S1-S4 Bio Learner's Research Book (LBL)

Biology Special Book For New Lower Curriculum Lwanga Books Ltd
SENIOR ONE TO SENIOR FOUR
“LEARNER’S RESEARCH BOOK”
BASED ON THE NEW LOWER SECONDARY CURRICULUM

By
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Table of contents
Preface………………………………………………………….………….…I
Acknowledgement………………………………………….……………….II
Introduction to Biology...……………………………….……………...........1
The Cell...…………………………………………………….……………....5
Cell Physiology...………………………………………………….………..12
Classification I..…………………………………………………….....….. 20
Classification II……………………………………………………………23
Viruses.……………………………………………………………………..33
Insects......………………………………………………………………..... 39
Flowering Plants..………………………………………………………......45
Soil.……………………………………………………………………….... 53
Nutrition In Plants and Animals………………………………………..... 60
Transport In Plants and Animals.…………………………………...…….90
Gaseous Exchange In Plants and Animals…………………………….....125
Respiration.…………………………………………..……………….........141
Excretion...........……………………………………………………............149
Coordination In Animals……………………………………………..........160
Locomotion In Animals……………………………………………….........175
Growth and Development………………………………………………......183
Reproduction In Plants and Animals………………………………...….....196
Genetics..........……………………………………………………………......216
Inter-Relationships.......………………………………………………….......231
Evolution....………………………………………………………………......249

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Preface
This learner’s research book has been written in line with the revised biology
syllabus for the new lower secondary curriculum.
The main reason as to why We have written this book, is to make research
easier to learners as they are making their own notes in biology. Therefore, this
is a detailed research book for the new revised biology ordinary level syllabus.
This research book has been written in a Simplified way to help students read
and understand the competence based biology on individual basis as they are
coming up with their own notes. Therefore, learners understand key scientific
concepts pertaining life and apply them in real life.
This research book has been equipped with various images, diagrams, drawings
and illustrations to ensure learners understand and relate biology concepts well.
This learner’s research book is one of the materials which are to be used to
support the teaching and learning process of the new lower secondary
curriculum.
Lwanga Books Ltd feels confident that this Book will be of immense value
to both the learners and the teachers.
Any suggestions for improvement of this book are most welcomed, thanks.
NB: “Search” lwanga william on youtube and subscribe ( also tap on

the notification bell) to that you-tube channel and watch the subject based
project lessons that are on-going. “ subscription is for free”
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Acknowledgement
Lwanga Books Limited is deeply indebted to all those who participated in the
development of Lwanga William S1-S4 Biology Learner’s Research Book.
Special thanks go to Mr. Lwanga William, the CEO Lwanga Books Ltd for his
valuable insights and advice on all publishing matters.
We would like to express our sincere appreciation to all those who worked
tirelessly towards the production of this learner’s research book.
First and foremost, we would like to thank our families and friends for
supporting all our initiatives both financially and spiritually, Lwanga William’s
parents; Mr. William Lwanga and Mrs. Harriet Lwanga, his brother; Mr.
Nsubuga Grace.
The initiative and guidance of the publishing partners, Ministry of Education
and Sports (MoES) and National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) in
development and implementation of the New Lower Secondary Curriculum are
highly appreciated.
We thank God for the wisdom He has given us to produce this volume of work.
May the Almighty God bless all the students that will use this book with
knowledge of making their own notes as they are making research...….AMEN.
We welcome any suggestions for improvement to continue making our service
delivery better.
“It is not what We do for you but what We will

