K.S.

School of Engineering & Management

15, Mallasandra, Off Kanakapura Road
Bangalore 560062

Department of Civil Engineering

VI Semester

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

(Code: 10CVL67)

Academic Year: 2016-2017

Laboratory Manual/Observation Book

Name of the Student :

University Seat No :

1
 INDEX
Sl No Experiment Page Faculty Signature
No & date
Group I – Index Properties Tests

1 Determination of Specific Gravity 3

2 6
Determination of Water Content (oven drying method)
3 Grain Size Analysis of soil sample (sieve analysis) 9

4 Insitu Density by Core Cutter Method 16

5 Insitu Density by Sand Replacement Method 19

6 Liquid Limit Test by Casagrande Method 24

7 Liquid Limit Test by Cone Penetration Method 29

8 Plastic Limit Test 31

9 Shrinkage Limit Test 33

Group II – Compaction Tests

10 Standard Proctor Compaction Test 38

11 Modified Proctor Compaction Test 41

Group III – Permeability Tests

12 Coefficient of Permeability by Constant Head Method 45

13 Coefficient of Permeability by Variable Head Method 48

Group IV – Strength Tests

14 Unconfined Compression Test 51

15 Direct Shear Test 56

16 Triaxial Compression Test (undrained) 60

17 Laboratory Vane Shear Test 64

Group V

18 Consolidation Test 66

19 California Bearing Ratio Test 69

2
 Experiment No. 1

Determination of Specific Gravity

Objective

Determination of Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Pycnometer Method

Need and Scope

The knowledge of specific gravity is needed in calculation of soil properties like void ratio,
degree of saturation etc.

Theory

Specific gravity (G) is defined as the ratio of the weight of soil solids to that of an equal
volume of distilled water at that temperature and both the weights being taken in air.

Specific Gravity (G) = ____(M-M)____

(M-M)-(M-M)

Where, M=mass of Pycnometer.

M=mass of Pycnometer +dry soil
M=mass of Pycnometer +soil + water.
M=mass of Pycnometer + water.

Apparatus Required

Pycnometer, weighing balance, glass rod etc.

Procedure

1. Clean and dry the pycnometer and weigh it along with the conical cap (M1).
2. Select about 300 g of dry soil and put the same into the pycnometer. Weigh it (M2) with brass
cap and washer.

3
3. Fill the pycnometer with de-aired water up to half its height and mix it thoroughly with a
glass rod. Add more water and stir it till entrapped air is fully removed. Fit the screw cap and
fill the pycnometer through the hole in the conical cap. Dry the pycnometer from outside and
weigh it (M3).
4. Remove all the contents from the pycnometer, clean it thoroughly and fill it with distilled
water. Dry the pycnometer from outside and weigh it (M4).
5. Repeat the same process for additional tests.

Observations & Calculations

Sl. Test No’s

Particulars
No 1 2 3
1 Mass of empty pcynometer (M), g
2 Mass of pycnometer + dry soil (M), g
3 Mass of pycnometer + soil + water, (M3), g
4 Mass of pycnometer + water (M4), g

Specimen Calculations: G= (M-M)______

(M-M) - (M-M)

G=

Result

Average specific gravity =

Remarks

Unless or otherwise specified specific gravity values reported shall be based on water at
270C. So the specific gravity at 270C = KSp. gravity at Tx0C.

Where K= Specific gravity of water at temperature TxºC

Specific gravity of water at temperature T27 ºC

The specific gravity of the soil particles lie with in the range of 2.65 to 2.85. Soils containing
organic matter and porous particles may have specific gravity values below 2.0. Soils having
heavy substances may have values above 3.0.

4
 Viva Questions

1) List the Index properties of soils and explain its significance

 specific gravity
 water content
 particle size distribution
 consistency limits
 density index
 insitu density

2) Define specific gravity.

3) What is the range of specific gravity value of soils?
4) What are the applications of specific gravity in geotechnical engineering?

