to note that impulses are transmitted across the
synapse by chemical means. Where the end branch of an axon comes Se eae
‘nto contact with the muscle fibre, a motor end plate is formed. The
transmission of impulses across the motor end plate is similar to that
across a synapse.
The Brain of a Mammal
Mammals have the most developed brains of all animals. A

mammalian brain can be divided into three parts:
@ The forebrain which includes the cerebrum, the hypothalamus
and the pituitary gland.
Analysis
@ The midbrain.
Dea eo coe. a neta iteonlee
@ The hindbrain which consists of the cerebellum and the medulla
travels
oblongata.
212
Berita cerebr nisphere —
= midbrain a
ses cerebellum
tt hypothalamus ~ cerebellum
_ medulla oblongata —
pituitary gland“ if
medulla oblongata — as
Vertical section oa :
“StH — spinal cord
ar
Figure 13.3 The human brain
_ The forebrain
uty.
The cerebrum of the brain is made up of two cerebral hemispheres.
These hemispheres are the largest parts in the mammalian brain. They
are concerned with intelligence, memory, learning and overall control
The larger the cerebral of all voluntary actions. In Man, they are also concerned with
_ hemispheres are, the larger their _ emotions. Intelligence and the ability to learn depend on the surface
surfaces, so they can hold more _ area and the degree of development of these hemispheres. In the
nerve cells—resulting in a more
higher vertebrates, especially in Man, the cerebral hemispheres are
intelligent animal. In higher
vertebrates, especially Man, only
very well developed and greatly enlarged. The surface of the brain of
the cerebral hemispheres are _ Man is further enlarged by the presence of many deep fissures or
visible when the brain is viewed grooves in the cerebral hemispheres.
from above (Figure 13.3).
The floor of the cerebral hemisphere is called the hypothalamus. The
A similar brain development, with
the brain surface enlarged by hypothalamus is an important
grooves and fissures, is seen in region concerned with the
other large and intelligent regulation of body temperature
mammals such as dolphins.
and blood osmotic pressure,
appetite, sleep and emotions.
The pituitary gland is attached to
the hypothalamus. It produces
many important hormones
including the anti-diuretic
hormone (ADH) (page 198).
The midbrain
The midbrain consists of the

ey The picture above isa optic lobes which are
i MRI scan of a normal represented in mammals by four
——— brain. Identify the
small bodies. These are
cerebrum, giving reasons
concerned with visual reflexes,
for your answer.
€.g. movement of the eyeballs.
The hindbrain INVESTIGATION

The cerebellum lies dorsally behind the optic lobes. It is large, and its
surface is thrown into many folds. The cerebellum plays an important
part in controlling muscular co-ordination, and especially in BL
maintaining body balance. _ Examination of a
mammalian brain
The medulla oblongata lies below the cerebellum. Its posterior or
lower end narrows down gradually into the spinal cord. The medulla 4 Examine the dorsal
oblongata controls involuntary actions such as the heartbeat, (upper) surface of a
peristalsis, the rate of respiratory movements and the contraction and sheep’s brain. Identify
dilation of blood vessels. the following:
cerebral hemispheres,
cerebellum, medulla
Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves oblongata and spinal
cord.
The spinal cord extends from the medulla oblongata to the end of 2 What role is served by
the vertebral column. It passes through the vertebral column which IO
SES
SLA
ET
ERLE
RSE
the grooves in the
protects the spinal cord. Spinal nerves emerge at intervals along cerebral hemispheres?
the length of the spinal cord as shown in Figure 13.1. There are 31 TEEPE
OTE 3 Make a labelled diagram
pairs of spinal nerves in Man.
of the dorsal view of the
(OEE
sheep’s brain.
A transverse section of the spinal cord through the region
containing the spinal nerves is shown in Figure 13.4. Like the brain, SS Turn over the brain to
the spinal cord consists of both grey and white matter, but unlike | look at the ventral
the brain, it has grey matter inside surrounded by white matter on f surface. Can you locate
EPUB
SEER
the outside. The grey matter has the shape of an “H”. A narrow i the pituitary gland? Name
central canal containing cerebrospinal fluid runs through the | one hormone secreted by
|| the pituitary gland.
middle of the spinal cord. This fluid brings nutrients to the
5 Examine a model of the SIO
NOT
OSS
LE
DAL
LILLE
LDS
ELLE
LES
LDL
LL
LI
LLL
EEE
LEI
IIL
NEIL
LLDRE
eS
spinal cord.
: human brain (life size).
Note the greatly enlarged
Each spinal nerve divides into two roots just before it joins the cerebrum and the large
spinal cord (Figure 13.4). The dorsal root joins the dorsal part of number of grooves on it.
LE
ELLE
END
DETTES
LPL
0
the spinal cord and it contains only receptor neurones. The cell
bodies of these neurones aggregate in a small swelling known as /. 6 Examine also the model
the dorsal root ganglion. Their axons end in the grey matter of showing a vertical section
the spinal cord while their dendrons become the sensory fibres in of the human brain.
Locate the ventricles, the
the dorsal root and spinal nerve.
LISLE
ED
EP
ALLEL
2A
hypothalamus and the

pituitary gland.
The ventral root which is attached to the ventral part of the spinal
cord contains only effector neurones. The cell bodies of the ' 7 Draw and label the side
effector neurones lie in the grey matter of the spinal cord while view of the human brain.
their axons leave the spinal cord to enter the ventral root and
spinal nerve. The spinal nerve contains nerve fibres from the dorsal
and the ventral roots. Since it contains nerve fibres from both the
receptor and effector neurones, it is a mixed nerve. The spinal
into
nerve, as it leaves the spinal cord, progressively subdivides
branches supplying nerve fibres to the various parts of the body. ie ee
The sensory fibres and the motor fibres soon separate, the former | To find out more exciting information
going to the receptors while the latter run to the effectors. | about the brain, surf the internet to
find a site that provides images (CT,
MRI and PET scans) of the brain and
| information about brain injuries.
grey matter
. — white matter
— ~— cerebral
Yys | hemisphere
pase (brain)
; Wi ‘ran
relay neurone transmits
impulses to the brain,
producing sensations
relay neurone —
transmits impulses —
central canal from brain that
results in _
dorsal voluntary actions
root | dorsal
ganglion root
«——. impulses from

receptor
impulses to
; Ce CLOn
spinal
nerve
axon of
effector
ventral root white matter grey matter spinal cord Bees
aE 32s ogee thos lt]

| Figure 13.4 Portion of a spinal cord showing the pathway of impulses
Intermediate or relay neurones lie in the grey matter of the spinal cord.
They form synapses with the receptor and the effector neurones. In
this way they enable impulses to be transmitted from the receptor
neurones to the effector neurones.
The spinal cord also contains relaying neurones which run parallel to
its length. These conduct impulses from the receptor nerve fibres to
the brain or from the brain to the effector neurones (Figure 13.4). So,
Meningitis
when someone touches your hand, the receptors in your hand are
Surrounding the spinal cord and stimulated. Impulses are transmitted through the receptor neurones to
brain are three layers of tough
the grey matter of the spinal cord. The neurones in the spinal cord
membranes called the meninges.
These help protect the brain and
conduct the impulses to the brain. You feel your hand being touched
spinal cord. Occasionally, these when the impulses reach the cerebrum of your brain.
membranes can become infected
by either viruses or bacteria Voluntary actions
producing the illness called
meningitis. The viral form of this If you wish to pull your hand away when someone touches it, then an
illness is unpleasant but not impulse is initiated in the brain. The impulse is conveyed from the
usually life threatening. However, brain along the relay neurone in the spinal cord to the appropriate
the bacterial form is extremely
effector neurones, and then to the appropriate muscles. The muscles
serious and can lead to rapid
death, especially in young then contract and the desired action is taken. In this case, the action
children unless it is treated with involves the brain and whether you want to pull your hand away, or
antibiotics. not is up to you. Since the action is under the control of the will it is
an example of a voluntary action.
Besides serving to conduct impulses from the receptors to the brain or

from the brain to the effectors, another main function of the spinal
cord is to serve as a reflex céntre.
Reflex actions
The reaction you have observed in Investigation 13.2 is an immediate

response to a specific stimulus. The stimulus in the knee jerk is the
sudden tapping below the kneecap. Normally the person cannot, by
any conscious effort, control the reaction.
An immediate response to a specific stimulus without conscious

control is called a reflex action.
INVESTIGATION w
2
Reflex action—the knee jerk
Carry out the following experiment and observe what happens.

4 Sit down and cross your leg in such a way that the shin of
the upper leg can swing freely. Ask your friend to give you
a sharp tap just below the kneecap with the edge of his
hand. What happens?
2 Try it again, this time with your hand resting on the thigh
of your upper leg.
What feeling do you get in your upper thigh muscle?
3. Is the momentary kicking of your leg an automatic
reaction? Can you control it?
upper thigh effector neurone

muscle (effector)
receptor neurone
knee cap
tendon
oo
stretch receptor tap applied here

(sensitive stretches upper
to stretching of thigh muscle
thigh muscle)
fibula \| —|— tibia ELLE
EE
EE
EL
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LEDS
xcLEEDS
EEEDEL
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OME STEIN MAE SOLELY LOE
eeenneamannmemmmmanal ARLEN
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|
@ spinal AS syebse
cord receptor _
Spinal nerve neurone
white
matter
| grey -
matter
effector
neurone
relay =:
(intermediate)
neurone
@ effector
muscle
contracts
receptor
~ in skin
Figure 13.5 To show the reflex arc when the hand touches a hot object
A reflex action is the simplest form of response in higher animals.

Another example of a simple reflex action is the sudden withdrawal of
the hand on touching a hot object. The events in such a reflex action
are summarized below.
Sequence of events that occur when the hand touches a

hot object.
The heat on the object stimulates the nerve endings
(receptor) in the skin.
Impulses are produced. The impulses travel along the
receptor neurone to the spinal cord (Figure 13.5).
In the spinal cord, the impulses are transmitted first across a
synapse to the intermediate or relay neurone, and then
across another synapse to the effector neurone.
Impulses leave the spinal cord along the effector neurone to
the effector.
The effector is the biceps muscle which then contracts. This
brings about a sudden withdrawal of the hand.
_ Spinal and Cranial Reflexes

Other examples of reflex actions are sneezing, coughing, blushing,
scratching, the sudden blinking of the eye when a hand is waved in
_ front of it, and salivation when food is in the mouth. Very often the
_ mere sight or smell of the food éauses salivation. Can you name the
receptors and the effectors in these examples? All these actions can
occur without any conscious effort. Indeed, it may be difficult to
prevent them consciously.
Reflex actions may be classified as follows:

@ Spinal reflex actions which are controlled by the spinal cord
@ Cranial reflexes which are controlled by the brain (but not the
will), and usually occur in the head region, e.g. pupil reflex, the
blinking of the eye and salivation
The Reflex Arc

In each of the examples mentioned above, there is a particular
pathway by which the impulses can travel from the receptor to the
effector. This nervous pathway is known as the reflex arc.
A reflex arc consists of

ae a receptor or sense organ,
B a receptor neurone,
& a reflex centre (spinal cord or brain),
@ an effector neurone, and
@ an effector (muscle or gland).
Figure 13.6 shows a simple spinal reflex arc.
<= t
(2) receptor |
neurone a receptors
: in skin
central spinal :
canal cord dorsal root dorsal root eee pe
ganglion
spinal nerve Pavlov’s experiments

ees
white A well-known experiment was
matter
performed by Paviov, a Russian
grey | physiologist, on conditioned
matter
reflexes. Normally, salivation is a
(4) effector < motor
simple reflex: it is the response
Neurone €% muscle “a end
intermediate synapse ventral (effector) plates to food coming in contact with
sss
neurone root the taste buds in the tongue.
e
Figure 13.6 A simple reflex arc Paviov experimented with dogs.
Every time the dogs were fed
they salivated, and every time the
A Conditioned Reflex food was given he rang a bell.
After a certain period, he found
The reflexes which we have considered so far are inborn or inherited that the ringing of the bell alone
responses, a particular stimulus always produces the same response. caused Salivation in the dogs.
However, a great many reflexes which we carry out daily are not Therefore, with some training, a
simple reflex (the secretion of
inborn but are acquired from past experiences or learning. For saliva) can be conditioned, i.e. it
example, the sight of a pineapple may not cause salivation in a boy can be made to occur in the
who sees it for the first time. But after he has tasted pineapples several presence of an originally
times and found that they are all sweet, the mere sight of a pineapple ineffective stimulus (the ringing of
may result in the secretion of saliva. Sometimes, just the mention of the bell). Habits are formed in
the words “sweet pineapples” alone may produce the same response.
much the same way and they are
carried out without one being
Such an action is called a conditioned reflex action. conscious of them. This explains
why one should learn to form
A reflex action acquired from past experience or learning with a good habits as a bad habit once
stimulus which is originally ineffective in producing the response formed is very difficult to erase.
is calied a conditioned reflex action.
The diagram shows a simple spinal reflex arc. There are three
errors in the drawing.
ay Can you spot the dorsal root B
three errors in the
drawing?
Explain what these
errors are.
Label the structures
A to D.
What is found in
structure B? :
Name the junction where two neurones meet.
Name the region in the spinal cord which
(a) transmits impulses to and from the brain, and
(6) contains synapses.
HI
6 Name two reflex actions involving glands as effectors.
ALIS GLEAN RAISINS SS e
R
ie Centre for spinal

® Other function reflexes, e.g. knee @ Motor nerves ® Transmit
(see page 219) jerk; sudden transmit impulses
withdrawal of hand impulses from spinal cord
on touching a hot from brain to to effectors
object receptors
Made up of: |
| |
Grey matter consisting White matter
mainly of cell bodies and || consisting mainly
synapses of neurones of nerve fibres _
|
eee bs
Co-ordination and Response: I The Nervous System in Mammals |
& Sensitivity is the ability of an organism to respond to a stimulus.
» Nervous tissue
¢ A neurone is a nerve cell. A nerve fibre is a long protoplasmic extension of the
cell body of a neurone. It serves to transmit impulses.
* A nerve is a collection of nerve fibres.
+ A receptor neurone (sensory neurone) transmits impulses from the sense
organ (receptor) to the central nervous system (CNS). An effector neurone
(motor neurone) transmits impulses from the CNS to the effector.
A synapse is a junction between two neurones. A dendron transmits impulses
towards the cell body of a neurone. An axon transmits impulses away from the
cell body of a neurone.
» Brain and spinal cord

5 White matter consists mainly of nerve fibres. Grey matter consists mainly of
cells bodies. The brain has grey matter on the outside enclosing the white
matter. The spinal cord has white matter on the outside enclosing grey matter.
The different parts of the brain and their functions:
as Parts of mammalian brain
e Cerebral hemispheres Intelligence, memory, voluntary actions,

(Cerebrum) sensations
Forebrain ,
e Hypothalamus Regulation of body temperature and osmotic
pressure in blood; appetite and emotions
e Pituitary gland Secretes a number of hormones
Widbrain| Optic lobes Concerned with sight and movement

ae of eyeball
} e Cerebellum Muscular co-ordination and bodily

: : balance
Hindbrain ;
e Meduila oblongata Involuntary actions, e.g. heartbeat,
respiratory movements, peristalsis
The spinal cord serves:

e as a reflex centre,
e to transmit impulses from receptor to brain,
© to transmit impulses from brain to effector.
> Reflex and voluntary actions

4 A reflex action is a direct response to a specific stimulus without conscious
control.
A reflex arc is the shortest pathway by which impulses travel from the receptor
to the effector in a reflex action.
The parts of a reflex arc are: receptor, sensory neurone, intermediate neurone
in reflex centre (e.g. spinal cord), motor neurone and effector.
A voluntary action is controlled by the will. It does not involve a sensory
neurone.
Examples of a spinal reflex: knee-jerk, sudden withdrawal of hand touching a
hot object.
Examples of a cranial reflex: pupil reflex, sudden blinking of eyes when an
object moves past them.
7
Oe
oO
OT
&.
eo. A conditioned reflex action is acquired from past experiences or learning with a
stimulus which is originally ineffective in producing the response.
Re
Say
,a
pay
Vey
1 (a) What do you understand by the term (a) What is a reflex action?
sensitivity? (b) Describe a simple spinal reflex action.
(0) Distinguish between a motor neurone
and a sensory neurone. (a) In what ways is a reflex action different
2 Draw a labelled diagram of a motor neurone from a voluntary action?
and state the functions of the various parts (b) Draw a labelled diagram of a spinal
you have labelled. reflex arc.
3 (a) Distinguish a neurone from a nerve fibre. (a) An ant bites your leg and you can feel
(b) Describe briefly the structure of a named the pain. State the routes through which
mammalian brain. State one function of impulses would. travel in order that you
each part you have described. could feel the pain.
(b) You decided to pick up a pen to write a
letter. State the routes through which
impulses would travel in such an action.
II Animal Receptor Organs
JECTIVES
LEARNING OB
Helping Dolphins to Avoid Nets

Each year thousands of dolphins are killed when they
become entangled in fisherman’s nets. Yet dolphins
have a very efficient sonar system—they can use sound
afte
at
oo
to “see” in the ocean. Dolphins produce whistles and

clicks at very high frequencies. These sounds hit
objects in the surrounding water and reflect back
towards the dolphin which detects them. So, why can’t
the dolphins detect the nets using this sonar system
and so avoid them? To answer this question, biologists
needed to find out more about how the sensory system
of dolphins worked and how they used their sonar to
sense the environment.
Research showed that dolphins use their sonar system

and their brains to detect shoals of fish by picking up
Dolphin caught in fishing net
echoes from the swim bladders of fish. If nets are fitted
with plastic floats the size of small rugby balls, then dolphins also detect these.
They stop short of the nets and fire rapid pulses of sound at the net. They seem
to be trying to work out what the plastic rugby balls are. Perhaps the dolphins
think the reflections from the balls are a bit like swim bladders of fish. However,
they are clearly not similar enough. The dolphins become suspicious of the
plastic balls and avoid the nets completely, swimming around them. Such
research may help to save the lives of thousands of dolphins in the future.
chapter, you will learn more about how organisms sense their
an In this
aee
4 environment.
m 14.1 What Are Sense Organs?
_ There is a constant interaction between an organism and the external

environment. It must be able to detect changes in the surroundings
and make proper adjustments so as to increase its chances of survival.
The sense organs are receptors, receiving stimuli and informing the
body of changes in the environment. In mammals, they vary from
structures such as the dendrites of receptor neurones to highly
specialized organs such as the eye and the ear.
m 14.2 The Mammalian Eye

The mammalian eyeball lies within a depression in the skull, the orbit,
so that only a part is visible. The eyeball is attached to the orbit by six
rectus muscles which can also move it within the orbit. These
_ muscles are used when rotating the eyeball without moving the head.
Peas race ; ae | The exposed part of the eyeball is
tear ducts upper eyelid tear gland seria :
Sega covered by a thin transparent
membrane called the conjunctiva
(Figure 14.1). This conjunctiva is
tear sac Seat ie
empties into [ YA continuous with the skin of the
nasal cavity —~- ~(
sclerotic coat
eyelids. The eyelids serve not only
remains of | (or sclera) to protect the eyeball but also
third eyelid
(nictitating
U
eOWnete help to control the amount of
membrane) light entering the eye. On bright
L lower eyelid
sunny days we often partly close
pupil eye lashes
— — the eyelids. This squinting reduces
——
Figure 14.1 The front view of the left the amount of light going into the
eye eye. Every time we blink, the
eyelids wipe dust particles off the eyeball and spread tears over the
eyeball, preventing drying up of the conjunctiva. Eyelashes also help to
_ shield the eye from dust particles.
_ The conjunctiva is lubricated by tears secreted by the lachrymal or

tear gland which lies in the outer corner of the upper eyelid. The
Emotion may cause excess tears _ tears that it produces flow out between the eyelids and the exposed
to be secreted and passed into _ part of the eyeball, helping to reduce friction when the eyelids move.
the naso-lachrymal duct so that
one experiences a “runny nose”
Dust particles entering the eye cause a greater production of tears
or even overflow, causing _ which wash them away. Excess tears drain into the naso-lachrymal
“crying”. duct, which runs from the inner corner of the eye to the nose.
The Internal Structure of the Eye
A vertical section of the eyeball (Figure 14.2) shows that its walls are
made up of three layers. The outermost layer is a tough, white, fibrous
coat called the sclerotic coat, or sclera. When seen from the front it
_ 1s recognizable as the white of the eye (Figure 14.1). The sclera forms a
_ protective layer round the eyeball and continues as the transparent
_ cornea which forms a small bulge at the front of the eye. Since the
Co-ordination and Response: II Animal Receptor Organs
cornea is transparent, it
allows light to enter the
eye. It is a denser
medium than air so light
rays passing through it
are refracted inwards
toward the pupil and the
lens. The cornea causes
the greatest refraction of
light.
The next layer is the

choroid coat. This ;
contains a network of ie st jaa
blood capillaries that itera ty a Sa PH
4 eye. The
nourish the = . z=Sare! es
choroid coat is
pigmented black, just as the inside of the camera is painted black. This
prevents internal reflection of light.
The anterior end of the choroid is modified to form the ciliary body
and the iris. The ciliary body contains the ciliary muscle which alters
the thickness of the lens. The iris is a circular, disc-shaped structure
with a round hole, the pupil, in the centre. The pupil allows light to
pass into the eye. The colour of
the iris may vary, usually between
blue to grey or green to brown.
The size of the pupil changes to
allow a suitable amount of light to
pass into the eye, thus protecting
the inner layer of the eye from
damage. In dim light, more light
must enter the eye in order to
enable us to see clearly.
Controlling the entry of light

into the eye
The eye is an organ adapted to
sense light. However, the amount
of light which enters the eye must Fleure-di4.3 Acuenror thie iis
be carefully controlled for the eye to function properly. This is
achieved through altering the diameter of the pupil.
The size of the pupil is controlled by two sets of involuntary muscles aol g
in the iris—one set is arranged in a circle round the pupil, while the
other is arranged radially, like the spokes of a bicycle wheel. When the
circular muscles of the iris contract, its radial muscles relax, and the
pupili becomes smaller. Similarly,
imi muscles a and
contraction of the radiaial muscles ie is similar to
relaxation of the circular muscles of the iris cause the pupil to enlarge fe oF the diaphragm in a
(dilate). The iris controls the size of the pupil and so controls the fees which controls the
amount of light entering the eye. aperture.
The pupil usually becomes large when the surrounding light intensity
is low, and smaller when the light intensity is high. This is a reflex
_ action. Sometimes the light may be so bright that decreasing the size
_ of the pupil is not enough. In this case, the eyelids have to come closer
together to screen off part of the light.
The lens
Situated behind the iris, and in contact with it, is a transparent,

biconvex, crystalline lens. The edge of the lens is attached to the
ciliary body by the suspensory ligaments. The ciliary body contains
many involuntary circular muscles called ciliary muscles which play
an important part in focusing or accommodation (see page 226).
_ The lens is elastic, so its curvature can be altered by the action of
_ the ciliary muscles. Changes in curvature alter the focal length of
_ the lens and so enable cleariimages of objects at varying distances
_ to be formed on the retina.
_ The lens divides the eyeball into two chambers. The small chamber in
front of the iris and the lens is filled with a watery fluid known as
aqueous humour. The larger chamber behind the lens is filled with a
transparent jelly-like fluid, the vitreous humour. Both aqueous and
ae fepetum : Nichliesbeh
t ind vitreous humour serve to keep the eyeball firm and refract light.
othe retina,
Why ¢
do the eyes ee a "The retina
Peper to shine when =ZI| The innermost layer of the eyeball is the retina, which is light-
are caught in the
a headlights of a car? How sensitive. The retina is the layer on which images are formed. It
will the:tapetum help. a a | consists of photoreceptors or light-sensitive cells. These are connected
cat to see better inthe|.] _ to the nerve-endings from the optic nerve (Figure 14.4). This nerve
: dark? — conveys impulses to the brain when the photoreceptors are stimulated.
_ There are two kinds of photoreceptors: the rods and the cones. Rods
Figure 14.4 A section through the
retina contain visual purple, the pigment
concerned with vision in dim light. Light
pigmented causes bleaching of visual purple which
|
cells
(choroid
is involved in light detection. In bright
layer) light, all the visual purple is bleached.
© rods Thus, when a person enters a dark place
from a bright one, he may not be able to
cones distinguish the objects around him for
some time. This is because it takes a
while for the visual purple to be formed
again in the rods. The formation of
visual purple requires vitamin A. A
person deficient in this vitamin may be
unable to see in dim light and is said to
direction
of
light suffer from night-blindness.
Cae
355
zas
Cones are less sensitive to light than
rods and so are inefficient in dim light.
surface of retina receiving light rays
They are concerned with bright light
and colour vision.
Co-ordination and Response: II Animal Receptor Organs
There are three types of cones: red, blue and green cones, each of
which possesses a different pigment. The different pigments absorb
light of different wavelengths. The cones taken together enable one to
see light of different colours. Therefore, all the cones together enable a
complete spectrum to be seen on the retina.
In the region of the retina, in line with, or on the optical axis of, the
lens is a shallow, yellow depression known as the fovea centralis or
yellow spot. This is where images are normally focused. It only
INVESTIGATION
141 7 Look at the inner surface of the eyeball

: where the optic nerve joins the eye. Can
Examining a mammalian eye you see the blind spot?
1 A sheep’s or a cow’s eye can be used.
With a pair of forceps and scissors cut off

14.2
ms
the fat around the eye. Note any muscle
Examining the human eye
(reddish in colour) attached to the outer
covering of the eyeball. What is the function |1 Use a plane (flat) mirror to look at your left
of these muscles? eye. Make a drawing of your eye. Label the
following: sclerotic coat, iris, pupil,
2 Look at the front of the eyeball. Make a
eyelashes.
drawing of the front view of the eyeball.
Label the following: sclera, iris and pupil. 2 Cover your left eye completely with your left
hand. Hold the mirror with your right hand.
with scissors make a V cut here and then Count 20 and then suddenly remove
:
your
|
|
cut round the eyeball as shown
fo
left hand from your eye. Look into the
mirror to see what happens to the pupil of
YA
i
your eye. Describe what you observe. Give |
3
an explanation for your answer.
The change in size of the pupil is a reflex
|
|
-optic nerve action. Name the stimulus and the effector
|
in this action.
muscle
ss 4 (a) Mark across on a piece of paper and a
3 Make a cut in the sclera with the points of dot about 8 cm to the right of it.
a pair of scissors. Cut round the eyeball. A
watery fluid and a colourless lump of jelly- x e
like material will flow out of the eyeball.
What are these materials called? (b) Hold the paper such that the dot is
4 The lens may also become detached and close to your left eye. Cover your right
come cut with the eye fluids. Examine the eye and, keeping the left eye fixed on |
lens. Note its shape and texture. the dot, move the paper slowly away
from the eye. i
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Examine the front half of the eyeball. Look y
for the cornea, iris, pupil and ciliary Describe what you see throughout the
muscles. experiment. Explain your observation.
A black liquid that flows out from the eye

as you cut it is the pigment from the
choroid. Why is the choroid black?
LTTE
LIED
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ELIT
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contains cones. The concentration of cones is greatest at this point. As

a result, vision is sharpest in bright light when images are focused onto
the yellow spot.
A blind spot is found immediately over the optic nerve where it

enters the eye. It has no photoreceptors, so it is not sensitive to light.
14.3 Vision
Light is necessary to see. Light falling on an object is reflected, and

_ some of these reflected rays fall on the eye. They are refracted through
the cornea and the aqueous humour onto the lens. The lens causes
further refraction and the rays converge to a focus on the retina
(Figure 14.5). The image on the retina stimulates either the rods or the
cones depending on the intensity of the light. Note that the image
formed on the retina is:
@ Upside down (inverted)
@ Back to front (reversed)
Figure 14.5 Formation of an image @ Smaller in size than the object being observed (diminished)
on the retina
Say et Impulses produced by light falling on the

rods and cones are transmitted via the optic
Ss
—_-— et
SS
en)
nerve to the rear of the cerebrum. The brain

et
interprets these impulses so that we see the

object the right way up and the right size,
even though the image on the retina is
ee els diminished, inverted and reversed.
a
SS Sas
Focusing (Accommodation)
Ina photographic camera, images of objects at different distances can
_ be brought to a focus on the film or plate by adjusting the position of
_ the lens. In the mammalian eye, the lens is held in position by the
suspensory ligaments. If the lens was rigidly fixed to form clear images
People who have been blind from
of distant objects on the retina, images of near objects would be out of
birth and have their sight focus. Focusing or accommodation is necessary so that objects at
restored have to learn how to different distances can be seen clearly.
correct the image that falls on
the retina.
Focusing or accommodation is the adjustment of the lens of the
The important role of the brain in
eye so that clear images of objects at different distances are
vision has also been shown by
formed on the retina.
volunteers who have worn
inverting glasses. These glasses
bend light and literally make the
world seem upside down. The Focusing for distant vision (7 metres or more)
subjects found that after wearing
the glasses for a few days they
_ When a person is looking at a distant object, the light rays reflecting
could see everything the right way _ off the object are almost parallel to each other when they reach the
up. Then, when the glasses were eye. These “parallel” rays are then refracted by the cornea and the lens
removed, things seemed upside bringing the object into focus on the retina. Fine control of focusing is
down again for a short time.
brought about by the lens.
Animal Receptor Organs | oa
Co-ordination and Response: II
When the eye is looking at the distant suspensoryligaments

object in this way, the circular muscles become taut_ SSF iesessere
of the ciliary body relax. The

suspensory ligaments are pulled tight or
become taut, pulling on the edge of the rays from
distant object
whi
elastic lens which becomes flatter and

less convex (Figure 14.6). Under such
conditions the images of distant objects
are sharply focused onto the fovea and
the person sees the distant objects - ciliarymuscles relax
clearly. Tiles? | aiinie enlenged portion-of-eye=
rv ite eg veaaeat ee
Focusing for near vision Figure 14.6 Focusing for far vision
Focusing for near vision (e.g. reading a
book) takes place by the contraction of reeset suspensory ligaments
ies eaten:
ites =i
SariSlACKElipeetectadetsttests
the circular muscles of the ciliary body.
This slackens or releases the pull on the
;rays from. focus on
suspensory ligaments and the lens. The near object retina
elastic nature of the lens causes it to
become thicker and more convex. The lens—
diverging rays from the near object thickens
(Figure 14.7) can be brought to focus as

a clear image on the retina. The nearer —ciliary muscles contract-
the object, the more the circular Enlarged portion ofeye
muscles will contract and the thicker
ae (front view)
the lens will be. However, there is a Figure 14.7 Focusing for near vision
point called the near peint where the
object is so close to the eye that in order to see it clearly, the ciliary |
muscle must contract fully and the lens becomes most convex. Ifthe
object is moved still nearer to the eye, the image formed on the retina |
will be blurred as the lens cannot adjust further. Try to move a printed
page towards your eye and estimate the near point of your eye.
_ Figure 14.8 Stereoscopic vision
Stereoscopic Vision image in image in
left eye right eye
Man has two eyes whose visual fields overlap (Figure 14.9). The two |
eyes can focus on the same object. Each eye receives a slightly in ae
different image from the other. The brain is able to interpret the
images together and enables us to see one three-dimensional object.
This is called stereoscopic vision. Such vision gives us a better Bt
: : ; : stereoscopic image of object
perception of size, depth and distance of the object from us.
Stereoscopic vision is important to predatory animals, such as cats,

eagles and hawks, as good
judgement of distance is necessary to
capture prey. Animals that are
hunted need a wider field of vision to
detect the approach of predators. For —
: Cafieuy, a oes” example, rabbits have eyes set high
fields S&S joessides of the head. They have
on the
See Stersseco8
wide visual fields but restricted | lefteye right eye
Figure 14.9 Field of vision in man —_stereoscopic vision. =
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The Thinking Roan
Thinking Skills:
.
Analysis,
ae |)
Problem Solving and Decision Making
ite aah )
Huiyi has recently consulted an optician and realised that she has
acute myopia (short-sightedness). She has three options.
— —
Refractive surgery Wearing glasses : Wearing contact lenses

!
What if she chooses this What if she chooses this What if she chooses this
option? option? option?
Advantages: Advantages: Advantages:
Disadvantages: Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
=) xercise
—! |
OWA
1 Write an essay on the importance of sense 5 The diagram shows a section of the eye.
organs in animals. (a) Draw in the light rays on the diagram to
show how the eye focuses on a distant
Draw a labelled diagram of the front view of object.
the human eye. State the function(s) of (b) A person suddenly entered a cinema
each part that you have labelied. from a bright place. At first, he could not
(a) What is focusing or accommodation? even see the passageway. He waited for
(b) Suppose you are sitting under an some time before he could see. Explain
umbrelia reading a book. You suddenly what happens in his eyes that enabled
look up at the sky to see an aeroplane him to see in dim light.
fly past. Explain the sequence of events
in your eyes that enable you to see both
the printed page in your book and the
aeroplane.
(
What is stereoscopic vision? In what ways
is such vision advantageous to birds of
prey?
III Hormones and Endocrine Glands
CTIVES
“LEARNING OBJE
a This chapter starts with an assignment for you to do. The assignment will help
you realize what a great effect chemicals called hormones, which are continually
produced by our bodies, can have on the way our body works.
15.1 Living with Stress

Have you ever felt the following: butterflies in your stomach: an increase
in your pulse rate; sweaty hands which feel cold and clammy? Often these
symptoms occur because we are nervous and our body is preparing itself
for action, for example fighting or running away. Such symptoms are
induced by the hormone adrenaline which is secreted in our body.
Adrenaline
® increases the heart rate,

@ increases the rate of breathing,
2 @ causes vasoconstriction of the blood vessels around the intestine,
j directing the blood to the skin, muscles and brain,
@ raises the metabolic rate, and
\ @ dilates the pupils.
a a
if 1 Where in your body is adrenaline made? (Look in Table 15.1 and at
f) Figure 15.1.)
\) 2 What general effect does adrenaline have on the body? :
r 3 Why do you feel the way you do when you are nervous or frightened? :
PRE CEOS SEE IN ILOILO OE TL LSS TTTRIED ET IEOTE DIES tsCOT aH ETATETITSEB ei ORINDA SCARE,
(Chapter
Co-ordination and Response: II] Hormones and Endocrine Glands
The secretion of adrenaline

is also caused by stress.
This is difficult to define
since what may be stressful
for one person, say being
driven very fast in a motor ansp ted by the blood, and
car, may be very enjoyable ae activity of one or
for another person. re t t organs in the
However, people living a
stressful lifestyle, for
example business
executives, are continually secreting adrenaline into their
bloodstream. Their body is constantly being prepared
for action, to fight or flight, but the action is never taken.
The short-term effects of stress may be beneficial,
making you feel “more alive” for example. But
continued exposure to stress, and the long term
secretion of adrenaline, may be very harmful as shown
Stress
in the table below:
The effects of stress on the nit .

"Normal body state | Response to the Short-term
—_—_—_|ae on effect _ Possible long-term
oS Seo eee:GP rsetee eope eee the body — - effects ;
Muscles: norma! ‘blood flow increases improved muscular muscles become

blood flow performance tense and painful
Brain: normal blood fiow increases mental alertness headaches or

blood flow even migraines
Heart: normal heart rate and extra blood flows to high blood pressure
heart rate and blood pressure muscles and brain results in hypertension
blood pressure increase carrying oxygen and which can cause strokes
glucose ‘eieeed heart diseases
|
Stomach and blood flow decreases, rate of digestion pains in the stomach
intestines: normal rate of peristalsis decreases; waste and intestines; diarrhoea
blood flow and increases products egested
peristalsis
oxygen use increases; more energy available fatigue fe

General metabolism:
normal rate of lipids and glucose for activity such
oxygen use; glucose broken down during as running
and lipids being respiration to produce
stored energy
ati
da
Discuss
1 Why is the short term secretion of adrenaline important for athletes running in a
one hundred metre race? ~
2 What lifestyles do you think are associated with stress? (What types of occupations
or jobs are stressful?)
==
0)
PELE
RBN
SPORE
PED
rates,
eatiel Why do you think that stress-related illnesses, such as heart disease and strokes,
yo are increasing in today’s society?
@ Find out
__ What can people do to reduce stress in their lives?
A good way to find out is to surf the internet.
Introduction
The substances called hormones greatly influence the growth,

Growth and metabolic development and activity of an organism. For example, the thyroid
abnormalities gland in the neck produces the hormone thyroxine which ensures
Normal human growth depends | normal growth and development of the body. If it is lacking in a
upon the secretion of the right _ tadpole, it cannot grow into an adult frog. If it is produced in excessive
amount of thyroid hormones into _ amounts, metamorphosis is speeded up and a very tiny frog results.
the blood. If too little hormone is _ Hormones have powerful effects on the body so their production must
produced in children because the
thyroid gland is underactive
be balanced to prevent disastrous results.
(hypothyroidism), then mental and
physical retardation called Some hormones exercise control over other glands or muscles, while
cretinism may result. If the others control or co-ordinate body activities such as growth and
condition occurs in adults, there development. They are the chemical messengers or chemical
iS a general reduction in the
co-ordinators in animals because they assist the nervous system
metabolic rate leading to mental
and physical sluggishness: a
_ in co-ordinating the various parts of the body, ensuring that they
condition called myxodoema. This develop and work harmoniously.
may also cause obesity. The adult
condition can be treated by giving _ Endocrine glands
thyroxine in the form of tablets.
Most of the glands mentioned so far are not ductless. For example, the
Overactivity of the thyroid salivary gland has a duct to carry the saliva to the mouth cavity. The
(hyperthyroidism) produces an _ sweat gland has a sweat duct to carry the sweat out of the body. They
increased metabolic rate with
are called exocrine glands (Greek: exo = outwards, Armein = separate,
increased pulse (tachycardia),
high breathing rate and high body _ Le, to secrete) as they pour their secretions out of the body. In
temperature. Heart failure may _ vertebrates, hormones are produced by ductless glands. A ductless
result. This illness can be treated gland, as the name implies, does not have a duct or tube to carry away
by surgically removing the thyroid its secretion. The hormone which it produces passes directly in the
or by destroying it through the
bloodstream which distributes the hormone round the body. Ductless
administration of radioactive
iodine.
glands are known as endocrine glands (Greek: endo = within) or
glands of internal secretion.
Co-ordination and Response: III Hormones and Endocrine Glands
Some glands, e.g. the adrenal glands, are purely endocrine glands,
producing only hormones. Glands such as the gonads (testes and
ovaries) and the pancreas produce both external secretions and
hormones. They are both exocrine and endocrine glands. The 2 ee
pancreas produces pancreatic juice which is carried by the pancreatic
duct to the duodenum. The pancreas also contains special groups of
cells known as the islets of Langerhans which secrete the hormone
insulin into the bloodstream.
The activities of some endocrine glands are controlled by the nervous

system, e.g. the adrenal medulla (Figure 15.2). Others are regulated by
certain chemical substances. In certain cases, the chemical substances
themselves are hormones from other endocrine glands.
Figure 15.1 Location of the endocrine
The positions of some of the ductless glands
glands are shown in Figure 15.1.
Table 15.1 shows the effects of some
hormones on the body. hypothalamus: not an endocrine
_ gland butregulates the secretion —
“of some pituitary hormones
{t is important to note that:
@ The pituitary gland plays an
—— pituitary gland sec
important role as a “controller”. It
secretes a number of hormones, 3 sett
th Gree seeesea enceccettereers tt
eectiat Ht
each of which controls the
activity of a particular gland, ; f pois pois eT es euas tetecte eaten
hence the pituitary is sometimes _ adrenal gland (medulla) secretes _
adrenaline 2 psateedcse
referred to as the “master gland”.
@ Some of the glands do not kidney
function until the organism
__ pancreas: islets of Langerhans
reaches a certain age, e.g. the secrete insulin and glucagon
gonads (reproductive organs).
@ There is a difference between _ ovaries (in females) secrete
oestrogen and progesterone
short-term and long-term e . ; .
hormones. The effects of

hormones such as adrenaline are testes (in males) secrete
short-lived whereas hormones testosterone
such as thyroxine produce long- Note: Both sexes have the same
term, permanent effects in the endocrine glands except the sex
glands.
body.
@ Not only must the production of a2
each hormone be adequate but it
must be balanced. Excess production of certain ———— adrenal gland
hormones may be harmful.
@ Hormones after they have performed their kidney
functions are eventually destroyed by the liver.
medulla Va as
cortex —
Section of adrenal gland
Figure 15.2 Adrenal gland

Table 15.1 Some endocrine glands and their secretions
Endocrine gland Cause of

Effect(s)
and secretion secretion
- Islets of Increase in Decreases blood glucose concentration by:

Langerhans in concentration
® Increasing the permeability of cell membranes to glucose
pancreas produce of blood
thereby increasing the rate of glucose uptake by cells;
the hormone glucose
insulin ® Causing the conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage
in liver and muscles;
® Causing an increased oxidation of glucose during tissue

respiration.
Diabetes mellitus
Thus, there is an overall increase in the utilization of glucose
by cells.
Diabetes mellitus is a disease
where the body is unable to control B Effects of lack.of secretion
its blood glucose concentration so
that it remains within safe limits. ® Glucose cannot be stored or utilized by tissue cells,
As a result, the blood glucose so blood glucose concentration rises and some is
concentration can reach a level subsequently lost in the urine—diabetes mellitus.
that exceeds the kidney’s ability to @ Since muscle cells have no reserve of glycogen,
completely reabsorb all the body weakness follows;
glucose. The glucose that is not continuous loss of weight. =
reabsorbed is excreted in the urine.
@ Body oxidizes fats instead of
There are two main types of glucose to produce
diabetes: type 1 and type 2. energy and this results in
@ Type 1 diabetes is known as production of poisonous
juvenile or early-onset diabetes. substances called ketones
It develops early in a person’s which are excreted in
life. It is due to the inabilty of urine. Death can occur.
the pancreas to produce
insulin tablets and
sufficient insulin. @ Effects of oversecretion
injection
@ Type 2 diabetes occurs later in @ Abnormal decrease in blood
the life of a person and hence sugar concentration.
is also called late-onset @ Shock results.
diabetes. Overweight people
seem to be more prone to @ Coma and death may follow.
developing it. This condition may
be due to a fall in the
making sure that they do not take
production of insulin by the
in too much carbohydrates. hs
pancreas or a failure of the
target cells to respond well to it. Controlled diet
People with type 1 diabetes have
@ Signs to inject insulin into their veins
daily. They also have to ensure
A persistently high blood glucose that they have a supply of sugary
level and glucose in the urine after food (glucose sweets) as their
a meal are signs of diabetes blood glucose can drop too low
mellitus. causing them to go into a coma.
®@ Treatment Those with type 2 diabetes can
usually control their blood sugar
Diabetics have to measure their level by carefully regulating the Easy-to-use biosensors
blood glucose concentrations and carbohydrate content in their diet. for measuring blood
test their urine regularly. They must There is seldom a need to inject glucose concentrations
also watch their diet carefully, insulin on a daily basis.
Chapter—
Co-ordination and Response: III Hormones and Endocrine Glands :

Effect(s)
and secretion secretion
Adrenal medulla Conditions of increases blood glucose levels by speeding up the

produces the fear, anger, breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver and muscles.
hormone adrenaline anxiety and The glucose produced is carried by the blood to all the
stress vital organs, especially the heart and skeletal muscles.
@ Increases metabolic rate—this means more energy is
released in tissue respiration.
@ Increases rate of heartbeat and causes a rise in blood

pressure so that oxygen and glucose are carried faster to
the muscles.
@ Constricts arteries in skin causing pallor, thus channeling

more blood to the muscles, e.g. in the limbs.
@ Increases the coagulation rate of blood.
@ Relaxes the bronchioles thus increasing air flow to the

lungs.
@ Causes pupils to dilate to enhance vision.
@ Contracts hair muscles producing “goose pimples”.
These reactions prepare the body for “fight or flight”, or for

states of emergency.
a i.
How the adrenal medulla responds to stimuli
- Stimuli
Fear
Anger
Anxiety
Stress
— Spinal cord
Adrenal
medulla
Ce impulses
adrenaline
(carried in
blood)

and secretion secretion Effect(s)
Gonads: Hormone from @ Involved in the development of the male body
@ Testes produce pituitary characteristics during the fetal stage, e.g. male sex organs
the hormone and scrotum.
testosterone
® Controls the development of the primary and secondary
sexual characteristics in the adult. The former includes the
maturation of the male sex organs while the latter includes
characteristics such as the deepening of the voice and
growth of facial and pubic hairs.
@ Needed for successful development of sperm.
® Ovaries produce
the hormones
¢ Oestrogen Hormone from @ Controls development of female Sex organs and secondary
pituitary sexual characteristics, e.g. development of mammary
glands (breasts), broadening of pelvis.
e Progesterone Hormone from @ Prepares uterus for implantation of the embryo, causes
(pregnancy pituitary enlargementof mammary glands during pregnancy and
hormone) prevents ovulation.
15.2 Hormonal and Nervous Control
_ Hormonal control, like nervous control, serves as a means of

_ co-ordination within the body. In both cases, a stimulus causes the
transmission of a message to a target organ (effector) which carries out
_ the response. For example, an increase in osmotic pressure in the
blood (stimulus) causes the anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) to be
produced by the pituitary gland and transported to the kidneys in the
1 On the right is an outline of the human body. Draw and label on the
diagram:
(a) the gland that secretes insulin,
(b) the gland that produces adrenaline.
Name the disease caused by a failure of the gland to produce insulin.
State two possible signs of the disease named in (2) above.