teach you to do for and by yourselves that will
eventually make you successful beings in the
society”
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INTRODUCTION TO c) Entomology- This is the study of
insects.
BIOLOGY
d) Parasitology- This is the study of
parasites.
Biology is a branch of science that deals with
the study of living things. There are diverse e) Physiology- This deals with the study
formsof life on earth ranging from the of the functions of various structures of
invisible microscopic living things to the anorganism. It deals with the processes
gigantic life forms. It aims at explaining the that take place in the body of
living world in terms of scientific principles. organisms.
It is important to note, however, that living f) Anatomy- The study of the internal
things interact with the non living things in structure of organisms
the environment as well. g) Microbiology- This is the study of
Biology, therefore also entails the study of microorganisms
non living things as well. The role of human h) Bacteriology- The study of bacteria
beings inshaping the environment is also
investigated in biology. In summary, biology i) Ornithology- This is the study of birds
deals with the study of origins, types, nature, j) Itchthology- This is the study of fishes
growth, development, interactions and
maintenance of all life forms on earth. This list is in-exhaustive as there are very
Branches of Biology many other branches of biology.
Biology is such a broad field of knowledge.
It is divided into two broad branches Importance of biology
1. Zoology- This is a branch of biology that • The study of biology is very
deals with the study ofanimal life. important. The knowledge acquired
from this study canbenefit an individual
2. Botany- This is a branch of biology that in myriad ways. The study of biology is
deals with the study ofplant life. Within the important in that:
two branches, there exist even smaller • The knowledge acquired from
branches because the branches (botany and the study of biology can be very helpful
zoology) are very wide and complex. in solving environmental problems
The smaller branches of biology such as food shortage, poor health
include: services, pollution andenvironmental
a) Ecology- This is the study of the degradation.
interrelationships between organisms and • The study of biology can grant
their environment. Ecology aims at one an entry into various careers such
establishing how organisms are related to as medicine,veterinary medicine,
each other andtheir environment. Ecology is animal husbandry, horticulture and
further subdivided into smaller branches. dentistry.
These can be forest ecology, marine ecology, • The study of biology leads to
range land ecology etc. development of scientific skills which
b) Genetics- This sub-branch of biology are very useful inlife. These include
deals with the study of inheritance and skills of observing, identifying,
variation. It deals with the study of how recording, classifying, measuring,
variations (differences) occur between analyzing and evaluating. These skills
parents and their offspring. It is also can enable one learn how to make right
concerned with how various characteristics choicesand lead an improved life.
are passed on from parentsto offspring.
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• Through the study of biology produced in living things is very useful as
man learns the causes of human, plant it enables the living things carry out some
and human diseasesand how best these of their physiological processes. The
diseases can be prevented and cured. energyis also required for growth and
• Biological knowledge development, movement and repair of
acquired in the study of biology is very worn out tissues.
useful in enhancinginternational c) Gaseous Exchange
cooperation. Some biology related Gaseous exchange refers to the process by
international conventions include: which living things exchange oxygen and
 The coordinated fight carbon (IV) oxide across the respiratory
against Severe Acute Respiratory surfaces. Animals always take in air rich
Syndrome involving scientistall over in oxygen and giveout air rich in carbon
the world. (IV) oxide. Carbon (IV) oxide is a waste
 The fight to save the product of chemical reactions in the body.
ozone layer from depletion through Animals require oxygen for respiration.
various internationalagreements such as Gaseous exchange, therefore, enables
the Kyoto protocol. animalsobtain oxygen for respiration and
 Management of resources get rid of carbon (IV) oxide, a waste
through international treaties such as product.
the CITES(Convention against Plants, however, require carbon (IV) oxide
International Trade on Endangered for photosynthesis during the day. They
Species). give away oxygen as a by-product. The
plants equally require oxygen for
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING respiration and give away carbon
THINGS (IV) oxide.
Living things share a lot of characteristics d) Excretion
in common. These characteristics are
discussed below. This is the process by which living things
separate and eliminate the waste or
a) Nutrition harmful materials resulting from
Nutrition is the process by which living chemical reactions within the cells. These
things obtain and assimilate (utilize) harmful waste products ofmetabolism
nutrients. Living things require nutrients maybe toxic to the body if they are left to
for various purposes; growth, repair of accumulate in the cells of the living things
worn out tissues and forprovision of energy. e) Growth and Development
Plants manufacture their own food using Growth refers to an irreversible increase
light energy, carbon (IV) oxide,water and in size and mass while development
mineral salts through the process of refers to the irreversible change in
photosynthesis. Conversely, animals feed complexity of the structure of living
on already manufactured foods from plants things. Growth and developmentof living
and other animals. things is essential as it enables the living
b) Respiration things to attain maximum size that can
Respiration is the process by which food enablethem to perform their functions and
substances are chemically broken down roles.
to release energy. During respiration, f) Reproduction
oxygen is used while energy, carbon (IV) This is the process by which living things
oxide and water are released. Respiration give rise to new individuals of the same
occurs in all living cells. The energy kind. Allliving things reproduce.

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Reproduction is essential as it leads to and analysis. The living things or parts of
perpetuation of species and it avoids living things that are used for biological
extinction of certain animals and plants. study are calledspecimens. Biological studies
g) Irritability always take place in laboratories. A
laboratory is a building or aroom that is
This is the ability of living things to
designed and equipped for scientific studies.
perceive (detect) changes in their
Collections of living things
environment and respond to them
especially animals may not be very easy.
appropriately. Living things respond to
Some of the animalsare not easy to catch
changes in temperature, humidity,light,
while some are quite dangerous.
presence or absence of certain chemicals.
Knowledge on proper specimen collection
Response of organisms to these changes is
and handling of is very important. We will
crucial as it enables them to escape from
discuss some of the apparatus used in
harmful stimuli. Ability to detect changes
specimen collection.
in the environment also enables organisms
a) Sweep net- This is used for
to obtain resources in their environment.
catching flying insects.
h) Movement
Movement refers to change is position
(displacement) of a part or parts of an
organism. Movement in plants includes
folding of leaves, closing of flowers and
growing of shoots towardslight. The
change of position of an entire organism
from one position to another is locomotion.
Study questions
a) Motor vehicles move, use
energy and produce carbon dioxide and
b) Fish net- This is used for trapping
water. Similar characteristics occur in
small fish and other small water animals.
living organisms yet motor vehicles are
not classified as living.
List the other characteristics of living
things that do NOT occur in motor
vehicles.
b) Give the name to the study of:
• The cell
• Micro—organisms
• The study of
differences between parents and their
offspring.The study of relationships
between organisms and their
environment. c) Pooter- This is used for sucking small
animals from rock surfaces or barks of
Collection of Specimen trees.
We have defined biology as the study of
living things. For effective study, a biologist
may have to collect some living things or
some parts of living things for observation

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How to use a magnifying lens
To use a magnifying lens, place the object to
be enlarged on the bench. Hold the
magnifying lens on one hand and while
closing one eye, move the lens towards the
object untilthe image comes into clear focus.
If a magnifying lens is used to make a
drawing of a specimen, the magnification of
the drawingwill have no relation with the size
of the drawing.
The magnification of the drawing can be
d)Bait trap- This is used for attracting and
calculated using the formula shown below.
trapping small animals including rats.
e)Pit fall trap- This is used for catching Drawing magnification=
crawling animals.
The sign of “times” must come before the

magnification value e.g. X10, X5, X15 etc.
Precautions During Collection and
Observation of Specimen
Whilecollecting specimen for observation, a
biologist should play close attention to the
following:
 Collect only the number of
specimen you need; do not collect more
f) Pair of forceps- This is an apparatus used than you need.
for picking up small crawling animals e.g.
stinging insects.  Do not harm the specimen
g)Specimen bottles- These are bottles used during the capture/collection exercise.
for keeping collected specimen. They are  Do not destroy the natural
ofdifferent sizes depending on the size of habitat of the specimens.
the specimen being studied.
h)Magnifying lens- This is used to enlarge  Handle dangerous/injurious
small objects. A hand lens is a common specimens with care. Such injurious
magnifying lens used in the laboratory. specimens can bestinging plants or
The magnifying power of the hand lenses insects. Forceps and hand gloves should
is always indicated on the lens e.g. X10, be used in such cases.
X5, X8. The magnifying power of a lens
showshow many times the image will be
enlarged compared to the object.