 Specific gravity alone gives very little idea about the soil type and hence got limited
direct utility
 Value of specific gravity is however required for calculating void ratio, porosity,
saturated weight, submerged weight, degree of saturation etc. which are the quantities
very commonly used for design purposes.
 It is also used in studies of critical hydraulic gradient when quick sand conditions are
implied and in the zero-air void estimation in compaction

5
 Experiment No. 2

Determination of Moisture Content

Objective

Determine the natural water content of the given soil sample.

Need and Scope of Experiment

In almost all soil tests natural moisture content of the soil is to be determined. The knowledge
of the natural moisture content is essential in all studies of soil mechanics. To sight a few,
natural moisture content is used in determining the bearing capacity and settlement. The
natural moisture content will give an idea of the state of soil in the field.

Theory

The natural water content also called the natural moisture content is the ratio of the weight of
water to the weight of the solids in a given mass of soil. This ratio is usually expressed as
percentage.

Apparatus Required

Non-corrodible air-tight containers, electric oven, desiccator and weighing balance.

Procedure

1. Clean the container with lid, dry it and weigh it (W1).

2. Take a specimen of the sample in the container and weigh with lid (W2).
3. Keep the container in the oven with lid removed. Dry the specimen to constant weight
maintaining the temperature between 105° C to 110°C for a period varying with the type
of soil but usually 16 to 24 hours.
4. Record the final constant weight (W3) of the container with dried soil sample.

Peat and other organic soils are to be dried at a lower temperature (say 600 C) possibly for a
longer period. Certain soils contain gypsum, which on heating loses its water of
crystallization. If it is suspected that gypsum is present in the soil sample used for moisture
content determination it shall be dried at not more than 80 °C and possibly for a longer time.

6
Observations & Calculations

S.No. Sample No. 1 2 3

1 Weight of container with lid( W1 ) g

2 Weight of container with lid +wet soil

(W2 ) g
3 Weight of container with lid +dry soil
(W3 )g
4 Water/Moisture content ,

w = (W2W3) x 100
(W3W1)

Result

The natural moisture content of the soil sample is ________

7
 Viva Questions

1) Define water content

It is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of the solids in a given mass of soil

2) List the various methods of determining water content

 Oven drying method

 Rapid moisture meter method

3) What are the applications of water content in geotechnical engineering?

- Strength & stability of soils in almost all the cases depend upon its moisture
content and hence it is required to find out the moisture content of the soils.
- It is also used to determine the plasticity and shrinkage limit of fine grained
soils, for which moisture content is used as the index

8
 Experiment No. 3

Grain Size Distribution by Sieve Analysis

Objective

The grain size analysis is an attempt to determine the relative proportions of different
grain sizes which make up a given soil mass and draw graph between log grain size of
soil and % finer.

Need and Scope of Experiment

The grain size analysis is widely used in classification of soils. The data obtained from
grain size distribution curves is used in the design of filters for earth dams and to
determine suitability of soil for road construction, air field etc. Information obtained from
grain size analysis can be used to predict soil water movement although permeability
tests are more generally used.

Apparatus Required

Weighing balance, I.S sieves and mechanical sieve shaker

Theory

Effective size (D10) is the particle diameter corresponds to 10% finer in the grain size
distribution graph. It means 10% of particle is finer than this diameter.

Uniformity coefficient: Cu = D60

D10

Coefficient of Curvature Cc = __(D30)² _

(D60 X D10)

Procedure

1. Take a representative sample of soil received from the field and dry it in the oven.
2. Take 1,000 g of dried soil with all the grains properly separated out.

9
3. Set the sieves one over the other in an ascending order of size of sieves from the bottom
with a pan attached to the lowest 75  sieve and fit the nest to a mechanical shaker.
4. Place the selected sample of soil on the top 4.75 mm sieve and close it with a cap.
5. The whole nest of sieves is given a horizontal shaking for 10 min. till the soil retained on
each sieve reaches a constant value.
6. Determine the mass of soil retained on each sieve including that collected in the pan
below.

Observations and Calculations

Weight of dry soil sample (W) = g

Weight Cumulative
Percentage
I.S sieve retained on percentage Percent
retained on Remarks
size (mm) retained on finer
each sieve (g) each sieve
each sieve

The percentage of soil retained on each sieve shall be calculated on the basis of total
weight of soil sample taken. Cumulative percentage of soil retained on successive sieve
is found.