How can the disease be treated?
BRB
or
ND
W If you see an angry dog barking and charging towards you, you will
run away as fast as you can. us
(a) What hormone is secreted in such an emergency? es
(b) State three effects of the hormone that help you to run away.
|Chapter
Co-ordination and Response: III] Hormones and Endocrine Glands ' ;
blood. Here, ADH increases the permeability of the walls of the

collecting ducts to water so that the kidneys respond by reabsorbing
more water (effect).
However, nervous control differs from hormonal control in several

aspects. For example, nervous control may affect only a particular part
of the body, i.e. it is localized. Since hormones are transported by the
blood around the body, several target organs may be affected. This is
shown by the effects of adrenaline on the heart, arteries, iris and
metabolic rate. The differences between nervous and hormonal |
controls are summarized in Table 15.2 below.
Table 15.2 Differences between nervous and hormonal controls
Nervous control Hormonal control
@ Involves nervous impulses (electrical signals)| Involves hormones (chemical substances)

@ impulses transmitted by neurones Hormones transported by blood
@ Quick response Slow response
@ Response short-lived Response may be short-lived or long-lived
@ May be voluntary or involuntary | Always involuntary
5 Usually localized g organ
May yi affect more : than one target g
Insect larvae, such as caterpillars or maggots, 3 What effect would the administration of the
grow by shedding their skin, a process called artificial JH have on an insect?
moulting. When it moults, an insect larva can 4 These artificial JH molecules have proved to
either become a larger, new larva or itcan turn be very successful at controlling cat fleas ©
into a pupa. This process is controlled by and cockroaches. However, they have not
hormones, one of which is called juvenile been successful at reducing the damage
hormone or JH. High levels of JH mean that the caused by insects whose larvae eat stored
larva when it moults turns into an even bigger food. Suggest why. You may need to do
larva. When the amount of JH falls below a some research on the life cycles of fleas
certain level, the larva turns into a pupa. and cockroaches.
4 What would happen to the larva shown if

the level of JH always stays high?
2 What effect would this have on the number

of this species of insect in a particular
area?
A particularly annoying group of insects feeds

on stored grain such as rice. The adults lay
their eggs on the rice grains and the larvae eat
the rice. Unfortunately, these insects are
becoming increasingly resistant to insecticides.
Research scientists are now beginning to look
at a group of chemicals which resemble JH as a
means of controlling these insects.
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III Hormones and Endocrine Glands
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Nature’s Medicine Cabinet
You have, at sometime in your life, been to the doctor with an illness and been
given a medicine or drug to take to make you better. Recent evidence suggests
that animals also know about drugs and obtain them from plants. For example,
Holly Dublin, an American biologist, spent much of 1975 tracking pregnant
elephants in Kenya, East Africa. She noticed that one particular elephant never
changed her routine of walking about 5 km a day searching for food. However,
one day this elephant changed her behaviour and walked 28 km to a river bank
and began eating leaves from a species of tree that Dublin had never seen
elephants eating before. The elephant, in fact, ate the whole tree and then walked
“home”. Four days later she had her baby.
Dublin was astonished by this change in behaviour. Did eating the tree have
anything to do with inducing labour? To her surprise Dublin discovered that
Kenyan women drink tea made from the bark and leaves of this tree in order to
induce labour. This is one of a growing number of studies which show that
animals use plants as sources of drugs.
Chimpanzees often eat the leaves of the shrub Vernonia aynygdalin when they are
feeling tired and sick. The shrub is used by local African people to treat the same
symptoms. Chimpanzees also eat leaves of Aspilia, a type of sunflower. These
leaves contain the drug thiarubine-A, a red
sulphur containing oil that kill disease-causing
bacteria and worms which live as parasites in
their guts. Humansuse extracts of this oil as —
anticancer drugs. |
gE
Mah
DATS
Ark
sedis
' It really is beginning to look as if animals, like

_ humans, doctor themselves by taking drugs.
“ Unfortunately not all drugs are so useful. Some
i drugs are positively harmful and may kill people
_ or cause addiction if taken in even quite small —
_ quantities. You will learn about these harmful _
_ drugs and the more useful ones in this chapter.
————
16.1 What Is.a Drug?
A drug is any externally administered chemical substance (other

than food) that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the
body.
A wide variety of substances are called drugs, e.g. alcohol and even
caffeine which is a stimulant present in tea, coffee and Coca Cola. The
amount of caffeine in such drinks is normally low. Fatal doses of
caffeine in humans have never occurred.
A drug may be beneficial to the body or harmful to it depending on

how we use it. Usually, problems arise when people become addicted
or dependent on a particular drug.
Drugs are used in many ways. They may broadly be divided into three
eroups, namely medicinal drugs, socially-accepted drugs and drugs of
abuse. A cigarette is also considered a drug. But it is no more
considered a socially-accepted drug since it is detrimental to health. It
contains nicotine which is highly addictive. This is the reason why
a person becomes addicted to cigarettes—cigarette smokers crave | Figure 16.1 Examples of useful and
for nicotine. harmful drugs around us
16.2 Medicinal Drugs
Many drugs, when taken under medical supervision, are used to treat
diseases, to relieve pain and in surgery. For example, penicillin is a
chemical produced by a fungus which is used to treat bacterial
diseases. Paludrine is used to destroy the malarial parasite. Can you
name two other drugs used to treat diseases?
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are chemicals that are widely used to treat many infectious
diseases caused by microorganisms. These chemicals are produced by
certain bacteria and moulds. However, a few antibiotics are man-made.
Figure 16.2 Some
Antibiotics do not harm viruses. Doctors sometimes prescribe
medicinal drugs
antibiotics when you have a viral infection. This is a deterrent measure.
It prevents you from acquiring a possible bacterial infection (which
your body would normally be able to fight against) because your
The figure below shows the effect
resistance is very low.
of antibiotics on bacteria growing
on agar in a petri dish. The There are four main types of antibiotics:
antibiotic is present on the discs.
It diffuses from the discs into the
¢ Penicillins are made by the fungus Pemzcillium. These attack a
agar around causing the bacteria fairly narrow range of bacteria and are therefore called narrow-
there to die. This is seen as a spectrum antibiotics.
clear zone (i.e. bacteria free @ Cephalosporins are made by the mould Cephalosporium,
zone) around the discs. discovered in 1948. They are useful against bacteria which have
developed resistance to penicillin.
@ Tetracyclines are made by the bacterium Streptomyces aureofaciens
which act against a variety of bacteria, i.e. they are broad-spectrum
antibiotics.
® Erythromycins which work against the same sort of bacteria as
penicillin, and are therefore useful against bacteria which have
developed resistance to penicillin.
_ Antibiotics essentially work in one of two ways. Penicillin, for example,

prevents the bacterium from making essential components of the cell
wall which makes it easier for the body’s immune system to destroy it.
Tetracyclines, on the other hand, damage the protein-producing
Saas
machinery inside the cytoplasm of the bacterium, thereby preventing it
Aspirin for heart attacks? _ from dividing. This inhibits the growth of the bacterium.
Recently, it has been discovered
that the active ingredient in Anaesthetics and Analgesics
aspirin, salicylic acid, has the
effect of thinning the blood. This Anaesthetics are drugs that make the body unable to feel pain.
makes it particularly useful for Cocaine, the first known local anaesthetic, causes a loss of sensation in
individuals who have had or who
_ the area in which it is injected. Nowadays a derivative, Novocain, is
run the risk of having a heart
attack. Thinning of the blood
_ used. It is useful in dental procedures such as the extraction of teeth.
makes it easier for the heart to
pump it around the body. In this _ Certain drugs can relieve pain without causing numbness or affecting
respect, aspirin may help to keep consciousness. These drugs are called analgesics, e.g. aspirin which
a heart attack away. relieves minor pain and reduces fever. However, if taken in large doses
aspirin may produce some side effects, e.g. gastric ulcers.
Drugs
16.3 Alcohol
Alcohol is normally consumed in the form of alcoholic beverages such
as wines, beers or spirits (e.g. brandy and whisky). It is rapidly A person is generally guilty of
absorbed into the bloodstream from the intestine and is broken down drunken driving when driving a
in the liver. motor vehicle under the influence
__ of alcohol such that the alcohol
content in the offender’s
The drinking of alcoholic beverages is a way of life in many countries. e blood is at least about 0.5 to
People drink at weddings, religious festivals or social gatherings, which 0.8 mg per ml, or
is usually socially acceptable as most people are able to control the e exhalation air is about 0.25 to
amount of alcohol they drink. The problem arises when a person 0.35 mg per litre.
drinks to such an extent that it becomes a hazard to health and his
body craves for alcohol.
The Effects of Alcohol on the Nervous System
Alcohol is a depressant. It slows down some brain functions. Initially,

its effects vary from one person to another. In some, it may cause
increased anxiety. In others, it may reduce nervous tension and
_ Using a breathalyser to check
worries, or even stimulate the appetite. The person becomes carefree the blood alcohol level of a
as alcohol takes away his inhibitions. His self-control is reduced. Some motorist.
may take personal and: social liberties which they may regret after the
effects of alcohol have worn off. The figure below shows how the
risk of accidents while driving is
increased after drinking alcohol.
As the person drinks more alcohol, other observable effects of However, it is important to note
intoxication, such as slurred speech, occur. Blurred vision and poor that factors like body weight, age
muscular co-ordination make him clumsy and unable to walk steadily. and reaction time make a
His judgement deteriorates and he tends to underestimate speed. As a difference to a person’s reaction
driver, he may drive faster and with less caution and his reactions to alcohol. (Reaction time is the
time interval between receiving a
become slower. Many automobile accidents are caused by drunken
stimulus and the response to it.)
drivers.
The drinker gets into a drunken stupor as more areas of the brain are
people
< most
dulled. Finally, the brain becomes anaesthetized and unconsciousness s
©
affected by
alcohol
occurs. High levels ofalcohol (about 0.7%) in the blood may paralyse | ©
the medulla oblongata or hind brain, which controls breathing and | Re)
SS
heart beat and death occurs. Extreme intoxication takes about 100
ao)
<e}
lives each year in the United States. o

icp)
iq}
o
5) affected
When a person drinks alcohol frequently he can become addicted. He = by alcohol
is unable to stop drinking until he is drunk and his body becomes 10 50 100 150 200
dependent on alcohol. He becomes an alcoholic. Alcoholics are Alcohol concentration in blood
(mg per 100 cm? blood)
liabilities to society.
Graphs relating number of
@ They may neglect their work and families, and exhibit violent accidents to blood alcohol content
behaviour especially towards family members. |
@ Many crimes have been committed by people under the influence |
of alcohol. |
Alcoholics experience withdrawal symptoms (refer to section 16.4)

when they are deprived of alcohol. They need help to give up their
drinking habit. For more information, surf the internet to find out
about Alcoholics Anonymous, a group concerned with helping

—_— alcoholics.
The Effect of Alcohol on the Digestive System

Alcohol stimulates acid secretion in the stomach which increases the
risk of gastric ulcers. Prolonged alcohol abuse over the years may
damage the liver. This may lead to cirrhosis of the liver — a disease in
| which the liver cells are destroyed and replaced with fibrous tissue
making the liver less able to function. Haemorrhage in the liver and
liver failure are often the cause of deaths in patients with alcoholic
cirrhosis. At one time, it was estimated that in New York City, cirrhosis
ranked as the third leading cause of deaths in people between the ages
of 25 and 65.
Tea and coffee

16.4 Drug Abuse :
Tea drinking has had a long
history dating as far back as
Drug abuse is the taking of drugs excessively, or not under a
2700 BC. Coffee drinking
originated in the Middle East
doctor’s prescription.
more than 1 000 years ago.
Today tea and coffee drinking
have become popular in many
parts of the world. The popularity Effects of Drug Abuse
of coffee and tea is attributed to
the stimulating effect produced
Drug abuse can cause:
by the caffeine present in them.
The amount of caffeine is | Tolerance, a condition where a person has to keep on taking
comparatively low; people do not more and more of a drug to achieve the same effect.
normally become addicted to
_@ Addiction or dependence, where a person experiences
drinking tea or coffee.
withdrawal symptoms if he does not take the drug. Withdrawal
Caffeine is a stimulant and may
symptoms include feeling
be prescribed to overcome
fatigue and drowsiness or to
@ physically ill (experience nausea, vomiting, uncontrolled
counter depression from an trembling, etc.),
overdose of drugs, e.g. @ mentally disturbed (experience acute anxiety, depression,
barbiturate poisoning. However, etc.)
an excessive use of any drug may
be harmful, e.g. too much
caffeine may be bad for the heart Types of Drugs
or kidneys.
However, given the potentially Drug abuse has become very serious in many countries. Drugs may be
harmful effects of caffeine, classified under several categories, and the same drug may fall into
several companies have marketed more than one category. For example, alcohol can be a socially-
substitutes for coffee. The most _ accepted drug and it can also be abused. For convenience, drugs can
popular of these is Postum. It is
a nutritious beverage of wheat,
be classified as follows:
molasses and wheat bran that
was sold by Charles Post in | Stimulant drugs
1893. Nowadays, decaffeinated _ These drugs stimulate the central nervous system, e.g. cocaine and
coffee and colas mean that you
amphetamines. Amphetamines are used to counteract depression,
can continue to enjoy the taste of
these drinks without getting the
_ prevent fatigue and counteract hunger in patients who are dieting.
caffeine.
B Depressant drug
Examples include barbiturates which are used as sleeping pills. These
are prescribed to overcome insomnia and to treat epilepsy.
Poppies, opium and heroin
# Hallucinogenic drugs
Plants defend themselves against
Examples include cannabis, also called marijuana and LSD (lysergic attack using a wide range of
acid diethylamide). They cause a person to experience illusion, defence mechanisms including
hallucinations and distorted images. chemicals. One of these is the
opium poppy, Papaver
somniferum, an annual herb
& Opiates about a metre tall. The leaves of
These include opium, morphine and heroin. These are narcotic drugs the poppy contain chemicals
because they relieve pain and induce sleep and stupor. called alkaloids which insects,
and other herbivores find
distasteful. Consequently, they
Heroin avoid eating the poppy. One of
the alkaloids is opium, a drug
In Singapore, the drugs commonly abused are the opiates, especially
which produces a sense of
heroin. Heroin is a powerful depressant. Heroin abuse is also one of euphoria when smoked. This
the biggest addiction problems in many other countries. Heroin is effect was known as long as
several times more powerful than morphine. Initially, it dulls the 6 OOO years ago. By 1800,
senses, giving a feeling of well-being. It reduces hunger, relieves tension opium was a common ingredient
in many medicines.
and makes the user sleepy. The danger of this drug is that the user
becomes rapidly addicted and needs an increasingly larger dosage to Most of the opium is contained in
produce the same sensation. An addicted person is physically the latex which oozes from the
dependent on the drug. If the drug is withheld, the user experiences urn-shaped fruits of the poppy
withdrawal symptoms. These include anxiety, stomach upsets, when they are cut. Opium
contains at least twenty-five
sweating, goose pimples, watering of the eyes, vomiting, diarrhoea,
alkaloids, the most abundant of
convulsions and hallucinations. In severe cases, death may occur. which are morphine and codeine,
both used as pain killers. Heroin,
The user experiences much misery. In order to avoid the withdrawal made by the chemical
symptoms, he has to use the drug more often. Some heroin addicts try modification of morphine, is an
desperately to obtain more money for the drugs they need, and so they illegal substance, the illicit sale
of which is worth over
turn to crime. US$6 billion each year. World-wide,
it is estimated that about 10 000
Another problem is that addicts usually inject the drug directly into a tonnes of opium are produced
vein. The hypodermic needles they share may be unsterilized and each year. Of this, only about 400
contaminated, resulting in transmission of diseases such as hepatitis B, tonnes are used in medicine. India
| is the largest, and the only legal
venereal diseases and AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome). producer of opium.
In fact, sharing injection needles (common among heroin addicts) is |
one of the main methods of transmission of the human
immunodeficiency virus or HIV, the virus that causes AIDS.
16.5 Smoking | |
Why do people smoke? Why does the government make such a big
effort to discourage people from smoking? What is in tobacco smoke?
Is cigarette smoking really a major health problem? These are some of
the questions many people would ask themselves. Smokers are not
convinced that cigarette smoking is detrimental to their health. They Opium poppy and its derivatives:
often argue that even non-smokers have been known to get lung crude opium, morphine, codeine
cancer or that they have been smoking for several years and yet and heroin
nothing has happened to them.
National Smoking Why Do People Smoke?

Control Programme
The Ministry of Health’s
Some young people smoke because they believe that smoking is a
comprehensive smoking control symbol of adulthood. This is reinforced by advertisements from
programme aims to reduce the cigarette companies. The advertisers try to give the impression that
number of smokers in Singapore _ maturity, social status, happiness and success are linked with smoking.
through:
However, surveys have shown that many young people smoke in
@ Public education on
order to cover up for their weaknesses or shortcomings such as failing
Do you know that
the hazards of in their studies or sports.
smoking
through | There are young people who start smoking out of curiosity. They want
campaigns, to experience what smoking is all about. Unfortunately, cigarette
exhibitions,
contain drugs that are addictive, and so smokers find it difficult to give
posters and
pamphlets.
up smoking.
_ Young people may like to imitate their parents who smoke. Many
others smoke because they want to be accepted as members of a
_ group of friends who smoke. Their friends’ persistent teasing and
urging may make them feel that they are not “sporting” enough if they
Did you know that cigarettes don't just _ do not smoke. This is called ‘peer group’ pressure.
harm smokers? You may also be smoking
without even knowing it. When someone
smokes near you, you become a Passive Why do people continue to smoke? The reasons given by people
Smoker.
_ who continue to smoke are that smoking is stimulating and that it
relieves tension, depression or even boredom. These are actually
psychological effects, because smoking cannot provide stimulation and
_ reduce tension at the same time.
FS 5 ges Se _ People who need to smoke a certain number of cigarettes in a day at

Passive smoking is breathing in all the
poisons without even lighting up a
particular times, e.g. after a meal, have already formed the habit. If they
cigarette. do not smoke at those times, they feel that something is missing.
That is the most terrible and unfair
thing about smoking. A cigarette is a drug. You can become addicted to it. People who try
to stop smoking may develop withdrawal symptoms if they have
@ Legislation (e.g. to keep many
_ smoked heavily for a long time. These symptoms include a craving to
areas in Singapore smoke-free,
and to limit the content of tar and
_ smoke, becoming sleepless and irritable, numbness in the arms and
nicotine in cigarettes). legs, an inability to concentrate on their work and coughing more
than usual. These unpleasant symptoms make some people continue
to smoke, even though the symptoms usually disappear within a
relatively short time.
Facts about Smoking

_ Let us now consider the facts about smoking. Afterwards you have to
® Services to help smokers quit the _ think carefully whether you would want to smoke or, if you have
habit.
already started smoking, whether you should give it up. Remember,
Smoking Cessation Clinic smoking is no longer regarded as socially acceptable.
(18 years and below)
Child Guidance Clinic Cigarette smoke contains more than 4 000 chemicals, some of which
Level 3, Institute of Health,
_ are harmful to the body. We shall find out more about the ones that
No. 3 Second Hospital Avenue
Singapore 168937 have been linked to health problems.
Tel: 435 3878/435 3879
@ Nicotine @ Tar
This is the addictive drug present in tobacco. This is a brown, sticky substance that
® It stimulates the brain at first making the accumulates in the lungs during smoking.
smoker feel alert, and relaxes the muscles. @ It contains many cancer-causing (carcinogenic)
Later, it dulls the brain and senses. chemicals. Normally, cell division occurs
@ It causes the release of adrenaline. This continuously in the lungs to replace the
increases the rate of heartbeat and blood epithelium or membrane of the air sacs. Tar
pressure. induces these cells to divide at an abnormal
© It makes blood clot easily. Therefore, it rate. Such uncontrolled multiplication of cells
increases the risk of blood clots blocking results in outgrowths or lumps of tissue
blood vessels. If such clots block the (cancers). These block off the air sacs,
coronary arteries, a heart attack may occur, reducing the efficiency for gaseous exchange.
or if they cccur in capillaries of the brain, a @ It paralyses the cilia lining the air passages.
stroke may result. This prevents the cilia from removing dust
particles from the lungs and trachea.
@ Carbon monoxide
@ Ifthe concentration of carbon monoxide in @ Irritants
the air is increased by 1%, it can produce a Examples include hydrogen cyanide and acrolein.
deadly effect—a person inhaling such a high @ These substances paralyse the cilia in the air
concentration of the gas may die within ten passages and weaken the walls of the alveoli.
minutes. This is because carbon monoxide @ They irritate the cells lining the air passages
reduces the efficiency of the red blood cells causing them to produce mucus. This, in
to transport oxygen. turn, causes a ‘smokers’ cough’. The coughing
@ It increases the rate at which fatty substances bursts the weakened walls of the alveoli,
are deposited on the inner walls of arteries, causing a decrease in wall area as many
causing their lumen to become narrower. minute alveoli coalesce to form a reduced
This increases the risk of atherosclerosis. number of enlarged alveoli. This process
@ It damages the lining of blood vessels, thus eventually causes the gaseous exchange
increasing the tendency of the blood to clot surface in the lungs to become greatly
and so block blood vessels. reduced (see Emphysema on page 250).
>
DUE BEONSESENSNSTSGN REM ONRLESIS>, TEST YOURSELF & A ASL RN AN NAAN SPEEA RON RON TEER SILO IRASSL LS SOTERA NRRL %
sd
What are the effects of smoking?
(b) Effect on the pulse rate when a cigarette is smoked
Figure 16.3 Effects of smoking
(a) Concentration of nicotine in the blood
The subject smoked a single cigarette taking

10 puffs at intervals of one minute
|
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Study Figures 16.3 (a) and (b) on page 247 and | 3. What is the relationship between nicotine
answer the questions below. Figure 16.3 (a) and the pulse rate?
shows the concentration of nicotine in the blood |4 Nicotine is said to cause the release of a
during smoking. Figure 16.3 (b) shows the hormone into the bloodstream. Name the
change in pulse rate when a cigarette is smoked. hormone that causes an increase in the
heart rate and blood pressure.
1 What is the concentration of nicotine in 5 Which chemical in cigarette smoke affects
the blood after the smoker has smoked the transport of oxygen by the red blood
for 5 minutes? cells?
2 State the pulse rate after 5 minutes of 6 How does this chemical make the smoker
smoking. suffer from a shortness of breath and a
lack of stamina?
SS SSS
SSS SSS
_Smoking-Related Diseases in Singapore

"cancer compared —
with anon-smoker |B Lung cancer
_ Studies have shown that the more you smoke the greater your risk of
10 times greater getting lung cancer. The table on the left shows this.
20 times greater
30 times greater
Figure 16.4 A healthy lung and a smoker's lung
Table 16.1 Relationship between
smoking and lung cancer |
(a) Normal lung tissue with air sacs __(b) Lung tissue of a heavy smoker
too fine to be visible showing numerous enlarged air sacs.
SMOKING
1 CAUSES (c) The left lung is normal
HEART DISEASE
HEALTH WARNING while the right lung shows a
cancerous growth
B Other cancers
.
Printing such warnings on packets of Cancer is an uncontrolled abnormal division of cells producing
cigarettes is one of the many ways outgrowths or lumps oftissues. Smoking increases the risk of cancers
of discouraging people from smoking. of the mouth, throat (larynx), pancreas, kidneys and urinary bladder.
Drugs
">. TEST YOURSELF

On Figure 16.5, plot a graph to show the
number of deaths due to lung cancer
each year. The first two points have
Cigarette smoking and lung cancer
already been done for you.
In 1985, about 700 Singaporeans died of lung
What is the percentage increase in the
cancer. Nearly 90% of the deaths due to lung
weight of cigarettes available in 1983
cancer occurred among smokers.
compared to 1973?
Table 16.2 shows the number of lung cancer 4 What is the percentage increase in the
deaths and the weignt of cigarettes available in deaths due to lung cancer in 1983
Singapore from 1973 to 1985. The latter compared to 1973?
figures are taken as an index of the amount of S
Explain the relationship between the
cigarettes consumed.
number of lung cancer deaths and the
amount of cigarettes consumed, i.e. the
Ls Use the figures in the table to complete the
number of smokers.
bar chart Figure 16.5, showing the total
weight of cigarettes available each year. 6 What do you think has contributed to the
The bars for 1973 and 1974 have already decline in cigarette smoking in 1984 and
been done for you. 1985?
Table 16.2 Deaths due

by SA 9
No. of deaths
due to lung
cancer
Total weight B60))),3;697 118: (0 +3277. 13:807 3:82

of cigarettes
in million kg
Figure 16.5
Deaths due to 800
lung cancer and incre Total weight of cigarettes available in Singapore
700k -— No. of deaths 14.4 _,

approximate
j |
2
weight of
cigarretes . 2
available in {S00} Bas 2.
Singapore from 8 2
1973 to 1985 = ee
= 451019) L gO,
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1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985
Year
(Reference: Department of Statistics, Singapore)
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te every smeker’s heart:
| Blecked bleed vessels.
Fan0 pe
:
|InB chronic
Chronic bronchitis
bronchitis,
the epithelium or membrane lining the inner
_ surfaces of the bronchi or main air passages to the lungs become
inflamed and narrowed. Excessive mucus is secreted. This reduces the
_ air flow in the air passages, and so breathing becomes difficult. The
_ person coughs and wheezes persistently to clear his air passages,
_ making his lungs more likely to be infected by bacteria. It also results
_ in an increased production of sputum or phlegm. Breathing irritating
chemicals, e.g. those in cigarette smoke, causes bronchitis.
B Emphysema
Emphysema is commonly associated with chronic bronchitis and
cigarette smoking. The partition walls between the alveoli break down
because of intense coughing, enlarging the air spaces and decreasing
_ the surface area of the lung. This reduces the absorption of oxygen.
The lungs become over-inflated with air and lose their elasticity,
making breathing difficult. An infected person spends a lot of his
_ energy just to keep breathing, and he wheezes. He suffers severe
breathlessness even on slight exertion.
When a person has both chronic bronchitis and emphysema, he is said

to suffer from chronic obstructive lung disease.
Smoking and Pregnancy

The carbon monoxide and nicotine in cigarette smoke affect the
development of the fetus. The carbon monoxide combines with the
haemoglobin in the mother’s red blood cells to form a new compound,
carboxyhaemoglobin, which cannot transport oxygen. Thus, it reduces
the amount of oxygen reaching the fetus through the placenta.
Drugs
Nicotine causes the arteries that bring blood to the placenta to narrow. |
Therefore, the amount of food substances reaching the fetus is also |
reduced. The mother’s health is also affected. She may suffer from lack
of oxygen or chronic bronchitis.
Evidence has shown that women who continue to smoke during

pregnancy put their babies at risk in the following ways:
the brain development of the fetus is affected. The child may have
learning difficulties in later life.
the fetus grows more slowly, so it is born smaller, more fragile and
may die within the first few days of life.
there is a higher risk (2 or 3 times higher) of the baby being born
prematurely.
there is a greater risk of miscarriage.
o¢ the baby has greater risk of being born dead (stillborn).
«©@
©¢
TEST YOURSELF —
63 Immediate Effects Long-term Effects
immediate and long-term effects of smoking

Below is a list of the effects of smoking. indicate which
effects are immediate and which are long-term by writing these
effects correctly in the boxes provided on the right.
increased blood pressure cancer

atherosclerosis stroke
heart attack reduced brain activity
contraction of blood vessels increased pulse rate
paralysis of cilia in bronchus chronic bronchitis
emphysema coughing
increase in adrenaline secretion peptic ulcers
SESE SISAL AIA TES NAPS ANDERS NDS LTR AT RLS IT ATT EA EI PSDEER MN DBS NS I MN TENE MINI
Seolgigenst
interna
Surf the internet to get information about an 2 What should be done to prevent
organization, preferably in Singapore, which teenagers from taking drugs?
helps teenagers overcome their drug 3 How can teenagers who are taking
problems. in your class, discuss: drugs best be helped to stop?
4. Why do you think teenagers start taking

drugs or start smoking?
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: The Thinking Room
stpassed away, leaving

a ‘0 send his children
Final ‘analysis “a value of consequences
=) xercise
(c) State four reasons why young people
Z (a) What are drugs?
(bo) What is meant by, “A heroin start to smoke cigarettes.
(C) HSB
addict establishes tolerance to the
drug”?
(c) Why are drug addicts placed in the The diagrams below show air sacs in a
“high risk” group of people that are healthy and damaged lung tissue caused
more likely to contract AIDS? by emphysema.
partition
Explain why a person drives less safely walls
after drinking alcohol. between
People who feel depressed often drink

alcohol to ‘cheer themselves up’.
Explain why alcohol is unlikely to cure
depression.
(C) HSB
Describe how cigarette smoking may

affect the lungs and give rise to Healthy lung Damaged lung |
(i) lung cancer,
(ii) bronchitis,
What sign of the disease is shown in the
(iii) emphysema.
damaged lung and how does it affect the
) Explain how the development of a
patient concerned?
fetus may be affected if its mother
smokes cigarettes. —
Microorganisms and Their
Applications in Biotechnology
is :
* Comprehension
|Louis Pasteur applies the scientific method
Louis Pasteur was a biologist who lived from 1822-1895. At this time, people
thought that microorganisms, like bacteria, arose spontaneously from non-living
matter: the theory of spontaneous generation. They reasoned like this:
If a flask containing a liquid called a broth, on which microorganisms could

feed, was left lying around, then the reason it became cloudy was that
microorganisms arose spontaneously from the broth and grew in it. This also
explained why food goes bad. Microorganisms developed spontaneously from
|the food and made it go bad:
|
Pasteur thought these ideas were wrong; he thought that only living organisms
could give rise to other living organisms. He reasoned like this:
Since microorganisms are small and light, they must be present on earth
practically everywhere. Some must be present floating in the air. But
microorganisms are heavier than air and, like particles. of dust, they should
eventually settle. So the reason why a flask of broth becomes cloudy or food
goes bad is that microorganisms from the air settle on it and then grow.
fi: ‘To test his ideas, Pasteur carried out a series of ingenious.experiments using flasks
',
. . . . . ah .
4 like the one shown on the next page. Pasteur poured nutrient broth into a number
\ of flasks and then drew the necks of the flasks out into long tubes, which he bent
Microorganisms and Their Applications in Biotechnology
Sis sitise
+r ee POTS cal +46 a eeee
cloudy and eect tadin.

24 to 48 hours. How |
does this observation
support Pasteur’s theory?
4 Why did Pasteur have to
leave his flasks open to
the air and show that
microorganisms could
grow in the boiled broth
in order to disprove the
theory of spontaneous
generation?
A microbiologist picking up some bacteria growing on
an agar plate to examine under a microscope
17.1 Microorganisms
The invention of the microscope opened up the world of very minute

living organisms called microorganisms. Known commonly as germs
or microbes, they are found almost everywhere in nature:
in air, water and soil;

on the surface of objects and living organisms; and
within living organisms, where they are able to invade living cells
¢¢¢
and cause harm, or live in harmony with them.
_ Microorganisms from the air
We shall study three types of microorganism: viruses, bacteria and
certain fungi.
Viruses: Biochemical Parasites
Viruses cause diseases in living cells and are the smallest disease-
causing particles known. They are not visible under the ordinary light
microscope. To examine their detailed structure, a special instrument,
This plate of nutrient agar was the electron microscope, is required. This instrument can magnify
exposed briefly to the air. After a objects to a maximum of x 250 000.
few hours, the microorganisms in
the air that landed on the agar
Structure and mode of life
multiplied to form these patches
or colonies.
Viruses are not considered as cells because they do not have any
protoplasm. A virus is made up of one nucleic acid (either DNA or
RNA) surrounded by a protein coat. They may be spherical in
shape (e.g. influenza virus), rod shaped (e.g. tobacco mosaic virus
which attacks tobacco plants) or tadpole shaped (e.g.
bacteriophages which attack bacterial cells). The living cell,
which the virus attacks, is called the host cell.
Outside the host cell, the virus do not carry out any
characteristics of living things. They do not feed, respire, excrete,
grow or reproduce. But inside the host cell, the virus can
reproduce or replicate. They do this by taking over the
protein coat biochemical systems of the host cell, and use them to make new
“nucleic acid — copies of themselves. The host cell then bursts, releasing the
viruses to infect new cells.
for attachment. Viral diseases and our defence against them

to cells
Viral diseases include the common cold, influenza, chickenpox,
Bacteriophage dengue haemorrhagic fever, herpes and AIDS (Acquired
(attacks bacterial
cell) Immune Deficiency Syndrome; refer to Chapter 21).
Figure 17.1 Structure of viruses
Figure 17.2 Electron micrographs of some viruses

=
Tobacco mosaic virus Influenza virus Bacteriophage

Antibiotics, used to destroy bacteria, are not effective against viruses.

Viruses can only be destroyed by antibodies produced by our white
blood cells.
Useful viruses
Bacteria We tend to think of viruses as
being simply disease-causing
Bacteria are living cells, barely visible under the ordinary light agents. However, they have
microscope. They are larger than viruses. proved to be very useful to
biologists in three ways:
Structure and types @ Firstly, viruses reproduce very
rapidly which means they are
A bacterium, like any other living cell, has a cell surface membrane useful to biologists called
and cytoplasm. Surrounding the cell surface membrane is the cell wall. geneticists who wish to study
Some bacteria are enveloped in a layer of slime (slime capsule). A the processes by which
bacterium does not possess a nuclear envelope, so it does not have a information is passed from
one generation to another.
true nucleus. But it has a single, circular loop of DNA. This is the The small size of the virus
bacterial chromosome. It contains the genes that give the bacterium and its rapid life cycle mean it
its special characteristics and properties. There are also smaller rings is possible to study these
of DNA, known as plasmids, in the cytoplasm. Plasmids are of great processes in small dishes in
interest to genetic engineers because, like viruses, they can be used as the laboratory.
vectors to transfer genes between cells of two different species @ Secondly, another group of
(Chapter 22). biologists, genetic engineers,
are interested in transferring
genes from one species to
Most bacteria are non-motile. They cannot move by themselves or another species. This means
swim. However, some are motile. They possess long, hair-like threads that the gene in, say, one
called flagella (singular: flagellum). The beating of these flagella type of tomato plant which
enables the bacteria to move in a fluid medium. made it resistant to a
particular plant disease could
be transferred to another type
According to their shapes, bacteria may be classified into three general
of tomato plant making the
types: latter resistant to the plant
@ Cocci (singular: coccus)—spherical shaped bacteria disease too. This transfer is
@ Bacilli (singular: bacillus)—rod shaped bacteria, (vibrio— often carried out using
comma shaped bacteria which are a variation of bacilli) viruses, i.e. the viruses act as
biological “carriers” or |
@ Spirilla (singular: spirillum)—spiral shaped bacteria
vectors that transfer the gene
from one species to another.
Baciili
@ Thirdly, there is a group of
agellum viruses called bacteriophages
which attack and destroy
\N bacteria. In some Russian
hospitals, these viruses are
cell wall | : ZO,
used to kill bacteria in
humans by injecting the
cytoplasm | \
viruses into the patient.
cell Spirilla Vibrio

membrane
a single” | SS
| = Chromosome
it, (DNA) Assignment 17.1
toe ; : —eEeEeEeEEe——————
=) = —s
Bacterial growth curves
Figure 17.3 Structure of a bacterium Figure 17.4 Some forms of bacteria
Mode of life
isin hy
Bacteria occur in almost every environment. They are found in foods,
in soil, air, water and in the bodies of animals (especially in the
Antibiotic resistance
intestines). Bacteria may be:
Antibiotics are potentially the @ saprophytic, feeding on decaying organic matter;
most powerful drugs we have to
fight disease-causing bacteria and
@ parasitic, causing diseases in plants and animals; and
fungi. However, many types of @ autotrophic, able to manufacture food using energy from the sun
bacteria are becoming resistant or inorganic compounds.
to antibiotics so that drugs like
penicillin are becoming less Some bacteria are aerobic, requiring oxygen for respiration, some are
useful. This has been caused by anaerobic, surviving in the absence of oxygen, and some others can
the misuse of antibiotics through
live in the presence or absence of oxygen.
over prescription and their use as
growth promoters in animals.
Bacteria are known for their ability to reproduce rapidly. They
You might like to find out what reproduce by a process called binary fission, in which the
guidelines are used in Singapore
bacterial cell copies the DNA it contains and then splits in half to
in the prescription of antibiotics
by doctors.
form two new cells. In adverse conditions, some bacteria form
spores, each protected by a thick wall. Such spores are very
resistant to cold or heat, and very drastic conditions are necessary
to kill them. If the spores settle on a suitable medium, their walls
break and they begin to grow and multiply.
Figure 17.5 Yeast cells
_
Fungi
chitinous
cell wall
The organisms in the Kingdom Fungi live as saprophytes feeding on
nucleus
decaying organic matter or as parasites of plants and animals. They
cytoplasm may be unicellular, e.g. yeasts, or multicellular, e.g. bread mould
vacuole (RAzzopus), mushrooms and Penicillium which produces the penicillin
cell
antibiotic.
surface
membrane Structure
The body of a multicellular fungus like the bread mould consists of a

mesh of finely branching threads collectively known as the mycelium
(plural: mycelia). These thread-like structures are known as hyphae
Budding in (singular: hypha). The hyphae are not divided into cells. They are
yeast cell | protected by cell walls composed of chitin, a complex carbohydrate.
Each hypha has a cell membrane, cytoplasm with many nuclei and a
———
large central vacuole. The carbohydrate stored in fungi is glycogen.
spore-producing
structures :
plasma
vacuole nuclei membrane
reproductive ~~”
hyphae (grow
vertically up)
feeding
hyphae (grow
horizontally)
glycogen granule cytoplasm chitinous wall

Moulds growing on bread.
Section of a hypha
Mode of life
A unicellular fungus, like the yeast, may reproduce by budding. Fungi

may reproduce by means of spores. The spores are minute and
resistant to adverse environmental conditions, e.g. drought. They are
dispersed by wind and when they settle on a suitable medium, they
will germinate into new mycelia.
The fine branching hyphae spread over the surface of the substratum
(substance on which they grow). The bread mould growing on the
surface of bread is a common sight. The hyphae secrete enzymes to
digest the organic food substances outside their bodies. This is
extracellular (outside the body) digestion. The enzyme amylase
digests starch to maltose. Maltase digests maltose to glucose. Proteases
digest proteins to amino acids. Glucose and amino acids are absorbed
by diffusion into the hyphae. Such activities of fungi enable them to
play a role as decomposers.
Parasitic fungi live on the living tissues of their hosts, e.g. the toadstool
fungi living on tree trunks and the fungus causing potato blight.
Animal fungal diseases include white spots on the bodies of fish and
ringworm on the bodies of Man. Ringworm of the foot is also called
athlete’s foot.
17.2 Role of Microorganisms.in Decomposition
Decomposers are saprophytes. They include fungi and certain bacteria,

especially those that live in the soil. Although moulds and mushrooms
can be seen, most decomposers are microorganisms.
Decomposers in Nature
In Chapter 18, we will learn that decomposers play an essential role in

the cycling of nutrients in nature. Decomposers form the link between
living organisms and the non-living environment (carbon cycle,
Chapter 18).
Figure 17.7 Some examples of fungi
Decomposers feed on dead and decaying organisms and their faeces.
They secrete enzymes onto their food source such as a decaying leaf.
These enzymes break down complex organic compounds (food), like
carbohydrates and proteins, into simple soluble or gaseous inorganic
compounds. The decomposers absorb only a small amount of
energy and nutrients for their own use. Most of the energy is lost
as heat and the remaining nutrients are released into the
surrounding soil, air and water.
The inorganic compounds released during decay include gases like

carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and water vapour, and salts like
nitrates, sulphates, phosphates and potassium ions. These are reused
by green plants during photosynthesis and other synthetic processes.
By enabling the recycling of nutrients,

decomposers play an important role in
maintaining life on earth. They also prevent
an unsightly accumulation of the remains and
wastes ofliving organisms on earth’s surface.
Decomposers in Sewage Treatment
Sewage is normally decomposed by

saprophytic microorganisms. However, this
natural cycle takes a long time. In towns and
cities, sewage from households is drained into
large settling tanks. Bacteria present in the
sewage secrete enzymes to digest the solid
organic matter into soluble, harmless
substances and the gas, carbon dioxide.
Bacteria also feed on such digested products.
The liquid that results from this bacterial
Figure 17.8 digestion is filtered and pathogens removed
(a) Bedok Sewage Treatment Works
before it is discharged into the rivers or seas. The digested solid,
(0) Aeration tank: Microorganisms
called sludge, is removed from the tank, dried and used as
decompose biodegradable organic
fertilizers.
matter in the waste water.
(c) Final sedimentation tank: Sludge
settles while treated water (final
effluent) is discharged into the sea. 17.3 Biotechnology :
The final effluent meets the Royal
Commission standards for
biochemical oxygen demand (see Biotechnology is not easy to define. We can say that it is the large-
page 298).
scale industrial use of biological processes from microorganisms to
(d) Digester: Microorganisms act on make substances or to provide services for Man. The term
the sludge under anaerobic conditions
“biotechnology” was coined only in the 1970s, inspired by work carried
to break down the organic matter in
it. The digested product is dried and out to produce genetically engineered organisms (Chapter 22). As a
used mainly as landfill material. A by- result, biotechnology is usually linked to genetic engineering, and the
product of this process is biogas production of the specific products (e.g. enzymes and hormones) of
which contain about 60-70% methane. genetically engineered organisms. Historically, however, we have been
using the ability of microorganisms to carry out fermentation for
hundreds of years to produce foods such as bread, cheese and yoghurt.
We shall consider some examples of the use of biotechnology in the

production of food, antibiotics and single-cell protein (SCP).
Fermentation Products
Yoghurt making
Yoghurt is made by fermenting milk, using certain bacteria like

Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus. Milk is incubated
with these bacteria. The S¢reptococcus removes oxygen thereby creating
an anaerobic condition. In the absence of oxygen, the Lactobacillus
respires anaerobically and converts lactose (milk sugar) to lactic acid.
This acid causes the milk protein, casein, to curdle producing yoghurt,
which can then be flavoured by adding sugar and fruit.
(a) Carbon dioxide produced by (pb) Cheese produced by

the yeast causes dough to rise microbial fermentation
Figure 17.9 Microbial fermentation
Cheese making
The manufacturing of cheese makes use of both bacteria and fungi.