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Comparison Between Plants and Animals
Plants Animals
Most possess chlorophyll which gives them their They lack chlorophyll pigment hence feed
green colour. Chlorophyll is very usefulin the on already manufactured food materials.
process of photosynthesis.
Their cells have cellulose cell walls Their cells lack cellulose cell walls
They respond slowly to changes in their They respond quickly to changes in the
environment. environment.
Plants are immobile Most animals move about in search of

food,shelter and mates.
They lack specialized excretory organs Have complex excretory organs
THE CELL
Introduction  In 1650, Zacharias Jansen invented the
compound microscope which combines two
 The bodies of living organisms are made
lenses for greater magnification.
up of small microscopic units called cells.
 In 1665, Robert Hooke used an improved
Thecells make up the structures of the living
compound microscope to observe cells.
organisms and are responsible for carrying
outvarious biological processes in the bodies  Between 1650 and 1700, Anthony Van
of the living organisms. Leewenhoeck developed a better microscope
 Some organisms are made up of a single withlenses which provided a greater
cell only e.g. amoeba and other bacteria in magnification. He used the microscope to
thekingdom monera. These organisms are view nuclei and unicellular organisms
known as unicellular organisms. including bacteria.
 Other organisms are composed of many  The development of the electron
cells and are said to be multicellular. Most microscope in 1930s significantly improved
plantsand animals are multicellular. microbial studies. Through this microscope,
 A cell is the basic functional unit of an it was possible to study very finer details of
organism. structures.
 Being very small, the cell cannot be seen
The Light Microscope
with a naked eye. A powerful magnifying
instrument is required. The microscope is  This is the most commonly used
used to view the cells. microscope in schools and institutions that do
 Development of the light microscope not focuson very fine details of the internal
structures of cells.

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 The light microscope uses a beam of Handling and Care of the Microscope
light to illuminate the specimen being
studied. Part of the Function of the Part
Microscope
 A microscope is a delicate and expensive
instrument that should be handled with care. Limb. Supports the body tube and
Itis imperative to understand the parts and stage
functions of various parts of a microscope. Base Provides firm and steady
 In a light microscope, the eye piece and support to the microscope
the objective lenses both contribute to the Body Tube Holds the eyepiece and the
magnification of the specimen. revolving nose piece
 The total magnification of the specimen Coarse adjustment Raises or lowers the body
viewed under a light microscope will be knob tube for longer distances to
givenby: bring the image into sharper
focus
 Magnification= Eyepiece lens
Fine adjustment knob Raises or lowers the body
magnification X Objective lens magnification
tube through smaller
 In particular, if the eyepiece lens distances to bring the image
magnification is X10 and objective lens into sharper focus. It is
magnification power is X8, then the total mostly used with the high
magnification of the specimen would be: power objective lens
Magnification = Diaphragm An aperture that regulates
Eyepiece magnification X Objective lens the amount of light passing
magnification = 10 X8 =X80. through the condenser to
illuminate the specimen
The light Microscope Eye-piece Contains a lens which
contributes to the
magnification of the
specimen under review.
Objective lens Brings image into focus and
magnifies it
Mirror Reflects light through the
condenser to the object on
the stage
Revolving nose-piece Holds the objective lenses in
place and enables the change
from one objective lens to
the other
Condenser Concentrates light on the
object on the stage
Stage Flat platform where
specimen on the slide is
placed. It has two clips to
hold the slide into position.

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The following rules should be observed when  For higher magnifications, turn the
handling the microscope: medium power objective lens into position
and adjustthe focus using the coarse
 Always use both hands when carrying
adjustment knob. For sharper images, use the
the microscope. One hand should hold the
fine adjustment knob.
base toprovide support while the other hand
 If finer details are required, turn the high
holds the limb.
power objective lens into position; now use
 Never place the microscope too close to
onlythe fine adjustment knob to bring the
the edge of the working bench or table.
details into sharper focus.
 Do not touch the mirror or the lenses
with your fingers. Cell Structures as seen under the Light
Microscope
 Dirty lenses should be cleaned using a
special soft lens tissue paper or tissue paper  The structures within the cell are referred
moistened with ethanol. The other parts of to as organelles. Some of the cell organelles
the microscope may be cleaned using a that can be observed under the light
microscope. microscope include the cell wall, cell
membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuole and
 Do not wet any part of the microscope.
chloroplasts.
 Make sure the low power objective lens  These cell organelles perform specific
clicks into position in line with the eye piece functions within the cell.
before and after use.
 After use, always clean and store the Plant and Animal cells as seen
microscope in a safe place, free from under the light microscope
moisture anddust.
How to use the Microscope
 Place the microscope on the bench with
the stage facing away from you.
 Turn the low power objective lens until it
clicks into position.
 Ensure that the diaphragm is fully open.
 Look through the eye-piece with one eye;
meanwhile adjust the mirror under the stage
toensure that maximum light can pass
through. The circular area seen is referred to
The cell as seen under the Electron
as the field of view.
Microscope
 Again look through the eyepiece while
adjusting the mirror under the stage to ensure  The electron microscope is more
thatsufficient light is passing through the powerful than the light microscope. It uses a
specimen. beam ofelectrons to illuminate the specimen
 Use the coarse adjustment knob to bring instead of light as in the case of light
the low power objective lens to the lowest microscope.
point.Viewing through the eye-piece, turn  Electron microscope can magnify an
the coarse adjustment knob gently until the object up to 500, 000 times.
specimencomes into focus.
 It also has a very high resolving power.
 Use the fine adjustment knob to bring the
Resolving power is the ability to distinguish
image into sharp focus. Make a drawing of
what you observe.

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between separate things which are close to It containsorganelles and other inclusions
each other. such as starch, glycogen, fat droplets and
 The high resolving power makes the many other dissolved substances.
electron microscope a very important  Cytoplasm is not static; it undergoes a
research toolin microbiology. movement known as cytoplasmic streaming.
 Through the electron microscope, very  It provides a suitable medium for cellular
fine details of the cell can be observed. reactions to take place.
c) Mitochondrion
 Mitochondrion is a sausage shaped
organelle that provides sites for respiratory
reactions that yield energy for the cell.
Mitochondria is thus, referred to as the
powerhouse of the cell.
 It is bound by two membranes. The inner
membrane is greatly folded into cristae to
increase surface area for respiration.
 The arrangement and number of
mitochondria in a cell depends on the cell
energyrequirements. Cells that require large
amounts of energy contain high amount of
mitochondria.
 Such cells include muscle cell, sperm
cell, apical meristem cells, and kidney cell.
Structure and Functions of the Cell  Mitochondria are self replicative that is
Organelles they can divide to form new ones.
The Mitochondrion (Animal)

a) Cell membrane
 The cell membrane, also known as
plasma membrane or plasmalemma
consists ofthree layers when viewed under
the electron microscope.
 The three layers are composed of one
layer of phospholipid sandwiched between
twoprotein layers.
 It is flexible and has pores. The cell
membrane is important in that:
1) It encloses the cell contents.
2) It allows for selective movement of
materials in and out of the cells. The pores
allow materials particularly of small
molecular size to move in and out of the
cells.
b) Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm consists of a fluid medium in
which chemical reactions take place.

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Generalized mitochondrion structure molecules, destroy worn out organelles or
even theentire cells.
 Lysosomes also play crucial role in
digestion in unicellular organisms.
 The lysosomes are also vital in
breakdown of bacteria and other harmful
microbesthat might have been ingested in
food. This explains their high relative
abundance in injured or infected cells.
 The membrane of the lysosomes are
intact. This is important because if the
enzymes leakout, they may destroy the whole
cell.
g) Golgi bodies/Golgi apparatus
 These are stacks of membrane bound
tube like sacs. They are found close to the
d) Endoplasmic Reticulum
cellmembrane.
 Endoplasmic reticulum appears as a  Golgi bodies perform the following
series of interconnected channels, running functions:
throughout the cytoplasm.
1) They package and transport
 Their membranes are continuous with the
glycoproteins.
outer membrane of the nuclear membrane.
2) They are involved in secretion of
 Some endoplasmic reticula have granules
synthesized proteins and carbohydrates.
called ribosomes on their surfaces and are
referred to as rough or granular 3) They manufacture lysosomes.
endoplasmic reticula. Endoplasmic reticula
Note: Golgi bodies are abundant in cells that
that arenot associated with ribosomes are
are active in secretion. For instance
called smooth endoplasmic reticula.
pancreatic cellswhich secrete enzymes and
 The rough endoplasmic reticulum
the nerve cells which secrete
transports proteins while the smooth
neurotransmitter substances.
endoplasmicreticulum transports lipids.
 Generally, endoplasmic reticula also act h) Centrioles
as storage areas for synthesized molecules  These are rod shaped structures located
suchas enzymes. They also contribute to just outside the nuclear membrane.
mechanical support.
 They take part in cell division and also
e) Ribosomes in the formation of cilia and flagella in
 These are spherical in shape. While some lowerorganisms.
are bound to the endoplasmic reticula, some  Plant cells lack centrioles.
ribosomes are scattered within the cytoplasm i) Chloroplasts
(free ribosomes). Their largest dimension is
 Chloroplasts are egg-shaped structures
25 nanometres.
surrounded by two membranes and contain a
 They are synthesised in the nucleolus.
gellike stroma through which runs a system
They form sites for protein synthesis.
of membranes that are stacked together to
f) Lysosomes
form grana.
 These are spherical sac-like organelles
 The granum contains chlorophyll which
bound by a single membrane. They contain traps light energy that is used during
lytic enzymes which break down large photosynthesis.

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 It is in the chloroplasts that Comparison between Plant Cells and
photosynthesis takes place. Animal Cells
While there exist many similarities between
j) Vacuoles
plant and animal cells, there are a number of
 These are sacs that are filled with fluid differences.
called cell sap. Vacuoles vary in size. Plant cell Animal cell
 Animal cells contain small vacuoles Usually large Smaller in size
which may be numerous in the cells while Regular in shape Irregular in shape
plant cellscontain one large centrally placed Has a cell wall Has no cell wall
vacuole. Usually has a large Usually has no
central vacuole vacuoles but when
 Sap vacuoles store sugars and salts present, theyare often
thereby contributing to the osmotic temporary and small
properties ofthe cell. This influences how structures withinthe
materials move in and out of the cell. cytoplasm
 In some unicellular organisms, food Cytoplasm and Cytoplasm occupies
vacuole stores and digests food substances nucleus are usually most space in the cell
whilethe contractile vacuole excretes located towards the withthe nucleus
unwanted materials from the cell. periphery of thecell usually centrally
k) Cell wall placed
 This is the rigid outer cover of plant cells Some have Has no chloroplasts
and some lower organisms. chloroplasts
 In plants it is composed of cellulose Usually more store Store glycogen and
fibres. oils, starch and fats
proteins.
 Cell wall is important in that:
Has no centriole Has centrioles
1. It gives plant cells their definite shape
2. It provides mechanical support and
protection against mechanical injury. Estimation of Cell Size
3. The cell wall allows gases, water and  The light microscope can be used to
other substances to pass through it. estimate the size of a cell. Most cells have
diameterssmaller than a millimeter. Due to
l)Nucleus this, cell sizes are always measures in smaller
 Nucleus is a double membrane bound units. These are micrometres and nanometers.
structure made up of a viscous fluid known These units of measurements are related as
as nucleoplasm in which nucleolus and shown below.
chromatin materials are suspended. The I millimeter (mm) = 1000 micrometres (µm).
nuclear membrane has minute pores, nuclear I micrometer (µm) = 1000 nanometres (nm).
pores which allow materials to move in and Procedure in cell size estimation
out ofthe nucleus.
 Nucleus controls all the activities of the  One requires a microscope, transparent
cell. ruler marked in millimeters and a prepared
slideof cells.
 Nucleus is responsible for manufacture  With the low power objective lens in
of ribosomes while chromatin contains place, keep a transparent ruler on the stage of
hereditary materials. themicroscope.
 Nucleus generally takes a spherical or  Focus so that the millimeters marks on
oval shape. the ruler are seen as thick dark lines.