Lactobacillus is used to ferment milk sugar to lactic acid. The latter
curdles milk protein. The curdled protein, together with the fats in the
milk, is removed and acted upon by a mixture of bacteria and fungi to
produce cheese. By varying conditions, such as temperatures, and
using different mixtures of bacteria and fungi, different types of cheese
can be produced.
Bread making
The flour used in making bread contains starch, protein and an

enzyme amylase. The flour is mixed with water to form a dough. Yeast
is then mixed with the dough. Amylase digests the starch to sugar.
Lack of oxygen inside the dough causes the yeast to respire
anaerobically, fermenting the sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide.
The carbon dioxide produced causes the dough to rise, thus
making cavities appear in the bread. The alcohol produced evaporates
during baking.
Production of alcohol
Yeast is used in brewing. Here, yeast is mixed with sugar found in food
substances used in brewing such as barley, grapes, etc. In the absence
of oxygen, the yeast respires anaerobically to produce alcohol and
carbon dioxide from the sugar. Examples of alcohols brewed in this
manner include beer, wine, sake and whiskey. Beer is made from
germinated barley and wine from grape juice. The Japanese sake is
produced from fermentation of rice. In spirit-based drinks, like whisky, | Analysis
the alcohol is separated from the fermented liquors or mashes (e.g. | Making beer
malt barley) by distillation.
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are complex substances produced by microorganisms as a

So was Fleming just lucky or byproduct which they excrete. They are used mainly in the treatment
was he creative? of bacterial diseases.
Sometimes discoveries involve
luck and creativity. The creative Soil bacteria and fungi are the main antibiotic producers. The best
side of science involves making known antibiotic is penicillin produced by the fungus Penzcillium. Other
the mental connections to take
examples include streptomycin and tetracyclines produced by the
advantage of chance
observations. A classic example
Streptomyces bacteria.
of this involves Alexander
Fleming. Commercial production
In 1928, Fleming left a culture The large scale production of antibiotics involves the use of giant
dish of a disease-causing
fermenters (refer to page 264).
bacterium, Staphylococcus,
uncovered in his laboratory by
chance. Other microorganisms @ Penicillin production
rapidly colonized the dish, For penicillin production, the fermenter size is usually 100 000 to
contaminating the culture of 150 000 litres. The fermenter is filled with a nutrient broth (culture
Staphylococcus he was growing. medium) for the growth of the fungus Penicillium. The main
Usually such contaminated plates
fermentable carbohydrate source in the culture medium is lactose.
are thrown away, but just before
he did this Fleming noticed
Other nutrients include an organic nitrogen source, such as corn-steep
several clear areas on the plate liquor, and mineral salts. The pH is adjusted to between 5 and 6 and
where the bacteria were not temperature during the penicillin production stage is maintained at
growing. This observation 26 °C. As aeration is important for optimal growth of Penicillium, air is
suggested to Fleming that some blown into the fermenter and the medium is stirred constantly.
contaminant on the dish had
stopped the bacteria from
growing. This is how Fleming Then the relevant Penicillium strain is added to the culture medium.
“accidentally” discovered The medium conditions are maintained for the rapid growth of the
penicillin. fungus. There is little penicillin production at this stage. As the growth
Was Fleming just lucky? Possibly slows down, penicillin production begins. Conditions in the fermenter
but he would not have discovered are adjusted for this stage. Antibiotic production cannot be maintained
penicillin if he had not been very indefinitely as the conditions in the culture medium become
observant and been able to unsuitable for the fungus. This affects the rate of penicillin synthesis.
recognize the importance of what
At the appropriate juncture, the nutrient broth containing penicillin is
he saw. Most people would not
even have recognized the clear filtered off and the penicillin is extracted, usually by crystallization.
areas on the plate, let alone
thought them worth investigating. Sterile conditions are essential throughout this process. If other
Such observations are crucial to microorganisms contaminate the medium, then the whole process will
science and Fleming’s discovery
be disrupted, incurring heavy financial losses.
is a good example of a famous
saying: “Luck is when preparation
meets opportunity”. In the production of penicillin, growth of the fungus occurs in a fixed
volume of culture medium. This medium is continually being altered
by the fungus. When the desired amount of product is present in the
vrleg medium, the process is stopped. The fermenter is cleaned and the
process is repeated. This is known as the batch operation system.
In the batch operation system, unproductive time is spent in cleaning

and sterilizing the fermenters after each batch. In this kind of
Penicillin is an excretory
product. It is produced by the
operation, a cooling jacket (Figure 17.12) for the fermenter leaves its
fungal cells as their rate of inside relatively uncluttered, making it easier to clean the fermenter.
growth slows down. The advantage of this system is that each batch of product can be
identified and checked—an important aspect in antibiotic production.
Single-cell Protein
Proteins made from microorganisms, such as bacteria and yeast, are

called single-cell proteins (SCP). Yeast has been used in making single- Mad Cow Disease
cell protein as food. Such food is also rich in vitamins.
Through the late part of the
1980s and the early part of the
SCP and animal feed 1990s, cows in dairy herds in
Great Britain showed symptoms
Animals, like cows, need a lot of protein in their diet if they are to of a strange and new illness
produce large amounts of milk. To solve the problem of low levels which became known as mad cow
of protein in animal feed, the chemical company ICI decided to use disease. However, when
bacteria to make proteins for animal feed. These are allowed to biologists examined the brains of
these cows, they found that the
grow and multiply in methanol, a petroleum by-product. They are brain tissue had large holes in it,
then removed, dried and squashed. This protein-rich food was similar to diseases called
called Pruteen by ICI. It was used to feed animals like cattle. Spongiform Encephalopathys
However, the cost of producing this product was much higher than found in sheep, where it is called
other ways of making protein for animal feed, such as from the scrapie, and humans, where it is
called Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.
carcasses of dead animals. Consequently, Pruteen production
The new form was called Bovine
stopped in 1985—an example of a clever piece of technology which Spongiform Encephalopathy or
was too expensive. BSE for short. But where had this
new form come from?
SCP and human food

The answer was terrifying. Dairy
Mycoprotein is a successful example of a food made for human cows are fed a lot of protein, in
pellet form, to help them produce
consumption from the fungus called Fusarium. The food has the
a lot of milk. These pellets are
texture of meat. Flavouring and cooking can overcome its bland taste. made from the bodies of dead
The mycoprotein food is rich in protein, low in fat and has a sufficient animals. Were the bodies of
amount of fibre. Compared to meat, it is a much healthier protein sheep infected with scrapie and
source for our dietary needs. cows infected with BSE used for
making these pellets? Did this
mean that the cows were
In the large scale production of mycoprotein, the fungus is grown in catching BSE from their food? It
specially designed fermenters similar to that shown in Figure 17.12. seemed so. The use of this form
The culture medium used contains glucose and mineral salts and is of protein was banned and
maintained at 30 °C. millions of cows have been
slaughtered to eliminate BSE.
The system used here i
Leis p
is different from that

(Yuorn » Unfortunately, it now appears
possible that humans who ate
for antibiotic infected cows, for example in the
production. Here, it is form of hamburgers, may also
the fungal cells that have caught the illness. More
than twenty people have now died
are harvested for their erving from a new variant of Creutzfeldt-
protein content, not Jakob disease which, when the
their excretory wate
a
LESS THAN 5%FAT
brains of these dead people were
product. The culture examined, looked like BSE. The
medium is circulated Figure 17.10 Mycoprotein foods agent which causes this disease
is unknown but it seems to be a
around the fermenter
single protein molecule, called a
continuously. Then it passes to a separation stage where the fungus is prion, and not a living organism
filtered off, and the liquid is returned to the fermenter. The at all. Prions are apparently heat
composition of the culture medium is maintained by topping up of the resistant, hence cooking infected
medium when necessary. The filtered fungus is dried and processed. meat will not destroy them.
This is known as the continuous operation system. This is suited

for the growth-associated process involved in SCP production.
industrial Biotechnology
Fermenters
Biological processes: from A fermenter is

small scale to large scale ® a giant steel cylindrical tank closed at both ends, and
Industrial biotechnology involves
@ designed to keep its inside environment favourable for the desired
large-scale production of the biological process to operate (Figure 17.12).
_ microorganism and its product.
_ The small-scale production of the Most industrial processes use fermenters for the large scale, rapid
_ microorganism and its product in production of microorganisms and their products. Present-day
_ the laboratory are easier to
technology allows us to manipulate microorganisms genetically to
control, e.g. mixing and aeration
are done easily in a flask. produce a desired product, e.g. production of human insulin
_ Therefore, when transferring a (Chapter 22). Using fermenters to produce the gene products of such
_ biological process from the microorganisms is profitable, especially in the pharmaceutical
- laboratory flask to the industries.
commercial fermenter, many
factors have to be considered.
This is the work of the
Fermenters may be designed for anaerobic or aerobic processes. Since
biochemical engineer. most industrial processes are aerobic, we shall outline the important
features of this type of fermenter.
M Cooling system
Removal of heat during microbial activities is vital for successful
growth of the organism. Cooling water runs through a cooling jacket
Penicillin yields
and removes heat from the nutrient broth. For very large fermenters,
internal coils are provided through which cooling water flows. This
The first large scale production ensures that the correct temperature is maintained within the cylinder.
of penicillin yielded only about
10 ug per ml of filtrate.
Technology and strain & Aeration system
improvements have resulted in a Proper mixing and adequate aeration must be achieved, especially with
500 000-fold increase in yield. a high density of microbial population. Installed in the cylinder are
This was achieved before the era two devices:
of genetic engineering.
®@ A sparger—this is an aeration device. It is a metal ring with tiny
holes through which air is passed into the fermenter under high
pressure. Air enters the fermenter as tiny air bubbles and oxygen
diffuses into the nutrient broth.
Figure 17.11 A fermenter in an industrial plant

Figure 17.11
This is a 2 OOO litre fermenter
used in the commercial
production of antibodies. Here,
the parent cell is obtained by the
fusion of an antibody-producing
cell (a lymphocyte) with a rapidly
multiplying tumour cell. The
resulting cell is multiplied in the
fermenter. Each of these cells
secretes the antibody produced
by the original lymphocyte. In this
way, large quantities of the given
antibodies can be produced for
use as vaccines and in tests for
specific antigens.
motor
a Sete, DHRCONLONer
acid/base
reservoir and
sterile seal pump
—— exhaust
impeller
cooling
water out
cooling
jacket
culture broth
cooling ——> sparger

water in (air bubbles)
+—— sterile air
harvest
Figure 17.12 Features of an industrial fermenter
@ An impeller—this is a stirring device. It mixes the air bubbles well

with the nutrient broth. This ensures that oxygen and nutrients are
well within reach of the microbes.
The microorganisms are mixed with a nutrient broth (culture medium)

inside the cylinder where the oxygen concentration, pH, temperature
and concentration of nutrients are carefully monitored by a computer.
Microorganisms
Although microorganisms used in industrial processes must produce

the required products, they should also possess the following features:
@ Grow readily in a fermenter
@ Grow rapidly in a relatively cheap culture medium
@ Allow themselves to be readily manipulated by genetic engineers
so that improved strains can be developed
@ Should not be pathogenic or produce toxic products
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Bacteria
How alike?
How different? =
1 Figure 1 shows an organism W and Figure 2 shows Organism W.

how the reproduction of this organism is affected by ak
an antibiotic.
(a) What type of organism is W most likely to be?
State three reasons for your answer.
(b) Name the type of reproduction shown by
organism W.
Q is the only organism surviving the antibiotic 4
treatment.
(c) Suggest an explanation for the survival
of Q and its offspring.
treatment with anubiote
(d) Explain why patients who are treated Ls = panties
ad Keg)
= => GD Organism Q
with antibiotics are always advised to
Pte \
take the complete course of treatment,
rather than stop the treatment as soon ie:
CES CG»
as they feel better. y Mevi\
Fermenters are used in industrial biotechnology in Figure2

the production of microorganisms and their gene
products.
(a) What are the advantages of using
fermenters in industrial biotechnology?
(b) What factors must be considered in
using fermenters?
Malaria is a disease which affects people who live mainly in tropical and sub-
tropical parts of the world. Each year, it kills more than a million people, mostly
African children under the age of 5. Today, more than half the world’s population
lives in malaria-prone regions in about 100 different countries, including countries
close to but not Singapore. This is due to the improved health standards in
Singapore. However, Singapore is within the geographical distribution of malaria.
You will learn more about malaria later in this chapter.
= Malaria’s symptoms come and go. They include fever

and chills, anaemia, enlargement of the spleen, severe
abdominal pains and headaches. Sufferers become
very weak and succumb easily to other illnesses such
as pneumonia. Malaria is caused by a parasitic
protozoan of the genus Plasmodium which lives in
human blood. It is transmitted from human to
human by the female Anopheles mosquito. Clearly,
te this illness is one which needs to be controlled. One
econ,
wee way of doing this is to give people drugs which kill

>
ae, the parasites living in their blood. Another way is to
kill the organism which transmits the disease from
=
is
person to person, 1.e. the vector. However, some
attempts to do this have resulted in some very The female Anopheles mosquito
epee
‘
oe
Ecology
strange outcomes. Let us

look at one such attempt.
Malaria once infected nine out of ten people in the part of
1 List the sequence of North Borneo now known as Brunei Darussalam. In 1955,
the World Health Organization (WHO) began spraying the
events, in the form ofa
insecticide dieldrin to kill the malaria-carrying mosquitoes.
flowchart, which caused The program was so successful that the dreaded disease
the roofs of the houses was almost eliminated from the island. Then strange things
to collapse and the started to happen. The dieldrin killed other insects,
plague to affect the including flies and cockroaches, living in the houses. Great!
villagers. the people were delighted. Then the geckos, the small lizards
which lived in the houses died after eating the dead insects.
2 In what ways does this
4 ; Then cats began dying after eating the dead lizards. Without
Story sbeeest ower te cats, the rats flourished and the villages were overrun by a
can interact with one plague of rats. With the rats came the plague, carried by
another? fleas on the rats. The situation was only brought under
3 What evidence is there control when WHO parachuted healthy cats into the country.
from this story that there
The roofs of the houses began to fall in. The dieldrin had
is a level ofbiological killed wasps and other insects that fed on a type of
organization above the caterpillar that either avoided or was not affected by the
level of the individual? insecticide. With most of its predators eliminated, the
— 5 caterpillar population grew rapidly. The caterpillars ate
their favourite food, the leaves used to thatch the roofs
of the houses. Eventually, the numbers of predatory
' a insects recovered and the spraying programme was a
sila success story. But, it does show the unpredictable
results that can happen when humans interfere with
nature (i.e. ecosystems). :
The events outlined above suggest that organisms continually interact

with one another and with their environment. The plague came
because the environment was changed by the introduction of dieldrin.
Ecology is the science which tries to understand how these kinds of
events happen. Ecologists ask questions like:
@ What animals and plants live in this lake or forest? el LS
@ How do they interact with each other and with their physical | Ok
environment? at : ees
| ie Ecology
@ What changes will this lake or forest undergo over time: PeHiselite the study of
| interactions among organisms,
Ecologists therefore study both the non-living (abiotic) or physical | and between organisms and the
environment, and the living (biotic) environment. First, though, you —_ physical and chemical factors
need to learn to apply some key ecological terms: | making up their external
environment.
population, habitat, community and ecosystem.
|
|ASG
\
\
siment
ar
181
16.1 Ecological Terms
Read the following paragraph and then answer the questions at
the end.
A population is a group of organisms of the same species
living in a defined area. For example, the human population of
Singapore or the number of mangrove trees living in a
particular mangrove swamp in, say, the Sungei Buloh nature
reserve in north-western Singapore. Each organism has a
Mangrove swamp with inset showing place where it lives: its habitat. For example, the natural
mudskipper habitat of the mudskipper is the mud in mangrove swamps. A
community, in ecological terms, is made up of all of the
populations of plants, animals and microorganisms living and
interacting in a given habitat. So the mangrove swamp habitat
would have a community made up of mangroves themselves,
other plants, animals like the mudskippers and sand flies, and
the microorganisms living in the mud. Finally, an ecosystem is
the combination of a community and the physical and chemical
factors making up its non-living environment. For the mangrove
community, this would include the salinity of the sea water, its
pH, the temperature, the amount of oxygen dissolved in the
mud, the amount of light falling on the trees and the amount
of nutrients in the mud.
Copy and complete the following sentences by filling in the
blanks using the appropriate terms:
)
4 picture shows a plant
| community in the ecosyst em abitat(s) (S) or population
me z ae Sern:
garden. Give reasons to
explain why you agree 1 A mangrove swamp contains mud, sea and
or disagree with what tree :
you have been told. 2 The seaisa for fish and whales.
3 Acathasa of fleas in its fur.
4 Mudskippers are members of the predator
that feeds upon the of small crabs in the
mangrove swamp mud, reducing their numbers.
5 The worm of the Sungei Buloh mangrove
swamp mud are eaten by a of
wading birds including plovers, greenshanks and redshanks.
48
Look the picture on the left. Identify
, | the habitat and name some plant
Op >
9E,, § | | and animal populations that you
| would expect to find in this habitat.
Ecology
The Physical Environment
Singapore.is an island which lies almost exactly on the equator.

The climateis hot and often wet. The plants and animals which
live there reflect this and, of course, the impact of human beings.
If you go north from Singapore, you will come to Malaysia where
you will find patches of rainforest. This sort of vegetation would
once have covered the whole of Singapore island as.well. Now go
further north and you will come to the hills known as the Cameron
_ Highlands which are 1 448 metres above sea
level.. At the base of the hills, you stand in tropical
jungle and then you.begin climbing the hills. It is
Nery hot and the trees soar above you. As you
climb, you notice that the type of tree is beginning
to change. You are beginning to see conifers, and
the tropical rainforest trees are beginning to
disappear. Eventually you reach the ‘top of the
mountain. The vegetation has changed completely. NB wea
It is cooler-and Jess humid.
Cameron Highlands
This mountain journey shows that the occurrence and distribution of

plants and animals are determined by climatic and topographical
factors. The physical features of the region, and the nature of the soil
determine the types of plants found in it, and hence the kinds of
animals that rely directly or indirectly on the plants for food. Climatic
factors account for the following important features of the physical
environment: the amount of light, water, and the temperature in an
environment. In addition, the salinity and pH of the soil or water, and
the amount of oxygen present are also important physical features of
the environment.
Light
Green plants exist only where there is an adequate supply of sunlight.
The light intensity affects the distribution and growth of both plants
and animals. Some plants show adaptations to reach the light, for Bright light often retards the rate
example, climbers. of elongation of stems, so plants
growing in the open usually have
Most animals need sunlight but some show special adaptations to live shorter internodes than those in
the shade. Adaptations to screen
in dark places, for example, bats are specially adapted to move about in
off excessive light and heat are
dark caves. shown in certain plants by having
a dense covering of hairs on the
Temperature leaf epidermis or a layer of thick-
walled cells known as the
Temperature affects the physiological activities of plants and animals.
|
hypodermis just beneath the

Within a certain range, a fall in temperature usually results in a epidermis.
decrease in the metabolic activities of the organisms. Most organisms
cannot tolerate extremes of temperatures. Many flowering plants are
adapted to seasonal changes and are able to survive through the hot,
dry season or winter by:
® means of underground storage organs, Spotlight
@ the shedding of leaves to reduce water loss, or Sex determination in crocodiles
@ the formation of seeds (seeds are resistant to drought, heat and
cold) just before the approach of these unfavourable seasons.
Polar bear and Penguin Water
The distribution of rainfall throughout the

year determines the amount of water
available. This is one of the major factors
governing the distribution of plants and
animals. No organism can live long without
water. Some organisms are able to survive
under conditions where there is a limited
supply of water. For example, the camel is
able to withstand a greater loss of body
water than other animals. Xerophytes are
plants which can live in conditions of
prolonged drought in their habitat. They
reduce the rate of transpiration by shedding
f2.-|| Polar regions have their characteristic animals such as | their youn. leaves. Their stems become
ot polar bears, seals and penguins. Discuss the features fleshy, storing up much water which is made
that enable them to survive in such temperatures. available to the plants in times of drought.
y
What is the main purpose of these adaptations? The stems are green and take over the
es function of photosynthesis from the leaves.
Figure 18.1 Adaptations of plants living in dry habitats
(a) Xerophytes with fleshy stems : (b) Rolled up leaf of marram grass
Cactus Euphorbia (T.S.)
spines
groove
leaf surface with stomata at

bottom of grooves. Spines
discourage browsing animals.
The leaves of the Casuarina are reduced to tiny sheaths at the nodes
_ and food-manufacture is carried out by the long, green stems whose
_ stomata lie in grooves protected by minute hairs. All these features
help to reduce water loss. aes
In marram grass, the leaves have sunken stomata that lie in grooves in
the upper surface. These grooves or crypts bear many tiny hairs that
trap water vapour diffusing out of the stomata. This increases the
humidity around the
stomata and so (a) Water lily 273
reduces the rate of
transpiration. When — layer of thinwalled
the leaves lose too cells toallow water
“pen
enter into the
much water, they roll
up reducing the
surface area exposed
to the surrounding.
On the other hand,

there are plants which
live in water or very
wet places. These are
called hydrophytes.
Hydrophytes may be
completely submerged ® Upper surface of leaf protected
(Hydrilla), partially by waterproof cuticle to prevent
water from blocking the stomata —
submerged (water- @ Presence of special air chambers
lily) or free floating throughout stem and root
(water hyacinth).
How are these plants
adapted for their
habitat?
Mangrove plants, such

as the 4uicennia, have
their roots buried in
oxygen-poor mud but
special breathing
roots called
pneumatophores arise
from the root system
and project above the Figure 18.2 Adaptations of plants living in wet habitats
mud surface.
Pneumatophores bear openings through which oxygen can pass
downwards to the whole root system.
Aquatic animals also show adaptive features such as gills for oxygen
absorption, and webbed toes and fins for swimming in frogs and
fishes respectively.
Oxygen
Most of the organisms we have studied are aerobes which require
atmospheric oxygen. These organisms cannot tolerate environments
of low oxygen content. Aerobic organisms that can survive in such
environments possess special adaptations for obtaining sufficient
oxygen for respiration, e.g. pneumatophores of mangroves. Fishes
living in water of low oxygen saturation are usually air-breathers
which can come to the surface of the water to gulp air.
Salinity (salt concentration)
The salinity of the water is an important factor for aquatic organisms.

Spotlight —
These organisms may be adapted for life in very salty water such as
the sea, or in streams and freshwater ponds where the salt content is
Salinization
very low. Aquatic organisms are therefore confronted with osmotic
problems.
The salt concentration of the cytoplasmic contents of freshwater

organisms is usually higher than that of the surrounding water so that
water tends to enter these organisms by osmosis. The cells of
freshwater plants are prevented from bursting by their rigid cellulose
cell walls. Protozoa, such as Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles to
remove the excess water that enters them by osmosis. Most fishes
possess a waterproof coat consisting of closely-fitting scales covered by
a slimy mucous material.
Animals living in sea water tend to lose water by osmosis as the sea
water contains a higher concentration of salts than the tissue cells.
Figure 18.3 Adaptations to osmotic The saltwater fish has a slimy scaly skin which reduces the rate of
problems faced by freshwater and water loss.
marine bony fishes
sey wi pA
Most aquatic organisms are so
The freshwater bony fishis |
faced with a problem of excess | | highly specialized that they
water entering its body cells | | can survive only in their own
and salt loss from them.
environments. For example,
many freshwater animals
cannot live in sea water and
vice versa. Hence starfishes
pers ts
and coral reefs are only found
in the sea. They are not even
The marine bony fish is faced |_| found in brackish water where
with a problem of water loss
from its body cells and salts fresh and sea water mix.
Animals and plants living in
brackish water where the salt
content can change
arr
Setesee
a S
considerably are adapted to
Sieateeitiators
———
withstand wide fluctuations in
eae earcells tne
*
= salt concentration.
Pitan eerertt Tiss SHetects:
pH (acidity or alkalinity)
The pH value of the soil water or water in the freshwater ponds and
the sea has an important bearing on the types of organisms that can
flourish in such environments. Aquatic organisms are sensitive to the
effects of the pH of the water and may be killed if the pH changes
appreciably. Sea water is alkaline with pH about 8. In the sea, there is
little variation in pH. Wes
In freshwater ponds and streams, the pH varies from one region to

another. Changes in pH do occur, especially if the pH of the water
depends on the amount of bicarbonates present in it. For example, in
strong daylight, photosynthetic activity of plants uses up the carbon
Ecology
Seolgiment
dioxide in the water, making the
water more alkaline. During the
night, photosynthesis ceases and
the carbon dioxide produced as a
result of respiration makes the
water more acidic. 182 Keeping fish —
For most types of freshwater Many people like to keep tropical fish in an aquarium. This is
organisms, neutral or nearly neutral like a closed ecosystem containing the fish and weeds. Find
water is the best. out what the physical factors are that need to be controlled in
order to keep such an ecosystem (aquarium) balanced and
the fish healthy. For each factor, find out how it is controlled
The Biotic Environment and what the tolerance limits are for the fish in the tank.
The biotic environment concerns

all kinds of living things which an organism comes into contact
with. Remember, the place where an organism lives is its habitat
which may be a pond, a stream, a river, a forest or a desert. An
organism in any habitat is never an independent unit. Its daily
existence depends on and is influenced by other organisms around
it. The interdependence of the various organisms will be illustrated
later by the carbon cycle and the food chains. Every organism in
the habitat has an important part to play. The function of an
organism or the role it plays in the habitat is known as the
ecological niche.
The biotic environment consists of different kinds (or species) of plant

and animal. Remember, a population is a group of individuals of the
same species occupying a given area. It is expressed in terms of
density, i.e. the number of individuals per unit area. The rate of change
of a population depends on the birth rate (or the number of new
individuals added to it), the death rate and migration. A population
increases when the number of new individuals added to it exceeds
the number lost through death or migration and vice versa. When
different populations of plants and animals live together and
interact within the same environment, they constitute an ecological
community. The various groups of living organisms in ponds,
open plains, forests, seashores and oceans are some examples of
communities. In any community, the various populations live
interdependently. A change in one member population affects the
other populations of the community.
An ecosystem is an ecological system formed by the interaction of

living organisms and their non-living environment. Thus, when
considering an ecosystem, we are considering both the abiotic and the
biotic factors operating in such a system.
A functioning ecosystem uses both energy and materials (inorganic

nutrients—simplest form of materials). As we will see later, energy
276 enters an ecosystem from outside it (from the sun) and flows through
it in a non-cyclic manner. As such, energy has to be constantly
supplied to an ecosystem. Materials, however, need not be supplied
from outside—they are obtained from the physical environment and
flow through the ecosystem in a cyclic manner. Thus, in a “balanced”
ecosystem, materials are never lost—they are continually recycled, as
seen in the carbon cycle.
In any ecosystem, the living organisms can be identified as producers,

consumers or decomposers.
Producers are mainly green plants that manufacture complex organic

food substances from raw materials. They are the only organisms that
can convert radiant energy into chemical energy and store it in their
food molecules during photosynthesis. Producers affect the lives of
other organisms because they are the beginning of a food chain. They
provide food substances, energy and oxygen for other organisms in the
food chain.
Consumers obtain their energy from other organisms on which they

feed. Animals are therefore consumers. Herbivores feed directly on
plants, hence they are known as primary consumers, and carnivores,
which feed on herbivores, are known as secondary consumers.
Figure 18.4 Important energy relationships in an ecosystem
[CARBON DIOXIDE ANDOXYGEN INAIR| ABIOTIC PART OF ECOSYSTEM

RADJANT
ENERGY
PRODUCERS
(green plants)
PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY

CONSUMERS [peeseg CONSUMERS fee CONSUMERS
(herbivores) (carnivores) (carnivores)
SCAVENGERS
PARASITES (feed on dead
animals)
DECOMPOSERS ~*
(e.g. fungi and bacteria)
Ecology
Decomposers (e.g. fungi and bacteria) act on dead organisms and

enable the materials locked up in them to be returned to the physical
environment and be used again by green plants.
The relationships between the producers, consumers and others are Organization levels in ecology
illustrated in Figure 18.4.
_ We have already studied the
levels of biological organization
Food Chain and Food Web e frOmn:
Cells
A series of organisms through which energy is transferred in material

Tissues
form (i.e. food) constitutes a food chain, e.g.
|
Organs
Organ systems
Multicellular organisms
Groups of organisms interact with

Grass Rabbits Snakes Hawks
one another and the non-living
environment to form levels of
organization that increase both in
size and complexity as follows:
Populations
Communities
Water plants Tadpoles Pond skaters Frogs
Ecosystems
Biosphere
(Biosphere includes all parts of

the earth where life can be
found.)
Water plants Tadpoles Dragonfly nymphs Water stick insects
Each stage in a food chain is

known as a trophic level.
A predator is an animal that

feeds on another animal called
the prey. The snake is a
predator of rabbits. Hawks are
predators of snakes. Rabbits are
the prey of snakes.
In a community, food chains are
‘adie
Green plants Grasshoppers Spiders
linked up together to form a
food web or food cycle. A
simple food web is shown on
the right.
Aphids Beetles
278 Ecological Pyramids
Pyramid of numbers
Consider a simple food chain as shown below:
Grass Rabbits Snakes Hawks
Supposing there are 10 hawks in a habitat, and each hawk needs to

feed on one snake everyday. In one month, the 10 hawks will need 300
snakes to keep them alive. If each snake eats one rabbit which can last
it for 2 days, 300 snakes will need 4 500 rabbits in one month. A rabbit
feeds voraciously and may require 20 or more grass plants per day. In
one month, there must be about 2 700 000 grass plants to keep the
rabbits alive. So the number of organisms at each trophic level can be
used to construct a pyramid of numbers. For this food chain, the
pyramid will be broad at the base and narrow towards the top.
Figure 18.5 A pyramid of numbers
iia
Tertiary == [iLL
| Consumer] ay
Secondary}
Consumer
Pyramid of biomass
Biomass is the total mass of living matter in each trophic level at any
one time. For the food chain we have just considered, the pyramid of
biomass has a similar shape to that of the pyramid of numbers. The
mass of all the grasses is greater than that of the rabbits. All the rabbits
together have a larger biomass than the snakes. Three hundred snakes
are heavier than the ten hawks.
Pyramid of energy
A lot of energy is lost to the environment as food is transferred from

one trophic level to the next. Energy may be lost to the environment:
| as heat during respiration at every trophic level,
® through undigested matter egested by consumers, and
® through excretory products, e.g. urea, from consumers.
!
| |
Figure 18.6 A pyramid of energy, assuming 90% loss during transfer
The total energy level decreases progressively along the food chain.
Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always broad at the base and
narrow towards the apex.
Normally, we can assume that about 90% of the energy is lost when it
is transferred from one trophic level to the next—the greatest amount
of energy is lost during its transfer from producer to primary
consumer. The progressive loss of energy explains why food chains are
generally short. A shorter tood chain means more energy is available
to the final consumer. Therefore, more energy will be available to Man
if he feeds directly on crop plants grown on a given area rather than to
eat the cattle that feed on his crop plants.
Variations in pyramid of numbers
: ‘
Tree Aphids Protozoa (in intestines of aphids)
Pyramid of numbers may be inverted if organisms of one trophic level

are parasitic on organisms of
another trophic level. Consider the
Figure 18.7 An inverted pyramid of numbers
food chain shown above. Pieieatlert sei" At} *4
seeiitt
In this case, the pyramid of biomass

remains broad at the bottom and
narrow towards the apex. This is
because one tree has a very large
biomass to support the other
populations. However, the pyramid
of numbers has a different shape
since the bottom of the pyramid is
represented by only one tree.
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Ecology
Interactions
Much of Australia today is covered by dry scrubby
In reality, the abiotic and biotic vegetation. Two hundred years ago, Australia, though still as
factors in an ecosystem interact dry as it is today, was covered with grassland with some
with each other in very complicated areas of woodland. However, when Europeans colonized
ways. The relative sizes of the Australia, they brought with them two herbivores, rabbits
different populations remain and sheep. These animals were not found in Australia and
constant. This biological balance or so had no natural predators. Initially, only 24 rabbits were
equilibrium is like a web-the introduced, but after just ten years, there were millions of
breaking of a single strand will them. The rabbits ate the grass faster than it could grow,
upset the whole system. You destroying crops and the wild vegetation of the Australian
gained some insight into that from outback. This meant there was little food for native
the opening section of this chapter. Australian mammals which starved. Several species actually
Here is another example. Read the
went extinct at this time. To counter this plague of rabbits,
farmers introduced the myxamatosis virus in the late 1950s
section on the right carefully, and
to kill the rabbits. This killed 99% of the rabbits but 1%
then account for the changes which
were resistant to the virus. Today, Australia is being overrun
have occurred.
by another plague of rabbits.
Non-Cyclic Energy Flow in the Ecosystem
The flow of energy in the ecosystem and its relationship with nutrition
and respiration is illustrated in Figure 18.8. Note the following
important points:
@ In any ecosystem, the ultimate source of energy is the sun.
¢ The flow of energy through the ecosystem is non-cyclic in nature,
e.g. the energy released as heat to the environment does not return
to the same system or organisms that produced it.
@ Dead parts and bodies of organisms, and egested and excreted
materials contain trapped chemical energy. This is finally released
by the activity of microorganisms which use some of this energy
for their needs—the rest is lost as heat. Sa»X IDSo
@ Eventually, all the energy that enters the biotic part of the Pr
ecosystem is lost as heat energy. Unfortunately, living organisms . Food chains, food webs
cannot use this form of energy to do work. They can only use and the flow of energy
light and chemical energy.
In any ecosystem, producers,
consumers and decomposers
form food chains, with producers
at the beginning of the chain. The
interrelationship between
organisms often results in a food
The food sources of carbon, oxygen and nitrogen, and water are the web, with a balance between
producers and consumers. Energy
main nutrients which are necessary for the maintenance of life. The
is lost as heat energy at each
cycling of these nutrients is brought about by physical, chemical and level of the food chain. Heat
biological processes. energy cannot be recycled in any
way in the ecosystem. Huge
Nutrient cycles are delicately balanced in nature. Human activities numbers of producers may,
therefore, be required to Support
have been upsetting these cycles, causing many ecological problems
just a few consumers at the end
which we shall learn about later. We shall now study the carbon cycle of the food chain.
to understand the concept of nutrient recycling.
| 282 Figure 18.8 Energy flow and its relation with nutrition and respiration in the ecosystem
excretion respiration
sees eee eee ee ee = oe
egestion
| Energy
lost in
Heat lost to e |
faeces and feeding environment | 4 =
excretory (holozoic AeA RS
products nutrition)
excretion respiration
egestion
een
Faeces and feeding

excretory products (holozoic yates
+ dead bodies of nutrition) Heat lost to | tes
organisms environment |
v
Decomposition
Producer
(Green plants) respiration
CO,
SUN
(Light
Heat released Energy)
to environment
Robbing nutrient cycles

Nutrients in natural ecosystems The Carbon Cycle
are continually recycled as the
bodies of the plants and animals The carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere remains relatively
decay releasing nutrients back constant. The various processes by which carbon, in the form of
into the soil. But think about carbon dioxide, is removed and restored to the atmosphere constitute
what is happening when you eat
some vegetables or some fruit.
the carbon cycle.
These materials and the nutrients
they contain have been removed Removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
from the environment in which
they grew. The nutrients they _ During photosynthesis, green plants absorb carbon dioxide from the
contain go into your body. Unless | atmosphere and use it to manufacture carbohydrates, e.g. glucose.
your urine or faeces and your Glucose may be changed to other organic compounds like fats and
body are allowed to decompose amino acids or proteins. When animals feed on green plants, the
where the vegetables were grown,
carbon compounds become part of the bodies of these animals.
the soil has lost nutrients.
Farmers have to replace these
nutrients by adding fertilizers to The carbon compounds may be preserved in fossil fuels such as coal,
the soil. natural gas and oil.
respiration
photosynthesis feeding
CARBON
DIOXIDE
IN AIR
respiration Dead bodies

and faeces
decomposing
Nae
coal, oil, gas, etc: Figure 18.9

The carbon cycle
Release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
& Respiration
When living organisms respire, carbon compounds like glucose are
broken down and carbon dioxide is released into the environment.
@ Combustion
Burning of fossil fuels, like coal and natural gas, releases carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere.
@ Decay
When organisms die, their dead bodies are decayed, i.e. broken down
into simple organic and inorganic substances by decomposers (bacteria
and fungi). Some of the simple organic matter released during decay is
absorbed by decomposers and becomes part of their bodies. When
the decomposers respire, carbon dioxide is again released into the
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is also one of the inorganic end-
products of decomposition.
importance of the carbon cycle
The important processes which bring about recycling of carbon

dioxide between the biotic and physical or abiotic components of the
ecosystem are photosynthesis, respiration and decay—all processes
carried out by living organisms. The cycling of carbon (and all
other nutrients as well) is essential for an ecosystem to function.
The carbon cycle:
@ ensures that there is a continuous supply of inorganic carbon |
dioxide for plants to carry out photosynthesis—a process that
converts solar energy into chemical energy (food) which other
non-photosynthetic organisms can use to stay alive.
@ enables a linear flow of energy through the ecosystem. The carbon
compounds are the vehicles through which the trapped solar
energy passes from organism to organism in the food chains of an
ecosystem.
so.
Ss
The figure on the right | a | sparons
shows a food web. Study it ard

and answer the following:
(a) Name the secondary Bes ; .
consumers in the food : Taal rabbits —
web. L______
(0) Why is the cereal plant — | Ls} cattle
called a producer?
2 Construct a pyramid of
numbers based on the
food chain shown on the
right.
3 How does a food web provide more rear cattle which feed on the cereals. In
information than a food chain? other words, Man does not need to rear
cattle.
4 Assuming that there are no other Suggest a reason for this statement.
disadvantages, Man would do better by
feeding directly on cereals or grains than to
[SDSS
SISOS
182
In a pond, there are microscopic plants and
animals, i.e. plankton. The graphs on the right
show the changes in the two populations which
are from the same food chain.
1 Why are the two curves similar in shape?

2 Which organism, A or B, represents the
animal plankton? Explain your answer. Number
individuals
of
Time
ORO AST SSIS ISBAIT RSS BES USE SELL SSARE SBE DEED IIE EEE YO8 ICE UES ORE RSSSS SS EB ET OLLIE
e
aa
ROI LEE AE Aen ce
Parasitism is an association between two organisms such that

one organism (the parasite) lives on or in the body of another
organism (the host). The parasite derives its nutrients, and
usually shelter from its host. In this process, it normally does
some harm to its host. - ~*
Since parasites live at the expense oftheir host, e.g. feeding on the host
| tissues, they tend to cause diseases and sometimes death to their hosts.
Ecology
Thus, they are called pathogens. Examples of parasites are hookworms

and aphids. Hookworms live in the intestines of vertebrates. They
attach themselves to the intestinal walls and suck blood to obtain
nutrients. Aphids are parasites that suck plant juices.
Malarial Pathogen
Malaria is a disease that is endemic in many tropical countries. This

means that it is always present to some extent in such countries. It is
caused by certain species of Plasmodium. =
Figure 18.10 Plasmodium, the

parasitic protozoan causing malaria
Plasmodium is a parasitic protozoan that spends one part of its life cycle
in Man and the other part in the female Anopheles mosquito, ie. it is a
parasite of both Man and mosquito. The diagram shows the shape of
Plasmodium when it first enters the body of Man.
Signs and symptoms of malaria
Patients suffering from malaria have intermittent fever which occurs

either every 48 hours or 72 hours. Forms of malaria
cit the fever occurs every 48
The malarial parasite attacks liver cells and red blood cells. Inside _ hours, the disease is called
the liver cell or red blood cell, the parasite reproduces asexually. a tertian malaria. If it happens
- every 72 hours, it is quartan
Thousands of them are released into the bloodstream. The toxin malaria.
produced by the parasite in the bloodstream causes fever, usually
The term benign is used to
accompanied by chills, shivering and ending in profuse sweating.
describe the disease that is
The patient could become anaemic. Death may occur if untreated. seidom fatal. The disease is said
to be malignant if it is severe
Transmission of the pathogen and usually fatal.
The types of malaria are benign
Malaria is transmitted by the female Anopheles mosquito. A vector is tertian malaria, malignant tertian
an organism that carries disease-causing organisms (pathogens), and, malaria and benign quartan
transmits diseases. Female Anopheles mosquitoes are the vectors of malaria.
malarial parasites as they may carry and transmit them from an
infected person to a healthy person.
When a female anopheline mosquito bites a human being, it uses its

proboscis to pierce the skin of its victim, and at the same time secretes
saliva into the wound. This saliva prevents the blood of the victim
from clotting around the proboscis. The insect then sucks the blood. If
the victim is an infected person, his blood will contain the malarial
parasite, Plasmodium. Thus, the parasite gets sucked into the
mosquito’s stomach.
In the stomach wall of the mosquito, the parasite reproduces first

sexually, and then asexually to produce numerous young
Plasmodium. The parasite travels to the mosquito’s salivary glands.
This mosquito is now ready to transmit the disease. If it bites an
uninfected person, it injects saliva, containing Plasmodium, into his
bloodstream. That person becomes infected with the disease.
Malaria may also be transmitted by the transfusion ofinfected
blood.
The life cycle of the Anopheles mosquito
The female Anopheles mosquito is well adapted for its

role as a vector of the malarial parasite. It has a
relatively long mouthpart (proboscis) which pierces
through human skin to suck blood. Its stomach is
suitable for the reproduction of the malarial parasite. Its
salivary glands are sites where malarial parasites can be
stored until they are released into the next victim. The
mosquito is small in size and has wings so that it can
fly from host to host transmitting the disease.
Mosquitoes generally hide in dark corners of houses

where their dark body colour camouflages them well
with the surroundings. They are most active at night
eteaoeeneta4)
Tt when we are asleep.
The control of malaria is not effective without a

knowledge of the life cycle of the Anopheles mosquito
(Figure 18.11).
B Ege
. erz Eat | The eggs are laid on stagnant water and have air floats
— |_| which enable them to stay on the surface of the water
to obtain sufficient oxygen for respiration. During this
stage, the yolk in the egg provides food.
@ Larva
In about 2 days, the eggs hatch out into larvae. Each
larva is elongated, with a head, thorax and abdomen.
The hind end of the abdomen bears a pair of spiracles.
The high surface tension of the water enables the larva
to stay near the surface. Usually, it rests near the water
surface so that its spiracles can protrude out of the
water for breathing. It feeds on microscopic plants and
animals in the water by filtering the water with its
feeding brushes. It grows rapidly and stores much food
materials in its body. It wriggles in the water as it
swims.
Figure 18.11 Life cycle of the
Anopheles mosquito
M Pupa
In about one week, the larva changes into a pupa. The pupa has a large
round cephalothorax (made up of the thorax and the head fused
together) and a curved abdomen. The abdomen has a pair of caudal
flaps used for swimming. It also rests with its spiracles sticking out at
the water surface to breathe. It feeds on the stored food accumulated
in its body during the larval stage.
@ Adult (Imago)
Fibs
Spiracles are structures through

After 5 to 10 days, the adult emerges from the pupal case, spreads its
which air is taken in by the larva
and pupa of the mosquito.
wings and flies away. When it rests on a substratum, it has its abdomen
tilted at an angle to the horizontal.
Ecology
Methods of control of malaria
e An infected person should be treated with quinine or chloroquine.

® Uninfected persons travelling to malarial regions could take
preventive drugs, e.g. Paludrine.
4 Sleep under a mosquito net as mosquitoes are most active at night.
+ Anti-mosquito measures are aimed at destroying the resting and
breeding places of mosquitoes or making these places unsuitable
for them. They include:
e Filling and draining of breeding places of mosquitoes.
e Not allowing water to collect in empty tins and other
containers for too long a period in and around homes. Figure 18.12 Fumigating buildings
(These two measures are related to the fact that mosquitoes and their surroundings to get rid of
mosquitoes
lay their eggs in stagnant water.)
e Spraying of insecticides on walls of buildings, especially in dark
corners of houses, as mosquitoes tend to rest in dark places.
e Spraying oil on stagnant water. Oil reduces the surface
tension of the water. Mosquito larvae and pupae are killed
since they are unable to adhere to the surface to breathe.
e In ponds or lakes, small fish, like guppies, may be introduced
to feed on the mosquito larvae and pupae.
ABSSigigent
183 Warning travellers about malaria
You have been commissioned to produce a leaflet advising

Singapore citizens who are intending to go abroad about the
dangers of malaria, whether they need to take precautions and
what preventive measures they should take.
Carry out some research to determine:
1 Which countries in South-East Asia pose a significant risk
to travellers of contracting malaria?
2 Which form of the malarial parasite is present in these
countries?
3 What drugs should be taken whilst in these countries and
what are the possible side effects? ee
4 What other measures can be taken to prevent infection by Surf the internet to
the malarial parasite? find a site on
malaria relevant to
Produce a leaflet, either using a computer or by hand. the assignment.
Remember it is for the general public so there is no point in
just copying information from the website or from books. You
have to use your biological knowledge to write something that
an average person can understand. You can discuss with your
classmates what information should go into the leaflet and
what it should look like. You also do not want to frighten | Why doesn’t
Singapore have a
people-they are going on holiday. Just advise them.
serious malarial
problem?
288 - >) ummary
»® Ecology is the study of the relationships @ <A food web consists of two or more
between living organisms and the natural food chains interlinked together.
environment.
biotic »% The concept map below shows the flow of
concerns living energy through the food chain:
things which an
TERTIARY CONSUMER
organism comes (Carnivore)
into contact with
[Environment.
SECONDARY CONSUMER
includes light, Carnivore
water, oxygen,
temperature,
Salinity and pH of PRIMARY CONSUMER
soil or water (Herbivore)
/ 100 kJ \
A habitat is a place where an organism

lives.
PRODUCER (Green plants)
A population is a group of individuals of lost
Energy
heat
environment
toas_ 1 000 kJ
the same species.
A niche is the role played or position a LIGHT ENERGY
occupied by an organism in the habitat. SUN
¢&¢ A community consists of populations of
plants and animals living together and
» The carbon cycle consists of processes by
interacting with one another under the
which carbon dioxide is removed and
same environmental conditions.
restored to the atmosphere.
An ecosystem is formed by the interaction

Parasitism is an association between two
of living organisms and their non-living
organisms such that one organism (the
environment. The living part of the
parasite) lives on or in the body of another
ecosystem consists of producers,
organism (the host). The parasite usually
consumers and decomposers.
does some harm to its host.
@ Producers are green plants that can @ Malaria is caused by a parasitic
manufacture food materials by protozoan called Plasmodium.
photosynthesis. @ The malaria parasite requires two hosts
@ Consumers obtain their energy from the (Man and the Anopheles mosquito) to
organisms on which they feed. complete its life cycle. It is transmitted
@ Decomposers break down dead organic from an infected person to a healthy
matter, feeding on some of the remains person by the female Anopheles
and releasing the rest. mosquito (the vector).
®@ A series of organisms through which @ Malaria is controlled by
energy is transferred in material form e treating the infected persons with
(i.e. food) constitutes a food chain. In a drugs to kill the pathogen;
food chain, each organism feeds on the ¢ uninfected persons taking
preceding one and provides food for the preventive drugs if they are
succeeding organism. travelling in malarial regions;
@ A food chain is usually short because of e using a knowledge of the vector’s
the loss of much energy to the habits and life cycle to get rid of
environment at each level. their living and breeding places.
The Thinking Room
‘Imagine yo
Options
| Eat the corn first, then eat the chickens Eat the chickens first, then eat the corn
Pros: Pros:
Cons: Cons:
( Final decision
=)xercise
1 (a) Define the following terms, giving one 3 “All forms of life depend on
example in each case: ecological niche, photosynthesis.” Show how this is true,
habitat and food chain. using examples of food chains and
(b) Name the major components of an developing the concept of a biological
ecosystem. balance or equilibrium in nature.
(c) Name the process by which energy (C)
enters an ecosystem. 4 (a) Outline the stages in the life of an
(d) How does a producer differ from a anopheline mosquito, explaining where
consumer? each stage lives and how it obtains
food.
2 Consider the following food chains: (b) How is a knowledge of the life cycle of
(a) grasses — rabbits + snakes — hawks the anopheline mosquitoes used in
(b) oak tree— insects — small birds— owls attempts to control the spread of
malaria?
For each food chain, draw a diagram to (c) How do mosquitoes spread malaria?
represent the pyramid of biomass and another (C)
diagram to represent the pyramid of numbers.
Effects of Human Activi
on the Ecosystem
The Population Bomb

Human beings are continually using and depleting the natural resources on the
earth and upsetting the balance of nature in many areas. The uncontrolled
exploitation of the natural resources has caused lasting damage to the
environment and must be carefully monitored to conserve the environment for
the future. In this chapter, you will have the opportunity to learn about the effects
some human activities have on the ecosystem. First, though, let us think about
why humans have such an impact on the earth.
Humans, Homo sapiens, are a recently 7

evolved species. We probably
evolved somewhere in Africa and
BCE: Before common era
have spread across the rest of the CE: Common era
world in the last 100 000 years.