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 Estimate the diameter of the firld of view Tissues
by counting the one millimeter spaces
 A tissue is a group of cells of a particular
between the first mark and the last one across
type that are grouped together to perform the
the field of view. Count only the spaces
same function.
between two thick dark lines.
 Convert the diameter of the field of view
from millimeters to micrometres. a) Tissue types in animals
 Remove the ruler and place the prepared 1. Epithelial tissue- This is a thin
slide of cells. continuous layer of cells for lining and
protection ofinternal and external surfaces.
 Count the number of cells along the
2. Skeletal muscle- This is a bundle or
diameter of the field of view.
sheets of elongated cells with fibres that can
 Calculate the diameter of one cell using contract. Its contraction and relaxation brings
the formula: about movement.
Cell Diameter= 3. Blood tissue- This is a fluid containing
red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets.The main functions of blood tissue
Cell Specialization, Tissues, Organs and
are transportation of nutrients and gases as
Organ Systems CellSpecialization/Cell
well as protection of the body against
Differentiation
infections.
 This refers to the process by which a cell
4. Connective tissue- This tissue consists
becomes structurally modified to perform
of strong fibres that connects other tissues
specific functions
andorgans thereby holding them in position.
 While cells have a basic outline, they
b) Tissue types in plants
become differentiated to perform specific
functions. 1. Epidermal tissue- This is a single thin
layer of cells covering the outer surfaces. It
 In particular, the root hair cell has
protects inner tissues of plants from
extended surface for absorption while the
mechanical damage and infection.
sperm cellhas a tail-like extension for
2. Palisade tissue- This is a group of cells
swimming towards the ovum.
rich in chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. It
hasa site for the absorption of light energy
and manufacture of food by photosynthesis.
3. Parenchyma tissue- This tissue consists
of special thin walled irregularly shaped cells.
They form packaging and storage cells.
4. Conducting tissue/Vascular bundle-
This tissue consists of xylem and phloem.
Xylemconducts water and dissolved mineral
salts in a plant while phloem conducts food
substances in solution.
Organs
 An organ is a group of specialized tissues
that are grouped together to perform a
commonfunction.
 Organs in animals include:
a) Heart- composed of connective, muscle,
epithelial and blood tissues.

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b) Kidney- Composed of connective, CELL PHYSIOLOGY
epithelial and muscle tissues
c) Brain- Composed of epithelial, Introduction
connective tissues  Physiology refers to the branch of
d) Lungs- Composed of epithelial, biology that deals with the study of functions
connective tissues. andactivities of life or of living matter such
as organs, tissues or cells. It aims at
 Organs in plants include: understanding the mechanism of living.
a) Roots- composed of epidermal,  In simpler terms, physiology refers to the
conducting and parenchyma tissues. processes and functions that take place inside
the body cells of organisms.
b) Flowers- This is composed of epidermal,  Cell physiology refers to the study of
conducting tissues. functions of the cell structures. The cell
c) Stem- Composed of conducting, structuresperform various functions of life. In
parenchyma, and epidermal tissues and particular:
palisadetissues in some cases a) Chloroplasts play a vital role in
d) Leaves- Composed of palisade, carbohydrate synthesis.
conducting and epidermal tissues. b) Mitochondrion produces energy
Organ system required to carry out life processes.
 This is a group of organs whose c) Ribosomes manufacture of proteins.
functions are coordinated and synchronized  These physiological processes require
to performthe same function. various raw materials for them to take place.
 Organ systems are more pronounced in  For photosynthesis to occur, carbon (IV)
animals than in plants oxide, mineral salts and water have to be
 Organ systems in animals include takeninto the chloroplasts.
 For respiration (energy production) to
a) Digestive system composed of organs take place, food substrate such as glucose
such as oesophagus, stomach, intestines and and oxygen have to be taken into the
their associated glands. mitochondrion. Energy, carbon (IV) oxide,
b) Circulatory system composed of the water andalcohol (in plants) are some of the
heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, end products of respiration.
capillaries).  Some of the end products of the
c) Excretory this is composed of kidney, physiological processes such as carbon (IV)
liver, and blood vessels. oxide can beharmful when allowed to
accumulate in the cells. They, thus, have to
d) Respiratory system composed of trachea, be eliminated from the cells.
bronchus, and lungs.  This implies that there is a constant flow
e) Reproductive system composed of the of materials in and out of the cells and the
reproductive organs and associated glands. cellorganelles where these physiological
processes are taking place. There is a
f) Nervous systems composed of the brain, constant movement of materials across the
spinal cord, eye, ear organs. cell membrane in the cells.
 This chapter discusses the properties of
the cell membrane and the processes through
which materials move in and out of the cells.