Originally, we would have lived as
, hunters and gatherers, collecting
{ food such as berries and killing
> animals. We, in turn, would have
r’ been food for other animals. At this Human
000 eh aeewet oO AOL
8000 6000 40
population/1
millions Time
<’ stage in our evolution, there would a > BCE |CE af
*. have been very few of us, and Human population growth: the dotted lines show
\!, though the GSROERT LS
use of fire may have three possible scenarios for human population
growth'in' the Next Cantey
Effects of Human Activity on the Ecosystem
Which a6you tl chinkais he most

ely and
a why? What effectswillthechangeyou
=
predict have on
0 the impact ofhumans 0
onn the‘ecosystem?
Forests are cleared to meet the demands of increasing human

population. With modern technology, forests are being cleared at a
Figure 19.1 The rich wildlife in the
much faster rate than they can be replaced. Figure 19.1 shows the rich tropical rainforests of South-East Asia
wildlife that is being made homeless with the
clearing of such forests.
Why Deforestation?
There are many reasons why people cut

down trees. Some of these reasons are
summarized below:
® Urban development—Land has to be
cleared for building houses, roads,
factories, etc.
@ Cultivation—We need land for the
growing of crops.
@ Grazing—Large open grasslands have to
be provided for grazing by cattle, sheep,
horses, etc.
@ Timber—Wood is needed for:
e construction and furniture-making,
¢ paper industry, and
Surf the net to find out about the
e fuel, i.e. as firewood. rainforests of South-East Asia
@ Fibres—Plants are useful sources of fibres
for the production for making synthetic
textiles, e.g. rayon. fe erne?
(a) To use the land for urban development, crop cultivation and cattle rearing
ak g a
Urban development — Soyabean cultivation = Cattle grazing

(b) To use the timber in buildings and making furniture, and as firewood
: Zz Damaging Effects of
Deforestation
Soil erosion
Forests are important in soil

stability. The leafy canopy of the
trees in the tropical rainforests
Log being dragged by tractor to Firewood is the main fuel for more
protects the soil from the impact of
site of transport to sawmills than half a billion people in the tropics the falling rain.
:
The roots of the
trees hold soil and water, and
Figure 19.2 We clear forests for our release water gradually to the soil
various needs below and to the nearby streams and lakes. With the trees removed,
the soil is exposed directly to the force of the rain. Water runoff
becomes intense. Topsoil, the most fertile layer, gets washed away
during heavy rain especially on steep slopes. This is especially severe in
tropical areas where the annual rainfall is high.
In some cases, a slope becomes so soaked with water during a heavy

rain that the whole of the topsoil is washed down-this is called sheet
erosion. More frequently,
heavy rainwater flows
down hillsides in small
channels which gradually
widen and deepen as more
Figure 19.3 Effects of deforestation soil is washed off, forming
flooding: silting causes water level to rise, gullies (called gully
increasing the chances of flooding
erosion). Without the
trees forming a shelter belt,
the soil is also exposed to
acct eee cut
down soil erosion: no tree wind erosion.
cover, rain hits soil
directly washing it
into the river
Flooding
Eroded soil may be

deposited in rivers and
streams (silting) blocking
se e the flow of water.
(a) Soil erosion and flooding | (b) Severe soil erosion exposing
| the roots of plants
ASS gigent
The Year that South-East Asia Burnt
Throughout 1997 and 1998, South-

East Asia experienced extremely dry
weather as a result of El Nino, a
disturbance of the water currents in
the Pacific Ocean. This dry weather
combined with the setting of fires to
clear land for agriculture resulted in
huge forest fires in areas such as
Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of
Borneo. The resulting smoke haze
covered much of South-East Asia and
cost Singapore an estimated $61
million in lost revenue from tourism.
The smoke was so dense that it
prevented aeroplanes from flying on
occasions. There was also a
substantial increase in the number of
illnesses such as asthma. afl Lo
Find out more about these forest fires Satellite photograph showing smoke
and what caused them. To what extent are the | *fting from forest fires in Borneo
fires a natural event, and to what extent are A
: s
they the result of human interference’ interNET
What are the possible long-term effects of
these fires on the rainforests of Borneo and
the animals which live in them? 4
Rainwater is not retained and released slowly as trees have been

removed. The water levels in rivers rise rapidly. Water flows inland
causing floods to occur.
Desertification
Sunlight falls directly onto the soil. Water evaporates rapidly from the
soil which then hardens. With the topsoil eroded, plant life cannot be
supported. Other organisms, which depend directly or indirectly upon
plants for food, also disappear. The land becomes barren. The
destruction of land leading to desert-like conditions is called
desertification. Overgrazing also leads to desertification because the |
vegetation cannot be replenished fast enough. |
Desertification results in:

@ a loss ofhabitats,
@ anextinction of many species of organisms,
@ loss of robust wild species of plants that may be useful in treating
diseases, e.g. Madagascar periwinkle used in cancer treatment,
@ the delicate balance between oxygen and carbon dioxide,

becoming upset (Can you explain why?), and
® climatic changes.
@ How do climatic changes result when forests are cleared?
In the forest, rainwater is retained and absorbed by the roots of trees.
The water is lost during transpiration. The relative humidity of the air
around the forest is high. The water vapour eventually condenses and
precipitates as rain. When the trees are cleared, the area becomes dry
and warm, and annual rainfall decreases.
Pollution has been a problem to Man for many years. It is the process
by which harmful substances are added to the environment. As human
populations increase and as society becomes more industrialized and
urbanized, the problem of pollution has become more serious. Many of
the products of modern technology are toxic. These toxic wastes find
their way into the air and water, threatening the lives of organisms in
the ecosystem. Therefore, the sources of pollution must be identified,
and techniques devised to prevent and reduce pollution.
Air Pollution
Air pollution results mainly from the incomplete burning of fuels such
as coal, oil, petrol and wood. The gaseous pollutants introduced into
the air may be due to human activities or natural occurrences such as
biological decay, forest fires or volcanic eruptions.
Pollutants
Harmful pollutants released include sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
Lichens are especially sensitive carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and lead.
to sulphur dioxide. Their growth is
greatly reduced in areas where @ Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
the level of sulphur dioxide is
Burning of fossil fuel, e.g. coal, oil and natural gases, releases sulphur
high. This criterion is used to
monitor the level of this gas in dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into air. Sulphur dioxide at high
the air in industrial areas. concentrations has damaging effects on both plants and animals.
Sulphur dioxide penetrates the leaves through the stomata. This
damages the leaves and kills the plants. In certain parts of North
America, smelting works have produced sulphur dioxide at such high
concentrations that the entire vegetation has been completely
_ destroyed. In humans, sulphur dioxide irritates and damages the
sensitive lining of the eyes, air passages and lungs. Prolonged exposure
| to the gas is linked to respiratory diseases.
Acid rain
Sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogem react with oxygen and
rainwater readily to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively.
Lichens growing on a Rain containing these acids is known as acid rain. The death of
tree trunk: What can fish in the lakes and rivers of some countries has been attributed to
~~ | you infer? large amounts of acid rain in such countries.
Gaseous _
pollutants
(sulphur dioxide
and oxides of
nitrogen) y -. WIND ee
Gaseous pollutants
dissolve in rainwater
Sais tte secreaspoe
Combustion of fossil fuels Acid rain (can fallfar

in power stations, etc. from the source of
pollution—in another
Gases enter piants state or country)
through stomata (iear the
source of pollution)
Water in nearby rivers

S357 becomes acidified _—
Figure 19.4 Gaseous air pollutants and acid rain formation
Acid rain dissolves aluminium salts in the soil and washes them
into rivers and lakes. These salts may reach a concentration that is
poisonous to fishes.
Smog
Sulphur dioxide is the main component of killer smog. Smog is a
mixture of smoke and fog. Normally, smoke rises and is blown
away by the wind. Sometimes an inversion occurs. This means that
a layer of warm air lies like a lid on top of cool air. The cool air,
together with pollutants such as smoke and sulphur dioxide, is Damasite tread sade: tolackivaln
prevented from escaping. The pollutants accumulate in the and fumes from a nickel smelting
stagnant air until they reach such high concentrations as to plant in the background
produce lethal results. For example, the killer smog in London in
December 1952, lasted for about 5 days, and an estimated 4 000
deaths have been attributed to it. People with respiratory diseases,
such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema, are more vulnerable to
smog. However, since the Clean Air Act of 1960 in England, smog i
has not occurred again.
mms, TEST YOURSELF [eos
Since sulphur dioxide is the major pollutant because of human

activities, what suggestions would you give to reduce its ; | : ~~ —
release into the atmosphere? oo
eG RABE OE RED MBSE ID
SOLDERS
SESE LNG SST N EIL LIES ISERIES ERT WANES CLIP I
IE
Capac
asictseits
| Figure 19.5 Smog in New York
@ Lead
Lead may be present in the air, water and the food we eat. Lead
poisoning occurs when lead accumulates in the body over long
periods. High concentrations of lead in the body may cause
Figure 19.6 Causes of air pollution cramps, loss of control of the hands and feet, and even coma
and death.
Urban air contains a much higher concentration of lead than

rural air.
@ Carbon monoxide
The main source of carbon monoxide is from the exhaust of motor
vehicle. Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin in the red
blood cells to form carboxyhaemoglobin. This reduces the capacity
(a) Motor vehicle exhaust .
of the blood to transport oxygen round the body. This is
harmful and may be fatal in high concentrations.
@ Carbon dioxide
The burning of organic compounds releases carbon dioxide
into the air. Industrialization and increasing car population
result in carbon dioxide being released in increasing
concentrations into the atmosphere. The gas forms a layer
over the earth’s surface retaining the heat radiated from the
earth’s surface. This is called the greenhouse effect. The
result may be global warming. The possible effect is that the
world temperature may rise. Icebergs may melt, releasing a lot
(b) Flame from chemical plant of water into the oceans. The sea level may rise and many
low-lying countries may be flooded or submerged.
@ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Chlorofluorocarbons are non-toxic, unreactive chemicals. They are
used as aerosol propellants, as cooling agents in refrigerators and
air conditioners, and in foam packaging. Ozone is a gas that
forms a layer over the earth. It absorbs much of the ultraviolet
rays from sunlight.
When CFCs are released into the atmosphere from aerosols,

etc., they break down the ozone layer, allowing more ultraviolet
light to penetrate into the earth. This increases the risk of
skin cancer.
Causes of air pollution

Air pollution may be due to natural causes, e.g. volcanic
eruptions, forest fires and biological decay which release
ammonia into the air. Air pollution due to human activities
include:
@ Exhaust fumes from motor vehicles.
(aR VOISanireruDHOR ; | @ Chimney fumes from factories where fossil fuel is burnt.
| @ Burning of garbage.
| The use of chlorofluorocarbons in foam packaging, ete.
Ways of reducing air pollution Figure 19.7 The various causes of

water pollution 297
While pollutants from natural causes, e.g. from volcanic
eruptions cannot be avoided, those from human activities
can be prevented or reduced. The following are some ways
by which air pollution can be reduced:
Use of catalytic converters in cars.
Less use of cars e.g. having car pools.
Use filters or scrubbers on chimneys to remove
sulphur dioxide.
Use of non-fossil fuels in factories or less use of fossil
fuels especially near more densely populated areas.
Use of alkalis to neutralize acidic waste products from factories
before they are released to the environment.
@¢¢94%
¢ Use ozone-friendly products to prevent ozone depletion.
Water Pollution
St ae
Waste materials dumped into rivers and streams pollute the water
(b) Discharge of chemical waste (foam)
and change the communities that live in such habitats. Man into river
is increasingly aware of the dangers of water pollution. In
Singapore, before 1977, many of the rivers were so polluted
that no fish could live in them. Since then, the causes of
water pollution have been identified, and tremendous efforts
made to clean up the rivers.
Causes of water pollution

Sewage mS : oS
Untreated sewage discharged into rivers and lakes contains —__(c) Refuse dumping into rivers
bacteria. Sewage is a good source of food for bacteria.
Bacteria grow and multiply rapidly using up the oxygen in the water.
Other organisms, including fishes, die due to a lack of oxygen in the
water. Anaerobic bacteria then continue breaking down the organic
wastes releasing foul-smelling gases like hydrogen sulphide and
ammonia.
Untreated sewage may contain bacteria that cause diseases like

cholera and typhoid. Sometimes, these get into drinking
(d) Oil spillage
water in wells and epidemics occur.
@ Inorganic waste
Some industries dump large amounts of waste products into
rivers and streams. These waste products may include
poisonous metals such as mercury, arsenic and cadmium.
The events that occurred in Minamata, a coastal town in

Japan, have demonstrated the toxic effects of mercury. A , .< .
plastic factory had discharged waste water containing (e) Chemical spraying in agriculture
mercury into the bay. Fish and shellfish caught in the bay contaminates underground water
contained high concentrations of mercury. About 40 |
|
people who ate the contaminated fish and shellfish died of mercury ||
Figure 19.8
Mercury poisoning
by chemical wastes
at Minamata Bay
Japan (1971)
factories
MINAMATA BAY
fish eaten by local villagers

Certain who eventually showed
chemicals, like signs of mercury poisoning
_ mercury
~ compounds, mercury waste
tend to poured into bay
from the factories
accumulate in
organisms, i.e.
they are not mercury absorbed
excreted from = bywater weeds
their bodies.
_ Thus, they are te,
P 7
< eaten by fishes
passed along
food chains,
and become
concentrated in
the bodies of
the final
consumers. Concentration of mercury increases up the trophic levels in the food chain
poisoning. About 70 people were crippled; they were either blinded or

paralyzed.
B Fertilizers
The use of chemical fertilizers has increased tremendously the
Figure 19.9 A freshwater pond
yield of crops in recent years. However, the overuse of chemical
discoloured by an algal bloom—this fertilizers may cause water pollution. Fertilizers that are not
can lead to eutrophication resulting in absorbed by the crops may be washed away by rainwater into
large scale death of animal and plant nearby rivers or lakes. These fertilizers contain nitrates and
species
phosphates which are useful nutrients for the
growth of algae and plants. Profuse growth and
multiplication of algae and green plants occur
as a result of the enrichment of nutrients in
these water bodies. This is called
eutrophication.
Submerged algae and plants die due to lack of

sunlight. Their dead bodies are decomposed by
bacteria. Bacteria then multiply in large numbers
using up the oxygen in the water. As a result,
other organisms such as fish die.
The extent to which a river or lake is polluted is

measured by its Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD). BOD measures the amount of oxygen
bacteria need to break down the organic matter
in a water sample in a fixed period of time. Thus, a higher BOD

means a greater degree of water pollution.
@ Pesticides
These are substances used to kill pests that destroy our crops. They Fish are usually the first
include insecticides and herbicides. organisms to die when the water
in lakes and rivers become
Hi Insecticides _ polluted. This is because they
_have a narrow tolerance range
These are used to kill insects. However, some insecticides, eo7 DDT:
_ for oxygen.
(dichloro-diphenyl trichloroethane), are non-biodegradable. This
means that it cannot be broken down by microorganisms like bacteria.
ft can remain in the soil or water for many years.
Insecticides may be carried by rainwater into streams, rivers and lakes.

In high concentrations, they may poison fish or animals that drink the
polluted water or feed on the contaminated fish. DDT is insoluble in
water. It is not excreted but instead is stored in the fatty tissues of
animals, i.e. it accumulates in the bodies of the consumers. This results _ Tubifex worms are quite common
in the insecticide being passed along food chains, increasing in in polluted waters because they
concentration in the bodies of organisms along the trophic levels. have a wide range of oxygen
_ tolerance. Thus, the presence or
absence of certain types of
@ Herbicides — organisms indicate whether
These are substances used to kill weeds. Certain herbicides, e.g. 2:4:5T, water in a certain source is
contain an impurity called dioxin, which is harmful to human beings. clean or polluted.
When it is washed by rain water into streams and rivers, it pollutes the
water supply. Dioxin may cause miscarriages in women, physical and
mental abnormalities in children and increase the risk of cancer.
The numbers represent the

concentration of insecticide in
the body of the organism.
es | BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘0’ Level
Biological amplification csesice 5 DoT has been foun even in human bodies: sie
We saw in the introduction to Chapter 18 how High concentration may cause sterility ages
the impact of an insecticide, dieldrin, could ~ death. The concentrations of the fe
affect the way an ecosystem works. Here is _ insecticides in the bodies of people have
another example. Certain insecticides, for been estimated and are shown below:
example DDT, dissolve in the body fat of
organisms which, because the organisms cannot —
break down DDT, accumulates there. This Average ArnGuean 11.0
means that organisms feeding at higher levels Average Briton 2.2
in a food chain can accumulate huge amounts Average Indian 12.8 —- 31.0
of substances like DDT from eating their prey.
Here are some data for an estuary ecosystem, Explain the differences in these figures.
Long Island Sound, which was sprayed with DDT Ae teas aes
to control fly populations. Phytoplankton which 6 In many parts of the world, the use of —
are tiny photosynthetic organisms that float in pesticides is restricted because of the
the surface of the sea are the producers. harmful effects of DDT on predatory birds _
Zooplankton are the small animals which feed and their possible harmful effects on man.
on them. Concentration of DDT is measured in However, DDT is an excellent pesticide in |
parts per million, ppm. This means if there was that it persists in the environment killing
1 molecule of DDT to 1 million molecules of insects for a long period of time. What are ©
water, concentration of DDT would be 1 ppm. the advantages and disadvantages of |
banning DDT?
7 Biodegradable insecticides are now
preferred since they can be broken down in
Phytoplankton 0.000003 the environment. An example is pyrethrum,
Zooplankton ; a natural product obtained from
Small fish (minnows) ; Chrysanthemum flowers. However,
Large fish (needlefish) : pyrethroids are also toxic to other animals
Fish-eating birds (ospreys) ; such as fish. What advice would you give to
z aS emiaseeemeeeais o - - someone using an insecticide in his
1 Produce a diagram to show how the garden? How often would they need to use
concentration of DDT increases as you the insecticide?
move along this food chain.
2 Calculate the increase in concentration of
DDT at each step in the food chain. Where
is the largest amplification taking place?
3 The ospreys were not killed by this level of A ®s lg N mn, € N t
DDT in their fat. However, they did begin to
lay eggs with increasingly thin shells which
broke easily. Why would this decrease the 19.2 Pollution in Singapore
population size of ospreys? What effect
might this have on this ecosystem? Choose one sort of pollution or a particular
4 Why do biologists often look to the changes pollutant. Find out whether this pollutant or
type of pollution is a problem in Singapore.
in numbers, or the health of organisms, to
find the effects of pollution in an How is it being tackled? Produce displays
ecosystem rather than try to measure the of what you find out. Include photographs,
concentration of chemicals in the Statistics and graphs to get your message
across.
environment directly?
Advantages of using pesticides are as follows:

301
@ Healthier crops.
@ Higher yields of crops.
@ Socio-economic advantages, e.g. more food is available, more
profit (money) for farmers, etc. _ DDT was once believed to be
able to eradicate all insect pests.
Disadvantages of using pesticides are as follows: _ But after many years, insect-
@ Non-biodegradable pesticides may cause pollution, and may _ borne diseases, such as malaria,
" still occur in regions where DDT
increase in concentration along the food chain. was widely used. This is because
@ Useful organisms in the environment may be killed. - mosquitoes have become
* Some pesticides are expensive. resistant to DDT.
@ Pests may develop resistance against the pesticide.
Conservation is the protection and preservation of natural resources in

the environment. The important renewable natural resources are air,
water, soil, wildlife and forests. The non-renewable resources are fossil
fuels and minerals.
The Need For Conservation
Mans activities can upset the balance of nature often with catastrophic
results. Conservation is therefore necessary for the following reasons:
@ Ensure the protection of plant and animal species and to prevent
their extinction.
@ Maintain a stable and balanced ecosystem. This prevents
disruption of natural cycles (e.g. water and carbon cycles) and
global warming.
@ Maintain a large gene pool. Many wild plants and animals possess
favourable genes. By crossbreeding the different varieties of wild
plants and animals, we can improve yield, vigour and quality of
organisms, e.g. better resistance to diseases or drought.
@ Ensure the conservation of marine life, as marine fisheries are a
major source of human food.
® Ensure the conservation of tropical rainforests, as they are of
economic importance. The rainforest houses a large number of
species of animals and plants, especially the tropical rainforest.
Each species has a role to play in maintaining the balance of
nature in the ecosystem.
Many tropical plants are of great economic importance as they are
sources of raw material for industries, medicinal drugs, natural
insecticides and food.
e Raw materials for industries include rattan, fibres (fabrics from
cotton plants and ropes from coconut husk), rubber (from latex |
of rubber trees) and oils. Can you identify some of the plants
that yield these materials?
Nearly 25 per cent of medicinal drugs originated from some

plant species in the rainforest. Quinine (an anti-malarial drug
from the bark of CAzcona) and morphine (pain-suppressing
drug) are derived from such plants. There are probably many
more medicinal drugs in many plant species waiting to be
discovered. Certain poisonous animals in the rainforest may
also contain chemicals that have medicinal value.
Pyrethrum, the chemical found in chrysanthemum, is used in
the insecticide industry.
Maize, rice, pineapple and banana are some examples of food
plants that were developed from rainforest plants.
(a) Scientists have isolated chemicals

from the periwinkle plant (from the
rainforest of Madagascar) that may
cure leukaemia.
ys wil fre
Banana plant ft Rubber tree
Figure 19.11 Importance of tropical rainforests
® Conservation is of scientific value. The study of wildlife provides

useful information for Man’s survival.
e Conservation preserves the natural scenery and wildlife for people
to appreciate and relax, providing one of the aesthetic pleasures in
life. It also maintains the natural resources for outdoor recreational
activities such as fishing, hiking and skiing.
resent, conservation means Conservation Measures

uring a high quality of life for
mans by the wise use of the
| environment. This involves We have to tackle conservation:
‘otection, preservation and
ment of the natural
® indirectly through human population control (Chapter 21), and
‘onment. reducing or eliminating pollution, and
@ directly through conserving natural resources.
|
Education and legislation play a very important role in
|
_ conservation. Find out what measures our government has
taken to tackle the conservation problem.
How do we conserve the forests? Figure 19.12 Natural scenery and

wildlife enrich our lives and are
One aspect of conservation is the prevention of indiscriminate cutting essential for our emotional and
down of forests. Forests, a major source of oxygen, help to moderate mental health.
the weather, and provide shade and protection for the soil. In many
countries, governments have set aside forest reserves. Laws that
prohibit tree felling, hunting and other human activities that might
harm the forest ecosystem protect these forest reserves.
Laws that ensure that trees for timber are cut down selectively and at a
regulated rate protect the remaining forests worldwide. Young trees
and seed trees are not felled. New seedlings are planted to replace
those trees that were cut down for timber.
The forestry departments look after forest reserves and ensure that
forest conservation laws are obeyed. They check the trees regularly
and help to control insects and diseases that harm them. Scientists in
forestry departments carry out research to improve the quality of forest
trees, and make the forest more productive.
How do we conserve fishing grounds?
Measures must be taken not only to eliminate the pollution of rivers

and seas but also to discourage indiscriminate fishing. This is done by:
banning the use of drift nets which indiscriminately trap all forms
of sea life;
using nets with a certain mesh size so that young fish are not
caught;
regulating the size of ships allowed into fishing grounds;
limiting the period of fishing in the grounds;
¢ banning the harvesting of endangered species; encouraging the
o¢¢eo¢
raising of these fish in hatcheries and releasing them into fishing
grounds where the fish populations are decreasing.
Figure 19.13 Conserving forests
ipgs =
(b) Reforestation ensures that forests

é Cd ar ts 2 Na
we hy’ allah are renewed and improved, and at the
(a) Bukit Timah Nature Reserve same time provide for our needs.
Why is recycling of materials necessary?
In Chapter 18, we saw how Nature uses material recycling to maintain

a functioning ecosystem. This valuable insight into how nature
works has provided us with one of the most important methods for
_ Conserving wildlife conserving our natural resources—recycling.
_ Some ways of conserving wildlife:
_ @ Establishing protected areas for HB Recycling reduces waste disposal
wildlife, e.g. Serengeti National
Every year, a large amount of rubbish is dumped as waste. Many
Park in Tanzania;
_ Breeding endangered animals
people do not know that much of the materials discarded as rubbish
in zoos and wildlife parks, and are valuable materials which could be recycled and used. For example,
__ releasing them to the wild later, newspapers, paper bags and cardboard boxes, if thrown away,
e.g. the Arabian oryx was re- represent a loss of materials. More trees would have to be cut down
- established in the wild in this to make paper (deforestation results). By reusing waste materials,
ye Way,
_ @ Farming wildlife, for human
recycling actually helps to reduce the problem of solid waste disposal.
-_use as well as to replenish
__ their numbers in the wild, e.g. HM Recycling reduces pollution
Ze farming of crocodiles, iguanas The recycling of solid wastes means there is less rubbish to be burnt.
and butterflies. Many industries, like electroplating, produce wastes that contain
metals. Recovery of these metals from the wastes not only helps [§
to conserve the metal (a non-renewable resource) but also helps
to reduce environmental pollution.
Recycling (treatment) of sewage saves water

Water is scarce in many parts of the world, including Singapore.
Sewage, if untreated, represents a loss of water. Untreated sewage also
pollutes streams, rivers and lakes, making the water unfit for human
The golden lion tamarin nearly consumption. In urban areas, sewage is treated in sewage works. The
went extinct as a result of purified effluent water is then discharged into rivers or lakes. Such
deforestation. Captive breeding water may flow into reservoirs, and later be treated and used for
has increased their numbers to human consumption.
such an extent that they are now
being released into protected
forest areas in Brazil.
H Recycling saves energy and money
Some materials contained in household rubbish, e.g. paper, can be
In Malaysia, turtles hatched at the
burnt to provide energy for domestic purposes. This has been done in
Turtle Rehabilitation Centre are
released to the sea after several
Nottingham in the United Kingdom, providing heat for hot water and
weeks of protective care. central heating systems.
In Singapore and Japan, rubbish is burnt as a fuel in an incinerator to

provide heat for the people. The authorities in Germany make a profit
of about US$1.50 per tonne ofwaste.
Broken glass bottles, cups and jars can be crushed and recycled. The
use of crushed glass to make new containers saves materials. As this
process uses less fuel, there is also an indirect saving in energy and
cost. Similarly, the recycling of other materials, such as aluminium cans
and bottle caps, can save materials, energy and money.
a Indirect saving of energy through.recycling means conserving fossil

Surf the net to find out more about
| fuels which are used to supply energy in many industrial processes.
the turtle rehabilitation programme in _ Cutting down on the use of fossil fuels is important because their
this region. supply is dwindling (as fossil fuels cannot be recycled) and their use
| causes pollution.
ASSlgig*est.
19.3 Recycling in Singapore
ue
1 Carry out an analysis of the rubbish produced by your
family in one week. What sorts of things do you throw
away? How much material are you throwing away? Produce
graphs to illustrate the materials, and the amounts that
you are throwing away.
ic) Find out what materials are recycled in Singapore and how
this is done.
3 How is rubbish disposed off in Singapore?
How meaningful is recycling in Singapore? Give reasons to
support your answer.
19.4 Class Discussion

Below you will find a series of statements about the
environment and the impact of humans on it. Think carefully
about each statement and write down how you fee! about it.
Do you agree? Why? Do you disagree? Why? Now, as a class __ |
or in small groups, discuss each statement, giving reasons for 3
your point of view.
What makes it so hard to organize the environment sensibly ts that

everything we touch 1s hooked up to everything else.
Isaac Asimov,
writer and biochemist
Eventually, well reahze that ifwe destroy the ecosystem,

we destroy ourselves.
Jonas Salk,
medical researcher
Destroying species ts like tearing pages out ofan unread book, written
in a language humans hardly know how to read, about the place
where they live.
Rolston Holmes II,
philosopher
=) ummary
Consequences Causes Causes

¢ Soil erosion e Burning of fossil e Discharge of
e Flooding fuel untreated EME
¢ Loss of pabitat : : A: fumes
Results in protect, preserve and enrich the

Growing Need _ natural environment for human
for = nai
Conservation
» Reasons for clearing forests or deforestation are to provide:
® Land for cultivation, urban development and grazing;

® Timber for construction and making paper;
@ Firewood.
» Pollution is the process by which harmful substances are added to the environment.
@ Air pollution may be caused by forest fires, volcanic eruptions, biological decay or by
human activities.
® Water pollution may be caused by human activities.
» Conservation is necessary for the protection of plant and animal species to maintain a stable
and balanced ecosystem. Conservation measures include:
Reducing, or where possible, eliminating pollution through education and legislation;
Controlling the growth of human population;
Conserving natural resources. Recycling is an important method of conservation which
not only conserves non-renewable natural resources but also
e reduces the problem of waste disposal and environmental pollution, and
¢ is economical as it saves energy and money. as
Recovering wildlife, especially those species that are in danger of extinction, for example
through rehabilitation.
307
Read
the article carefully
= z
Coming your way...

Cars on hydrogen fuel
Scientists at the NUS are now working on producing
a practical hydrogen fuel cell, which can be used to
power cars, and lead to zero-emission vehicles
Using the clean fuel, hydrogen, Car makers have been working While the new substance held
to run cars on a big scale is edging for years now towards a practical promise, research was needed to
closer to reality, thanks to a team mass-production version of such find a way to produce big
of researchers here. a zero-emission Car. amounts of it with high purity
and consistency.
The scientists, working in The NUS team started working
laboratories at the National on their project in 1997, after a And this is what the NUS team
University of Singapore, have new form mecarbon called carbon has done successfully in its
synthesised a substance which nanotubes was identified by a laboratories — a feat that is
can store hydrogen gas — the Japanese researcher in 1991. reported in the latest issue of the
cleanest fuel there is — better than journal, Science.
other materials. The new substance attracted
Power Group research because it had several It developed a method — for
And they are now working on properties that promised practical which a patent is now pending —
producing a practical hydrogen applications. to produce very pure, consistent
fuel cell, which can be used to samples of the substance, which
power cars. One of them was that it could could absorb to 20 per cent of its
HYDROGEN: . If successful, it would be one of
absorb more gas and liquid than
many other materials - which
weight in hydrogen.
Making the dream the biggest breakthroughs in the made it a candidate for use in This involved extracting the
automotive industry — one which hydrogen fuel cells or tanks. substance chemically from the
green fuel would leave environmentalists gas methane, and then purifying
cheering. In existing fuel cells, the material It.
When hydrogen is burnt by the car in the tanks can absorb only small
using it as fuel, it combines with oxygen The team, from the NUS’ Physics amounts of the gas — typically up The team is now doing research
to form water, so there is no emission Department, comprises Professor to only 5 per cent of their weight. on two variations of the
of any pollutant. Tan Kuang Lee, Associate substance. One of them is stable,
Professor Lin Jianyi, Dr Chen High pressures of up to 25 times but higher temperatures are still
Ping and post-graduate students normal air pressure are needed needed to make it absorb large
Car makers have been working for years in the department. for absorption. amounts of hydrogen.
now towards a practical, mass-
production version of such a zero- Their work has already attracted And this is in combination with The other one can absorb large
emission Car. the attention of General Motors high temperatures of between amounts of the gas at room
~ the world’s largest car maker — 200 and 300 deg C. temperature, but it is not as stable.
The NUS team’s project was started in and collaboration is being
1997 after a new form ofcarbon call discussed. Prof Tan said: “You don’t want Prof Lin said: “We are going to
carbon nanotubes was identified in 1991.
to have to drive to the station try out the substances in a fuel
Hydrogen is a dream green fuel. and have to heat the fuel tank up system or battery.”
When used as fuel in cars, it to such temperatures to fill up.
combines with oxygen to form This is not viable.” “Our work now is to lower the
water, so there is no emission of ‘charging’ temperature of one of
any pollutant. our variations and improve the
stability of the other.”
Inference
=) xercise
Describe one example of which a change in (a) Complete the other boxes to show the
the balance of nature has been brought total energy in the tissues of each of
about by Man. (C) the consumers, assuming a 90% loss of
energy at each of the stages in the food
Discuss the effects of deforestation on the chain.
ecosystem. (b) State one process which results in a
loss of energy between one stage and
What is pollution? the next.
Discuss the effects of the discharge into (c) (i) What is meant by the term producer
rivers of: in the food chain?
(a) untreated sewage, (ii) State the source from which the
(bo) factory waste. producer obtains its energy.
(d) Explain why there are rarely more than
Discuss the importance of the conservation four or five links (or stages) in a food
of plant and animal species to Man. chain.
(e) How is a food web different from a food
What do you understand by the greenhouse chain?
effect? What possible consequences does (f) Green plants ——+ caterpillars ——» small
this effect have on Earth? birds ——» eagles
From this example of a food chain
(a) In a natural environment, what do you explain how the practice of spraying
understand by the terms (i) producers crops with insecticides can lead to birds
(ii) consumers and (iii) biological of prey, like the eagle, being harmed.
equilibrium?
(C)
(b) If the balance of nature is disturbed by
removing a link in a food chain, serious The table below shows the concentration of
consequences may result. Describe an lead in the blood of people in Cincinnati,
example of this happening due to the USA (after Lagerwerff, 1972).
action of Man.
(C) Occupation Lead concentration
(mg per 100 cm blood)
—
The figure below represents the energy flow
through a food chain consisting of four Office worker i, 19
organisms. The total energy in the tissue of Policeman DXA
Postman 23
the green plant is shown in the box.
Parking attendant 34
Garage mechanic 38
le
90% 90% 90% (a) From the table above, what conclusion
ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY can you draw regarding the
LOSS LOSS LOSS concentration of lead in the blood of
people of different occupations?
green primary secondary tertiary (6) What do you think is the main source of
plant consumer consumer consumer
lead pollutants in the air in city areas?
Ges wea ae : eel
(c) What has your government done to
reduce lead in the air?
2
CHAPTER 20
Reproduction in Plants
|
JECTIVES
Pay CLEARNING OB in th is ch ap ter, you will
be able to:
the work genetically
After completing re s ul ts in production of
reproduction
Un de rs ta nd that asexual
> parent.
l of fs pr ing from one asexual
id en ti ca
im po rt an t application of
mmercially
e named, co
y Outline on
olants. form a
reproduction in th e fu si on of gametes to
uction involv es g.
sexual reprod imilar offsprin
y State that pr od uc es ge netically diss
it
derstana that and one name
d
zygote and un ol li nated flower
iit
eecegs
ne
SE
ces
aes
GELS
Be
med in se ct -p tion to eir

th
Id en ti fy an d draw one na e th ei r st ru ctures in rela
» compar
d flower, and
wind-pollinate
ination.
mode of poll croscope.
po ll en gr ai ns under a mi
d draw Sneaeluareneatrabmseny
» Identify an n in a flower
.
po ll in at io n and fertilizat io c seed.
y» Outline ur e of a no n-endospermi
e struct
d describe th 4 means of
» investigate an e di sp er sed provides
d fruits ar
way seeds an
SESE
SELES
> Infer that the Dey

a
w areas. nd
colonizing ne named exam
ple of a wi
ur es Of on e
external feat t or seed.
» Describe the -d ispersed frui
an
a_,
an im al
dispersed an
d an ntial for the
nm en ta l co nditio ns esse
th € enviro
e and state
menos
» Investigat
of seeds.
germination
310
a a ee
Willow tree with inset showing 1 The downy flecks and the DNA capsule are the
meisecds seeds of the willow tree. What is the purpose of
the cotton wool as Dawkins describes it?
2 Why does Dawkins, in describing the seeds, say
that it is “the DNA that matters”?
3. The seeds have been produced as a result of
reproduction. If the purpose of the seeds is to
spread instructions for making themselves, what
is the purpose of reproduction? Try to answer
this question using the computer language used
by Dawkins, i.e. in terms of instructions or
computer programmes.
Living things ultimately die of old age, disease or in accidents. To

ensure the continuation of the species, living things reproduce.
Reproduction does not occur in non-living things.
There are two types of reproduction: asexual and sexual reproduction.

Some organisms reproduce asexually by budding, spore formation or
by vegetative reproduction.
e production of new individuals that 311

yn, i.e. there is no fusion of two
estes. Sexual reproduction is
the fusion of two gametes.
As gametes are not needed in asexual reproduction, there are no male

and female structures involved in the reproductive process.
Asexual reproduction produces identical offspring. This is because

mitosis usually occurs during asexual reproduction. In mitosis, a cell
divides to produce two daughter cells, each having the same number , ly smaller and -
of chromosomes as the parent cell. The daughter cells have the same IF e ‘
hereditary materials or genes as the parent cell. The young or offspring
produced asexually will therefore be genetically identical to the parents
and are called clones.
The number of chromosomes in cells varies with the

species, e.g. the maize plant has 20 chromosomes in all
its cells except in the gametes where there are 10
chromosomes. Man has 46 chromosomes in each body
cell excluding the gamete cell.
Natural Vegetative Propagation in

Flowering Plants
Vegetative reproduction or propagation is a form of ere"
asexual reproduction found in plants. It chromosomes

usually involves the growth of a new plant RULE’ ea =>
(daughter plant) from any part of an old =A

one (parent plant) other than the seeds. The Ve
daughter plant eventually becomes
separated from the parent plant to form a t ral vegetative propagation
new individual. In this way, several plants
can be produced from a single parent plant. antages
1e process does not need external agencies, e.g. insects
and wind, for pollination and dispersal.
Many flowering plants reproduce _ Since foodis usually present in the vegetative structures,
vegetatively by means of underground buds can develop rapidly into daughter plants.
storage organs such as rhizomes, bulbs, The daughter plants resemble the parent plant in every
_ way. Beneficial or desirable qualities in the parent plant
corms or tubers, or by runners. The food
are passed on directly to the young plants without any
stored in the underground storage organ change.
enables the plant to survive through The process involves only one parent, and no fertilization
unfavourable climatic conditions. When is required.
favourable conditions return, the buds use Since plants are already in a suitable habitat, they can
up the stored food and develop rapidly into colonise the area more rapidly.
new plants. Survival of the plants from year
to year is called perennation. The The lack of any dispersal mechanism may lead to
underground storage organs are called overcrowding, causing the new plants to compete for light
perennating organs.
e new plants are less varied compared to those
produced by seeds, thus they may be less adaptable to
changes in environmental conditions.
Artificial Methods of Vegetative Reproduction

Gardeners and nurserymen have taken advantage of certain plants’
ability to reproduce vegetatively to produce plants with desired
A rhizome (ginger) qualities, e.g. plants with flowers of a particular colour or shape. They
Resets Tae Fe hue fersatss
use methods such as cutting, layering, marcotting, budding and
grafting. These are known as artificial methods of vegetative
propagation. They can produce crops with better quality and higher
yield, and so generate more profit for the farmer.
Cuttings, layering and marcotting

underground stem which The stems of certain plants are cut just below a node. The cutting is
possesses dry scale leaves and
planted in suitable soil so the node can develop adventitious roots to
buds. Adventitious roots may also
_ be found on the rhizome. Canna,
form a new plant. Sugar-cane, tapioca and oleander can be easily
lallang and ginger are all propagated by this method.
examples of flowering plants
which have rhizomes. In layering, a low branch with a node is bent down and a ring of bark,
Section of a bulb (onion) about 5 cm wide, is removed from the node. The ringed section is
completely covered with moist soil while the end of the branch is
allowed to remain free as shown in the figure. When roots have
e leaf a developed, the branch is cut off from the parent plant and allowed to
fleshy scal
Aqsa grow on its own. Layering can be done on plants such as lime or
stem — bougainvillea.
A bulb is a modified shoot -
consisting of a flattened, disc-like
stem bearing buds, fleshy and
dry scale leaves. Food (mainly
Sugar) is stored in the fleshy
scale leaves. Some examples of main stem
bulbs are onion and garlic. plessbranchen
A corm (water
chestnut)
| coconut husk
A corm is a thick, short

Layering Marcotting
underground stem swollen with
food reserves, mainly starch. Figure 20.2 Layering and marcotting
Water chestnut, “cocoyam,
Gloriosa and Crocus are plants
which have corms. In marcotting, a ring of bark is also removed from a branch. Then, a
layer of moist soil is wrapped round the ringed portion of the branch
A stem tuber
and kept in place as shown in the figure. The soil is kept moist by
(potato)
| watering every day. When roots appear, the branch is cut and planted.
Rambutan, durian and chiku trees readily respond to this method of
_ propagation.
A stem tuber is a swollen
underground stem bearing a
| Budding and grafting
|_ In budding and grafting, a healthy plant with an established root

number of reduced scale leaves
and buds. The food reserve is
mainly starch with proteins (found
just beneath the skin). The
system is selected. This is called the stock. A portion of the plant to be
potato is a stem tuber. | propagated, the scion, is carefully cut off. It is attached to the stock,
_ and the two grow together. The stock absorbs water and dissolved
Tissue culture and micropropagation @ Steps
The methods of vegetative propagation just outlined Single segments, each containing a node and a
have been used for centuries. However, biologists are bud, are excised from the parent plant (A).
now discovering new ways of making copies of plants The segments are sterilized. They are washed in
which have particularly desirable qualities. An example tap water and detergent, rinsed in a solution
is the cloning of oil and date palm trees. Paim trees containing 70% ethanol and 30% clorox, and rinsed
show great variation in the quality of their fruits. So a again in distilled water.
plant breeder would want to propagate a tree which The bud is carefully cut off and placed in a culture
produces particularly good fruit. However, palm trees medium containing suitable growth hormone, e.g.
contain little of the tissue needed for the metheds of cytokinin (B). The bud develops into one or more
vegetative propagation discussed to work. Instead, the shoots (C).
plant breeder takes a little tissue from the crown of £ The shoots are cut off and placed singly in fresh
the palm tree and grows it in the laboratory in a petri culture media (D). Each shoot develops several new
dish containing a special growth medium. This is called shoots again (E).
tissue culture. The cells in the tissue divide to produce Step 4 is repeated until the required number of
plantiets. Each plantiet can then be grown into a tree shoots is obtained.
which is an exact copy of the tree from which the The shoots are transferred to a rooting medium
tissue was originally obtained. Such a method of containing auxin, which is a plant growth regulator.
growing small plants is called micropropagation. Roots begin to form at the cut end of the stem (PF).
The plantlets are transferred to a small pot with
Micropropagation is a rapid method of cloning plants sterilized potting mix (G). The plant is covered by a
from stem, leaf or root. Plants that are successfully transparent polythene bag with pinholes to maintain
micropropagated include orchids, cereals, sugarcane high humidity in the air around the plantlet. The
and fruit trees. Micropropagation of plants can also plant should be placed in a shaded area until new
be initiated from axillary buds. The steps involved in growth is observed.
this process are summarized in the diagram below.
medium
excised bud acontaining
hormone
——
petri dish”
— flower pot
beaker
polythene bag
with tiny holes
—|— rooting
medium
Micropropagation
mineral salts through its roots and transports

them to the growing scion. For such
purposes, the scion and the stock are usually
of related species, e.g. roses, cherry and
almond.
In budding, a bud, together with some

cambium, is taken from a selected plant.
This is the scion. A T-shaped cut is made in
the bark down to the cambium in the stock.
The scion is carefully inserted but with the
bud still exposed beneath the bark of the
stock. The thin cambium in the scion is now
Figure 20.3 B in contact with the cambium of the stock.
The scion and stock are tied together and
the junction protected with wax. The tissues of the two plants soon
unite and the bud grows into a shoot. Examples of plants grafted in
this way are lemon and hibiscus.
In grafting, a twig bearing several buds is cut off. Its lower V-shaped
end (Figure 20.3) is inserted into a complementary shaped end of
the stock. The two are tied as in budding and the buds will develop
into shoots.
~-20.:2Sexual-Reproduction:in-Flowering-Plants~~
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of special cells called gametes.