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Structure of the membrane c) The cell membrane possesses electric
charges- The cell membrane has both
 A membrane is a surface structure that
positive and negative charges. These charges
encloses the cell and cell organelles.
affect the manner in which substances move
 The membranes include the cell in andout of the ells. The charges also enable
membrane, tonoplasts, nuclei membrane, the cell to detect changes in the environment.
mitochondrialmembrane and chloroplast Physiological Processes of the Cell
membrane. membrane
 The membranes have a common basic  In this section, we discuss the various
structure which regulates the movement of physiological processes through which
materials in and out of the cells. materials move in and out of the cells across
 The cell membrane is made up of a the cell membrane.
phospholipid layer sandwiched by two Materials move in and out of the cells
protein layer (it is a lipoprotein layer) the through three main physiological processes:
overall thickness of the cell membrane is a)Diffusion
about 7.5 nm thick.
b)Osmosis
 The membrane is perforated by small
pores that allow the passage of substances in c)Active transport
andout of the cells.
Diffusion
Properties of the cell membrane
 From kinetic theory, matter is made up
a) The cell membrane is semi permeable-
of particles that are in continuous random
The pores that occur on the cell membrane
motion.In solids, the particles are at fixed
allows the passage of the small size
positions and can only vibrate at these fixed
molecules but does not allow the passage of
positions.
the largesized molecules. Such a membrane
 In liquids and gases, the particles are
is said to be selectively permeable or
loosely held and are free to move from one
semi-permeable.In particular, when a cell is
region toanother randomly. This movement
surrounded by a dilute sugar solution, the
of gas or liquid particles is observed to be
small sized water molecules will enter the
from regions of high concentration to a
cell but the larger sugar molecules will not
region of low concentration. The process by
pass through the cell membrane. In contrast,
which particles move from a region of high
the cell wall is permeable as it allows both
concentration to a region of low
sugar and water molecules to pass through it;
concentration is known as diffusion.
it has larger pores. This property of
 In particular, the scent of a flower or
selectively permeabilityenables the cell
perfume experienced by an individual is as a
membrane to select what enters and leaves
resultof the flower scent particles or perfume
the cell.
particles move from a region of high
b) The cell membrane is sensitive to
concentration.
changes in temperature and pH- Cell
 Diffusion occurs until the regions have
membranesare made up of protein. Proteins
an even concentration of the liquid or gas
are adversely affected by extreme changes in
particles.
temperature and pH. Changes in temperature
 The difference in concentration of
and pH will alter the structure of the cell
particles between the region of high
membrane thereby hindering the normal
concentration andregion of low concentration
functioning of the cell membrane. High
is known as the diffusion
temperature denatures (destroys) the proteins
gradient/concentration gradient.
thereby impairing the functions of the cell
membrane.

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The Role of Diffusion in Living Organisms
a) In Plants
Diffusion plays an important role in plants in
that:
 It helps in absorption of mineral salts
from the soil to the plant. Most salts dissolve
in soilwater. For those salts whose
concentration in soil water is higher that their
concentration in the cell sap of root hair cells,
they move into the root hair cells through
Demonstration of the process of diffusion diffusion. Plants require mineral salts for
using potassium manganate (VII) numerous life processes.
Requirements: potassium manganate (VII)  Diffusion plays a role in gaseous
crystals, glass tubing, 100 cm3 beaker and exchange in plants. The respiratory gases
water. (oxygen andcarbon (IV) oxide) diffuse across
Procedure the stomata and lenticels of plants.
 Diffusion also contributes to the
a) Hold the glass tubing vertically in a
transportation of manufactured food
beaker so that one end of the tubing rests on
materials from theleaves to other parts of the
thebottom of the beaker.
plant.
b) Cautiously and quickly drop a crystal of
b) In Animals
potassium manganate (VII) through the upper
opening of the glass tubing. In animals, diffusion plays the following
c) Close the upper hand of the glass tubing important roles
with the thumb.
 It helps in the absorption of digested
d) Half fill the beaker with water. food materials in the alimentary canal. End
productsof digestion such as amino acids and
e) Carefully withdraw vertically the glass
glucose diffuse across the wall of the ileum
tubing so that the crystal is left undisturbed at
into theblood for transport to other parts of
thebottom of the beaker.
the animal body.
f) Record your observations for the first 15  Diffusion also plays a significant role in
minutes. gaseous exchange in animals. In animals,
g) Explain your observations. Expected gaseous exchange occurs at certain structures
observations known as respiratory surfaces. These include
the skin, gills, lungs, tracheal system and the
 After some time, the purple colour of the cell membrane (in unicellular organisms).
potassium manganate (VII) spread Gaseous exchange at these surfaces occurs
throughoutthe water and eventually all the through the process of diffusion.
water turned purple. Explanation
 The crystals of potassium manganate  Diffusion is important in excretion of
(VII) are highly concentrated with the nitrogenous wastes especially in unicellular
potassiummanganate (VII) particles. The animals.
potassium manganate (VII) particles break Factors affecting the rate of Diffusion
away from the crystals, dissolve in water and a) Diffusion gradient
then diffuse through the water until they are
evenly distributed.  A greater diffusion gradient between two
points increases the rate of diffusion.
Increasingthe concentration of diffusing
molecules also increases diffusion gradient
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with corresponding regions hence increases concentration (dilute solution) to a region of
the rate of diffusion. low concentration (concentrated solution)
b) Surface area to volume ratio through a semi permeable membrane.
 Osmosis can be described as a special
 Rate of diffusion directly depends on the
type of diffusion since it involves movement
surface area to volume ratio. The greater the
ofsolvent (water) particles from a region of
surface area to volume ratio, the greater the
high concentration to a region of low
rate of diffusion will be. Conversely, low
concentration.
surface area to volume ratio results in a low
diffusion rate.
 This implies that diffusion rate is greater
in small organisms than the large organisms.
This is because the small organisms have a
large surface area to volume ratio. As a result,
most of their body parts are closer to the
external surrounding leading to faster
diffusion.
 Small organisms can, therefore, depend
on diffusion alone as a means of transporting
foods, respiratory gases and waste products.
 To large organisms, diffusion alone is
inadequate as a means of transport of foods
andexcretion. They have an additional
Demonstration of Osmosis Using a Visking
transport system.
Tubing
 Organisms always lose heat to the
surrounding through diffusion. This implies Requirements
that smallanimals lose a lot of heat to the
500cm3 beaker, visking tubing, a
surrounding compared to the large animals.
piece of thread, glass rod,
c) Thickness of membranes and tissues
concentrated sugar solution, 500 cm3
 The thicker the membrane or tissue, the distilled water.
lower the rate of diffusion. This is because Procedure
thedistance covered by the diffusing
1. Into the beaker, put 350 cm3 of the
molecules is greater through the thicker
distilled water.
membranes.
 The rate of diffusion is higher in thinner 2. Dip the visking tubing in water to
membranes. moisten it. Open the visking tubing and tie
d) Size of molecules one endwith the thread provided.
3. Half fill the visking tubing with the sugar
 Small and light molecules diffuse much
solution provided and then tie the open end
faster than the heavy and large sized particles.
ofthe tubing. Ensure no sugar solution spills
e)Temperature
out of the tubing.
 An increase in temperature increases the
4. Immerse the visking tubing into the
energy content of the diffusing particles;
distilled water in the beaker and suspend it
thereby causing them to move faster, this
using theglass rod provided.
implies that the rate of diffusion increases
5. Leave the set up for about 30 minutes.
withincrease in temperature.
Osmosis 6. Record your observations.
 Osmosis is a process by which solvent 7. Explain the observations made.

molecules move from a region of high

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Observations  When isotonic solutions are separated
with a semi permeable membrane, there will
 The visking tubing became swollen
be nonet movement of solvent molecules to
indicating that its cell contents increased. The
any of the solutions since they have the same
amountof water in the beaker decreased. This
concentration of solvent molecules.
implies that water moved from the beaker
Osmotic pressure
into the visking tubing.
 When a concentrated solution is
Explanation separated from distilled water by a semi
 The visking tubing contains both sugar permeablemembrane, the concentrated
and water molecules. The beaker contains a solution will develop a force with which it
higher concentration of water molecules than draws waterthrough the semi permeable
the visking tubing. The water molecules membrane from the distilled water.
diffused from the beaker (where they are
 Osmotic pressure refers to the force with
highly concentrated) into the visking tubing
which a concentrated solution draws water to
(where they are lowly concentrated). Even
itself.
though there is a higher concentration of
 An osmometer is an instrument used to
sugarmolecules in the visking tubing, they
measure the osmotic pressure.
were not able to diffuse out of the visking
Osmoticpotential
tubing due to their large molecular sizes. The
 This is a measure of the pressure a
visking tubing is semi permeable.
solution would develop to withdraw water
 Other than visking tubing, dialysis
moleculesfrom pure water when separated by
tubing or cellophane are also other semi
a semi permeable membrane.
permeablemembranes that can be used in this
Water Relations in Animals
experiment.
 As discussed earlier, the cell membrane
Osmosis explained
is semi permeable. Let us discuss what would
 When two separate solutions are
happen if an animal cell say red blood cell is
separated by a semi permeable membrane,
placed in solutions of varying concentrations
there will be movement of water molecules
a) Red blood cell in hypotonic solution e.g.
from their region of high concentration
distilled water
(dilute solution) to a region of low
concentration (the highly concentrated  Distilled water has a higher
solution) across the semi permeable concentration of water molecules compared
membrane. The semi permeable membrane to the red bloodcell cytoplasm. When a red
does not allow movement of soluteparticles blood cell is placed in a hypotonic solution,
across it. water will moveinto the cell through osmosis.
 The movement of the water molecules The cell will swell and burst. Swelling of red
continues until the separate solutions have blood cell when placed in a hypotonic
thesame concentrations. solution is referred to as haemolysis. The
 Solutions with the same concentrations cell is said to be haemolysed.
are referred to as isotonic solutions. The b) Red blood cell in hypertonic solution
solutionsare said to be isotonic to each other.
 A hypertonic solution has a low
 A lowly concentrated solution (dilute
concentration of water molecules compared
solution) is referred to as a hypotonic
to the red blood cell cytoplasm. Water will,
solution. Ahypotonic solution has less of the
therefore, be drawn out of the cell into the
solute molecules but more of the solvent
hypertonicsolution. The cell will shrink and
molecules.
become small. The cell is said to be crenated.
 A highly concentrated solution with
The process by which animal cells shrink and
more of the solute particles but less of the
become smaller when placed in hypertonic
solventparticles is referred to as a hypertonic
solutions is referred to as crenation.
solution.
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c) Red blood cell in isotonic solution  Turgor pressure is the outward pressure
that the cell cytoplasm exerts on the cell wall
 When placed in an isotonic solution, the
asit gains more water through osmosis.
cell remains unchanged. This is because there
 When the cell wall is being stretched
will be no net inflow or outflow of water
towards the outside, it will develop a
between the cell and the solution.
resistant pressure to stretching that is equal
Note:
and opposite to turgor pressure called wall
 When the cell becomes haemolysed or pressure.
crenated, its functioning is impaired. This b) A plant cell in a hypertonic solution
impliesthat the body fluids and blood plasma
 When placed in a hypertonic solution,
surrounding the cells must be kept at the
the plant cell will lose water to the solution
same concentration as the animal cells. This
through osmosis. As the water moves out of
will prevent bursting or shrinking of the cells
the cell, the cell starts to shrink, becomesless
thatwould otherwise impair their physiology.
rigid or flabby and is said to be flaccid.
 The body has a mechanism through  It the cell loses more water, its contents
which these concentrations are maintained at reduce in size and the plasma membrane
a nearlysame concentration. pullsaway from the cell wall towards the
Water Relations in Plants centre. The process through which plant cells
losewater, shrink and become flaccid is
 Water relations in plant cells differ with
called plasmolysis.
that in animal cells.
 Plasmolysis can be reversed when a
 A plant cell has both a cellulose cell wall flaccid cell is placed in distilled water in a
and cell membrane. The centre of the cell processcalled deplasmolysis.
contains vacuole with sap. The sap is a
solution of salts and sugars and is bound by a
membrane, the tonoplast.
 The cell membrane and tonoplast are
semi permeable while the cellulose cell wall
is fullypermeable.
a) Plant cell in hypotonic solution e.g.
distilled water
 If a plant cell is placed in water or
hypotonic solution, the cell will draw water
from thehypotonic solution through osmosis
causing the cell to distend.
 The cellulose cell wall is rigid and does
not allow plant cells to burst as in the case of
animal cells. Wilting
 As the cell gains more water, the vacuole
enlarges and exerts an outward an outward  Plants always lose water to the
pressure on the cell wall called turgor atmosphere through transpiration and
pressure. evaporation.Simultaneously, the plant cells
 The turgor pressure increases as more lose water and draw more from the soil.
water is taken into the vacuole causing the  Wilting is a phenomenon that occurs
cell tostretch until the cell cannot stretch any when plant cells lose more water than they
more. The cell becomes firm and is said to be drawfrom the soil making the plant cells to
turgid. lose their turgor pressure and droop.
 At night, plants always recover from
wilting since stomata are closed and water