In flowering plants, sexual reproduction takes place in the flowers
which are organs of sexual reproduction. There are special
mechanisms (pollination and fertilization) to ensure that the male and
female gametes meet.
The production of new plants from seeds is a process familiar to

everyone. Seeds are found in fruits and each fruit is produced by a
flower. The flower is the specialized shoot which bears the
reproductive organs in flowering plants.
The General Parts of a Flower
Flowers may occur singly on plants or in definite clusters called

| inflorescences. A complete flower consists of the following parts:
@ Pedicel
In an inflorescence, flowers are
A pedicel is a flower stalk. Some flowers have no pedicels, and are
arranged in definite patterns on a
stem called the inflorescent called sessile flowers.
stalk. Each individual flower is
ee
basically a shortened stem B Receptacle

bearing modified leaves, some of
which are closely associated with
The receptacle is the enlarged end of the flower stalk on which the
reproduction. other parts of the flower are borne.
(a) A typical half flower (o) Parts of a stamen 315
stigma
anther anther
a
S
<
Y)
filament u filament
b
style as
petal ovary Co) oo pollen sacs

Gy)
A os pollen grains
ovule
receptacie anther lobes

sepal
pedicel
Stamen with upper
half of anther cut off
Figure 20.4 Structure of a complete flower
a Sepals
| (c) Parts of a pistil
stigmas
Sepals are modified leaves which enclose and protect the other parts of |
the flower in the bud ‘stage. All the sepals together make up the calyx. | style
The sepals usually form the outermost whorl of floral leaves, but some |
flowers, e.g. hibiscus, have another whorl of floral leaves outside the |
sepals which make up the epicalyx of the flower. ovary
@ Petals
Petals are modified leaves forming the conspicuous part of the flower.
They are usually brightly coloured in insect-pollinated flowers. The
petals form the cerolla of the flower. Petals have two important
functions:
@ They are brightly coloured to attract insects for pollination.
@ They provide a landing platform for insects.
|
/ ; |
@ Stamens (Androecium
( y) _ The calyx and the corolla together
Androecium is the collective name for the stamens of a flower | form the perianth of the flower.
which produce pollen grains. The stamen is the male part of the | Some flowers, e.g. Gloriosa, have
flower. It consists ofa filament bearing an anther. The anther is _—_—_—_—SePalls and petals so alike that it
usually made up of two lobes, each containing two pellen sacs. In is hard to differentiate one from
the other: they are called the
the pollen sacs are the pollen grains. Pollen grains are produced by _ perianth segments of the flower.
meiosis (see page 339) and so they contain the haploid number of
chromosomes. Each pollen grain gives rise to two haploid male
gametes which are the reproductive nuclei of the flower. When the
anther matures, its two lobes split, setting free the pollen grains.
M Pistil (Gynoecium)
The pistil or gynoecium is the female part of the flower. It consists of
one or more units called carpels. A carpel consists of an ovary, a style
above the ovary and one or more stigmas. The stigma is a swollen
structure at the end of the style which receives the pollen grains. The
ovary contains one or more ovules. Within each mature ovule is a

female gamete or egg cell called the ovum (plural: ova). The region
in the ovary to which the ovules are attached is called the placenta.
The ovule is attached to the placenta by a funicle.
Types of flowers
Flowers are classified using the following pairs of terms: complete-

incomplete; bisexual-unisexual; radially symmetrical-bilaterally
symmetrical. So a flower could be complete, unisexual, and radially
symmetrical.
Some flowers do not have all the four whorls of floral parts, i-e. sepals,
petals, androecium and gynoecium, so they are called incomplete
flowers.
A bisexual or hermaphrodite flower possesses both the stamens

and the pistil. A unisexual flower has either the stamens (a male
flower) or the pistil (a female flower). A plant which possesses both
_ male and female unisexual flowers is said to be monoecious, e.g.
call men males is
maize. However, if the male and female flowers are borne on separate
yroduce male gametes. _ plants, the plant is called dioecious, e.g. pawpaw (papaya).
Flowers which can be divided into two equal halves along more than
_ one longitudinal plane passing through the centre ofthe flower are
_ regular or radially symmetrical, e.g. Hibiscus, Capsicum and
Allamanda. Flowers which can only be halved along one longitudinal
_ plane are described as bilaterally symmetrical, e.g. Chitoria.
Figure 20.5 Position of the pistil with Position of the pistil in relation to the other floral parts
respect to the other floral parts
In many flowers, the pistil rests on a conical receptacle with the other
floral parts inserted below the ovary. The ovary is said to be superior,
e.g. Hibiscus and Chitorza. In some flowers, the receptacle grows
upwards enclosing the ovary completely. The other floral parts arise
- inferior ovary
_ from the receptacle above the ovary, which is said to be inferior. In
receptacle
ovary wall
_ this condition, the ovary walls are fused with the receptacle, e.g.
sunflower, guava and apple.
Pollination
The pollen grains must be transferred from the anthers to the stigmas
receptacle
for the fusion of the male and female gametes to occur as shown in
Figure 20.6.
Pollination is usually effected by insects or wind. Flowers pollinated by

_ insects are usually modified to attract the insects. They possess certain
characteristics distinct from those of wind-pollinated flowers. Examine
some insect and wind-pollinated flowers. List their differences and
compare them with what is given in Table 20.1 on page 320.
Figure 20.6. Self-pollination and

n grains from the anther to the stigma is cross-pollination
ti f polien grains are transferred to the stigma
ower or a different flower in the same plant, the f i
frytittl
led self-pollination. If pollen grains are transferred a
Characteristics favouring cross-pollination

Continued in-breeding or self-pollination results in the production of
offspring that are weaker and less adaptable to changes in the
environment. Cross-pollination is necessary to restore the vigour of a
species. Cross-pollination, therefore, has certain advantages:
@ Offspring produced may have valuable qualities from both parents.
@ Abundant and more viable seeds tend to be produced.
@ More varieties of offspring can be produced, i.e. there is greater
genetic variability. This increases the chance of survival of the
species during changes in the environment. For example, any ~— transfer
change in the environment is less likely to destroy all the varieties of pollen
grains
in a species.
As genetic variability is important for the survival of a species, most

types of plants possess special devices favouring cross-pollination:
@ Dtioecious plants bear either male or female flowers so that self
pollination is impossible, e.g. pawpaw.
@ In many plants with bisexual flowers, the anthers and the stigmas
may mature at different times, e.g. custard apple.
@ Plants with bisexual flowers may have their stigmas situated some
distance away from the anthers so as to render self-pollination
unlikely, e.g. sage.
The Structure and Pollination of an Insect-Pollinated

Flower
Examining a Clitoria flower
Structure of Cilitoria flower
Examine and draw the
The Chitoria plant belongs to the group in the legume family that has external features of a
papilionaceous (butterfly-shaped) flowers. The flower is complete, Clitoria flower.
bisexual and bilaterally symmetrical. Cut the flower
longitudinally. Draw and
B Calyx label the half flower.
The calyx is green, with five sepals present as pointed teeth at the free Remove an anther.
end of the calyx. The base of the calyx is enclosed by two green leaves, Examine it under a
the epicalyx. microscope. Note the
size and shape of the
HB Corolla pollen grains. Make a
The corolla is brightly-coloured with five petals. The petals are of drawing of one pollen
different sizes and shapes. It consists of a large purple standard petal |
|
£ grain.
enclosing two lateral wing petals which are also purple. Separating the How is the flower
two wing petals will reveal two small, yellowish-green keel petals. adapted to insect-
These petals together form a trough-like keel which encloses the pollination?
reproductive organs.
@ Androecium
318
The androecium consists of ten stamens with comparatively long
filaments. The filaments of nine of the stamens are fused along most of
their length to form a hollow tube or “trough” enclosing the
gynoecium. The tenth stamen is free. Nectar secreted by the flower
collects at the bottom of the stamen trough. Thus, the nectar can be
reached only by an insect with a long proboscis, e.g. a bee or butterfly.
@ Gynoecium
The gynoecium consists of a
single carpel. The ovary is long
and narrow with a single row of
ovules. The style is a long,
curved structure and is hairy just
below the stigma.
eu 20.7 The Clitoria flower
> = ee +
*
7)Complete flower (x1) ’ > aa (b))Petalsseparated outxt).
— pedicel
; epicalyx
y
psshee meee aed P :
- BiNG petal “covering ovary =) rt
/
m NO
~#
n #sti gma ,
»@ a * » 7+
* «®
a —" * » * a » »
*
aEGynoeciumGaspa
. Pe *
- ovary - style”
standard petal with

nectar guides
standard petal ;
—s
The pollination mechanism in Clitoria
The flower is well-adapted to insect-pollination, but selfpollination

can occur. In its natural state, the flower is inverted with the standard
| petal at the bottom (Figure 20.7).
When a heavy insect such as a bee visits the flower, it lands on the
standard petal. The insect will force its way in between the two wing
petals and move in to collect the nectar. Its back forces the keel petal
upwards to expose the stigma and the anthers. These brush against the
hairy back of the insect. When this happens, some pollen grains from
the anther stick to the hairy back ofthe insect. At the same time,
_ pollen grains on the insect’s back (from another flower which the
insect had visited earlier) adhere to the sticky stigma.
This is how cross-pollination is effected. When the insect leaves the

flower, the keel springs back to its original position to enclose the 319
stamens and the stigma again.
Orchids that look like bees
Although many flowers reward

The Structure and Pollination of a Wind-Pollinated
their insect pollinators with
Flower nectar, other flowers attract their
pollinators by deception. The best
Structure of grass flowers (/schaemum muticum) examples of such deception occur
in the orchids.
Grasses are common flowering plants which are good examples of
wind-pollinated flowers. The flowers are usually small, massed in The wild orchid, Ophrys scolopax,
mimics a female bee in shape,
inflorescences which are dull-coloured, scentless and without nectar. colour and smell. The male bee
To study them, you need a good hand lens and dissecting needles. is sexually attracted to the flower
and mounts it. The vigorous
Grass flowers are usually enclosed by leaf-like structures called bracts. movements of the male bee
dislodge a large packet of pollen
The bracts have to be carefully separated in order to reveal the flowers.
which sticks to the its head. The
The grass Ischaemum is chosen for study because the flowers are bee then flies to another flower.
comparatively large, but even then great care is required to dissect the Here the pollen is dislodged from
flowers. Have an inflorescence ready and examine it as you read along, the bee and settles amongst the
referring to Figure 20.8. stigmas of the orchid flower.
The inflorescence of Ischaemum consists of short stalks bearing flowers,

which occur in pairs, along them. Each pair of flowers is enclosed and
protected by bracts to form a spikelet. The spikelets also occur in pairs.
The lower spikelet in each pair is sessile while the upper one is stalked
and smaller (Figure 20.8(b)). At the base of each spikelet is a pair of
empty or non-flowering bracts called glumes. They protect the two
flowers in the spikelet. Separate the two glumes and you will see the
two flowers. Each flower is enclosed by two transparent flowering
glumes. Carefully separate these bracts and examine under a hand These orchid flowers
lens (Figure 20.8(c) (ii). look like female bees
Figure 20.8 Grass flowers (/schaemum muticum)
|(a) Two inflorescences of Ischaemum_ (c) A spikelet
Se (i) A diagrammatic section (ii) A spikelet opened up
|
bisexual Cog ]
(b) A pair of spikelets of Ischaemum

aa : stamen ay
pistil
~ stamen
2 [|
lodicule
non-flowering — tk //
glumes oa. ™~ flowering glume
aiid BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘0’ Level
320 | The lower flower consists only of three stamens with long filaments
and is therefore unisexual. The upper flower is bisexual, consisting of
“g an ovary with two long feathery stigmas, three stamens and two tiny
Hay fever structures called lodicules at the base of the ovary. When the lodicules
swell, they force the two flowering bracts slightly apart so that the
When grasses are flowering, the
air will contain literally billions of
stigmas and anthers can emerge. The upper stalked spikelet has
pollen grains. These are so tiny essentially similar structures as the sessile spikelet.
that we hardly notice them unless
you are one of those unlucky
people who suffer from hay fever. Pollination in Ischaemum
This illness is characterized by a
runny nose and sore, red eyes. It | Pollination is effected by wind. If you examine the inflorescence in
is the result of the body reacting its natural environment you will find that the mature stamens have
against the pollen grains: an long and pendulous filaments. The filaments protrude out of the
ea gg ee
can be controlled by taking anti-
bracts, exposing the mature anthers to the wind. The delicate
bletanune table but eee can filaments sway in the slightest breeze. The dust-like pollen is
make you feel very sleepy. _ shaken free and carried away by the wind. The mature stigmas do
not hang freely but project out of the bracts. Because of their large
_ and spreading, feathery nature, they provide a large surface area to
_ receive the pollen that may be floating around.
Table 20.1 Comparing the characteristics of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated

| flowers
Characteristics ofinsectpollinated flowers

@ Flowers are usually large, brightly-coloured @ Flowers are usually small, dull-coloured
and scented to attract insects. If the flowers and scentless and thus not attractive to.
are small they may group together to insects.
form conspicuous inflorescences.
® Nectar is often present to attract insects. ® Nectar is usually absent.
@ Pollen is fairly abundant. Pollen grains are ® Pollen is abundant. As

large, sticky and heavy, usually with rough the pollen grains are small,
surfaces so that they can readily cling onto dry, smooth and light, they
the insects’ bodies. are buoyant and easily
blown about by air current.
® Stamens may not be pendulous. ® Stamens usually have long,

slender filaments that sway
in the slightest wind and pollen grains are
hence easily shaken out from the anthers.
® Stigmas are usually small and ® Stigmas protrude and are large and
compact, not feathery and do feathery so that they provide a large
not protrude. They are sticky so surface area to catch pollen floating in
that pollen grains settling on the air.
them are not easily displaced. ran
® Markings or nectar guides may ® Nectar guides are absent.

be seen on the petals. These
markings guide the insect
towards the nectar.
TEST YOURSELF 321
The diagram on the right shows a flower.
1 Copy the diagram and label the stigma, the anther and
the filament.
2 By what method do you think the flower is pollinated?
3 How are the structures you have labelled adapted to the
method of pollination you have mentioned in (2) above?
Structure Adaptation
Stigma
Anther
Filament
"cuss
PS ES SSIS
EN CRIS ESR LOE ETE LIN SRE LOCI SEO RES LOIS OEE EG REIS aRESE PelR a ie eM MEE Ieee
Fertilization and Post-Fertilization Changes
The structures of a mature pollen grain and a mature ovule are shown
in Figure 20.9. After pollination, the pollen grain germinates in
response to the sugary fluid secreted by the Figure 20.9 Fertilization in a
generalized flower
mature stigma. From each pollen grain, a
pollen tube grows out. The cytoplasm and Mature pollen grain Pollen grain germinates
the two nuclei (vegetative and generative
nuclei) pass into the pollen tube. The
growth of the pollen tube is controlled by (o-
BOL
vegetative
:
the vegetative nucleus. Enzymes are
secreted to digest the tissue of the stigma intine generative
and style as the tube grows. Thus, the exine
(outer wall)
nucleus
vegerane nucleus
pollen tube penetrates right through the ; pollen tube
style as it grows and enters the ovule
usually through the micropyle, which is an ; germinating
pollen grain
opening in the ovule wall. Buena
style
Along the way, the generative nucleus pollen tube
divides to form two male, non-motile

gametes. The vegetative nucleus soon
definitive nucleus
disintegrates.
ovary wall
Within the ovule, the tip of the pollen tube outer integument
absorbs sap and bursts releasing the two - inner integument
ovule
male gametes. One male gamete fuses with
ovum (egg)
the ovum to form the zygote: this is
fertilization. The other male gamete fuses funicle micropyle
with the definitive nucleus (also called male gametes

secondary nucleus) to form the.endosperm iss placenta
nucleus. The zygote develops into the
embryo of the seed with cotyledons,
developing shoot (plumule) and developing root (radicle). The

endosperm nucleus divides and gives rise to the endosperm. In some
seeds, the endosperm is completely absorbed by the embryo which
_ stores the food materials in the cotyledons. Such seeds, when fully
formed, are called non-endospermic. The changes that occur after
fertilization are summarized in Table 20.2.
A fruit is generally formed from the ovary and the ovules. The ovary
_ wall ripens to form the fruit wall (or pericarp). The ovules become the
| seeds. The funicle or seed stalk is attached to the part of the fruit
| called the placenta (Figure 20.9). A fruit has one or more fruit
chambers called loculi (singular: loculus). In some fruits, the pericarp
becomes hard and dry; in others it becomes fleshy or succulent. In
simple fleshy fruits, it is often the pericarp that has become succulent.
However, succulence is not always confined to the pericarp. For
_ instance, the loculus in the fruit may be filled with juicy pulp in which
| the seeds are embedded, e.g. tomato.
Table 20.2 Thea aner®.|ek _ ad ina wa mi ese ues
Post ertii
whole ovule seed
zygote embryo consisting of the developing shoot (plumule), the

developing root (radicle), and cotyledons
endosperm nucleus endosperm (in some cases, this is completely absorbed by the
embryo during seed formation, producing a non-endospermic
seed)
erin testa and tegmen
ovule staik seed stalk (funicle)
ovary fruit
ovary wall fruit wall or pericarp which may be dry or fleshy
stigma and style wither, but in certain cases may persist and be modified to help
fruit dispersal
stamens wither and fall off
petals wither and fall off
sepals may persist and, in some

cases, may enlarge and be
modified to help fruit
dispersal
Clitoria flower and fruit

The Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds
There is usually a close relationship between the fruit or seed structure

and the way it is dispersed. Dispersal is necessary in order to:
® avoid overcrowding and competition for food and light with the
parent plants,
@ enable plants to colonise new and favourable habitats, and
® reduce the spread of diseases.
The dispersal of fruits and seeds is effected in different ways and is

usually aided by external agents such as winds, animals or water. Many
plants have their fruits or seeds modified to ensure their proper
dispersal at the right time.
Dispersal by wind
Fruits and seeds that depend on the wind for their dispersal may have
one or more of the following features:
@ Small and light so that they can float in the air and be readily
blown about by the wind, e.g. orchid seeds.
® Large, flattened wing-like structures or a parachute of fine-hairs.
The surface area is enlarged. This increases air resistance or
buoyancy in air.
The ‘wings’ or ‘parachutes’ of the fruits or seeds are formed from

different parts of the flowers. Table 20.3 gives examples of wind-
dispersed fruits and seeds. The seeds Richard Dawkins wrote about at
the beginning of this chapter are wind dispersed.
Figure 20.10 Some wind-dispersed fruits and seeds
calyx wing-like
flattened wing-like
pericarp Ppappus
(persistent calyx)
remains of style SS
position of seed
pericarp
Angsana fruit (x 1) Tridex fruit (x 2) Kapur fruit (x a)
pericarp splits to
release the wind-
dispersed seeds
wing-like testa _ wing-like testa
position of seed
calyx
4
fruit stalk
Seed of Tecoma (x 1) Lagerstroemia fruit (x 1) Seed of Lagerstroemia (x 1)

Table 20.3 Some examples of wind- lspelgegelAmults and seeds and their modifications
324 |i ey in aesExar
ave mpl a seeeey pasa See rege ET ee
ba hie ites “3
heed tt Ih hich se nt fees Bette tact

= Gna cq teenehs j wind | Exal
E> : RSET ae, ae
eclameere®) LN:s -
eben SE25
eerieoe
oy ne teas
parler salieistesTe flattens to form the wing. |

Winged fruits
se are formed from ary,RoRsietenit wenale
(Saerce
(Rose of India)
Winged seeds The wing is a flattened extension of the testa.
Tecoma
Clematis | The style has lengthened and become hairy to form a

parachute-like structure.
Plumed fruits
Tridex The calyx persists and enlarges to form a pappus
which opens out into an umbrella-like parachute.
Plumed seeds Cotton The organ of dispersal is the tuft of hairs

around the testa.
Dispersal by animals
Those fruits and seeds which form a source of food for animals are
likely to be dispersed by them. Most succulent fruits are edible.
In some fruits, e.g. tomatoes, the whole pericarp is succulent as it

stores food materials. In lemons and oranges, the fruit chamber
contains succulent hairs (Figure 20.11). Food materials are mainly
_ stored in these hairs. The apple fruit is formed from an inferior ovary.
The juicy part you eat is the receptacle.
Figure 20.11 Some simple succulent fruits
jelly around
seed
Seed
pericarp — . é jelly
seed
juicy pulp
;
funicle
septum ——— p/ 3 — placenta
T.S. tomato (x 1)
& eS
3
4 ee 4 Se ee
a pe 3 bad
S A iefy 1 fee eT -
ee ee in He At ae
Succulent fruits are scented and their skins are often brightly coloured
to attract animals. For example, the peel of orange contains glands
which produce a fragrantly scented volatile oil to attract animals.
The whole fruit may be eaten by animals such as birds, bats, cats, dogs,
etc. The seeds may be small and hard. They are indigestible and are
removed in the faeces (egested), away from the parent plant. Assignment 20.1
Sometimes, the seeds are spat out by the animals. Very often, the seeds Poor-tasting fruits
are still capable of germination. In other cases, the fruits are carried
away by the animals which eat only part of them, leaving behind the
seeds to germinate, e:g. mango. | oe
|
i
3
|
State the method by which the seeds of the
three specimens are dispersed.
Fruit and seed dispersal
|
From your results in (2) above and your i
a3 Examine and make a labelled drawing of observations of the specimens, explain how
each of the following: they are suited to the method of dispersal
(a) T.S. of tomato fruit, mentioned in (3).
(bo) T.S. of cucumber fruit, and
Give reasons for saying that the three
(c) T.S. of banana fruit.
specimens are fruits.
You are provided with Benedict’s solution,
Fruit Treatment Observation Conclusion | i
sodiurn hydroxide solution and dilute copper P
sulphate solution (Biuret reagents). Benedict’s test 370:
Tomato
Cut off small portions of each fruit. Place Biuret Test
OPES
RSTNSDET
SRRTNTTN
CAONINNS
SOIOTREDONIETRINY
them on a white tile. Crush them with a RES
SOONER
pestle in a mortar. Test the fruit with the Benedict’s test

reagents provided. Cucumber +
Biuret Test
Record your observations and conclusion in
the table below. Benedict’s test
Banana ~
Biuret Test
a
TR
RASPES
REE
ERE
TEI
TY SERINE
LEGA SERED ECLIVES SP L P SPELI LLB ELLLS SDE LS TIONED TE
Some dry fruits can also be dispersed by animals. Fruits adapted for
this method of dispersal, possess hook-like structures by which they
pri can adhere onto the fur or skin of animals passing by. These fruits
The Dodo and the may later be brushed off the animals’ bodies or they may fall off
Tambalacoque tree when the hooks shrivel. The fruits may also adhere to the clothing
of Man and be dispersed in a similar manner. Examples of such
Some plants are dependent upon
particular animals to disperse
fruits are Urena and Xanthium. Fruits of spear grass have stiff hairs
their seeds. When this goes at their base to aid in dispersal.
wrong, the results can be
disastrous for the plant as
related in this story.
Mauritius is an island which lies

in the western Indian Ocean. This
island used to be the home to
the dodo, a large flightless bird
which was wiped out by sailors
killing them for food. The last
dodo was killed in about 1680.
However, the seeds of the
Tambalocoque tree, another
inhabitant of Mauritius, seem to
need to pass through the gut of a
dodo before they could
germinate. The extinction of the
dodo has almost certainly meant
the extinction of the few surviving
Tambalacoque trees which are Fruit of spear glass (x 5) Urena fruit (x 5) uoaTaps
now three centuries old. These
must have developed from seeds Figure 20.12 Some dry fruits dispersed by animals
that passed through the guts of
the last dodos on Mauritius.
Dispersal by water
Water currents in the ocean, rivers and streams are important agents of
dispersal. Fruits and seeds dispersed by water are adapted for floating
and they can drift for considerable distances. Aquatic plants and many
Figure 20.13 Coconut fruit
plants living on river banks or the seashore depend on water dispersal.
For example, the coconut fruit has a waterproof skin and a fibrous
_ husk containing numerous air spaces which lighten the fruit. The seed
| within it contains a store of food (the “meat” in the coconut) and
_ there is sufficient water in the seed to enable its germination even
on sandy shores.
The seeds of the water lily have an aril, a small float, which holds air.
The seeds can float on the water away from the parent plants until the
arils decay. Then, they sink to the bottom of the river or pond and
germinate.
fibrous
husk
Explosive mechanism
Some fruits do not depend on external agencies, such as wind, animals

seed
or water, to disperse their seeds, These fruits, on drying up, burst open
_ suddenly with great force to throw out the seeds. For example, when
ripe balsam fruits dry up, they burst open and eject the seeds away
Section of a coconut fruit (L.S.)
from the parent plant. Other examples are rubber fruits and the
_ legumes of many plants.
Legumes are dry fruits that split along both edges or sutures. Peas and
beans are legumes. In these legumes, the pericarp shrinks as it dries up, 327
building up tensions which force open the fruit suddenly. Unequal
drying of the fibrous pericarp causes the two halves of the fruit walls to
twist and turn and so scatter the seeds (Figure 20.14).
Figure 20.14 Seed dispersal by explosive
mechanism
INVESTIGATION
03
(a) Legume of Clitoria splittingto release the
seeds (x1)
fruit stalk
Dispersal of fruits and seeds
1 Examine and make a labelled drawing of the

following specimens:
(a) Angsana fruit ‘remains
of style
(b) Shorea fruit
(c) Tecoma seed
(d) Lagerstroemia seed
2 All the four specimens have common features that

are adapted to dispersal by wind. What are these ~
features and how do they assist in dispersal?
Examine a Tridex fruit.
(a) What is the method by which it is dispersed?
(0) What feature of the fruit indicates its method
of dispersal?
Examine a legume (e.g. Clitoria fruit) that has split

open. Make a labelled drawing of the fruit. How
are the seeds dispersed?
Z£"Uhaecenspsees
TET
ERE
NSE
0SSEN
I
ET
RID
Fe ES OLEL EEDBER LEE LAL PLLC LEC PPLLILL LLL LLANE LLDPE LLELE DLL LLL LADEN ONS E EPID
LLL
The change of form and complexity of higher plants can best be

followed by studying the structures and germination of their seeds. |
Seeds are described as monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous, and
endospermic or non-endospermic.
apes Figure 20.15
plumule A generalized |
dicotyledonous
seed |
(diagrammatic) |
embryo 4 cotyledon ——
stalk
— testa
cotyledons ———}¥ endosperm |
(this may be
absent)
radicle
hilum
ea SERRATE micropyle
INVESTIGATION
204 proteins. You can confirm this by carrying

out food tests on the cotyledons.
To examine the structure of sword bean
5 Separate the cotyledons. Look for the
seed—a dicotyledonous, non-endospermic
plumule and the radicle. The plumule lies
seed
between the cotyledons and is protected by
them. Use a hand lens to examine the
1 Examine a sword bean seed that has been
minute leaves of the plumule. It is from the
soaked in water for about a day. The seed
plumule that the future shoot system
is about 2.5 cm long. It has a thick, white
develops.
seed-coat or testa. Note the long, brown
scar, the hilum, at one edge of the testa. Draw labelled diagrams of the embryo with
The hilum marks the region where the seed the cotyledons separated. Compare your
was attached to the fruit. At one end of the drawing with the figures below.
hilum is a small opening known as the 6 Calculate the magnification of your drawing.
micropyle where water enters the seed.
Locate the micropyle by squeezing the seed size of drawing
Magnification = x —————_____—
gently and note how water oozes out size of specimen
through it.
7
<— ‘ -
2 Draw fully-labelled diagrams of the external = 2
features of the sword bean seed. a hilum °
. .
3 Next, remove the testa to reveal the young .
° 2
plant, i.e. the embryo. The embryo consists + sta
2 . 8 » ¥ —
of two large, creamy cotyledons, a
External features of sword bean seed
developing shoot (plumule) and a ’ ‘
> ; . ; * ‘) 4 i! iF + a !
developing root (radicle). developing. . developing. ,
4 Since there are two cotyledons, the sword (radicle)
:
a
| (plumule)
a
bean seed is dicotyledonous. Cotyledons ° é
rt
7
ES
ST
ESS
EES
STE
SS
SSIES are modified leaves. They are thickened cotyledons : =
with food reserves so that they look quite e P a ¢ ¥ *
* .
A
different from the foliage leaves of the Seed with testa removed and cotyledons separated se?
|e ® e -& rit t
same plant. They store mainly starch and The structure of a sword bean seed
ROLE
IID
ee
| Dormancy and Germination of Seeds

_ The ripe seeds of plants germinate when they are exposed to
favourable environmental conditions. However, the seeds of many
plants do not germinate as soon as they are shed. They have to pass
through a “resting” or dormant period during which they will not
germinate no matter how favourable the environmental conditions are.
The dormant period may be days, weeks or even years, depending on
the species. Dormant seeds are usually dry. Their vital activities are
much reduced and they respire anaerobically. They are able to
_ withstand adverse external conditions such as cold or very dry
weather. Thus, dormancy enables seeds to survive unfavourable
seasons such as winter or drought in the tropics.
_ If seeds are kept dry, their dormant period can be prolonged. When
the dormant period is over, the seeds will sprout if conditions are
favourable. However, many seeds lose their viability if kept more than
a few weeks in the tropics.
Conditions for germination

The external environmental conditions necessary for germination are
sufficient water, suitable temperature and adequate oxygen supply.
Changes during germination

A dormant seed has a very low water content. The first step in
germination is the absorption of water by the seed. The seed swells
and the testa becomes more permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
The swelling of the seed may rupture the testa.
&@ Role of enzymes in germination

With the absorption of water, the cotyledons produce enzymes to
digest the stored food so that the growing embryo can use it. In
endospermic seeds, the enzymes flow into the endosperm to digest the
INVESTIGATION SESS
NEN ETDS OT CRE L TY
H 20.5 Tube 3 Add sufficient water to moisten the

<ll cotton wool. The seeds here are provided
To find out the conditions essential for pA Sei golsslh alae, Gi yey
germination Place all the three tubes in a warm place ;
: (at about 30 °C).
1 Take four specimen tubes and place a wad Tube 4 Moisten the cotton wool and place
i of cotton wool! in each tube. Drop five peas the jar in a cold place (refrigerator).
i into each tube. Examine the seeds in the four tubes daily.
Tube 1 Leave it as it is. Therefore, the !i
i ee 3 In which tube do the seeds germinate well?
H seeds lack moisture.
Tube 2 Add sufficient boiled water to make What happens to the seeds in the other
the cotton wool damp. Lower a testtube tubes?
containing a solution of alkaline pyrogallol
From your investigation, state the three
SOS SCRA A cE AS et) anarve conditions essential for germination. |
pyrogallol absorbs oxygen, the seeds in this H
tube lack oxygen. 6 Explain the importance of each condition ‘
i that you have stated in (5). ‘
| Jar placed in
. refrigerator
I— Specimen
tube
,+—alkaline
‘7, pyrogallol
ot: x17 seeds in dry ,seeds in damp seeds in damp seeds in damp
; @® @cy cotton wool cotton wool == a x cotton woo! cotton wool
- ee) SS
Tube 3
food stored there. In non-

endospermic seeds, the
RRs"
digestion of the stored food
How long can seeds survive?
occurs within the cotyledons.
In each case, the stored food
How long can a seed remain
is digested and the soluble
dormant and still germinate?
Seeds of members of the melon
end-products of digestion are
family can germinate after a few SS cOlubleael transported to the growing
years of storage. Plants from \ food ov} | a regions of the embryo, i.e.
deserts have seed which can ‘ .| * the plumule and the radicle.
germinate after fifteen years of
dormancy. Seeds from moth
mullein, buried in jars at the
The enzymes digest the
University of Michigan, stored food to produce small
growing soluble end-products as
germinated after 101 years of — root tip
storage. However, the record
Figure 20.16 Enzymes play a vital role in
shown:
must belong to the Arctic tundra
the germination of seeds
lupine. Seeds from this plant
were discovered frozen in an
a>
animal burrow which was at least
10 000 years old. Several of
these seeds germinated within
48 hours of planting, and one of
the plants produced flowers
within a year of planting.
Es proteases
| Camino acids
INVESTIGATION
ae | %
| i
‘ 20 al )
—
To find the change in dry mass of the seeds during

germination
1 Weigh thirty green peas and dry them in an oven at 100 °C

for a few hours. Remove them from the oven, cool in a
desiccator and reweigh them. Repeat this procedure until a
constant mass is obtained. Use your reading to calculate
| | the percentage of dry mass in the peas.
mass of dried seeds

Percentage of = x 100%
dry mass mass of original seeds :
2 Weigh another batch of thirty green peas and germinate

them in damp sawdust in a warm place.
3 About two days after germination has begun, remove the

seedlings, clean with water and dry them in the oven as
before. Record the constant mass of the dried seedlings.
Then, calculate the percentage of dry mass. }
4 Name the process which results in the change in dry mass
for the first few days of germination. .
BRE ENN LENT, TERNS ANE ATTN UNNRT IN GEMS SUIS MEADE RRO
Reproduction in Plants |
Utilization offood substances for growth during germination

Carbohydrates (e.g. glucose) and fats are used in tissue respiration to 331
liberate the energy required for growth and other vital activities. Part
of the energy escapes as heat. Some of the carbohydrates, together
with fats, are used for the formation of cell walls and cell membranes.
Amino acids are assimilated in the building of new protoplasm.
The seed increases in size owing to the absorption of water but its dry
mass gradually decreases because of active tissue respiration. This
continues until the seedling is able to manufacture food by
photosynthesis.
Types of Germination Figure 20.17 A seedling
There are two types of germination, namely:

@ Epigeal germination where the cotyledons are carried above
the ground (e.g. sword bean seed).
*® Hypogeal germination where the cotyledons remain below the
surface of the soil (e.g. maize and broad bean).
Stages in the germination of the sword bean seed—epigeal

germination
@ The radicle grows rapidly and pushes against the testa at the
micropyle. The testa splits as the radicle emerges and grows
downwards (Figure 20.16). Lateral roots develop. The root hairs
formed behind the tips of the radicle and the lateral roots help to
absorb water and mineral salts from the soil.
Figure 20.18
Stages in
epigeal
germination of
a sword bean
seed
first foliage
i ‘ leaves
first foliage ;
leaves ,
Ee
\™
cotyledons WilNe
carried above “LA
soil level a
—stem
straightens
testa testa stem below
splits drops off cotyledons
elongates
fadicte | g
soil level
roots
332 @ Meanwhile, the stem below the cotyledons elongates, pulling the
cotyledons above the ground and leaving the testa behind in the
soil. At first, the stem is hook-like with the cotyledons bent over
and still closed together to protect the delicate plumule.
® Soon the stem straightens, the cotyledons turn green and spread
out, exposing the first foliage leaves with the bud between them.
This bud will grow into the future shoot. The foliage leaves
expand, turn green and carry out photosynthesis. The seedling is
now a self-supporting plant.
odin ors
res
reeeett
e Sane
eee
ae somtei
weieeeee aN a vette
areets
i. Pere arene ~e
Eee a pace wiagtanrae

aersle
the ay Sipser ie: a
avi eerenen aySe

Se
aaesaes
na (
LUTTE
erie:
owsS differs
§)
T a Droa
a eee
Sioa
e involves Huston of 2 gametes to
i propagation :
pedicel (flower stalk)
receptacle
¢ cutting
e rhizome e layering
aotsully '
i a = bisexual anee panes Paurstarss ar d Ht

pistil. A monoecious plant has male and male gamete fees with the female gamete
female flowers on the same plant (e.g. to form a zygote.
maize). A dioecious plant has male and
female flowers on separate plants (e.g. » Cross-pollination and cross-fertilization
papaya). produce more variations and healthier
offspring producing viable seeds—
» Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains variations enable species to adapt to
from the anther to the stigma. changes in the environment, thus
® Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen increasing their chances of survival.
grains from the anther to the stigma of
the same flower or of a different flower » Fertilization in flowering plants:
on the same plant. ® pollen settles on a mature stigma
@ Cross-pollination is the transfer of @ pollen grain germinates and produces a
pollen grains from one plant to the pollen tube
stigma of a flower in another plant of @ pollen tube grows downwards towards
the same species. Features favouring the ovule, enters ovule and releases
cross-pollination: two male gametes
e unisexual flowers ® one male gamete fuses with the ovum
® male and female flowers on separate to form a zygote
plants @ the other male gamete fuses with the
e anthers and stigma maturing at definitive nucleus to form an
different times endosperm nucleus.
e anthers and stigmas situated far
away from each other in a flower.
|
|
E> » Postfertilization changes: plumule

® ovary —+» fruit .4 embryo <—— radicle
@ ovary wall — pericarp cotyledon(s)
@ ovule —». seed @ endosperm—— food storage tissue
@ zygote ——® embryo in seed
® endosperm nucleus —® endosperm »& Germination
@ The conditions for germination are
» Fruit dispersal water, oxygen and a suitable
® Importance of dispersal of fruits and temperature.
seeds: @ During germination, the following
e Avoids overcrowding and competition changes occur:
for nutrients and light with the e Seed absorbs water and swells.
parent plant. e Cotyledon secretes enzymes to
e Enables plants to colonise new and digest the stored food.
favourable habitats. e Digested products (e.g. glucose and
@ Fruits dispersed by animals are: amino acids) are translocated to
e succulent with a store of food plumule and radicle.
materials, scented and colourful, or e The dry mass decreases at first
e with hooks to attach to animals’ because of tissue respiration to
bodies. provide the energy for growth.
@ Wind-dispersed fruits and seeds are e When foliage leaves develop,
light; may have flattened wing-like photosynthesis can occur and then
structures or ‘parachutes’; large dry mass increases.
surface area to increase air resistance @ Epigeal germination—cotyledons are
or buoyancy in air. carried above the ground, e.g. in sword
bean seed.
> A seed has the following structures: @ Hypogeal germination—cotyledon
@ testa the protective seed coat remains below the surface of the soil,
@ hilum——— the scar where the seed e.g. in maize and broad bean seed.
stalk is attached
@ micropyle— the aperture where water
enters during germination
Thinking Skills: Inference, Deduction, Experimental Inquiry

Lines or markings on the petals of many brightly coloured flowers are described as honey-guides.
What does the term “honey-guide” imply?
e a D
How can your experiment confirm that these markings guide insects to collect nectar?
‘ =.
Experiment
Method:
Observation:
| Conclusion:
Reproduction in Plants :ne
=) xercise
1 Distinguish between asexual and sexual (a) Distinguish between pollination and
reproduction. fertilization.
(6) Why is cross-pollination advantageous to
plants?
(c) Indicate some of the ways in which
cross-pollination may be ensured.
(a) Why is seed dispersal thought to be of

advantage to many plants?
(6) Name four plants in which the fruits or
the seeds are dispersed in different
ways.
(c) Describe how these fruits or seeds are
adapted to their method of dispersal.
(C)
Draw a diagram to show:
(a) the external appearance, and
(b) the internal structures of a named seed.
(a) Describe, with the help of diagrams, the

changes that occur during the
germination of a named seed.
(60) Explain the part played by the
cotyledons in the life of green plants.
The figure above (A, B and C) shows
successive stages in the dissection of a
The drawings below show the external
flower.
appearance of a seed and its appearance
(a) Name parts (i) to (vi).
with the outer seed coat removed.
(b) Is this flower insect-pollinated or wind-
(a) Name the following parts labelled A to C
pollinated? Give two reasons for your
in the drawings.
decision.
A (the outer coat)
(c) Describe briefly how fertilization occurs
B (the young root)
after the pollen is deposited.
C (structures storing food reserves)
(d) Complete the following table.
(0) What does the hilum represent?