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lossthrough evapotranspiration is  In kidney tubules of animals, water is
significantly reduced. withdrawn from the tubules into the body
 Where water supply from the soil is cells through osmosis through the tubular
inadequate, the plants may fail to recover walls. This enables animals to maintain the
fromwilting and instead undergo permanent osmoticpressure of the body fluids.
wilting. Factors Affecting the Rate of Osmosis
 Concentration of solutions and
Role of Osmosis in Organisms
concentration gradient. Osmosis is greater
 Absorption of water from the soil-The when the separated solutions have a greater
root hair cell of plants absorbs water from the difference in osmotic pressure. In summary,
soil through osmosis. Osmosis also helps in the greaterthe concentration gradient, the
distribution and movement of water from the greater the rate of osmosis and vice versa.
roots to other parts of the plant.  Temperature-An increase in temperature
 Osmosis plays an important role in would increase the rate of osmosis as it
support in herbaceous plants and young increases the energy content of the
seedlings.When the cells of these plants take molecules.
in water through osmosis, the cells become  Thickness of the membranes-The thicker
firm or rigid and thus gain support. the membrane the lower the rate of osmosis
while the rate of osmosis is greater through
 Osmosis plays a role in opening and
thinner membranes.
closing of stomata in plants- The guard
Active Transport
cells surrounding the stomata synthesize
glucose through photosynthesis in the  Active transport refers to the process
presence of light. As glucose accumulates in through which substances are moved across
the guard cells, the osmotic pressure of the the cellmembrane and against a
guard cellsincrease making them to draw concentration gradient.
water from adjacent cells through osmosis.  Diffusion and osmosis alone do not
When the guard cells become turgid, they account for movement of substances in and
bulge outwards leading to opening of the out of thecells. In particular, there are some
stomata. Opening of the stomata is crucial as mineral salts that occur at low concentrations
it allows for gaseous exchange in plants. At in the soil water than in the cell sap. Some of
night, there is no glucose synthesis. The these mineral salts cannot be absorbed by the
glucose available in the guard cells is plants through diffusion. A mechanism that
respired on leading to reduction of glucose would move them into the cells against the
and consequently reduction in osmotic concentration gradient will be useful.
pressure. The guard cells lose turgidity and  Active transport requires energy. This
close the stomata. is unlike diffusion and osmosis that only
 Osmosis also plays a role in feeding in dependon concentration gradient for them to
insectivorous plants- These plants live on take place.
nitrogen deficient soils and trap insects from  It is postulated that there are protein
whence they obtain the nutrients. These carrier molecules on the cell membrane that
plants possess special structures that aid in the moving these substances across the
suddenly change their turgor pressure when membrane. These carrier molecules combine
disturbed. The change in turgor pressure withthe substances being transported across
enables the special structures to rapidly close the membrane and then move them from one
thereby trapping the insects. sideof the membrane to the other side.
 Osmosis also plays a role in  Cellular intake of solutes is largely
osmoregulation in animals through active transport.

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Role of active transport in living Change in pH affects the respiratory process
organisms which is enzyme controlled. Respiratory
enzymesrequire optimum pH for their
Active transport is important in living things
efficient activity. Extreme pH conditions will
in that:
increase lower the rate of active transport
 It helps in re-absorption of sugars and since the enzymes controlling respiration will
some salts by the kidney to the bloodstream. be denatured.
 It helps in absorption of some mineral
salts from the soil by roots.
 Absorption of digested food from c) Glucose concentration
alimentary canal of animals into the
Glucose is the chief respiratory substrate. At
bloodstream.
low glucose concentration, there will b less
 It leads to accumulation of substances production of energy leading to decreased
into the body to offset osmotic imbalance in rate of active transport. Rate of active
aridand saline environments transport increases with increase in glucose
 It plays a role in excretion of waste concentration due to increase in the rate of
products from body cells. energy production.
d) Temperature
Factors affecting the rate of Active Temperature affects the enzyme controlled
Transport respiration process. At low temperatures, the
 Most factors that affect active transport enzymes are inactive hence the rate of
are those factors that would affect the energy respiration will be low resulting into low rate
production process in living cells. of active transport since there will be less
 These include: production of energy. An increase in
temperature increases the rate of respiration
a) Oxygen concentration since the enzymes become more activated. At
Oxygen is required in respiration process that temperatures beyond 40 degreescelcius, the
yields energy for active transport. Under low enzymes become denatured, respiration stops
oxygen concentration, the rate of respiration and so does active transport.
will be low hence there will be production of e) Presence of metabolic inhibitors e.g.
little energy leading to low rate of active cyanide.
transport. Increase in oxygen concentration These are substances which act as metabolic
translates into ahigher energy production poisons. They stop the rate of respiration
leading to high rate of active transport. leading toproduction of no energy. Active
b) Change in pH transport is, thus, stopped.

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