Name Agent of fruit or Feature of fruit or (c) (i) State three external conditions
of pliant seed dispersal seed aiding dispersal necessary for seed germination.
Wind (ii) Describe briefly how you would
Animal investigate the necessity of one of
these conditions.
3 (a) Describe the pollination of a named

insect-pollinated flower. A
(b) In what ways is this flower different plumule
B
from a flower adapted for wind-
pollination? micropyle
Cc
hilum
External appearance Outer coat removed
"| BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘0’ Level
The figure represents three stages in the Examine Table A and the drawings of stages
growth of a pea seedling. The following I, ll and Ill.
tables A and B give information regarding (a) Give two external conditions that can
the contents and the masses of these bring about the presence of sugar in the
seedlings obtained by taking an average of pea seed.
batches of seedlings that were allowed to (ob) Name two processes that must take
grow for the stated numbe r of days. place internally for sugar to be produced
in the seed.
(c) What evidence is there in the table for
the origin of the sugar formed in the
seed?
(d) Table B indicates a number of
physiological processes which can occur
in the seedlings. Put a tick (W) against
the process or processes that you
consider to be most important in
explaining the observations written at
the top of each column.
(e) Why is there a reduction in dry mass
between stage | and stage II?
(C)
root hairs
Stage | Stage II Stage III
1 Time for planting Stage | Stage Il Stage Ill

(days) (4) (20) (28)
ar mass of the whole plant 0.28 g 2.86 g S85) (3
Dry mass of the whole plant 0.25 g 0.19 g 0.79 g
Starch content of the seed high low further small decrease
Sugar content of the seed very low low further small decrease
Processes occurring in Decrease in dry mass Increase in dry mass

the seed or seedling between stage | and between stage Il and
stage Il stage Ill
Translocation
Photosynthesis
Transpiration
Respiration
eel
on
Osmosis
ES
LEARNING OBJECTIV te r, yo u will be able
{0: :
in th is ch ap
ing the work ve system and
After comp! et female reproducti
ti fy on di ag ra ms the male and
y Iden various parts.
nctions Of the mbers and
outline the fu te rms of size, nu
e eg gs in
sperms with th
y Compare the
mobility. nstrual cycle.
t ph ases of the me
e di ff er en the early
yp Outline th at io n an d briefly describe
Of fert il iz
tne p rocess in the uterus.
> Understand en t an d it s imp jantation
te developm place nta and
stages of zygo gi ve th e role of the
an d
e amnion, gases and
function of th d nutrients,
y» State the ge of di ss o ve
in the exchan the mother.
umbilical cord ee n the fetus and
uc ts be tw
excretory prod h control.
ff er en t Me thods of birt
di
e role of the nt of syphilis
.
y Assess th
gn s, ef fe ct and tre atme —/
symptoms, si methods
y» State the ci en cy vi ru s (HIV) and
fi
man immunode
sc us s th e spread of hu
y Di ed.
y be controll
by which it ma
i
|
5
f Comprehension
G? -— wee ~ i
: r “a Eww iii g
ase ; - *
and
ral ucti n intc
ase
reprod
Sexual aga IPHi
be t=. wi n
Ctuion |
ia asexual we fo
% Cc
disadvz antages ction.

ges of sexual and asexual reproducti
ae are insects. They.are pests

| vhich causeé millions of dollars of
a crops throughout the
rid. They also show ana i
ability to switch from eres
=—p* . be
he modes of reproduction
eben. upon the time of the
eo the environmental
ee
nditions. Aphids hat ch frome
ae produce a population of a
ingless females. There are no
Le males at this stage. Each female-is Aphids feeding on aie
ee oe) aie s
born already pregnant. The baby aphids are produced by a form of reproduction called
parthenogenesis.
The aphid numbers can build up very rapidly, taking advantage of favourable
conditions such as healthy plants full of sap which the aphids suck. A lack of
predators may also allow the aphids to build up their numbers. Such a rapid build up
of numbers can start to damage the plants on which the aphids feed.
As plants become more damaged or conditions become unfavourable for the aphids,
a switch occurs in the reproductive process. The female aphids now start to produce
winged aphids which fly away and colonise new plants.
a* If conditions become very unfavourable, for example due to the onset of winter in
temperate regions, or dry conditions in the tropics, the female aphids start to give
birth to both male and female aphids. The male and female aphids now reproduce
sexually and the females, rather than giving birth to live young, now lay eggs. The
eggs can survive through the period of unfavourable climatic conditions which would
kill the adult aphids.
What are the advantages to aphids of being able to change the way they
reproduceHe
Why will gardeners and farmers be concerned about. aphids?
Find out fat cardeners and farmers control ay yhids.
| In many animals, the male and female gametes usually come from
different parents. Thus, two parents are normally involved, and they
_ share the labour of producing new life—a method which is typical of all
_ higher animals. In animals, the reproductive cells or gametes are
produced in special organs called gonads. The gonads which produce
| the male gametes or sperms are the testes (singular: testis), while those
| producing the female gametes, i.e. the eggs or ova (singular: ovum), are
called ovaries. In higher animals, the testes and the ovaries are borne
_ by different individuals. Hence, a mating process is required to ensure
| the meeting of the gametes. Mating occurs only between physically
_ mature individuals.
How Do Gametes Differ from Normal Body Cells?

| The nucleus of a normal human. body cell has 46 chromosomes in the
form of 23 pairs. One member of each pair of chromosomes came
from one parent, the other from the other parent. For example, you |
inherited half the chromosomes in the nucleus of, say, a cell found in
the lining of your mouth from your mother and half from your father.
Sexual Reproduction in Animais
However, every sperm or egg has only 23 chromosomes. This is

because in the testes or ovaries (in plants, it is in the anthers or ovules)
a process called meiosis takes place.
Consider the cell in the reproductive organ that is about to divide by | division
meiosis to produce gametes (sperms or eggs). Let us say the cell has US of
two pairs of chromosomes. When the cell divides by meiosis, the aining half
daughter nucleus will contain half the chromosome number, i.e. each
daughter nucleus will have one chromosome from each pair. This
chromosome number in
the gamete is the
haploid number (n).
Twice the haploid
number of chromosomes Parent cell with 2 pairs” Senars
make up the diploid _ of chromosomes (diploid
number is 4)
number (2n). So in the
cell mentioned above,
the diploid number is 4
and the haploid number
is 2. From 2 pairs of
chromosomes, 4 possible
types of gametes can be
produced (Figure 21.1).
For every pair of
chromosomes (e.g. A
and a), only one member
4 possibie types of gametes can be produced,
(either A or a) enters a each with 2 chromosomes (haploid number)
single gamete.
Figure 21.1 Meiosis
Such variations in the gametes, together with random fertilization,
produce variations in the offspring. This explains why sometimes
brothers and sisters do not look alike.
In Man, the diploid number is 46. This is the normal number of

chromosomes in each normal body cell. The sperm or the egg has the iD
haploid number of 23 chromosomes. Sperms or eggs are gametes.
Down’s syndrome
A gamete is a reproductive celi containing the haploid number of Unfortunately, sometimes the
chromosomes. process of gamete formation
goes wrong. In one particular
case, a gamete may carry two
copies of the 21st human
But why should gametes have a haploid number of chromosomes, and chromosome. If this gamete is
how is it possible that the normal cells of all human beings have 46 fertilized by a normal gamete,
then the zygote which results will
chromosomes each?
have three copies of chromosome
21. This results in the disorder
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two gametes. During known as Down’s syndrome.
fertilization, a sperm fuses with an egg to form a zygote. Since the Children with this condition show
sperm and the egg each have a haploid number of 23, the zygote varying degrees of mental
retardation, stunted physical
formed will have a diploid number of 46 chromosomes. Then the
growth, a reduced resistance to
zygote divides by normal cell division called mitosis (Chapter 20), disease and congenital heart
resulting in all the cells in the child having a diploid number of defects.
chromosomes (except in the ovum and sperm cell).
cells in
gonads of meiosis
male and
female
parents
embryo
forming
The Male Reproductive System
There are two ovoid testes in the male (Figure 21.3). The testes lie in
a pair of sacs, called the scrotal sacs, between the thighs. These are
pouch-like extensions of the skin. The development of the sperms
_ requires a temperature lower than that of the body. This explains why
| the testes lie in the scrotal sacs which are outside the main body
cavity. At the upper end of each testis is a spermatic cord which
contains blood vessels. Leading from the end of the testes is a narrow,
much-coiled tube, the epididymis.
The testis produces sperms. Sperms from the testis may be stored
temporarily in an inactive form in the epididymis before they enter the
sperm duct or vas deferens.
Figure 21.3 Male reproductive system |
|
kidney
ureter
ureter urinary seminal

bladder vesicle
urinary pubic bone Cowper’s

bladder gland
prostate
gland
seminal
vesicle
prostate
gland rectum
spermatic
Cowper’s : epididymis
cord gland penis
urethra — sperm urethra
duct
scrotum
testis
scrotum
(a) Front view (b) Left side view

Sexual Reproduction in Animals
The sperm duct from each side passes into the abdominal cavity. It
loops over the ureter of that side and finally opens into the urethra. A
gland called the seminal vesicle opens into each sperm duct. At the
base of the urinary bladder, where the two sperm ducts join the
urethra, is the prostate gland. Beneath the prostate gland is the
Cowper’s gland. The seminal vesicle, the prostate and the Cowper’s
gland secrete a slippery fluid which mixes with the sperms. The
mixture of fluid and sperms is called semen. The fluid in the semen
contains nutrients and enzymes which serve to nourish the sperms and
activate them so that they begin to swim actively. The seminal vesicle
also stores sperms temporarily before ejaculation. Figure 21.4 A mammalian sperm and
an ovum
The urethra is a tube which passes through the
centre of the penis to the exterior. Semen and
urine do not pass through the urethra at the
same time. There is a circular band of muscle
called the sphincter muscle at the base of the
urinary bladder. This muscle can be controlled.
It prevents urine from coming out of the bladder
during ejaculation or release of the semen.
The penis is an erectile organ. It contains

erectile tissue with numerous blood spaces.
When the blood spaces are filled with blood,
the penis becomes erect and hard.
Numerous sperms are produced throughout the life of a mammal after

puberty. The human sperm or spermatozoon (Figure 21.4) has:
@ ahead with a diameter of about 2.5 um. It contains a large nucleus
with little cytoplasm and an acrosome. The nucleus carries a
haploid set of chromosomes. The acrosome is a sac containing
enzymes. These enzymes break down part of the egg membranes
so that the sperm can penetrate during fertilization,
@ a middle piece containing mitochondria which provide energy for
the activity of the sperm, and
® a tail or flagellum which enables the sperm to swim towards the egg. deat
nd Aymenopause
The Female Reproductive System

In the female, there are two ovoid ovaries attached to the dorsal body
wall just below the kidneys (Figure 21.5). Eggs or ova develop inside
the ovaries of the mature female human. It is thought that about
70 000 potential cells are already present at birth; only about 500 will
ever become mature within the two ovaries and they are released from
puberty to menopause. Usually, only one egg is released every month.
The ovaries take turns to release an egg.
The egg is spherical with a diameter of about 120 um. It has a large
nucleus containing one haploid set of chromosomes. Abundant
cytoplasm is present and may contain a small amount of yolk. The egg
has a plasma membrane which, in turn, is surrounded by an outer
membrane.
Judging male fertility second line crosses scale D. This gives the
relative assessment of fertility.
Infertility is a major problem for about 1 in 10
married couples trying to have a child. Infertility
can be caused by a number of factors, and a Activity
low sperm count or defective sperms may be You have been presented with a semen sample
one reason. Male fertility can be assessed which you examined under the microscope. You
using the nomogram shown below. This takes find that the sample contains 25 million sperms
into account the number of sperms, their per cm°, 35% of which are motile after two
motility and their appearance. Abnormal hours, and 84% of which have normal heads.
sperms, e.g. those with no heads or two tails, Assess the fertility of this man.
do not survive well in the female reproductive
tract.
Nomogram showing sperm count, motility and morphology

To use the nomogram:
@ Draw a Straight line
between the observed [| } fertile
number of sperms
(scale A) and the eis possibly
fertile
percentage of motile
sperms after two 45 - - 76
hours (scale C).
under 70
® From the intersection 35] infertile
Oo normal headed
of this line with scale sperms/%
B, draw another 25-4
20-4 ea
| 0.4 +
straight line to the
15 FERTILITY
observed percentage a 1 INDEX
of normal headed
under 10 +— under 10 ——
sperms on scale E.
SH observed number motile sperms
:
5 Read off the fertility of sperms/million cm? after 2 hours/%
index where this
_ The ovary releases the ripe ova (eggs) into the oviduct at certain times.
There are two oviducts. Each oviduct (also called the fallopian tube)
is a narrow muscular tube. It leads from the ovary to the uterus. It has
a funnel-like opening lying close to the ovary. This makes it easier for
the egg to enter the oviduct. The egg is fertilized in the oviduct.
The uterus is the name for the womb. It is where the baby or fetus
develops during pregnancy. It is pear-shaped, about 7.5 cm long. The
uterus has muscular walls. Its inner lining, the endometrium, is soft
and smooth. Part ofthis lining is sloughed off every month during
menstruation.
At the lower narrow end ofthe uterus is a circular ring of muscle

known as the cervix. Leading from the cervix to the outside is the
birth canal or vagina. The opening ofthe vagina is the vulva. Semen
is deposited in the vagina during intercourse.
Figure 21.5 Panels ART system
Puberty
Cervical cancer
Puberty is a time of active growth in humans during which the person
changes from a child to an adult. During this time, the reproductive Cervical cancer is one of the
commonest forms of cancer in
system ofthe person begins to function properly. This begins at the
women. It starts with a change in
age of about 11 for girls and 14 for boys. the size and shape of the cells
which make up the cervix. Whilst
At puberty, many changes occur in a young person’s body. These these abnormal cells are not
changes are called secondary sex characteristics and are brought themselves cancerous, they often
tend to become cancerous, and if
about by sex hormones. The female sex hormones are made by the
left untreated could develop into
ovaries, and are called oestrogen and progesterone. The male sex a tumour which could be fatal.
hormone is made by the testes, and is called testosterone. Some of Early diagnosis of these changes
the changes occurring at puberty are shown in Table 21.1. | in the cervical cells can be
achieved in 90% of cases using a
The menstrual cycle smear test (Pap smear test). In
this test, a few cells are removed
For the girl, the first sign of puberty is usually the monthly discharge of from the cervix with a swab, via
blood or menses from the uterus via the vagina. This is called the vagina. The cells are then
stained and examined
menstruation. The menstrual period usually lasts for about five days.
microscopically. Abnormal cells
However, the length of the menstrual period and the amount of blood have a characteristic appearance.
lost vary considerably with the individual. Every month, a cycle of If detected, the cells can be
events takes place in the female reproductive organs. This is called the removed with a laser. All women
menstrual (or oestrous) cycle. The average menstrual cycle for an should have regular cervical
smear tests.
adult woman is 28 days.
Table 21.1 Secondary sexual characteristics

es xXSS SSR
ES oe
Nocatee
Ree NaS
nO RE
¢ A beard starts to grow and hair appears inWy o Hair.appears inthe |pubieregion.and haar
eaE reeion.ia under aunelles: _ armpits
we|e The breasts and uterus enlarge, and hips
- broaden
eee ae Menstruation
and ovulation start
© Larynxee andvoice» deepens
BIOLOGY: A Course fer ‘O’ Level
Menstrual cycles ranging from about

INVESTIGATION
21 to 33 days are not abnormal. The
effects of emotional disturbances,
stress, mental fatigue and illness
Dissection of rabbits to show reproductive systems may alter or stop the menstrual
cycle and change the interval
You are provided with dissected male and female rabbits. ee
SS
oe between periods. An unbalanced
(Preserved specimens could be used.) SRE
diet or malnutrition may cause the
1 (a) Examine the male rabbit. Identify the following periods to be very irregular or to
structures: stop completely. A young girl may
scrotal sacs, testes, epididymis, sperm ducts, take about three years before her
seminal vesicles, urinary bladder, ureters, prostate periods become regular.
gland and penis.
(60) The testes lie inside the scrotal sacs. What do There are many developing follicles
you think might happen if the testes are situated in the ovary. The young follicles are
|| inside the body cavity? called primary follicles. Each primary

ENON
TESTIS
SI
GL
EDIBLE
LEE
Examine the female reproductive system of the rabbit.

follicle consists of a potential egg cell
Note the following differences from the human surrounded by a layer of smaller cells
known as the follicle cells. The
|
reproductive system:
(a) The oviducts are much coiled. primary follicle may grow to
(b) There are two uteri which are elongated in shape. maturity— a mature follicle is known
SLSR
BORE
ER
SI
LDS
LEAR
OETA
| as a Graafian follicle. The Graafian

EI
(c) The urethra unites with the vagina to form a
| common passage. follicle contains an egg surrounded by
a4
%
a ne
follicle cells and a fluid-filled space.
barca
teeters
The egg has a haploid number of

chromosomes indicating that meiosis has taken place. The egg is now
ready to be released from the ovary. Figure 21.6 shows the changes
taking place in one follicle during the menstrual cycle. Other follicles
are in different stages of development but they are not shown in
_ the diagram.
At about the 14th day from the beginning of menstruation, the

_ Graafian follicle ruptures and releases the egg into the oviduct funnel.
This is called ovulation. Usually one egg is released every month by
one of the ovaries.
Figure 21.6 Section of a human ovary
to show changes in one follicle during
a menstrual cycle After ovulation, the follicle develops
into a corpus luteum. The corpus
fluid-filled
space
haploid
egg cell
luteum secretes progesterone.
follicle potential Progesterone causes the uterine lining
cell egg cell ne ovulation
to remain thick and soft and to become
= (egg released
from ovary)
well supplied with blood vessels. The
uterine lining is now ready for the
primary
embryo to be implanted. The corpus
© follicle Graafian
follicle
luteum also produces some oestrogen.
If no fertilization occurs, the corpus

luteum will still persist for some time.
corpus luteum
corpus luteum - Exentually, it will break down and stop
breaks down =
si ee p producing hormones. This is the start
ovary of menstruation which occurs about
the 28th day from the onset of the
previous menstruation.
The hormonal control of the

menstrual cycle
The cycle of events taking place
in the ovary is controlled by
hormones secreted by the
anterior pituitary gland
(Figure 21.7).
The cycle begins with the onset

of menstruation. The anterior
lobe of the pituitary gland
secretes follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH) into the seastineee pret ies hat a Ret .
bloodstream. ee
fesereets iba
auf:pes ietstygtcices Bes i
1b Shear apeenae
gcisccastaes
@ What FSH does

® It stimulates the development ile Petiog
of the follicles in the ovaries.
uterine lining grows
Usually one follicle ripens to | / and thickens
: Pall
become the Graafian follicle
in one of the ovaries during , repair of
" uterine lining
each cycle. : Sa la aoe
‘ i
@ It also stimulates the follicles | “Ee -
ucerine tinin
He eee
ICKENS
: PPsesd)
in the ovary to secrete | 4
A4 more vascular,
Sones
oestrogen. V/ for implantation
zw Effects of oestrogen
@ After menstruation, it causes
the repair and growth of the
uterine lining (endometrium).
The uterine lining becomes
thick and spongy with blood
vessels.
@ A high concentration of seigiites
oestrogen in the blood Figure 21.7 Summary of changes
inhibits FSH production, preventing the ripening and growth of during one menstrual cycle of 28
more follicles. Bens
It stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete luteinising hormone (LH).
Functions ofLH
It causes ovulation.
It also causes the formation of the corpus luteum.
Corpus luteum
8
oH
@¢
@ The corpus luteum secretes progesterone and also some
oestrogen.
& Functions ofprogesterone

@ It keeps the uterine lining thick and well supplied with blood,
preparing it for the implantation of the embryo.
@ It inhibits both FSH and LH production. |
Oral contraceptive pills can prevent pregnancy because they contain

chemicals which behave like oestrogen and progesterone. They inhibit
FSH and LH production, preventing the follicles developing in the
ovaries so there is no ovulation.
After its release, an ovum can
live for two or three days. Since If the egg is not fertilized it will break down. The corpus luteum
ovulation occurs about day 14, it persists for some time. Eventually the drop in LH level in the blood
means that an ovum can survive
causes the corpus luteum to degenerate too. Progesterone production
from day 14 till approximately day
17. Sperms can live for stops so that the uterine lining cannot be maintained in a thickened
: approximately two to three days state anymore, and it breaks down. The lining is discharged together
in the female reproductive with some blood through the vagina. This marks the beginning of
system. This means that sperms menstruation. FSH is again produced by the pituitary and the whole
_ released into the vagina at cycle is repeated.
around day 11 can fertilize the
ovum and bring about pregnancy.
Hence, the period from around If fertilization occurs, the zygote develops into an embryo which
day 11 to 17 is the fertile implants itself in the uterine lining. The embryo secretes a hormone
period, i.e. fertilization is which prevents the corpus luteum from degenerating so that the
possible during this period. The corpus luteum continues to secrete progesterone and oestrogen until
rest of the days make up the
the placenta is formed. Then, the placenta takes over the production of
infertile phase of the menstrual
cycle. hormones.
Ry¢
GR EPEESEOE
ELISE ETDS ISS IID LELE SEN ELLELESSEE LENE ELOISE EDDIE
% TEST YOURSELF PEST RII SAORI MONDE BDI AINE LEE ELD MOSEL DEE SEIT
‘5
E
:
Study the figure below and answer the questions that follow.
1 Name the hormones A and B.
2 What are the effects of A and B on the uterine lining?

3 Which hormone, not shown in the figure, is released in
high concentration by the pitu itary on the 14th day? |
:
Which is the fertile period?
5th-7th day
12th-16th day Changes during the menstrual cycle
:
23rd—28th day :
;i
What happens to the
hormone A
uterine lining during
the first five days? |
EE
LL
ILA
IEP
ETS
ELLIE,
IEEE
AOI
LE
LYLPLL
ELON
ILE
LLALY
SL
AOE
LLELAS
LP
ED
DD
LEELA
LL
LEP
CLL
LYPILL
DE
LALA
LIAL
LOLI
EEA
of hormones
blood
in
Concentration :
:
of lining
uterine
Thickness
RN 5 14 18 28 |
Days
SLT ELLER INA IIS NLL LILIES AY MES OTT NEESER TEED ODN TSI ELT I AE VRB ENR FY AIMLESS FOTSACIES RST
Mating or Copulation (Sexual Intercourse)

When a man becomes sexually aroused, blood is pumped into the
penis faster than it can return to the venous bloodstream, and so it fills
the spaces in the spongy tissues of the penis. This causes the penis to
become stiff and erect to allow it to enter the vagina of the woman. _ Twins
Semen containing the sperms is ejaculated high into the vagina. The _ In some women, two eggs are
sperms are able to swim up the oviducts of the woman in a liquid c released into the oviduct at about
_ the same time. The two eggs are
made by the man’s seminal vesicles and prostate gland. The chemicals
_ fertilized by two different sperms.
in this liquid make the sperm tails beat to propel the sperms along the - The two zygotes formed do not
oviducts. Ifa sperm meets an egg in the oviduct, fertilization may contain the same genetic
occur. _ materials so that the twins
formed are non-identical (fraternal
twins). They may be of different
About 100 million sperms are released into the vagina during
' sexes, i.e. one male and one
intercourse. Only one of these will fertilize the egg. female. Even when the twins are
of the same sex, they may not
look alike.
Fertilization
Identical twins are produced by
The egg released from the ovary is usually surrounded by a few layers one fertilized egg. This egg or
of follicle cells. To penetrate the egg, the acrosome of the sperm zygote divides into two cells,
releases an enzyme to break down the corona radiata and disperse the each of which grows to become a
baby. Since the two babies are
follicle cells. Only one sperm enters the egg. The haploid sperm
derived from one fertilized egg
nucleus fuses with the haploid egg nucleus and a diploid zygote or they have the same genes and
fertilized egg is formed. are identical.
As soon as the sperm has entered the egg, the membrane of the egg
changes so that no other sperms can enter. The remaining sperms,
which do not fertilize the eggs, eventually die.
Development of the Embryo
The fertilized egg passes along the oviduct to the uterus, and as it does
so it begins to divide to form a hollow ball of cells called the embryo.
It takes about five days for the embryo to reach the uterus. Eventually,
the embryo sinks in or becomes embedded in the uterine lining. This is
called implantation.
Embryonic membranes develop to enclose the embryo. A membrane

called the amnion encloses the embrvo in a fluid-filled space known as
the amniotic cavity (Figure 21.10). The amniotic fluid has the
following functions: Figure 21.8 Fertilization
@ It supports and
cushions the embryo/ diploid nucleus
fetus before birth.
@ It is ashock absorber. \ - only one ;
He sperm
@ As itis © enters
the egg
incompressible, it also
0 zygote
protects the embryo/
released As
fetus against by sperm
mechanical injury. follicle cells
dispersed
@ During birth, it lubricates and reduces

348
friction in the vagina (birth canal).
@ It buoys up the fetus and allows it to
move freely during growth.
Finger-like processes, called villi, grow

from the embryo into the uterine wall
(Figure 21.10). They contain the blood
capillaries of the embryo which can come
in very close association with the
mother’s blood around the villi. The villi
and the uterine wall in which the villi are
embedded make up the placenta. Thus,
the placenta is formed partly from the
embryonic tissue and partly from the
uterine wall. It is important to note that
the mother’s blood system and that of the
embryo are not continuous, otherwise the
Figure 21.9 Early stages of
development of embryo
blood pressure of the mother would kill
the embryo. Also the blood group of the embryo may not be the
same as the mother’s and agglutination of the embryo’s blood
could occur. Figure 21.11 shows a section of the human uterus
containing a fetus. The fetal blood capillaries are surrounded by
maternal blood spaces. Thus, in the placenta, the blood capillaries
of the embryo are separated from the mother’s blood system by
only a thin layer of tissue so that diffusion of dissolved substances
can occur (Figure 21.11).
Functions of the placenta
The placenta:
@ Allows dissolved food substances (e.g. glucose, amino acids,
mineral salts) and oxygen to diffuse from the mother’s blood into
that of the embryo.
@ Allows metabolic waste products (e.g. urea and carbon dioxide) to
diffuse from the embryonic blood capillaries into the mother’s
Embryo, fetus and gestation bloodstream.
period @ Allows antibodies to diffuse from the mother’s blood into the
The zygote divides by mitosis to embryonic blood capillaries. The antibodies protect the embryo
form a ball of cells known as the against certain diseases.
embryo. The embryo continues to
@ Produces progesterone which maintains uterine lining in healthy
divide and develop. In humans,
about 10 to 12 weeks time after
state during pregnancy.
fertilization, all the major organs
are formed. From this stage The embryo is attached to the placenta by a tube known as the
onwards, the embryo is known as umbilical cord which contains the blood vessels of the embryo. It
a fetus.
contains two umbilical arteries that carry deoxygenated blood from
The period from fertilization _ the fetus to the placenta. It also contains one umbilical vein that
(conception) to birth is known as transports oxygenated blood and food substances from the placenta to
the gestation period. This period
the fetus. When the main organs of the embryo have been formed, the
varies—for humans it is 38 weeks,
elephants 1 year and 9 months,
young mammal is known as a fetus. The fetus continues to grow in
and mice only 19 days. the uterus. At the end of nine months of pregnancy, the baby is fully
formed and is ready to be born.
uterine (maternal)
blood spaces
embryonic villi
uterine wall
umbilical cord =;
fetal blood capillaries ie ;
cavity of _ The boxed region in Figure 21.10
uterus oviduct
is enlarged in Figure 21.11 to
_ show the relationship between
the fetus and the placenta
amnion diagrammatically.
fetus
amniotic cavity
iow
AA
cervix Z
Z
Z|
1gZ|
Z| Childbirth
Zi
Ls
[Se e Breast-feeding
Figure 21.10 Section showing human fetus in the uterus
21:3 = ‘Family Planning Anas tari Siemens signe nem ad oan septs remneon okFidlenwmesee ch
For the benefit of both parents and children, the size of the family has
to be carefully planned. For financial or health reasons, many couples
may wish to space out their children. Ifa couple wishes to have sexual
intercourse and yet is not ready to have a child they need to use a
form of contraception. Contraception is the prevention of pregnancy.
| Figure 21.11 Part of the placenta
Birth control methods generally fall eee
into four main groups. uterine (maternal)

blood spaces ~
@ The natural method metabolic waste
The rhythm method (safe-period

products (e.g. urea ©
and carbon dioxide)
>
oxygen and
method) is based on the fact that in WA _*
food substances
every cycle there is a fertile period
when ovulation is most likely to
occur. Sexual intercourse should be 2 embryonic
5 villus
avoided during this period if oO
se)
pregnancy is to be prevented. An egg = fetal blood
capillaries
can survive for about two days in the
female reproductive tract. The fertile
period may be from the 12th to the
16th day from the beginning of
menstruation. Women using this
method have to keep regular records
umbilical cord
of their menstrual cycles. They may umbilical I =
also need to record their daily artery
(carries
umbilical vein
(carries
temperature for the whole cycle. deoxygenated | oxygenated
blood) blood)
Usually the body temperature is Lames
higher at the time of ovulation.
_ BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘0’ Level
This method is most unreliable as many factors, such as emotional

stress and illness, may alter the length of the menstrual cycle. It is
unsuitable for women whose menstrual cycles are very irregular.
@ Mechanical methods
The condom (or sheath) is a thin rubber tube that is used to cover the
erect penis before intercourse. A small teat at the end of the sheath
collects the semen. It is reliable if used properly. It also helps to protect
the user against contracting a venereal disease.
The condom is impermeable and prevents any germs (bacteria and

some viruses) that may be present in the semen from coming into
contact with the vaginal wall. Similarly, it also protects the male by
preventing bacteria and viruses present in the vagina of an infected
female from entering the urethra of the male.
The diaphragm is a dome-shaped rubber cap with an elastic rim. It is

inserted into the top of the vagina and placed over the cervix,
preventing sperms from getting into the uterus. A spermicidal cream
_ may be used together with the cap to kill the sperms.
Figure 21.12 Methods of birth control | The intra-uterine device (IUD)
is a coil or loop of plastic inserted
into the uterus to prevent the
implantation of the fertilized egg
into the uterine wall.
A condom (a) when removed from wrapper (b) unrolled
B Chemical methods
Spermicides are chemicals which
can be used to kill the sperms and
intra-uterine device
may be in the form of a cream,
inserted into uterus jelly, foam or tablet. The
by a doctor
spermicide is placed high into the
vagina before intercourse, and
when used with the diaphragm or
condom it affords greater
protection.
Contraceptive pills contain

The cap or diaphragm
intra-uterine devices (IUDs) female sex hormones (oestrogen-
and progesterone-like hormones)
both oviducts are that prevent ovulation. One pill
sperm duct tied and cut
must be taken every 24 hours from
ieeepiece « Ss) the 5th to the 25th day from the
onset of menstruation. The woman
cs) Se then stops taking the pill for
menstruation to occur. She starts
taking the pill again on the 5th day
from the start of menstruation.
Vasectomy This method is very reliable
Tubal ligation provided the women follows the
instructions closely.
M Surgical methods
Sterilization of the male is by a minor operation called vasectomy.
The operation takes only a few minutes during which the sperm ducts = (O} nisiNIE
(vasa deferentia) are tied and cut. This prevents sperms from reaching
Comprehension
the penis, so no sperms are discharged. The person is able to have
When the pill gets
intercourse as usual. His sexual characteristics are not affected since
under you
the testes can still secrete male hormones (testosterone) into the
bloodstream.
In the woman, the operation is called tubal ligation. Both the

oviducts (fallopian tubes) are cut and tied back. This prevents the
sperms in the uterus from reaching the egg.
Sterilization is the most reliable contraceptive method. However, it is

irreversible and so it is not suitable for young people.
-21.4- Sexually Transmitted Diseases.
Syphilis
Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease passed on to a partner by a

person infected with spirochete, a corkscrew-shaped bacterium.
Signs and symptoms

Signs of a disease can be observed or measured. A symptom is
something that can be felt or described by the patient, e.g. pain and
nausea are symptoms. The signs and symptoms of syphilis occur in
three stages. These stages are as follows:
@ Stage 1
About three weeks after infection, a painless sore or chancre appears at
the site of entry of the bacteria. It usually occurs on the penis in the
male and in the vagina or on the cervix of the female. The chancre
may disappear in a few weeks even without treatment.
B Stage 2
About 2 to 6 months after infection, signs appear on different parts of
the body: non-itchy skin rashes, sores on the mouth, throat and
genitals. Bald patches may appear on the head. The lymph glands may
become swollen. These signs again disappear after some time, but the
bacteria remain dormant in the body until the third stage of the
disease.
M Stage 3
The internal organs become affected. Patients may suffer from heart
failure and blindness. The brain and spinal cord may be damaged,
resulting in paralysis, insanity and even death.
Syphilis can be cured at all stages if prompt treatment is sought.

352 Prevention and control
By using antibiotics, e.g. penicillin, to treat infected persons.

Advising infected persons to refrain from intercourse.
Tracing the contacts with whom an infected person has had
intercourse and treating them promptly.
Advising males to wear a condom during intercourse.
Discouraging promiscuous sexual behaviour and keeping to one
¢¢09%4
¢¢
sex partner.
The Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
The causative agent is a virus called HIV (Human Immunodeficiency

Virus). HIV destroys the body’s immune system—the system that
protects a person against infection. Normally, when foreign particles
such as disease germs enter our bloodstream, our white blood cells are
able to identify them. The lymphocytes are then stimulated to produce
antibodies to destroy the germs. Such an immune system protects our
Human Immunodeficiency Virus
bodies against many diseases. However, the AIDS virus acts by
destroying the victim’s immune system. The body is unable to produce
sufficient antibodies to provide the immunity needed to protect the
| person against many other diseases (i.e. immune deficiency).
Therefore, infections which are normally mild may prove to be fatal to
a person with AIDS.
PEPER RAAT URNA SEEDER

RII LYSSSID LPR TERETE
ALIEN OI SER LEST GEE ONI
aD)
, 3 (a) to (g) state how different methods of :
SS birth control work. Identify these birth
(a) Make a drawing of the reproductive and Control methods. |
urinary organs of a woman as seen in (a) It prevents the implantation of the i
side-view section. fertilized egg.
(b) Label on your drawing the following (b) It kills sperms.
structures, using the names of the (c) It is placed over the cervix to prevent '
structures and the appropriate letters: the sperms from entering the uterus.
A the place where sperms are (d) It contains the semen so sperms i
deposited during intercourse, cannot enter the vagina and fertilize the
B_ the place where fertilization occurs, egg.
C the structure where the fetus (e) Time when ovulation does not occur.
develops, Sexual intercourse can take place
D_ the structure which produces eggs without fertilization. :
and hormones, (f) Prevents ovulation or release of the egg
E the tube which carries urine out of from the ovary.
the body. (g) It prevents the sperms from meeting
Vasectomy (cutting or tying of the vasa the C88 SO fertilization does not take
deferentia) makes a man sterile but does place.
not affect his sexual characteristics. Explain |
why this is so. J
Signs and symptoms

The signs and symptoms include chronic fever, severe diarrhoea
lasting for months, pneumonia, Kaposi’s sarcoma (cancer of the blood
vessels), brain infection and widespread tuberculosis affecting many
organs at the same time. The word syndrome is given to AIDS
because it is a disease with many signs occurring at the same time.
Victims of AIDS usually die within two years and at present there is no Sus
known cure.
Mode of transmission
_ In the early stages of HIV
AIDS is usually transmitted as follows: infection, a person may look and
@ Sexual intercourse with an infected person. : ae seise Sea
@ Sharing hypodermic needles with an infected person, for example, ibe tibody test,
when drug addicts share their needles. Needles used for tattooing,
acupuncture or ear-piercing may transmit the disease if they are _ An infected person produces
not properly sterilized. antibodies in response to the
@ Blood transfusion with blood from an infected person. In ay eo pe a2 seep les
re exposure to the virus. The test
ee ra problem becausee all donated
é
blood is able to detect the presence of is
j
ee _ these antibodies in the blood. It

@ During pregnancy, the virus may pass from the infected mother to does not test for HIV itself.
the fetus.
It may be useful to make a list of
It must be emphasized that AIDS is not spread through toilet seats, who should go for the AIDS
: : . antibody test!
door knobs, coughs, swimming pools or mosquitoes. :
For more information, check out
Prevention and control the information that is
' ; : _ disseminated by the Training and
@ Keep to one sex partner and avoid promiscuous sexual behaviour. Health Education Department,
@ Males should wear a condom if they are not sure whether their Ministry of Health.
partners or themselves are infected with AIDS. This reduces the
e
sk of infection
ee drug abuse as drug addicts tend to share hypodermic
|
| ee ee ie Gther countrids.
needles. :
@ Avoid sharing instruments that are likely to break the skin and be =x
contaminated with blood, e.g. razors and toothbrushes. | interNET
@ Ifyou require acupuncture, ear-piercing or tattooing, you should
go to reliable operators. Make sure that the needles used are
sterilized or insist on using disposable instruments.
summary
ction
iia
Man ) Woman
—
Testes Ovaries
(male sex organs) (female sex organs)
produce produce
Male sex hormone Sperms Ova (eggs or Female sex hormones

(testosterone) (male gametes) female gametes) (oestrogen and
progesterone)
development and
maintenance of Sperm Ege development and
male secondary maintenance of female
sexual secondary sexual
Fertilization
characteristics characteristics
4
Zygote
Vv
Baby
» Meiosis @ A mammalian ovum (female gamete) is

@ Meiosis is a form of nuclear division in spherical with a haploid nucleus. Yolk is
which the daughter nuclei produced present (though in small amounts). It is
have half the number of chromosomes non-motile. Number of ova produced by
or hereditary materials as the parent the ovaries in mammals is fixed at
nucleus. It occurs in the testes and birth.
ovaries during the formation of the
sperms and eggs respectively. Gonads
A sperm or egg has half the number e Passage route of sperms from testis to
(haploid number) of chromosomes as the outside:
the normal body cell (diploid number), testis > epididymis > sperm duct >
e.g. in humans the normal body cell has urethra in penis > outside
46 chromosomes while the sperm or Parts of female reproductive system in
egg has 23 chromosomes. humans: ovaries, oviduct funnels,
fallopian tubes (or oviducts), uterus and
» Male and female gametes vagina
@ A mammalian sperm (male gamete) has
a head containing a haploid nucleus, a Sperms are introduced into the vagina of
middle piece and a long tail used for females during copulation or mating.
swimming. Sperms are produced Fertilization usually takes place in the
throughout the life of the male from fallopian tubes.
puberty onwards.
by the Orabilieal cord

@ The amniotic fluid supports the erbrve: _ main groups: —
protects it from shock and allows it to @ Natural method or rhythm method.
move freely. @ Mechanical methods include the use of
@ The placenta serves the following the condom, the diaphragm or the intra
functions: uterine device (IUD).
e Allows oxygen and food substances ® Chemical methods e.g. use of
(e.g. glucose, amino acids, mineral spermicides or contraceptive pills.
Salts) to diffuse from the uterine ® Surgical methods, e.g. vasectomy in
(maternal) blood spaces into the males and tubal ligation in females.
fetal blood capillaries.
e Allows metabolic waste products » Sexually transmitted diseases
(e.g. urea and carbon dioxide) to ® Syphilis is a venereal disease caused by
diffuse from the fetal blood bacteria.
@ AIDS is caused by HIV.
Inference
What data woul: ct t ) pI the invalidity of the mai facturer’s claim?

Data collection:
Final decision:
(a) What is a gamete? (a) What happens between day O and day
(6) What are the similarities and A?
differences between the male gamete (6) What is the normal length of time
and the female gamete in a mammal? between day O and day A?
(c) What happens to the uterus lining
(a) By means of a clearly labelled diagram, during the time between day A and day
show the reproductive system of a B?
named female mammal. (d) What is the normal length of time
(6) Describe briefly how the developing between day O and day B?
mammal, from the zygote stage until the (e) What happens to the uterus lining in the
birth of the fetus, is nourished and time between day B and day C?
protected. (f) Place the letter*X on the diagram at the
(C) point when conception is likely to take
place.
(a) Draw a large, labelled diagram of the (g) Where, in the human reproductive
reproductive system of a male mammal. system, is fertilization most likely to
(b) Explain briefly where the male and take place?
female gametes are produced and how (h) How long is the period of gestation in
they are liberated. humans?
(c) Described briefly how a zygote, once (i) Name two structures which link the
formed, continues its development. fetus to its mother.
(C) (j) How is a fetus protected against
pressure from sudden movements of its
The figure below shows the relative mother’s body?
thickness of the lining of the uterus in a
woman during a menstrual cycle of 28 (a) What is meant by the term “family
days. planning”?
S Explain why a promiscuous person is
o
more likely to contract a sexually
transmitted disease than one who is not
oc
~
—
ie promiscuous.
os
ee
cw
one
ef Describe the main stages in the menstrual
——
cycle. Explain how hormones help in
O A B CD
controlling this cycle.
Time/days
CHAPTER 22
Heredity
IVES
OY LEARNING OBJECT ch ap te r, you will be
able to:
the work in th is
After completing
an allele.
Di ff er en ti at e 4 gene from
> mosomes.
ge ne s ar e carried on chro
y State that d co-dominance
.
co mp le te dominance an
lems on
y Solve prob tinuous variat
ion.
n from discon
co nt in uous variatio mber
Differen ti at e romosome nu
>
al ch an ge s in genes or ch
ctur
tation to stru
yp Relate mu agents.
me muta nic ge
reproduction
and name so al survival of and
di ff er en ti
ads to
competition le ronment.
>» State that be st fi tted to the envi
by those orga
ni sm s chanism for
le ct io n as a possible me
of natural se
e importance
y Assess th
evolution. uction of
ci al se le ct io n in the prod
tifi
the role of ar
» Appreciate ts and animal
s.
al ly important plan protein and
ec on om ic
pr od uc ti on of a partic ular
ntrols th e d
each gene co be transferre
» State that ab le s sp ec if ic genes tO
at this fact en
appreciate th t species.
me or differen
Sy
OTR
e sa n
between ce ll s of th man insulin ca
ro ls th e pr oduction of hu al
cont ci
e gene that e scale commer
> Explain how th l DN A, en ab ling the larg ed bacteria.
in se rt ed in to bacteria ge ne ti ca ll y engineer
be n using such
human insuli gineering.
production of d da ng er s of genetic en
an
ql advantages
Di sc us s some potenti
y aes
Dict
22.1 How Do Humans Vary?

: d with explaininoo
The work in thi ave is concerne
following te children all look
also is patter ent? mans
but why do they ook differ
|
anye, will
| twin, your brothers and sisters ee aeve ot
identica ae
not look exactly like you. You are going to start off by
collecting some data about human variation. You will need this
information later in the chapter. You should do this exercise as
a class and share the data which you collect.
As a class, choose ten external
human characteristics which you are
interested in. For example: height,
shoe size, eye colour, hair colour,
ability to roll the tongue, attached or
detached ear lobes, writing with the
left or right hand, gender (male or
female), weight.
Using a computer word processing

package, make up a questionnaire to
ask people about these ten
characteristics. Make sure you all
use the same questionnaire. Why?
Using the questionnaire, each person
in the class should now ask ten
people to complete their
Humans show great variation
questionnaire. Make sure that you
between individuals
choose different people.
Once you have collected your data, you can enter the
results into a spreadsheet package. An example of what
*
aac part of such a spreadsheet would look like is given
below.
Now using the graphics package of the spread sheet,

produce graphs of the frequency of occurrence of the
different human characteristics you have looked at. An
example of such a graph for eye colour is shown below.
How will you draw the graphs for characteristics such as
height?
Eve Colour Number

Blue
Green
Brown
Frequency of different eye

colours
| |@ Green
; | Brown
Frequency
Green
Eye colour
~22.4.--Monohybrid-inheritance:-Past-and-Present»
Introduction to the Study of Heredity

Characteristics, such as the colour of our eyes or skin, height and
intelligence, are passed on to us by our parents. They are hereditary
characteristics because they can be passed from one generation to
another. For centuries, we knew that many characteristics were
inherited. We also knew that we could breed varieties of animals and
plants with desirable qualities, such as cows which produced lots of
milk or rice plants which produced more rice. However, scientists
were not able to explain how such qualities were inherited until the
middle of the 19th century when Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, _ Pioneers in genetics
carried out breeding experiments with garden peas (Piswm sativum). He
The basic laws of genetics were
was the first person to give a satisfactory explanation of the laid down by Gregor Mendel in
mechanism of heredity. 1866. The Danish botanist,
_ Johannsen, called the factors that
_ transmitted the characters in
Monohybrid Inheritance Mendel’s experiments as genes
in 1909. In 1912, the American
For his experiments, Mendel carefully selected several varieties of - scientist, Thomas Morgan,
garden peas that differed in easily observable characteristics or showed that genes were carried
on chromosomes. Morgan used
characters. First, he experimented with plants with one pair of
the tiny fruitfly, Drosophila
contrasting characters such as melanogaster, extensively in his
# tallness and shortness of the plant; studies—making it famous as a
@ plants that had either red or white flowers; geneticist’s tool.
@ plants which produced seeds that were either yellow or green, or Gregor Mendel
round or wrinkled.
Inheritance involving only one pair of contrasting characters is called
monohybrid inheritance.
In one of his
experiments, Mendel
crossed tall plants
(about 2 metres high)
with dwarf plants
(about 20-50 cm high).
He used pure-bred or
true-breeding
varieties, i.e. plants ect
which when self-
Surf the internet to find out
F, generation fertilized produced about these scientists and their
offspring (or progeny) work.
that resembled their
self-fertilized parent. He cross-
pollinated the tall Hybrid
plants with pollen
A hybrid is the offspring from two
from the dwarf plants
different varieties or species. He
F, generation TALL TALL TALL DWARF and vice versa. He found that all the plants of the FE
RATIO 3 TALL : 4 DWARF planted the seeds from generation were tall, only
these plants and resembling one of the parents.
Figure 22.1 Monohybrid inheritance observed the resulting
hybrids which he called the first filial generation or F, generation.

He then allowed the F, plants to self-pollinate and produce seeds
which gave rise to the F, (second filial) generation. Of a total of 1 064
plants in the F, generation, 787 were tall plants and 277 dwarf plants,
The terms dominant and i.e. in the ratio of about three tall to one dwarf.
recessive do not mean that an
organism possessing a dominant Mendel also made crosses using 6 other pairs of contrasting characters
trait is healthier or more vigorous
in peas. The results of these crosses are summarized in Table 22.1.
than an organism with the
recessive trait. Certain fatal
diseases in Man, e.g. In all his experiments, Mendel observed that one trait or character
retinoblastoma, which causes remained unchanged in the F, hybrids (e.g. tallness) while the other
tumours in the eyes, are due to trait (e.g. dwarfness) seemed to disappear or ‘recede. However, this
dominant traits. Similarly, there character reappeared in the F, generation but only in about one-
are also fatal diseases caused by
recessive traits, e.g. sickle-cell
quarter of the total number of offspring. Mendel called the trait that
anaemia. appeared unchanged in the F, hybrid a dominant trait and the other
a recessive trait.
nae 22; 1 Mendel’ S — crosses
e
ane 5.2
ap
round x wrinkled seeds all round 5 474 round seeds

1 850 wrinkled seeds
© Q 7 324 Total
2 yellow x green seeds all yellow 6 022 yellow seeds 3-0 fs
CO) 2 001 green seeds
8 023 Total
ee
purple x white flowers all purple 705 purple flowers SieBen AL

224 white flowers
929 Total
4 inflated x constricted pods | all inflated 882 inflated pods 295571
cae” pereeae
————— 299 constricted pods
5 green x yellow pods all green pods 428 green pods 2aoe eed
Fake k 152 yellow pods
ey 580 Total
6 axial x terminal flowers all axial flowers 651 axial flowers S2l4ei- 8
207 terminal flowers
858 Total
ia long x short stems all long 787 long stems. 2:04

277 short stems
1 064 Total
Heredity
Explaining the results

The mark of Mendel’s genius was that he was able to suggest a
mechanism to explain the observations he had made about his pea plants.
What he did was to suggest a model of how the inheritance of the
traits he had studied could be explained. Like all good scientists, he was
interested in explaining, not simply describing. Mendel suggested that:
@ Hereditary factors are responsible for the transmission of
characteristics.
® Each characteristic is controlled by a pair of factors in the cells of
an organism. For example, the height of a pea plant, or the colour
of its flowers or its seeds is controlled by a pair of factors. If the
two factors differ, only the dominant one will show its effect. So, if
a pea plant contains one factor for tallness and one for dwarfness,
only the tall factor will show its effect.
® The two factors in each pair separate or segregate during gamete
formation and each gamete will contain only one factor. This has
become known as Mendel’s first law (Law of Segregation). So,
when a pea plant, containing a factor for tallness and a factor for
shortness, produces gametes, a particular gamete will either
contain the tall factor or the dwarf factor but not both. Because gametes unite at
random, and from what you have
@ ‘The fusion of gametes at fertilization restores the diploid condition
studied in your mathematics
in the zygote, i.e. the zygote contains two factors for a particular class on Probability, you may be
characteristic. able to explain why Mendel had
® Gametes unite at random so that a predictable ratio of to work with a large number of
characteristics occurs among the offspring (Figure 22.3). offspring in order to ensure that
his results are valid.
Bringing Mendel up-to-date

Mendel’s model of inheritance still forms the basis of modern genetics,
but scientists now know much more about the mechanisms involved
and have developed a new vocabulary to explain what is happening.
Chromosome
This is a thread-like structure found in the nucleus on which the
genetic material is organized. Chromosomes carry the information for
making new animal or plant bodies. This information is carried in the At this point, you need to know
molecule, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). the following four key words/
phrases:
@ Gene @ Chromosome
This is a small segment of DNA in a chromosome where a piece of ® Gene
@ Allele
genetic (hereditary) information is stored. The place on the
@ Homologous chromosome
chromosome where the gene resides is called the gene locus. Each
gene has a specific function. For example, in Mendel’s case, there is a
gene which determines the height of the pea plants; another gene
which determines the colour of their flowers; a further gene which
determines the shape of their seeds.
@ Allele
Each gene can have different forms and these alternative forms of the
same gene are called alleles. For example, the gene for height of pea
plant has two alleles: short and tall. On the other hand, the gene for
pea flower colour has two alleles: purple and white. Mendel’s “factors”
are the alleles in modern terminology.
362 One pair of homologous chromosomes B Homologous chromosomes

showing 5 gene loci for 5 different In organisms, like humans and peas, chromosomes come in pairs. One
characteristics
chromosome in the pair comes from the male parent and one from the
gene locus
(e.g. for tongue-rolling)
female parent. A pair of homologous chromosomes will have exactly
the same sequence of gene loci. However, the alleles in those gene loci
may not be the same. For example, a pea chromosome at the gene
locus for flower colour could have:
@ the same alleles, ic. purple flower colour on one chromosome and
purple flower colour on the other chromosome in the
homologous pair; or
@ the alleles could be different, i.e. white flower colour on one
chromosome and purple flower colour on the other.
Paternal Maternal
chromosome chromosome Alleles are alternative forms of a gene and occupy the same
relative positions on a pair of homologous chromosomes.
If at the same gene locus there are 2
alternative forms, T and t, they are
called alleles.
Homologous chromosomes are similar in shape and size with the

allele T exception of the sex chromosomes. Figure 22.5 shows four pairs of
homologous chromosomes in the fruitfly, Drosophila. Of the two
homologous chromosomes in each pair, one chromosome is paternal
(derived from the father) and the other is maternal in origin.
Modelling genetic crosses
We are now ready to begin modelling genetic crosses and explaining

Mendel’s results. There are two things to explain:
1 Why did one of the characteristics, for example dwarfness or

white flower colour, disappear in the F, generation of Mendel’s
crosses?
2 Why did this characteristic reappear in about one quarter of
the F, generation?
You know that diploid organisms, such as peas and humans, will have
2 copies of each gene in each cell. These copies are called alleles: one
Figure 22.2 Homologous allele will have been inherited from the male parent and the other
chromosomes and alleles
from the female parent. It is these alleles which Mendel called factors.
_ The alleles may be the same or they may be different. Usually, letters
are used to represent alleles: capital letters for dominant alleles and
_ lower case letters for recessive alleles. For example, the allele for
tallness in pea plants may be designated T and the allele for
dwarfness, t.
Pure-bred means that if you let
the plant self fertilize, then the If the organism is pure-bred, the two alleles are the same and the
offspring will always look exactly _ organism is said to be homozygous for that characteristic. Mendel’s
like the parent, i.e. if the parent parental tall plant is homozygous dominant (TT) and the dwarf plant
was tall and had purple flowers
homozygous recessive (tt). The hybrids produced by Mendel, when
and it is pure breeding, then the
offspring will always be tall and he crossed tall plants with short plants to produce the F, generation,
have purple flowers. have different alleles for height (Tt), and are said to be heterozygous
for that characteristic.
TALL PLANT (pure-bred) x DWARF PLANT
E ; Another way of expressing the cross between Fe
Parents
hybrids is to use a Punnett square.
genes segregate meiosis ig Senet atom x

during meiosis
: Tt
Ge
apeies Sas fertilization (1)
gamete Gametes T t
F, generation x - Ine iat Tt YS

Talli) ererataliaeenes |§
(selfed) Tt sigs iS ae arenes |}
TALL TALL 1 FER ite
| | i Tall == | Dwarf
meiosis meiosis — ——
ae | F, Offspring 3 TALL : 1 DWARF :
(the 2 alleles segregate)
Gametes 2 kinds of gametes

(each kind contains
only one allele) fertilization
at random
F, generation
Ratio 3 TALL : 1 DWARF
Figure 22.3 Monohybrid inheritance
Using modern terminology, the results of Mendel’s experiments on tall

and dwarf plants are summarized in Figure 22.3. You will notice that | oe
meiosis is mentioned in the figure. This was the type of cell division
used by the organisms to produce gametes (refer to Chapter 21).
| Figure 22.3 is an important
diagram and you should always
Meiosis splits up each pair of homologous chromosomes, so that each lay out your genetic diagrams in
gamete only receives one copy of each gene, i.e. each gamete has only this way when you are solving
_ problems. The use of a Punnett
got one allele of each gene compared with two alleles for each gene in - square is also helpful as it allows
the cell at the start. you to keep track of what is going
Mendel’s monohybrid inheritance can be applied to both animals and |

plants though we now know that only some characteristics are |
inherited in this simple manner, for example, those shown in Table 22.2.
Table 22.2 Traits in the fruitfly, guinea pig and Man ae ofan organism. For
peas the allele for
Organism | Dominant trait | Recessive trait | ae |
Drosophila Broad abdomen | Narrow abdomen |

(fruitfly) Grey body Black body |
ee a |
Guinea pig Black coat White coat |
Rough coat Smooth coat
Ai ¢hess hee ee eee
€ only seen when it is
Man Pigmented hair White hair (albinism) on both chromosomes,
Normal blood Sickle-cell anaemic blood mozygote).
BICLOGY: A Course for ‘0’ Level
364
The fruitfly, Drosophila melanogaster, can be

used in breeding experiments as it is readily
obtainable and easy to breed. Its life cycle is
completed in about 2 weeks.
Materials
rounded pointed with with i
Ripe bananas, yeast grains, fruitflies with abdomen abdomen normal wings vestigial wings ‘
vestigial wings, fruitflies with normal broad vs
il
wings (pure-bred), cotton wool, ether, a tray of
water. Remove the plug from the tube. Invert the
tube over a white tile and tap the tube
Apparatus gently with your fingers to dislodge the flies
Boiling tubes, a small camel’s hair brush, onto the tile.
paper, white tile or a glass plate, stereo- Examine the flies under a stereo-
microscope. microscope. Separate the males from the
female. (Use a small brush for handling the
1 Fold a piece of paper a few times so that it flies.)
is a few layers thick. Place some mashed Place 2 male flies with normal wings and 2
banana on the paper and add a few grains female flies with vestigial wings into the :
of yeast. Insert the paper with its contents paper in the boiling tube as shown. Replace ]
carefully into a boiling tube as shown the cotton wool plug. Set up a few tubes :
below. The fermenting banana is the food each with 2 pairs of flies.
for the flies. The paper helps to absorb When maggots are seen in the mashed
excess water from the banana. The dry banana, carefully remove the paper with -
sides of the paper usually serve as these maggots from the tube. Put the paper
surfaces for pupation. into an empty boiling tube and replace the
2 Soak a small piece of cotton wool in ether plug. Repeat this for the other tubes.
(Caution: ether is highly inflammable) and When new flies emerge from the pupae,
place it inside the tube containing fruitflies remove the paper containing the banana,
and replace the cover, e.g. a cotton wool taking care not to allow any fly to escape.
plug. (Watch how your teacher Anaesthetize the F, flies as described.
anaesthetizes the flies.) Examine them under the microscope. Which
;
Apparatus for breeding fruitflies
T.S. of tube to show i
position of paper i
tray water mashed boiling flies dry cotton paper

| banana tube wool plug /
and yeast
mashed banana
and yeast
Heredity
character (normal or vestigial wings) is the above procedure and when the F,
dominant? generation of flies emerge, tabulate your
8 Again set up a few tubes, each containing 2 results as shown in the table below.
pairs of flies from the F, generation. Repeat
Normal (broad- No. of broad- No. of broad-

winged) x vestigial- winged flies = winged flies =
winged flies No. of vestigial- No. of vestigial-
winged flies = winged flies =
“See ie LSA TR RI NTRE RS RII TE STDS PIERO

RARARE IPED
EGEARNS PEGA PE UE ED ERSSEEESEL RR OR SERFARE
SEREDELSA EE PLIERS
Phenotype and Genotype

@ Phenotype
The term phenotype refers to the expressed trait, e.g. the outward
appearance or visible character of an organism. Therefore, the
characteristics of an organism which can be seen, such as tallness and Genes and environment
dwarfness in pea plants, are phenotypes. The phenotype is the result of
both the genes an organism
M Genotype contains and the effects of the
environment in which it grows up
This is the genetic make-up of an organism, i.e. the genes and their in. For example, consider the
respective alleles. So, dwarf pea plants have the genotype tt while a tall Himalayan rabbit. These rabbits
plant may have the genotype either TT or Tt. have white fur but black feet,
ears and tail—this is its
Therefore, a dominant allele expresses itself and gives the same phenotype. Crossing two pure-
bred Himalayan rabbits always
phenotype in both the homozygous (TT) and heterozygous condition results in an animal with these
(Tt). A recessive allele does not express itself in the heterozygous characteristics. However, if the
condition. It expresses itself only in the homozygous condition (tt). rabbits are raised under warm
conditions, they do not develop
the black ears, tails and feet—
The Test Cross these only develop under cool
conditions. Thus, the Himalayan
Now geneticists are interested in the genotype of an organism. But rabbit clearly has an allele for
making black fur, but this is only
this cannot be observed directly—you can only see phenotypes. For
expressed in the right
example, the 3:1 ratio of tall to dwarf plants seen in the F, environment.
generation (Figure 22.3) is a phenotypic ratio. However, you now
know that peas which have the tall phenotype can have one of two
genotypes—TT or Tt. How can geneticists distinguish between
these two genotypes?
It is easy to tell the genotype of an organism showing the recessive

trait. This is because the recessive trait will only appear if the organism
is homozygous for that trait. On the other hand, an organism showing
the dominant trait, e.g. tallness in pea plants, may have a genotype TT
or Tt. In this case, we cannot determine its genotype just by looking at
the plant itself. The genotype can be identified only by breeding
experiments.
HOMOZYGOUS HOMOZYGOUS. _ HETEROZYGOUS ~ HOMOZYGOUS

DOMINANT RECESSIVE DOMINANT RECESSIVE
TALL DWARF TALL ier DWARF
Genotype of Genotype of | _ | ; .
parents parents | tt
only one kind

of gametes
Gampies from each parent
2 kinds
Gam eles of gametes
Offspring Offspring
genotype genotype
Offspring
Peony De ALL TALL Ratio of
phenotypes 4.TALL 1 DWARF
Figure 22.4 An example of a test cross
The genotype of an organism showing the dominant trait can be

determined by crossing it with an organism that is a homozygous
recessive. This is known as a test cross. Ifthe organism is homozygous
dominant, then all the offspring should show the dominant trait. If it is
heterozygous, then half the total number of offspring should show the
dominant trait, the remaining half, the recessive trait. Consider again
the height in pea plants. The test crosses are shown in Figure 22.4.
Incomplete Dominance or Co-dominance

=
In Mendel’s monohybrid inheritance, one allele
Four o’ clock plants exhibit incomplete dominance
for flower colour. When red-flowered plants and white-
was dominant over the other. Many plants and
flowered plants are crossed, infer the flower colour of animals are known in which the hybrid shows the
the resulting offspring. effects of both alleles, as neither allele is completely
dominant over the other. Both alleles, exert their
effects so that the hybrid has a phenotype that is
red flowers
intermediate between that found in its parents.
This is known as incomplete dominance (or
blending inheritance). For example, a cross
between a snapdragon plant which is homozygous
for red flowers and another plant homozygous for
white flowers produces an F, generation of plants
white flowers
with pink flowers. Self-pollination in the F, hybrids
produces an F, generation of plants with red, pink,
and white flowers in the ratio 1:2:1. Draw a chart
to show the genotypes of the plants in such a cross.
Compare this with Worked Example No. 2.
When a certain variety of Co-dominance occurs in the short-horned cattle

black chicken is crossed where a homozygous red bull when crossed with a
with a white chicken, all homozygous. white cow yields an F, generation of
the resulting offspring are
“roan” offspring with coats consisting of a mixture
checkered black and white
as shown. Explain this of red and white hairs. In this case, both alleles (i.e.
pattern of inheritance. the allele for red and the allele for white) express
themselves equally in the hybrid.
In a breeding experiment a pure-bred black guinea pig was crossed
with a pure-bred white one. All the F, offspring were black.
(a) Explain this information by means of a genetic diagram.
(b) If the F, offspring were allowed to interbreed, what proportion
of the F, generation would be expected to be heterozygous?
(c) If you were given a black guinea pig, how would you attempt to
find out whether it is heterozygous or homozygous?
Black and white guinea pigs

Solution
(a) F, offspring is heterozygous. Since it (c) Test cross the black guinea pig with a
resembles the black parent, black is homozygous white one.
dominant. Let B represent the dominant e If the black guinea pig is homozygous
gene (allele) for black, and b, the recessive (BB), all the offspring will be black.
gene (allele) for white.
Test cross homozygous
Parental phenotypes Black White
phenotypes Black White
Test cross
Parental genotypes
genotypes
Gametes
Gametes
Random
fertilization
Offspring
genotypes
F, genotypes
Offspring
F, phenotypes ALL BLACK phenotypes ALL BLACK
toes
(6) 2 out of 4 or 50% of the F, offspring are e If it is heterozygous (Bb), white

heterozygous. offspring will appear.
i
F, phenotypes Black Black ] Test cross heterozygous iA

phenotypes Black White
F, genotypes Test cross

genotypes
Gametes
Gametes
Random
fertilization
F, genotypes Offspring
homozygous |. —~—— ___ homozygous genotypes
heterozygous
F, phenotypic Offspring
ratio 3 BLACK 1 WHITE phenotypes 1 BLACK 4 WHITE
bali ratio
hontin)
aaa
: 2 Two pure-breeding radish plants, one with round roots and another with long
roots, were crossed. All the F, generation plants had oval roots.
(a) Explain the results of the cross.
(6) What would be the result of self-pollinating the oval-rooted plants? If 3 600
seeds were obtained from this cross, how many of these seeds would you
expect to give rise to round-rooted plants?
Solution
(0) F, phenotype Oval Oval
(a) This is an example of incomplete
| dominance. The allele for round roots and F, genotype
| that for long roots are incompletely
i dominant over the other. Hence,
: heterozygous F, plants had oval roots. Let
R represent the allele for round root, and
Hl
Gametes
| r, the allele for long root.
i
|
Parental
phenotypes Round root Long root
F, genotypes
} Parental
| genotypes
} F,, phenotypes ROUND : OVAL : LONG
and ratio att ; 2 : al
Number of seeds that would give round-rooted plants

il
Gametes are 3 600 = 900
Se
|
‘]
a«
erNET
F, genotype
Now you have a go. To find examples for you to try,
RJ
F, phenotype ALL OVAL-ROOTED PLANTS surf the internet, using a search engine to find
websites on Mendelian genetics.
EERE
OBIS
ERR EES RESIS IAEA IEEE RITTER
LE SCN ERE R S PLES TEED DIET A IN
3 pairs of autosomes a pair of homologous Sex Determination

chromosomes
In an organism which is a hermaphrodite, i.e. having

both male and female organs, the homologous pairs
of chromosomes in each body cell are similar. In an
organism where the sexes are separate, the
chromosomes in the male and the female differ in
one pair which is associated with sex differentiation.
For example, Drosophila has four pairs of
homologous chromosomes of which one pair is rod-
XY XX like in the female, and these are the sex
male female
chromosomes (Figure 22.5). They are usually
Figure 22.5 Chromosomes of referred to as the X chromosomes. However, each
Drosophila body cell in the male has only one X chromosome, the other one
| being replaced by a hook-shaped chromosome called the Y
chromosome. Therefore, the female has the genotype XX and the
male XY. The other three pairs of homologous chromosomes are -
called autosomes. So Drosophila has three pairs of autosomal
chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.
Now think about the pair of sex
chromosomes, and imagine a female
fruitfly producing gametes by meiosis.
The female gametes or eggs will be
similar—each will contain an X
chromosome. However, the males will
produce two types of sperm—one
containing an X chromosome, the
other, the Y chromosome. Now, when Offspring |
a male fly mates with a female fly, the . Bie clit si
probability is thathalfthe total number | Ao fe
of offspring will be male, the other half | Le pitt Ry teaeis r Alt}
female (Figure 22.6). id desist bias:
Figure 22.6 Sex determinatio n in Man
Many other animals, including Man, have a similar type of sex
determination as Drosophila. In Man, the male has an X chromosome
and a much shorter Y chromosome (Figure 22.7) in each normal body so E«
Y
A,SS
V4
cell. The female has a pair of X chromosomes. In addition, each \
human cell has 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes. A girl baby has
inherited one X chromosome from her mother, and one from her
father. A boy baby has received an X chromosome from his mother Normal body cells are cells not
involved in gamete production.
and a Y chromosome from his father.
They have a diploid number of
chromosomes and are known as
somatic cells.
Figure 22.7 Sex [| A

chromosomes in ier
Man
So far, we have assumed that there are only two possible alleles for a
given trait. In a population, there may be more than two alleles for a
given trait. Ifa gene exists in more than two alleles, it is said to have
multiple alleles.
Figure 22.8 In humans, each norma! body cell has 22 pairs of autosomes and
one pair of sex chromosomes.
FEMALE
Coat colour in rabbit
A common example of multiple alleles is shown by the three alleles

that control coat colour in domestic rabbits. These alleles are
represented genetically as:
Through breeding experiments, it has been found that the allele for full
colour is dominant over the other alleles, while Himalayan is dominant
over albino. The genotypes of the various coat colours are shown
below right. “
Figure 22.9 Coat colour in domestic
rabbits Several other alleles for coat colour |Ph notype =| Geno
have also been found. These alleles Full colour —_| Co",
are recessive to the full colour but
together with other alleles will /Himalayan ‘| ete",
show intermediate coat colour. Albino
Blood groups in Man

The occurrence of blood groups in Man is another example of multiple
alleles. There are four blood groups in human populations. They are A,
B, AB and O blood groups.
The alleles for A group, B group

and O group may be designated I,
I® and I° respectively. I“ and F® are
dominant over I°, but I“ and FI® are
neither dominant over the other
(co-dominant). Therefore,
individuals with alleles I4 and I® 2 |etee ee
will have AB blood group. The (The genotype 1°I° is a homozygous
blood groupings and their recessive.)
respective genotypes are shown on
the right.
WORKED EXAMPLE
_ Chapter
Heredity
(c) What is the probability that their first two aa am |

children will have group A? Parental phenotypes Group A Group O
(d) Another couple had two children, both of
group B. The father was of group B and the pares Bono Vas Clee Sao
mother, group 0. The father concluded that annie ?
he must be homozygous, I® 18, because if
he were heterozygous, half his children
would be of group O. Do you think his
conclusion is sound?
Offspring genotypes [A [9 I TPP (Pie
Solution
(a) The man must be heterozygous I 1° in order Dtfspring plod aia eee
1 a
to have a child with blood group O. 1 : 1
The child has this blood group.
(6) The chance of the first child having blood
group Ais > or 50%.
(d) No. The couple had only two children.
(c) The probability of both the first two children
havi = 4 Get ; Genetic ratios are unreliable for small
aving group A = fh ee gale or0: numbers.
2 16 ese AMel AVIAOOT SUO DES SOE Ee ee eee SURRRIR RRO
gol lo,
Heal
~~ ;)
= Mutation
Genes are usually passed on from one generation to another
unchanged. Whenever chromosomes are duplicated by the cell prior ee 4 Change inieither the
amount or the arrangement
to cell division, the genes which they carry are copied exactly by the | (structure) of the genetic material
biochemical machinery of the cell. Heredity depends upon this _ (DNA) in a cell. If the mutation
accurate gene copying or duplication. Sometimes, however, there may __ occurs in a gamete, the resulting
be a fault in the replication of the gene or the chromosome. The gene __ genetic change can be inherited.
may become modified or the chromosome altered. This is called Reger coi tnutations which
occur in normal body cells. These
mutation.
are called somatic mutations—
| they are responsible for some
Mutati is the sudden or spontaneous change in gene structure —_ kinds of cancer. However, these
a chromosome, or even the chromosome number, and may be —- Somatic mutations cannot be
_ passed from parents to their
children. Mutation is one source
of variation between individuals
Some Examples of Mutations as it produces new alleles of
genes. Dominant mutations are
bia easily detected while recessive
Albinism ones may not be detectable for
generations.
This condition is caused by the absence of pigments in the skin, hair
and eyes of animals. It is a recessive mutation caused by a recessive
allele. It also occurs in Man. An albino individual has a reddish white
skin and white hair. Since the iris does not contain any pigment, it will
appear red because ofthe colour of the blood vessels in it. Albinos are
very sensitive to sunlight and their skin is easily sunburned. The rate of
mutation for albinism in Man is estimated to be about 28 per million
gametes produced—a probability of 2.8 x 10°, a very small number
indeed. Some geneticists claimed that, at one time, in the English
population, one out of about 20 000 babies was an albino.
Figure 22.10 Albinism is caused by a Sickle-cell anaemia

recessive allele. The person on the
left is an albino. Sickle-cell anaemia is another example of a gene mutation. This
mutation resulted in a slight chemical structural change in the genetic
material (DNA). The mutated gene is recessive so it expresses itself
only in the homozygous recessive condition.
Persons who are homozygous for the recessive allele have abnormal
haemoglobin in their red blood cells. The red blood cells become
sickle shaped. They are unable to transport oxygen efficiently. The
severe anaemia that results is fatal, with the affected persons dying
young.
Under normal circumstances, such a harmful allele would have been

eliminated from a population as the affected individuals would die
before reproducing. However, though the disease is rare in most parts
of the world, it is quite common in West Africa where malaria is
prevalent. This is because of a peculiar advantage that individuals who
are heterozygous for the sickle-cell allele have over those with only the
normal allele. Heterozygous individuals have one dominant (normal)
The wallaby below is an albino.
allele and one recessive (sickle-cell) allele in their genotype. They do
not show the disease although a small per cent of their red blood cells
do show sickling. These heterozygous individuals are more resistant
to malaria than individuals who have two copies of the normal
haemoglobin allele. As a result, these heterozygous individuals have a
better chance of surviving and reproducing than normal individuals in
regions where malaria is prevalent.
Cc
Normal cells
The gene involved in sickle-cell

anaemia is the gene controlling
haemoglobin production. The
mutated gene produces a ag
haemoglobin S (HbS) which is Cells with sickling ~~ OS
exactly the same as normal
Figure 22.11 Normal red blood cells and cells showing sickling (left). On the
haemoglobin A (HbA) except in
right is a photomicrograph showing the red blood cells of a person with sickle-
one amino acid. This causes a
cell anaemia.
change in the 3-dimensional
shape that makes HbS less
soluble. The HbS molecules tend
to clump causing the red blood
Chromosome mutation
cells to become sickle shaped.
This interferes with the oxygen- Sometimes, mutation may cause.a change in the chromosome number.
carrying property of the red blood
Man has 23 pairs of chromosomes in his normal cells. Some people
cells and also makes them
fragile, resulting in severe
have one extra chromosome in the 21st pair. Such people have 47
anaemia which is fatal. chromosomes in their body cell. They suffer from what is known as
Down’s syndrome (Chapter 21).
Heredity
Male Female
Parents x |
Each normal body U

cell has a pair
of chromosome 21
mutation
Gametes ]
//
ae This egg
has two
ont ent chromosome 21
chromosome 24 fertilization
ae a if =a Soe pee age : Zygote has three

Chromosome pattern of a person with Down’s SHOES
: One aope
evelop into phe ml
child
a (Arrow points to extra chromosome no. with Down’s syndrome
—)
Figure 22.12 How two normal parents can produce a child with Down’s syndrome.
|
Figure 22.12 shows how an offspring of two normal parents ends up |
with an extra chromosome 21. |
|
Mutation and Selection |

Organisms are highly complex and most mutations, since they will |_ Chromosome 21
é : f
ja the Rote ange : upsmetabolic: machinery :
of the cell, for
|
| ©icemally, azotes with extra
examp e, Be, arm or letnal. OWEV Er, some mutations are | chromosomes fail to develop.
beneficial to individual plants or animals. Perhaps, for example, the | One of the few exceptions is a
mutation allows the individual to avoid predators because it has better | zygote with an extra chromosome
camouflage or contains a chemical which predators find unpleasant. ___ 21. Non-separation of
Such individuals will leave more offspring than individuals without the chromosome 21 at gamete
Gn
formation is often associated with
mutation. As a result, the frequency of the mutant allele will increase in ae of the mother. Thus. the
the population of animals. As such changes take place, organisms with risk of having a child with Down’s
new characteristics may arise after many years giving rise to a new | syndrome is | in 2 000 at the age
species. Nature “selects” those organisms with more favourable | of twenty, but increases to 1 in
characteristics to survive to reproduce their own kind. The evolution | 50 at forty.
of the present-day forms of life is believed to have occurred through
mutation and natural selection. |
Mutagenic Agents
The rate of spontaneous mutation is usually very low. However, the

rate of mutation is greatly increased by the presence of certain agents
in the external environment. Such agents are called mutagens. |
Ultraviolet light, and alpha, beta and gamma radiations are mutagenic.
As most mutations are harmful, we can imagine what will happen if
the rate of mutations increases in the human population because of

radioactive dust. It has also been found that a number of chemicals, if
present in certain concentrations, are mutagenic to certain organisms,
e.g. mustard gas, formaldehyde, ferrous and manganous salts, and
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).
e The misuse of antibiotics
~-22:4~Discontinuous: and-Continuous Variation
Variations are differences in traits or characteristics between individuals

of the same species. So far we have dealt with traits that show a certain
type of variation in the phenotypes. For example, Mendel’s pea plants
were either tall or short and the seeds, green or yellow. There are no
intermediate forms between these traits. They are easily distinguishable
and are not affected by environmental conditions. Other examples of
such traits are: the ability to roll the tongue or taste phenylthiourea,
ABO blood groups in Man, and normal and vestigial wings in
Drosophila. Such discontinuous variation is brought about by one or a
few genes.
However, not all traits fall into clear-cut classes. Man is not just
dark or fair; nor is he either tall or short. There are many
intermediate skin colours and heights. Such characteristics show a
continuous variation from one extreme to the other. A continuous
variation is brought about by the combined (or additive) effect of
many genes.
There may be genes for dark skin and genes for fair skin. The more
dark-skin genes a person has, the darker will be his skin colour or vice
versa. Continuous variations are also affected by environmental
conditions. For example, a greater exposure to sunlight may cause a
person to have a darker skin colour. Other examples of continuous
variation in Man are intelligence and weight.
Figure 22.13 Graphs depicting an example of each type of variation

==
double-eyelids
Number of
Number of
individuals
individuals
ina
ina
population
population
single-eyelids
Dark skin Fair skin

Discontinuous variation
Continuous variation
Heredity
Table ae 3 euuSrentes Pemeel| continuous and Se SON E variations
Be Dealswithafewclearcut phenotypes ate
ee /
a feito
4 eae? cuat Lbaey<pte
ates we pater red:eeeh vhosts
n
ees
>
Rettte
eter
rests
apee®
Seas»
speintieseosi yh ANira taliban ory SR ety HEN Neneil cia es sb aedlide oy
Variation in organisms may arise due to mutation. Crossing different

varieties of plants and animals produces even more variations in the
offspring. However, competition for food, etc. occurs among the
different varieties of organisms. Nature selects those varieties that are
more competitive, more resistant to diseases and better adapted to |
changes in the environment, to survive and reproduce their kind. The
other varieties that are susceptible to diseases, etc. may perish. This
process is called natural selection.
Mutation provides new genes or alleles, and hence variation, for

natural selection to operate on. After thousands or millions of
years, more and more beneficial qualities (i.e. genes or alleles) may
accumulate. The new breed of organisms may become better
adapted to their new environment. They may even change so 3 0pu
much that they become a new species which differs from the
original stock from which they have evolved.
376 An Example of Natural Selection

nterNET Industrial melanism: Evolution in action
Surf the internet tofind out ee
about the aeetes tbe:life its The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection was put forward by the
Chenles: Dain English naturalist, Charles Darwin. But how can we gather
evidence to see if his ideas work. Evolution takes place over
millions of years. The answer is to use, as Darwin did, examples of
selection, produced by humans. The evolution of antibiotic
resistance in bacteria is an example. Another good piece of
evidence for natural selection is seen in industrial melanism of the
peppered moth, Bzston betularia, in Britain.
There are two naturally occurring varieties of peppered moth,

@ alight coloured one with speckled wings, and
Charles Darwin . @ a black one called the melanistic form (melanin is a black
pigment).
Before the industrial revolution in Britain, which started at the end of

the eighteenth century, the speckled variety was more abundant
because they were well camouflaged on lichen-rich tree trunks. This
meant they were less likely than the black form to be eaten by birds.
The black, melanistic form was therefore rare whilst the speckled form
was common.
However, the industrial revolution caused pollution which killed

the lichens and deposited soot on the tree trunks. Now, the black
variety was well
Figure 22.14 The two varieties of peppered moth
camouflaged on the
sooty bark whilst the
speckled forms were
seen easily and eaten
by birds. Therefore,
in the polluted
industrial areas, the
black variety became
more abundant and
the speckled form
became rare.
An example of how
evolution may occur
is illustrated in Figure
opbasWy,
Heredity
Initially, with abundance of

food and suitable conditions,
the animals reproduced
rapidly.
dense forest
,
ul
——_————
Cie different environments,

es
;
namely the dense forest and
the open plain.
i
pe
Oe Mutations arose
spontaneously under two
different environmental
conditions. Variations arose
and competition among the
different varieties resulted
in the survival of the fittest.
Nature then ‘selected’
(Natural Selection) the
variations best suited to the
environment to survive,
while the rest perished.
Two varieties were selected

to survive in the two
dense forest | environments. open plain
ieee
Variety A had dark coat colour which is well Variety B was selected to survive in the open
camouflaged against the dark forest bed. plain. Its light-coloured coat of fur
This, together with its small size and camouflaged it against the lighter
crouching position, made it less easily background. Its larger size and long hindlegs
detected by predators. Its small size also enabled it to run faster and escape from
enabled it to go into hiding in crevices or predators. The long ear-lobes gave it a keener
among logs. sense of hearing to detect the approach of
danger. Its upright position allowed it to see
farther, both for its source of food and for
the approach of predators.
The result was that two different species have evolved, each suited to survive in its own environment.
Such a process of evolution may take a long time to occur, maybe thousands or millions of years.
378 Artificial Selection
For thousands of years, Man has been trying to produce special or

improved breeds of plants and animals to meet his needs by selective
breeding. Selection is a method used to produce plants and animals
with desirable traits.
Improving plants by selection
Suppose you are growing soybean plants. You want seeds that contain
a high oil content. What do you think you should do?
You should first analyse the seeds from different plants. Select
those plants that produce seeds with high oil content and discard
the rest. By doing so, you are actually selecting plants with good
gene combination for oil production. Allow the “good” seeds from
the selected plants to grow to maturity and then allow them to
either fertilize themselves or cross them with other plants showing
the desired characteristics. Again, select the seeds produced by the
new plants. The seeds with the best oil content are selected and
used again as parents for the next generation. In this way, after
many generations, you may be able to obtain plants that produce
seeds with the desirable qualities. These selected plants have
desirable gene combinations. The plants can then be self-pollinated
to enable the desirable genes to be inherited by future generations
Figure 22.16 Improving plants by | of plants.
selection
(b) Rice is the staple food in the East. Currently, there are many
high-yield and disease-resistant strains of rice.
(a) Sugar cane plants

which are rich in Sugar
and resistant to disease
Heredity
Sometimes, breeders cross different

varieties of plants to produce a new and Singapore has developed many orchid hybrids. Find out 379
the qualities that orchid breeders seek to select when
better variety. This is called trying to produce a new variety.
hybridization. For example, there is a
variety of cultivated sugar cane in Java
that is rich in sugar. However, it is
susceptible to disease and to insect pests.
The wild type of sugar cane has a low
sugar content but is resistant to disease.
The breeders were able to cross the two
varieties and produce a hybrid that is
both resistant to disease and rich in sugar
content. The new variety has the
desirable combination of genes from the
two parental varieties. However, you will
know from Mendel’s experiments that
hybrids do not breed true. This means
that either the hybrid has to be
propagated by vegetative means, or the
hybridization process has to be repeated
every generation. This makes F, hybrid
seeds quite expensive.
improving animals by selection

Selection has also been practised on animals. Cows that produce
plenty of milk and good meat are selected. They are used as
parents for the next generation. However, unlike plants, animals
cannot be self-fertilized. So, breeders mate female cattle with a bull
which has known genetic properties. This way they are more likely
to obtain the desirable gene combination. Some breeders claim
that they have successfully produced a breed of cow that could
produce more than twice the amount of milk compared to the
original breed.
Hybridization is also practised in animals. For example, the Jersey

cow is known for producing plenty of good milk. But, it does not
thrive well in warm climates. On the other hand, the Brahman
breed of cattle thrives well in warm climates but their cows are not Figure 22.17 lnnprovine animals by
good milk producers. | selection
Breeders living in warm climates allow the Jersey cow to mate with
the Brahman bull. They hope that the good quality genes from the
two parents will be passed down to the hybrids. Sometimes, this
may or may not happen. So, breeders must continue to select and
hybridize their cattle until they produce a new variety of cattle that _
contains the good qualities of both the Jersey and Brahman breeds.
Once this is achieved, the improved breed of cattle must be
maintained by inbreeding, i.e. breeding among themselves
(closely related individuals).
(a) In these sheep, selective breeding
has resulted in a coat of fine long
wool, eliminating the coarse hairs
from the population. '
(b) Selective
breeding has |
produced good
meat- producing
and milk-producing
cattle.
Meat-producing
Milk-producing cattle cattle
- Genes
@ A DNA molecule is very long

~ when uncoiled, and can
contain as many as 4 000
genes. However, this still
makes up only a small
percent of the molecule, the
rest of the DNA code is
nonsense.
There are dangers of continually crossing closely related animals. For

example, pedigree dogs are produced by always crossing the same
| breed of dog with each other, for example Labradors or Dalmatians.
This can lead to inbreeding which can result in an accumulation of
recessive alleles in the population. These recessive alleles are much
more likely to be inherited in a double dose and they may cause
genetic illnesses. For example, Labradors are particularly susceptible to
arthritis, and dogs like the Pekinese have breathing disorders. Crossing
these dogs with each other would produce a hybrid which would have
| fewer problems.
DNA molecule
@ Usually one gene codes for @ Man selects the varieties of @ Selection occurs when
one protein molecule. In many organisms that suit his needs. natural environmental
cases, more than one type of
conditions change.
polypeptide chain is involved —-
in the formation of a protein

molecule, e.g. insulin consists @ Varieties are produced by @ Varieties are produced by
of two types of polypeptide selective breeding. mutations.
chain. In such cases, more
than one gene is involved,
with each gene coding for one
type of polypeptide in the
protein molecule. sRiekiibamoboaryeRelalbinnthecene Sitwalang ed Etc odena Gai coumARENT ey
@ In sickle cell anaemia, the

genetic code for one amino
acid in the haemoglobin
Nature of Genes
protein was changed slightly,
resulting in a code that
produced another amino acid
The genes which we have inherited from our parents are found in the
in its place. (Refer to Section chromatin threads in the cell nucleus. Each normal cell in our bodies
22,3.) has 23 pairs of chromatin threads. 23 of these are derived from our
father and 23 from our mother.
Each chromatin thread is made up of a molecule of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) wrapped around proteins (Figure
22.18). Each DNA molecule consists of two parallel
strands twisted around each other to form a double helix. nuclear Lag
membrane () =
(A helix is a coiled structure like a corkscrew or spring).
— Chromatin
B} (chromosome)
A gene is a small segment of DNA which controls the
formation of a single protein or enzyme. There are many
genes along the length of the DNA molecule. Each gene
stores a message (called the genetic code) which
determines how an enzyme or protein should be made in
the cell. Each protein or enzyme contributes to the
development of a certain characteristic in onr bodies. If chromatin
the genetic code is altered, it may affect our body
DNA molecule
structure or function.
Transfer of Genes from One Organism to

Another
Genetic engineering is a technique
gq used to transfer
genes from one organism to another.
Individual genes may be cut off from the cells of one DNA double helix
strand (magnified)
organism and inserted into the cells of another
organism of the same or different species. A vector, ae eared
| Figure 22.18 A chromatin magnified
usually a plasmid (Chapter 17), is used to transfer the
gene. The transferred gene can express itself in the genetically
engineered organism. (\, ) oa/mee
AY () <
: KYLY v'
Figure 22.19 DNA contains a series of genes along its length
DOE
DOOO@CO
LOO OKO. DNA
Se) SS)
gene gene Genes

@ Each cell in the human body
| Be contains a complete set of
genes. However, many of
| these genes are switched off,
Part of a DNA molecule unwound to show a gene
| except when needed in the
| relevant cells in the body. For
example, the genes for insulin
| eee production only express
themselves in special cells in
the pancreas.
a gene is a segment in the DNA
: protein made by the gene

382 Transgenic bacteria and the production of human insulin
Genes can be transferred from human cells to bacterial cells (Figure

22.20). This enables us to transfer the gene which makes insulin to
bacterial cells. The gene causes the bacteria to produce insulin, a
substance which is not normally produced by bacteria. Any organism
which acquires a foreign gene is called a transgenic organism. In this
case, the bacterium which acquires the human gene for insulin is a
transgenic bacterium.
Insulin is a hormone produced by our bodies which controls the

amount of sugar in the blood. People who cannot make insulin suffer
from the disease diabetes. They are unable to store glucose as
glycogen, and so excrete it in their urine. Insulin is needed to treat such
patients. Insulin used to be obtained from the pancreas of slaughtered
pigs. However, this insulin was not exactly the same as the human
insulin. Many diabetics develop antibodies against it after prolonged
treatment. Immuno-suppressive drugs have to be used to suppress the
patient’s immune system.
The new insulin, produced by genetic engineering, is exactly the same

as ordinary human insulin. Therefore, the problem associated with the
use of animal insulin is not likely to arise.
Figure 22.20 How a human gene is inserted into a bacterial DNA
Step 1: Isolate the gene and cut it out using a suitable enzyme:
gene coding for

DNA strand useful product
enzyme cuts DNA on either side
human cell chromosome of the gene, producing a fragment

which includes the gene
ale Fo ea saa ends as
Step 2: Isolate a circular DNA (plasmid) Step 3: Insert the human DNA into Step 4: Treat the bacterium so that it takes
from a bacterial cell and cut it with the the bacterial DNA using an enzyme up the DNA. Once this is successful, the
same type of enzyme used in step 1. to join the sticky ends. bacterium will multiply, resulting in the
simultaneous multiplication of the human
gene. If the human gene codes for insulin
bacterial plasmid production, then each transgenic cell will
bacterial cell
make insulin molecules.
— circular DNA
(not to scale:
it is much
smaller)
bacterial —* joint made

between 7 insulin
chromosome | molecules
human and ~
sticky ends bacterial DNA ee
by the fe)
enzymes
Heredity
The great advantage here is that, like all microorganisms, the

genetically engineered bacteria multiply rapidly to form a huge
population which makes large quantities of the gene product, in this
case, insulin.
lin production by transgenic
Drug manufacturers use the genetically engineered bacteria above for
acteria is not a fermentation
the large scale commercial production of insulin. They culture the ocess, although the containers
bacteria in large, sterile fermenters (Chapter 17), under ideal conditions d for culturing the bacteria are
for their growth. Insulin is then extracted and purified. ed fermenters. This is
ecause these containers look
milar to those for making beer
Transgenic plants (a fermentation process), and so
A gene may be inserted into a crop plant which makes it resistant to ere called fermenters.
herbicides. This allows weeds to be killed by the herbicide without
affecting the crop plant. The plant which has acquired the foreign gene
is a transgenic plant.
For example, a weak solution of cyanamide kills weeds, but it also

causes some damage to tobacco plants. A soil fungus, Myrothecium, has
a gene which produces an enzyme, cyanamide hydratase. This enzyme
converts cyanamide to urea. The gene is inserted into the tobacco
plant. This not only makes the plant resistant to the herbicide, but the
urea formed provides a source of nitrogen for plant growth.
Transfer of genes within the same species
Genes that confer resistance to pests can be cut from

a wild plant and inserted into a crop plant. Healthy
genes in humans can be inserted into cells of people
with defective genes. This is called gene therapy. It
is used to treat certain diseases, e.g. emphysema.
Genetic engineering: the advantages and the

problems
The potential of genetic engineering is enormous. It

has wide applications in agriculture, chemical and
drug industries, and medicine. Though genetic
engineering has many advantages, it is not without
hazards. | : i
Normal plant | Genetically engineered plant
B Advantages ofgenetic engineering Figure 22.21 Both these tomato
# Plants and animals used for breeding must be closely related or plants were exposed to caterpillars.
| The normal plant has been completely
belong to the same species. Genetic engineering, however, can
eaten while the genetically engineered
insert a gene from any organism into a plant or an animal. plant shows practically no signs of
@ In selective breeding, healthy and defective genes may be damage.
transmitted together to the offspring. This will not happen when
genes are carefully selected before they are inserted into an
organism.
@ Selective breeding is a slow process and may require a large space
or land. Genetic engineering experiments with individual cells,
which can reproduce rapidly in the laboratory in a small container.
@ Genetic engineering increases productivity and efficiency in the

breeding of organisms. This increases profitability. For example,
transgenic salmon grows faster and requires less food.
@ Risks ofgenetic engineering

@ People may be allergic to the transgenic foods which they eat. For
example, some people are allergic to the protein lectin found in
beans which they avoid eating. Scientists have transferred the gene
that codes for lectin to potatoes as a pest control. Lectin deters
pests, like aphids, from feeding on potato plant sap. The risk is
that these people unknowingly eat the potatoes and develop
allergies.
@ Genes that code for an antibiotic resistance may accidentally be
| incorporated into bacteria that cause diseases to humans.
| ® Some people may deliberately create new combination of genes
which they may use in chemical or biological warfare.
ASSlgig*ett
ag
Claims and counter-claims run rife about genetically modified foods,
with each camp being accused of telling half-truths.
1 Go to the library or surf the internet to get more information on |

these claims and counter-claims.
Genetic engineering is here to stay.
@ Agricultural countries are concentrating on producing food and
cash plants that have built-in genes for herbicide tolerance,
resistance to insect pests and viral diseases, and improved
product quality. In Malaysia, for example, transgenic work is
being carried out on the rubber tree, oil palm, papaya, brinjal
and banana.
@ Transgenic organisms are of great value in the pharmaceutical
industry for producing drugs like insulin.
@ In the future, gene therapy will offer hope for many people
born with defective genes.
2 Knowing that genetic engineering is here to stay, and that it has a

lot to offer for improving the quality of our life, find out the
biosafety measures that should be implemented.
Gintocls
Transgenic tomatoes stay fresh for longer periods. ft

Heredity
(e.g. human height,

iS a
a
Complete Dominance
intelligence, skin
Co-dominance or Multiple
(e.g. Mendei’s tall colour)
Incomplete dominance Alleles
and dwarf plants) | (e.g. ABO Caused by many
Both alleles express themselves in blood groups)
genes that show
Deak ial ‘ the hybrid which has a phenotype
additive effect
ominant allele Recessive (a) where both the parents’ traits
expresses itself alleie
: are expressed equally as in Gene exists
and gives the Sei expresses the roan cattle in more than
nr ta in ise Gly in (6) intermediate between those two allelic
2 3 found in the parents, e.g. forms
homozygous and homozygous
oe flower colour of the four
heterozygous condition : s
aa o’ clock plant
conditions
See
generation. Aye Seed NILE TE uaegOE PPO LL Leh eneestd Sy lease Tea eee
& Phenotype and genotype organism. This is “carried out to determine tates
@ The phenotype is the expressed trait in the genotype of an organism.
an individual. It is determined by the
genotype and may be affected by the ® Sex in Man and other animals such as
environment, e.g. outward appearances Drosophila is determined by a pair of
such as height and eye colour. chromosomes called the sex chromosomes.
@ The genotype is the genetic combination These are designated the X and the Y
in an individual (e.g. TT, Tt or tt). chromosomes.
@ The normal body cell of a male has one
» A gene is a hereditary factor borne on a X and one Y chromosomes.
particular locus in a chromosome. It @ The normal body cell of a female has
controls a particular characteristic. two X chromosomes.
@ Alleles are different forms of the same
gene. They occupy the same relative » In multiple alleles, a gene exists in more
positions in a pair of homologous than two alleles for a particular trait. A
chromosomes. diploid individual can only have two of these
@ A homozygous individual has identical alleles, e.g. ABO blood groups in Man and
alleles for a particular trait, e.g. TT or coat colour in rabbits.
tt.
he ed
Aero typES which are easily

distinguishable. It is usually controlled Usually plasmids falintce bacterial DNA)
by only one or a few genes. It is not are used as vectors to transfer genes.
affected by the environment. An organism which acquires a foreign
A continuous variation concerns traits gene is known as a transgenic
with phenotypes ranging from one organism. Transgenic organisms are
extreme to the other. It is brought about engineered to be of use to humans in
by the combined (or additive) effects of agriculture, industry and medicine.
many genes. It is affected by Large-scale commercial production of
environmental conditions, e.g. human insulin uses genetically
intelligence, height and skin colour in engineered bacteria which is grown in
Man. fermenters under optimal conditions.
Genetic engineering has may advantages.
» Artificial selection is a method used by man However, there is the fear that such
to produce plants and animals with engineered products may endanger
desirable qualities. humans and the environment unless
biosafety measures are put in place.
Options Consenuences
BWMR
Final decision
Heredity | “©
i. xercise
1 (a) What is the meaning of multiple alleles? |5 A gardener had a species of plant showing
(b) Coat colour in rabbit is controlled by the three phenotypes: spear-shaped, round and
following alleles: oval leaves. He crossed a pure strain of
C —allele for normal coat (grey) plant A (Spear-shaped leaves), and the
c" —allele for Himalayan coat resulting progeny all had oval leaves. He
c? —allele for albino also crossed plant B (round leaves) with
C is dominant to both ec" and c?, and ct plant C (oval leaves), and the resulting
is dominant to c?. progeny had oval leaves and round leaves
A rabbit breeder thought that one of his in the ratio 1:1.
normal coat rabbits was not homozygous.
What would you advise him to do in
order to find out the genotype of the
rabbit? What results would you expect? genotype(s)
Explain your answer by means of gametes
genetic diagrams. F, generation
genotype(s)
2 (a) What do you understand by mutations? phenotype(s)
(b) Distinguish between discontinuous and
continuous variations, giving one
example in each case.
genotype(s)
gametes
Normal skin pigmentation is caused by a
F, generation
dominant gene A.
genotype(s)
Albinism is caused by double recessive aa. phenotype(s)
What are the chances of getting an albino
from the following crosses?
(a) Aa x aa (b) Aa x Aa (a) Using suitable symbols show the
(Cc) aa x aa (d) AA x aa crosses by completing the table above.
(6) What would be the expected result of
A man had three animals of the same crossing plants A and C?
species; all three were black, two of them State the genotype(s) of the progeny.
were female. He allowed them to breed and (C)
each female had eight young. In one case,
all the young were black, but in the other (a) Explain what is meant by gene therapy.
family there were two brown and six black (b) Discuss the ethical implications of
offspring. (Use the letters B and b in writing genetic engineering in humans.
your answers.)
(a) Explain this information, by means of (a) Outline the basic steps involved in the
genetic diagrams including gametes, transfer of genes between cells.
genotypes and phenotypes. (o) What are the advantages of using
(ob) State which of the genotypes in your genetically engineered bacteria for the
answer are homozygous. commercial preparation of human
(c) If the young in the all-black family were | insulin over the older methods?
allowed to interbreed, give the
genotypes of all possible crosses. | (a) What are the advantages of genetic
Indicate the ratios of the phenotypes of engineering techniques over selective
the offspring which could be expected breeding of crop plants?
for each pairing. (6) Discuss the possible dangers of using
(C) genetically engineered organisms in
agriculture and food production.
388
Glossary
Active transport Energy is used to move a Bisexual or hermaphrodite flower A flower that
substance from a region where it is of lower possesses both the stamens and the pistil.
concentration to a region of higher concentration, i.e.
against a concentration gradient. Energy is utilized in Breathing The process that brings about an
the process. exchange of gases between the organism and the
environment.
Aerobic respiration The breakdown of food
substances in the presence of oxygen with the release Capillaries Microscopic thin-walled (one-cell thick)
of a large amount of energy. Carbon dioxide and blood vessels which carry blood from a small artery
water are released as waste products. (arteriole) to a small vein (venule).
AIDS An abbreviation for Acquired Immune Co-dominance A condition when both alleles
Deficiency Syndrome. express themselves in the hybrid.
Alleles Different forms of the same gene. They Community Populations of plants and animals living
occupy the same relative positions in a pair of together and interacting with one another under the
homologous chromosomes. same environmental conditions.
Condensation A chemical reaction whereby two
Anaerobic respiration The breakdown of food
simple molecules are joined together to form a larger
substances in the absence of oxygen with the release
molecule with the removal of one molecule of water.
of a comparatively small amount of energy.
Conditioned reflex action A reflex action acquired
Anaesthetics Drugs that make the body unable to
from past experiences or learning with a stimulus
feel pain.
which is originally ineffective in producing the
Analgesics Drugs that can relieve pain without response.
causing numbness or affecting consciousness.
Conservation The protection and preservation of
Antibiotics Chemicals used to treat many infectious natural resources of the environment.
diseases caused by microorganisms such as bacteria.
Consumers Animals that obtain their energy from
Arteries Blood vessels which carry the blood away the organisms on which they feed.
from the heart.
Continuous variation Traits with phenotypes
Artificial selection A method used by Man to ranging from one extreme to the other. It is brought
produce plants and animals with desirable qualities. about by combined (or additive) effects of many
genes. It is affected by environmental conditions, e.g.
Asexual reproduction The production of new
intelligence, height and skin colour in Man.
individuals that does not involve the fusion of two
reproductive cells called gametes. Contraception The prevention of pregnancy.
Assimilation The process whereby some of the Cross-pollination The transfer of pollen grains from
absorbed food materials are converted into new one plant to the stigma of a flower in another plant of
protoplasm or used to provide energy. the same kind.
Atherosclerosis The deposition of fatty substances Decomposers Organisms that break down dead
(cholesterol) on the inner walls of an artery. organic matter, feeding on some ofthe remains and
releasing the rest.
Axon A nerve fibre that transmits impulses away
from the cell body ofa neurone. Dendron A nerve fibre that transmits impulses
towards the cell body of a neurone.
Balanced diet A diet that contains the right
amounts of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, Desertification The destruction of land leading to
minerals, water and roughage to meet the daily desert-like conditions.
requirements of the body.
Diffusion The net movement of molecules from a_
Biotechnology The use of biological processes from region where they are in higher concentration to a
microorganisms to make substances (e.g. penicillin) or region where they are in lower concentration, down a
to provide services for Man. concentration gradient.
Glossary
Digestion The process whereby large food Gamete A reproductive cell containing the haploid
molecules are broken down into small, soluble and number of chromosomes. 389
diffusible molecules that can be absorbed into the
body cells. Gene A hereditary factor borne on a particular locus
in a chromosomes. It controls a particular
Discontinuous variation Traits that show limited characteristic.
variation in their phenotypes which are easily
distinguishable. It is usually controlled by only one or Genetic engineering A technique used to transfer
a few genes. It is not affected by the environment. genes from one organism to another.
Dominant allele A form ofa gene that expresses Genotype The genetic combination in an individual.
itself and give the same phenotype in both the Grey matter The part of the brain or spinal cord
homozygous and the heterozygous conditions. that consists mainly of cells bodies.
Drug Any externally administered chemical Habitat A place where an organism lives.
substance (other than food) that modifies or affects
chemical reactions in the body. Heterozygous An individual who has unlike alleles
for a particular trait, e.g. Tt.
Drug abuse The taking of drugs excessively, or not
under a doctor’s prescription. Homeostasis The maintenance of a constant
internal environment.
Drug addiction or dependence A condition where
a person experiences withdrawal symptoms if he does Homozygous An individual who has identical alleles
not take the drug. for a particular trait, e.g. TT or tt.
Drug tolerance A condition where a person has to Hormone A chemical substance produced by one
keep on taking more and more of a drug to achieve part of the body and transported by the bloodstream
the same effect. to target organ(s) where it exerts its effect.
Ecology The study of the relationships between | Hydrolysis A reaction whereby a water molecule is
living organisms and the natural environment. added on to split up a complex molecule into smaller
molecules.
Egestion The removal of undigested matter from the
Hypertonic solution A solution that has a lower
body.
water potential (or more concentrated) than another
Endocrine glands Ductless glands that secrete solution.
hormones into the bloodstream.
Hypotonic solution A solution that has a higher
Enzymes Biological catalysts made of protein. They water potential (or more dilute) than another solution.
alter the rate of chemical reaction without themselves Irritability or Sensitivity The ability of an organism
being chemically changed at the end of the reaction. to respond to a stimulus.
Eutrophication The profuse growth and Isotonic solutions Solutions that have the same
multiplication of algae and green plants as a result of concentrations.
the enrichment of nutrients in water.
Meiosis A form of nuclear division in which the
Excretion The process by which metabolic waste daughter nuclei produced have half the number of
products and toxic materials are removed from the chromosomes or hereditary materials as the parent
body of an organism. ' nucleus.
Fertilization The process by which the male gamete ||Menstruation The monthly discharge of blood from
fuses with the female gamete to form a zygote. _ the uterus via the vagina.
Focusing or accommodation The adjustment of | Mutation The sudden or spontaneous change in
the lens so that clear images of objects at different gene structure or a chromosome, or even the
distances are formed on the retina. chromosome number, and may be inheritable.
Food chain A series of organisms through which Nerve fibre A long cytoplasmic extension of the cell
energy is transferred in material form (i.e. food) body of a neurone. It serves to transmit impulses.
constitutes a food chain. In a food chain each
organism feeds on the preceding one and provides Nerve A collection of nerve fibres.
food for the succeeding organism. Neurone A nerve cell.
Food web Two or more food chains interlinked |Niche The role played or position occupied by an
together. organism in the habitat.
Nutrition The intake of food and the processes that Proteins Organic compounds made of carbon,
convert food substances into living matter. hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Sulphur and
phosphorus are often present. Proteins consist of
Osmoregulation The regulation of the water or salt
amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
concentrations in the blood to keep the water
potential of the internal environment constant. Recessive allele A form ofa gene that expresses
itself only in the homozygous condition.
Osmosis The movement of water molecules from a
solution of higher water potential to a solution of Reducing sugar Sugars that produce a red
lower water potential through a partially permeable precipitate when boiled with Benedict’s solution.
membrane.
Reflex action An immediate response to a specific
Oxygen debt The amount of oxygen required to stimulus without conscious control.
oxidize the lactate produced in muscles during
anaerobic respiration. Reflex are The shortest pathway by which impulses
travel from the receptor to the effector in a reflex
Parasitism An association between two organisms action.
such that one organism (the parasite) lives on or in
Respiration The oxidation of food substances with
the body of another organisms (the host). The
the release of energy in living cells.
parasite derives its nutrients, and usually shelter from
its host. In this process, it normally does some harm Root hair An elongated outgrowth of a single cell in
to its host. the piliferous layer. It increases the surface area of the
root for absorption of water and mineral salts.
Partially (or selectively) permeable membrane A
membrane that allows some substances to pass Self-pollination The transfer of pollen grains from
through but not others. the anther to the stigma of the same flower or of a
different flower on the same plant.
Peristalsis The rhythmic wave-like contractions of
the walls of the gut. Sexual reproduction Reproduction that involves
the fusion of two reproductive cells called gametes.
Phagocytosis The process of engulfing and ingesting
foreign particles like bacteria by the white blood cells. Synapse A junction between two neurones.
Phenotype The expressed trait in an individual, e.g. Tissue respiration The process in living cells by
outward appearances such as height and eye colour. which food substances are oxidised with energy
released for the vital activities of the cells.
Photosynthesis The process whereby light energy is
absorbed by chlorophy!l and transformed into Translocation The transport of manufactured food
chemical energy used in the synthesis of substances like sugars and amino acids in plants.
carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide. Transpiration The loss of water vapour from the
Oxygen is liberated during the process. aerial parts of the plant, especially through the
Plasmolysis The shrinking of the cytoplasm away stomata of the leaves.
from the cell wall due to the loss of water when plant Turgor pressure The pressure exerted outwards on
cells are immersed in a solution of lower water the cell walls due to the water in the cell.
potential.
Variation The differences that can be observed
Pollination The transfer of pollen grain from the within a species.
anther to the stigma.
Veins Blood vessels which convey blood towards the
Pollution The process by which harmful substances heart.
are added to the environment.
Vitamins Organic compounds needed by the
Population A group of individuals of the same | mammalian body to maintain health and prevent
species. _ deficiency diseases.
“Portal” vein A blood vessel that carries blood from Voluntary action An action that is controlled by the
one capillary network to another. will. 21
Producers Green plants that can manufacture White matter The part of the brain or spinal cord
carbohydrates by photosynthesis. that consists mainly of nerve fibres.
Appendix 1
Some Useful Websites
LIST OF WEB SITE ADDRESSES
CHAPTER 1 What is Biology?

Assignment 1.1: What is a Plant Pathologist?
http://www.scisoc.org/members/careers.htm
Describes the life and impact of Carolus Linnaeus on modern biology
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html
Classification: Takes you to the Californian Museum of Palaeontology
and teaches you about the classification of living organisms
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu
The Arizona University’s tree of life will help you to understand the
diversity of living organisms
http://phylogeny.arizona.edu./tree/phylogeny.html
CHAPTER 2 Cells: The Building Blocks of Life

Learn more about a cell—at this site you can move around inside a 3-
dimensional cell. You can cut, magnify and rotate the cell as you learn
about its organelles and their functions.
http://www life.uiuc.edu/plantbio/cell
Cell
http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/ ~ acarpi/NSC/13-cells.htm
CHAPTER 3 Diffusion, Osmosis and Surface: Volume Ratio

Active transport
http://www.rrz.uni_hamburg.de/biologie/b_online/e22/22d.htm
Provides basic information about cells and cell membrane
http://www.cbe.med.umn.edu/ ~ mwd/cell_www/cell.html
Tutorials on osmosis and permeability
http://biog_101_104.bio.cornell.edu/BioG101_104/tutorials/
osmosis.html
CHAPTER 4 Enzymes
Industrial applications of enzymes
http://www.dyadic_group.com/enzymes.htm
CHAPTER 5 Nutrition
Chapter Introduction: Nutritional information on foods like raw
vegetables that do not have packaging
http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/cgi-bin/nut_search.pl
Healthy Lifestyle Committee (Singapore)
http://www.healthylife.org.sg
Anorexia Nervosa
http://webmd.lycos.com/topic_summary/1605
This award winning site maintained by the American National
Agricultural Library gives you a wealth of information about diet and
nutrition.
http://www.nal.usda.gov:80/fnic
Chapter 6 Nutrition in Mammals

* Chapter Introduction: Endoscopy
http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health/digest/pubs/diagtest/uppend.htm
* Ulcers and digestive disorders
http://www.nutramed.com/digestion/ulcer.htm
Chapter 7 Nutrition in Plants

* Assignment 7.1 Agriculture in Singapore
http://www.ava.gov.sge
http://www.watercircle.com.sg¢/Aqua.html
http://www.aerogreen.com.sg
Chapter 8 Transport in Mammals

* Chapter Introduction: HSA website
http://www.hsa.gov.sg
(Click ‘Consumer Access’, select ‘Blood Donation’ under ‘Consumer’.)
* How aplastic anaemia is treated
http://medic.med.uth.tmc.edu/ptnt/00001038.htm
* American Heart Association—statistics and information on cardiovascular
diseases
http://www.americanheart.org
Chapter 9 Transport in Plants

* A brief introduction to plant transport
http://tidepool.st.usm.edu/crswr/111planttransport.html
Chapter 10 Respiration
* About ATP
http:// www.fwparker.org/exhibits/biopage/index.html
- Assignment 10.1 Respiratory Disease
http://www.nutramed.com/asthma
http://www.colby.edu/personal/thtieten/air-sing.html
* Detailed description of the process of respiration.
http://mss.scbe.on.ca/ DSRESPIR.htm
http://www.life.uiuc.edu/bio100/Link_page/respire.htm
Chapter 11 Excretion
* National Kidney Foundation
http://www.nkfs.org
Chapter 13 Co-ordination and Response: I Nervous System in

Mammals
* Provides images ofthe brain
http://www.med.harvard.edu/AANLIB/home.html
Chapter 15 Co-ordination and Response: III Hormones and

Endocrine System
* Chapter Introduction: Reducing stress
http://www.teen-matters.com/stress.html
Chapter 16 Drugs x
* Assignment 16.1
http://www.teenchallenge.org.sg
* Information on smoking from the Health Promotion Board, Singapore
http://www.hpb.gov.sg/hpb/pro/pro02.asp
Appendix 1
Chapter 17 Microorganisms and their Applications in

Biotechnology 393
* Biotech chronicles: Biotech through the ages; Time lines; Pioneer profiles;
Biotech processes; Classic biotech stories
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/BC
* Fermenters
http://www.scigenics.com/index.html
Chapter 18 Ecology
* Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve
http://www.sbwr.org.sg
> Assignment 18.3
http://www.geocities.com/aaadee/maltravel.html
(Select “Malaria” under Search for Information by Disease:)
Chapter 19 Effects of Human Activity on the Environment

* Rainforest; Rainforest of Asia
http://www.rainforestweb.org/Rainforest_Regions/Asia
* Satellite images of forest fires in Malaysia and Indonesia
http://www.crisp.nus.edu.sg¢
http://www.nectec.or.th/haze
http://forests.org/forests/asia.html
* Air quality; Haze monitoring
http://www.nea.gov.sg/metsin
* The Singapore Green Plan 2012
http://www.env.gov.sg/sgp2012
* Conservation programme for sea turtles in Malaysia
http://www.kustem.edu.my/seatru
* World Wide Fund, Malaysia
http://www.wwfmalaysia.org
Chapter 20 Reproduction in Plants

* Tissue culture and micropropagation
http://www.rbekew.org.uk/ksheets/microprop.html
Chapter 21 Reproduction in Animals

* Information on AIDS
http://www.aids.org/FactSheets
Chapter 22 Heredity
* Problems on Mendelian genetics
http://www. biology.arizona.edu/mendelian_genetics
mendelian_genetics.html
More Websites
* General scientific interest
http://www.newscientist.com
* Antibiotics
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/antibiotics.html
* Human Genome Project information
http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/ Human_Genome/home.html
* An interesting website giving current information on Biotechnology and
Genetics
http://fullcoverage.yahoo.com/Full_ Coverage/Science/
Biotechnology_and_Genetics/
Index
abdominal cavity 86 annelida 9 buccal cavity 84
absorption 36, 83, 91, 93, 150, 151 Anopheles mosquito 285, 286 bud 111, 312
accommodation by eye 224, 226 anther 315 bulbs 311, 312
acids antibodies 126, 141
amino 64, 65, 90, 94, 109 antibiotics 242, 262 caecum 85, 87
ascorbic 69 Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH) 189 calcium 71
fatty 62 antitoxins 126 nitrate 116
hydrochloric 88 anus 85, 96, 343 sulphate 116
lactic 165 aorta, dorsal 132, 138 calyx 315, 318, 323, 324
nucleic 14 aortic arch 135 caffeine 241, 244
stearic 62 aphids 149, 337 cambium 147, 148, 149
sulphuric 294 appendicitis 87 cancer 248
uric 185 appendix 85, 87 capillaries 128, 129, 139
acidity 274 aqueous humour 223, 224 capillarity 152
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome aspirin 242 capillary action 152
(AIDS) 245, 352 atria 132, 133, 135 capsule, Bowman’s 186
acrosome 341 arteries 128, 129, 131 carbohydrates 57, 58
actions coronary 134 energy value 72
involuntary 209 hepatic 94, 132 digestion 89
reflex 215, 216
pulmonary 131, 132, 133 carbohydrases 44
voluntary 209, 214 renal 132, 138 carbon
active transport 33, 151
umbilical 348, 349 cycle 282, 283
adaptability 7
arterioles 128, 204 dioxide 101, 113, 296
adaptation 7, 18, 36, 114, 151
arteriosclerosis 137 monoxide 125, 247, 250, 296
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 15, 164
assimilation 83, 94 carboxy-haemoglobin 125
adrenal
atherosclerosis 137, 141, 250 carnivores 276, 282
cortex 233
auricles 132 carpels 315, 318
medulla 233
autosomes 368 cartilage 170
adrenaline 231, 235
axon 210, 211, 219 casein 88
agglutination 126
air, complemental 176 caseinogen 88
bacillus 257 catabolic 183
expired 174, 175
bacteria 257 catalase 43,51
inspired 174, 175
residual 176
balanced diet 74 catalyst 42
supplemental 176 barbiturate 245 cell 12, 17
sac 170 bark 149 adipose 201
tidal 176 basal metabolic rate 74 animal 17
albinism 371 basal metabolism 74 body 210, 211
albino 371 Benedict’s solution 61 companion 146
alcohol 64, 102, 243, 244, 261 Benedict’s test 61 epithelial 19
algae 298 bile 86, 87, 89, 95, 185 gland 170
alimentary canal 84 biomass 278, 279, 280 guard 112, 113
alkaline pyrogallol 329 biotechnology 254, 260, 264 surface membrane 14, 16, 152
alkalinity 274 Biuret test 65 mesophyll 114
alleles 361, 362 bladder 184, 341 palisade 112
alveoli 170, 171, 173 blind spot 223, 226 plant 17
amino group 64, 94 blood 122, 123, 125, 141 red blood 18, 123, 139, 141
ammonia 95 capillaries 128, 139, 349 root hair 18
amnion 347, 349 clotting 125, 127 sap 16, 152
amniotic coagulation 127 tissue 139, 140
cavity 349 functions 125 wall 16
fluid 347 group 370 white blood 122, 124, 141
amphetamines 244 oxygenated 132 cellulases 44
amphibian 9 plasma 122, 141 cellulose 58, 60, 62, 89
amylases 44, 61, 89 platelets 125, 127, 141 cell wall 30, 109
anabolic 183 pressure 135 centriole 16
anabolism 183 system 122 cephalosporins 242
anaemia vessels 128 cerebellum 212, 213, 219
nutritional 71 body temperature 198, 202 cerebral hemisphere 212, 214, 219
sickle-cell 372 bolus 88 cerebospinal fluid 213
anaesthetics 242 bone marrow 123 cerebrum 212, 219
analgesics 242 Bowman’s capsule 186 cervix 342, 343, 349
androecium 315, 318 brain 211, 219 chancre 351
angiosperma 9 breathing 166 chitin 258
angsana 323, 324 breathing mechanisms 169, 171 chloroflourocarbons (CFCs) 296
animals bronchioles 169 chlorophyll 103, 106
homoiothermic 202 bronchitis 250 chloroplasts 15, 113, 114
poikilothermic 202 bronchus 169, 170 _ chloroquine 287
Index
cholesterol 63 dendrites 210, 211 erepsin 89, 90

chordae tendineae 133 dendrons 210, 211, 219 erosion, soil 292
choroid 223 dermis 199, 200 erythromycin 242
chromatin 14, 381 desertification 293 ethanol 64, 102
chromosomes 14, 339, 361 destarch 103 eutrophication 298
X 368 detoxication 95 evaporation 202
Y 368 diabetes mellitus 234 evolution 376
chronic bronchitis 250 dialyser excretion 5, 182, 183
chyme 89 dialysis 190 excretory
cilia 170 fluid 191 organ 185
ciliary body 223 machine 191 products 185
circulation, blood diaphragm 85, 86, 169, 171, 172, 184, 350 exhalation 169
double 131 diastole 135 expiration 169, 172
pulmonary 131 dicotyledons 9 explosive mechanism 326, 327
systemic 131 dietary fibre 72 eye 222, 225, 226
circulatory system 128 dietary imbalance 78 eyeball 222
cirrhosis 244 diffusible 43 eyelashes 222
Chitorta 317, 318 diffusion 23-26, 33, 151 eyelids 222
coagulation 127 digestion 43, 83, 88, 110
coal 294 of carbohydrates 89 faeces 93
cobalt of fats 90 fallopian tube 342
chloride paper 154 of proteins 90 fats 57, 62, 63, 95
thiocyanate paper 154 digestive saturated 63
coccus 257 enzymes 43 unsaturated 63
cocaine 244 system 84 energy value 72
co-dominance 366 dioecious plant 316 feeding 83
coenzyme 47 dioxin 299 fermentation 164, 167, 260
colon 96 diploid number 339 fermenter 264, 265
ascending 85 disaccharides 58, 59 fertilization 321, 347, 348
descending 87 dispersal 323 fetal blood capillaries 349
transverse 85 fruit 323 fetus 348, 349
community 275 seed 323 fibrin 127
condensation 60 DNA 44, 361, 380, 381, 382 fibrinogen 122, 127
condom 350 dormancy 328 filament 315
cones 224, 226 dormant period 328 first filial generation 359, 360
conjunctiva 222, 223 dorsal root 213, 214 flagella 341
conservation 301, 302, 303 ganglion 213, 214 flower
conserving 303 Dewn’s syndrome 339, 372, 373 bisexual 316
constipation 72 Drosophila melanogaster incomplete 316
consumer 276 drug 240, 241, 245 insect-pollinated 317, 320
contraception 349 abuse 244 sessile 314
contraceptive pills 346, 350 ducts unisexual 316
copulation 347 bile 85, 87 wind-pollinated 319, 320
corms 311, 312 collecting 186 focusing 224, 226, 227
cornea 223 pancreatic foliage leaves 331
cornified layer 199, 200 right lymphatic follicle
corolla 315, 317 sperm 340, 341, 350, 351 cells 344
corona radiata 347 duodenum 85, 86, 87, 89 Graafian 344
corpus luteum 344, 345, 346 primary 344
cortex 148, 151 ecological follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) 345
cotyledons 322, 327, 331 community 275 food
creatinine 185 niche 275 chain 277, 280
cross-pollination 317 ecology 268, 269 classes 57
culture experiments 116 ecosystem 275, 281 digestion of 43, 83, 88
solutions 116 effector 210, 214, 216, 217 web 277
tissue 313 egestion 93, 184 fore-brain 211
cuticle 147 egg 339, 340, 341, 348 fovea 223
cuttings 312 ejaculation 347 centralis 225
cycle, menstrual 343, 345 embryo 321, 322, 327, 347, 348 fructose 58, 89
oestrous 343 embryonic membranes 347 fruit 322
cytoplasm 14, 30 emphysema 250 dispersal of 323
emulsion 64 | fungi 259, 260
DDT 299 endocrine glands 230, 232 | funicle 321, 322, 324
deaminated 94 endodermis 148
deamination 96 endometrium 342, 345 galactose 58, 89
decay 283 endosperm 321, 322, 327 gall bladder 85, 86, 87, 89
decolourise 103 endothelium 137 gametes 321, 339
decomposers 276, 277, 283 energy 280, 282 gaseous exchange 173
defacation 93 balance 76 gel 14
deficiency diseases 68 enterokinase 89, 90 gene 361, 365, 380, 381
mineral 71 enzyme 40, 42, 44, 105 dominant 363
protein 65 epidermis 19, 111, 112, 147, 199, 200 recessive 363
vitamin 68, 69 epididymis 340 genetic engineering 381
deforestation 291, 292 epiglottis 84, 85 genotype 365
denatured 46 epithelium 19, 92, 130, 170 genus 8
germination 328, 329, 330, 331 hydrolysis 60 magnesium 117

hypogeal 331 hydroponics 116 sulphate 116
epigeal 331 hydrophytes 273 malaria 285, 287
gestation 348 hypothalamus 189, 203, 212, 219, 233 malnutrition 78
glands Malpighian corpuscle 186, 187
adrenal 233 ileum 85, 86 Layer 199, 200
Cowper’s 340, 341 imago 286 maltase 89, 61, 90
ductless 232 implantation 345, 347 maltose 58, 59, 89
endocrine 230, 232 impulses 210 mammals 8
exocrine 232 incomplete dominance 366 mangrove 273
gastric 86 inflorescence 314 marcotting 312
intestinal 92 inhalation 169, 171 marijuana 245
lymph 140 inspiration 169, 171, 172 medulla oblongata 212, 213, 219
pituitary 189, 212, 219, 233, 345 insulin 233, 234, 382 mercury 297, 298
prostate 340, 341 integuments 321, 322 meiosis 339, 340, 369
salivary 85 intestinal lipase 89 membrane
sebaceous 200, 201 intestine 84 nictitating 222
sweat 204 large 87, 94 pericardial 132
tear 222 small 89, 92, 94, 96 partially permeable 16, 26, 150
glomerulus 186, 187 insecticides 299, 300 permeable 26
glottis 84, 170 intra-uterine device (IUD) 350 selectively permeable 26
glucagon 197, 198 iodine test 60 Mendel, Gregor 359
glucose 58, 89, 95, 109, 196, 197 iris 223 meningitis 214
glumes 319 iron 71 | menopause 341
glycerol 62 irritability 6, 209 | menstruation 343
glycogen 58, 60-62, 95, 197 Ischaemum muticum 319, 320 mesenteries 86
gonads 338 islets of Langerhans 233, 234 mesophyll 111, 114
gradient isotopes 150 metabolic 184
concentration 24 metabolism 5, 183
diffusion jejunum 86 micropyle 321, 327, 328
grafting 312 juice microorganism 255
wedge 314 gastric 86 microvilli 91, 92
granular layer 199, 200 intestinal 89 mid-brain 212
grass 319 pancreatic 87, 89 mid-rib 112
grey matter 214, 216, 219 Milton solution 168
growth 5 Kaposi’s sarcoma 353 minerals 71
gullet 85 Kapur 323 mineral salts 57, 113, 151
gut 84, 86 kidney 184, 185, 189, 190, 340, 343 absorption of 150, 151
gynoecium 315 knee jerk 215 mitochondria 15
mitosis 311, 340
habitat 275 lactase 89, 90 monocotyledons 9
haemoglobin 13, 71, 125 lacteal 92 monocyte 124
haemophilia 127 lactose 58, 59 monoecious plant 316
haemorrhage 244 lamina 111, 112, 114 monohybrid inheritance 359, 363
hair 200 larva 286 monosaccharides 58, 59
erector muscle 200, 204 larynx 84, 169 morphine 245
follicle 200 latent heat 202 mosquitoes 285, 286
papilla 200 Law of Segregation 361 motor end plate 211
haploid number 339 layering 312 mouth 96
heart 129, 132 lead 296 mucus 170, 250
attack 137 leaf 111 muscle
beat 135 variegated 103 cardiac 133
disease 137 legume 327 ciliary 223, 224, 227
herbicides 299 lens 223, 224, 227 erector 200
herbivores 276, 278, 282 light intensity 106, 107, 271 external intercoastal 169, 172
heredity 359 lignin 18, 145 hair erector 200, 204
hermaphrodite 316, 368 lime water 167, 174 heart 133
heroin 245 limiting factors 47, 106 internal intercoastal 169, 172
heterozygous 362 lipase 44, 89, 90 papillary 133
hilum 327, 328 liver 85-87, 95, 197 rectus 222, 223
hindbrain 211 locomotion 6 smooth 85
homeostasis 194, 195, 196 loculi 322 sphincter 86
homeostatic 198, 204 loop of Henlé 186 mutagens 373
homoiothermic animals 202 lumen 130, 137 mutation 371
homologous chromosomes 362 lung 169, 170, 172, 173 | myelin sheath 211
homozygous 362 luteinising hormone (LH) 345 | myoglobin 72
Hooke, Robert 12 lymph 95, 140
hormones 65, 230, 232 lymphatics 140 | nasal cavities 84
Human Immune-deficiency Virus (HIV) 352 lymphatic passage 169
humidity 157 capillary 92, 95 nectar 318, 320
hybridization 379 system 122, 140, 141 negative feedback 196, 197, 204
hybrid 359 lymphocytes 124, 141 nephrons 185, 186
hydrogen lysergic acid diethylamide 245 nerve 211, 219
carbonates 167 cell 210
peroxide 43, 51 Mad Cow disease 263 cranial 210
Index
fibres 210, 211, 219 pepsinogen 88 protozoan 285

mixed 213 peptidase 89 puberty 341, 343
optic 223, 226 peptide bond 64 pubic bone 340, 343
spinal 213, 214, 216 peptones 64 pulmonary arch 133, 135
nervous system 208, 243 perennation 311 pulse 136
central 210, 211 perianth 315 Punnett square 363
peripheral 210 pericardium 132 pupa 286
neurilemma 211 pericarp 322, 324 pupil 222, 223
neurones 210, 219 peristalsis 85, 96 pyloric sphincter 85, 86
effector 210, 211, 217 pesticides 299, 301 pyramids 278, 279, 280
motor 210, 211, 215, 216 petal 315, 322
receptor 210, 211, 217 keel 317, 318 quinine 287
relay (immediate) 210, 214, 215, 216 standard 317, 318
sensory 210, 211, 215, 216 wing 317, 318 radicle 327, 328, 330, 331
nicotine 241, 247 petiole 111 receptacle 314, 315
nitrogen 64, 117 pH 47, 50, 88 receptor 201, 210, 214-217, 221
oxide 294 phagocytes 124, 126, 140 rectum 85, 87, 96, 340, 343
node of Ranvier 211 phagocytosis 126, 141 recycling 304
nuclear envelope 14 pharynx 84, 85, 169 reflex
nucleolus 14 phenotype 365 action 215, 216
nucleoplasm 14 phloem 112-114, 146, 148, 149, 150, 151 arc 217
nucleus 14 phosphates 298 centre 217
generative 321 photoreceptors 224 conditioned 217
vegetative 321 photosynthesis 100-102, 104, 110, 179 cranial 217
nutrition 4, 55, 82, 83, 99, 100 piliferous layer 147; 148, 151 spinal 217
healthy lifestyle 76, 77 | pistil 315 renal pelvis 185
holozoic 83 | pith 147 rennin 88
over- 78 | pituitary gland 189, 212, 219, 233, 345 reproduction 7, 309
saprophytic 258 | placenta 316, 321, 324, 348, 349 asexual 310, 311
plant sexual 314, 337
obesity 78 dicotyledonous 9 vegetative, artificial 312
oesophagus 85, 88, 96 monocotyledonous 9 vegetative, natural 311
oestrogen 236, 343, 344, 345 plasma 122, 141 respiration 5, 41, 161, 163, 179
oils 63 membrane 14, 16 aerobic 163
opiates 245 Plasmodium 285 anaerobic 164, 165
opium 245 plasmolysis 31 tissue 166
optic lobes 212, 219 platelets 125, 127, 141 response 6, 208, 221
optimum temperature 46 pleura 171 retina 223, 224, 227
organs 19, 20 pleural rhizomes 311, 312
system 19 cavity 171 rhythm method 349
osmoregulation 189 membranes 169, 171 rib 169, 171
osmoregulator 189, 190 plumule 327, 328, 330 cage 172
osmosis 23, 27, 28, 31-33, 140, 150, 152 pneumatophores 273 rickets 69
osmotic pressure 189 poikilothermic animal 202 “ringing” experiment 149
ova 338, 341 pollen rods 224
ovary 233, 236, 315, 316, 322, 343 grains 315, 320, 321 root 148, 332
inferior 316 sacs 315 dicotyledonous 147
superior 316 tube 321 hairs 18, 148, 151
wall 321 pollination 316, 320 pressure 152
oviduct 342, 343, 348, 349, 350 cross 317 roughage 72
funnel 343 insect 317
ovulation 344, 345, 350 mechanism 318 salinity 274
ovules 316, 321, 322 self 317 salivary amylase 88, 89
ovum 338, 341 pollution 294, 300 saprophytes 258
oxygen debt 165 air 294, 296, 297 scale leaves 312
oxyhaemoglobin 125 water 297 scion 312
polymorph 124 sclera 223
palisade polypeptide 65, 90 sclerotic coat 222
cell 112 polysaccharides 58, 60 scrotal sacs 340
tissue 111 population 275 scrotum 340
paludrine 287 potassium hydroxide 103, 167 scurvy 69
pancreas 85, 87, 197, 233, 234 potometer 157 sebum 201
pancreatic predator 277 second filial generation 359, 360
amylase 89 pregnancy 250 sexual characteristics 236, 343
lipase 89 prey 277 seed 322, 323
papilla 199 producers 276 selection 375
pappus 323 | progesterone 236, 343-356 natural 375
parasites 284 | Prokaryotae 8 semen 341
parasitism 284 prorennin 88 seminal vesicle 340, 341
pathogens 285 proteases 44 sense organs 222
Pavlov’s experiments 217 proteins 57, 64, 65 sensitivity 6
pedicel 314, 315, 318 energy value 72 sepals 315, 322
penicillin 242, 262 prothrombin 122, 127 septum 324
penis 340, 341 Protoctista 8 serum 127
pepsin 88 protoplasm 13 albumin 122
globulin 122
systole 135
sex vascular bundles 147, 148
chromosomes 368 vas deferens 340
determination 368 tar 247 vasectomy 350, 351
sexual intercourse 347 tegmen 322 vasoconstriction 200
sexually transmitted diseases 351 temperature regulation 198 vasodilation 200
shoot 328 test cross 365, 366 variation 374
sickle-cell anemia 372 testa 322, 324, 327, 328 vectors 285
sieve tube 146, 149 testes 233, 236 vegetative propagation 311, 312
signs 351, 353 testosterone 236, 343 artificial 312
skin 199, 204 tetracycline 242 natural 311
papilla 200 thoracic cavity 169 vein 111, 114, 129, 130, 131
smog 295 thorax 169, 172 hepatic 94, 132, 138
smoke 246 thrombin 127 hepatic portal 94, 132
smoking 245, 247, 250 thrombocytes 127 portal 138
sodium thrombokinase 127 pulmonary 131, 132, 135, 138
hydrogen carbonate 103 thrombosis 141, 250 renal 132, 138, 184
hydroxide solution 66 tissue 19 umbilical 348, 349
soil 292 adipose 95 vena cava 135
sol 14 epithelial 19 anterior 132
solution fluid 140 inferior 132
hypertonic 29, 30 mesophyll 112 posterior 132
hypotonic 29, 30 palisade 111, 114 superior 132, 133
isotonic 28 rejection 128 venation 111
species 8 spongy 111 parallel 111
spectrum transplant 128 ventral root 214
absorption 105, 106 vascular 145 ventricles 132, 133
action 105, 106 trachea 169, 170 venules 129
sperm 339, 340, 341 trait 360 vertebral column 172
spermatic cord 340 dominant 360 vertebrates 8
spermatozoon 341 recessive 360 vessels 145
spermicides 350 translocation 149 annular 145
sphygmomanometer 136 transpiration 153, 154, 156 pitted 145
spikelet 319 cuticular 155 spiral 145
spinal cord 213, 214, 216, 219 pull 152, 155 villus 91, 92
spirillum 257 stream 155 embryonic 349
spleen 85 transport 120 micro 92
spongy mesophyll 112 Tridex 323, 324 virus 256, 352
stamens 315, 318, 320 trypsin 90 vision 226
trough 318 trypsinogen 89, 90 stereoscopic 227
starch 58, 60, 61, 102 tubal ligation 350, 351 visual
stems tubers 311, 312 field 227
dicotyledonous 148 turgidity 31 purple 224
stereoscopic vision 227 turgor 31 vital capacity 176
sterilization 351 pressure 29 vitamins 57, 68, 69
sternum 171, 172 twins 351 vitreous humour 223, 224
stigma 315, 320, 321, 322 vulva 342, 343
stimulus 6, 196 ulcer 244
stoma 112, 113 ultrafiltration 187
stomach 85, 86, 88, 96 umbilical warm-blooded animals 202
stomata 112, 114, 154, 155 arteries 348, 349 water 57, 70
stomatal pore 112 cord 348, 349 absorption of 150
style 315, 322 urea 95, 96, 185, 190 culture 117
sub-cutaneous fat 201 ureters 184, 340, 343 potential 28
sucrase 89, 89, 90 urethra 184, 340, 343 wavelength of light 105
sucrose 58, 59, 89, 109 urinary bladder 184, 340, 343 white matter 214, 216, 219
sugar urine 187, 188 wilting 158
complex 58, 59 uterine
reducing 60 lining 343, 345
simple 58, 59 wall 349 xerophyte 272
sulphur dioxide 294, 295 uterus 342, 343, 349 xylem 112-114, 145, 148, 151
suspensory ligament 223, 226, 227
vessels 18
sweat
duct 200, 201 vacuoles 15
| vagina 342, 343
glands 200, 201, 204
pore 200, 201 valve 130, 131, 141 yeast 258
symptom 351, 353 bicuspid 133, 134
synapse 211, 216, 219 mitral 133
syphilis 351 semi-lunar 130, 133, 135 zygote 321, 322, 340, 347, 348
tricuspid 133
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BIOLOGY: A Course for ‘0’ Level is an extensively revised version of the highly popular Comprehensive Biology: A Course
for ‘0’ Level. This edition meets the requirements of the new syllabus for the Singapore-Cambridge GCE ‘0’ Level
Examination. It also implements the Ministry of Education’s initiatives, namely Thinking Skills, Information Technology
and National Education. .
Most Significant Features of this Edition

e A full-colour design enhances textual concepts and makes the hook easy to use.
e Hundreds of photographs and diagrams convey information clearly and accurately.
e Learning Objectives at the start of each chapter highlight the key points covered in the chapter.
e A lively introduction stimulates interest and makes the student think about the work to be covered in the chapter.
e Investigation centres on experiments related to the topics in the text because of their importance in explaining the
concepts.
e Assignment focuses on application of relevant concepts and is structured to develop thinking, investigative and
research skills as well as encourage the use of internet resources and computer software to obtain information, gather :
and present data, and manipulate graphic images.
e The Thinking Room makes use of a graphic organizer to help students visualize and manage thinking processes.
e Test Yourself helps students to assess their progress while Analysis and Comprehension focus on — ~_—
and comprehension skills.
e Key ideas summarize main ideas in the text while Suimmnaiy and Concept Map at the end of the chapter are ideal tools —
for revision.
e Exercise provides a selection of ocafinailonnne questions at the end of each chapter.
Accompanying this coursebook are a practical book and a workbook. ‘Resources for teachers and students are also
available online at the Publisher’s website <htip//www.teol.com.sg>.
Lam Peng Kwan has more than 20 years’ experience in teaching Biology at Secondary and Junior College levels. In 1971,
he won the Creative Science Teachers’ Award at a Competition on Classroom Teaching for Secondary Schools and Junior
Colleges, organized by the Science Council of Singapore. He was one of the chief markers for the GCE ‘0’ Level Examination —
and a specialist writer in Biology for the Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore (1980-4).
Eric Y K Lam graduated with First Class Honours in Molecular Biology. He has hadvast experience in building the Life
Sciences Industry in Singapore and is currently involved in promoting education in the Life Sciences among the young.
He is a co-author of a shite Biology for ‘0’ Level Science (Second Edition) and Science Adventure for Secondary
7 and 2.
Dr Geoff Hayward is a lecturer in Science Education at the University of Oxford. Prior to his appointment at Oxford, he
taught Biology for a numberof years in both Further and Higher levels of education. He is the author of several biology —
textbooks, including Applied Genetics, Applied Ecology anda series of books for use in Africa. His research interests.
include learning from text-based materials and the development of text-based science education resources.
ISBN 978-981- an 90 $ ——
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Marshall Cavendish a 2 | : |
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Education | ae 9 789810 Mn

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Published by Marshall Cavendish Education

First published 1976

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system

Marshall Cavendish is a registered trademark of Times Publishing Limited.

Section I Organization and Maintenance of the Individual

Section II Microorganisms and Biotechnology

Section IV Development of Organisms and Continuity of Life -

Summary and Concept Map

for applying thinking skills

for applying information technology

for National Educational messages

Publisher’s Online Material

Website addresses (URLs) are indicated by the following icon.

Acknowledgements (Comprehensive Biology: A Course for ‘O’ Level)

SECTION I: ORGANIZATION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL

Chapter 2 Cells : The Building Blocks of Life 12

Chapter 3 Diffusion, Osmosis and Surface Area : Volume Ratio 23

Chapter 6 Nutrition in Mammals 82

Chapter 7 Nutrition in Plants 99

Chapter 8 Transport in Mammals 120

Chapter 9 Transport of Materials in Flowering Plants 143

Chapter 11 Excretion 182

Chapter 12 Homeostasis 194

Chapter 14 Co-ordination and Response: IT Animal Receptor Organs 221

Chapter 16 Drugs 240

SECTION II: MICROORGANISMS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

Chapter 17. Microorganisms and Their Applications in Biotechnology 254

Chapter 18 Ecology 268

SECTION IV : DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND CONTINUITY OF LIFE

Chapter 20 Reproduction in Plants 309

Chapter 21. Sexual Reproduction in Animals 337

Chapter 22. Heredity 357

Organization and Microorganisms and

Section III Section IV

Relationships of Organisms Development of

Some living organisms around us;

As Man is a living organism, studying biology helps us to understand

With the invention of the microscope, we discovered a new world—

An ever-increasing human population requires more and more food.

Biological studies help to control pests, including crop pests such as

Above all, biology helps us to understand ourselves and the world

From these scenes of

Li Exploring the World of the Plant Pathologists

Prepare an Information Sheet on what a plant pathologist does by either

Nutrition (Chapters 5, 6 and 7)

Glucose — an Carbon dioxide Water

Excretion (Chapter 11)

be harmful. Hence they must be eliminated. The process by which

the organism removes such metabolic waste substances is called

Most animals have special organs for removing their excretory

Living organisms are open systems continually receiving and

living matter to bring about an increase in size. This may

Non-living matter such as a bicycle does not grow.

Some animals do not have the power of locomotion, for example,

This property of living organisms that results in an appropriate

Reproduction (Chapters 20 and 21)

Distinguishing a living organism from non-living matter oh PmTiel

1.3 Classification in Biology — ynment in which they