Result:

Draw a graph between log sieve size Vs % finer. The graph is known as gradation curve.
Corresponding to 10%, 30% and 60% finer, obtain diameters from the graph and
designate them as D10, D30, and D60.

10
Effective size, D10 = mm
Uniformity coefficient: Cu =
Coefficient of Curvature Cc =

(I.S 460-1962) The sieves for soil tests: 4.75 mm to 75 µ.

11
 Viva Questions

1) What is grain size analysis and name its two stages of the test.
- Grain size analysis or Gradation analysis is used for classification of soils
and it is conducted in two stages
- (i) Dry analysis: It involves shaking the representative soil sample in a set
of sieves of varying apertures. This test is conducted for coarse grain soils.
(ii) Wet analysis: It meant for fine grained soils (fractions passing through
75 carried out with the use of hydrometer or a pippete. The basis for wet
analysis is Stoke’s Law of sedimentation

2) What are the applications/uses of grain size analysis?

- Useful for classification of soils
- In the case of coarse grained soils, sieve analysis can give a fair idea about
the probable density, shear strength and permeability that would be
achieved in the field
- In the case of clean sands certain relationships correlating the effective
size (D10) and permeability have been developed (K=CD102, where,
C=100 )
- To find out clay content which enables us to get the value of activity.
Activity indicates the potential plasticity of clay particles from which a
rough idea about clay minerals can be obtained
- For design of filter in earth dams or design of relief wells. The following
formula is used
(a) D15 (filter material) < 4 to 5
D85 (protected soil)

(b) D15 (filter material) > 4 to 5

D15 (protected soil)

- Certain fine sands especially in foundations are susceptible to quick sand

condition in earthquakes. Terzaghi and others have fixed approximate

12
 range of grain-size distribution in which the sands are susceptible to
liquefaction. i.e. D10 < 0.1, Cu < 5, ID < 50%, n > 44%

3) Define Uniformity Coefficient (Cu) and Coefficient of Curvature (Cc). What is

its significance

 Coefficient of uniformity (CU)

It is a measure of particle size range and is calculated as follows:
CU = D60
D10
Where, D60 = 60% of total mass are finer than D60 size (mm)
D10 = 10% of total mass are finer than D10 size (mm)
D10 is also known as effective size
For well graded soils, CU > 4 for Gravels,
CU > 6 for Sands,

 Coefficient of curvature (CC)

The shape of the particle size curve is represented by coefficient of curvature.
CC = ( D30)2__
D10 x D60
For well graded soil, CC is between 1-3
(Note: Even if either of the two conditions is not satisfied, the sample is
poorly graded)

4) Why is a logarithmic plot is used instead of an ordinary plot for representing

diameter of the grain-size
- Because the range of particle size is very wide (i.e. 1  to 100 mm)

5) What are the characteristics of grain size distribution curve?

- Particle size distribution curve clearly indicates whether the soil is
predominantly coarse grained or fine grained
- The curve shows whether the soil is uniformly graded or well graded
- In the case of uniformly graded soil, the curve is almost vertical
- In the case of well graded soil, the curve is “S” shape

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 6) Distinguish between cohesive soils and cohesionless soils with respect to
engineering properties

Cohesive soils (Fine grained) Cohesionless soils (coarse grained)

Particle size < 75  (clay & silt) Particle size > 75  (sand & gravel)
Plastic Non-plastic
Less Void ratio More void ratio
Density higher Density less than cohesive soils
Permeability is less Permeability is higher
Shear strength derived from cohesion Shear strength derived from friction

7) How do you distinguish between sand, silts & clays in the field?

Sedimentation test
 Make a soil suspension in water about 100 mm depth.
 Sand will settle within half a minute
 Silt will settle in about 5-60 minutes
 Clay will remain in suspension for at least several hours or may remain even for
several days
Rubbing test
 Rub a small quantity of soil between fingers immersed in water.
 Highly cohesive soils will give a distinct greasy feel and does not wash off
readily. Clay dries slowly and may shrink on drying or crack may appear
 Silts will give rough feel but not gritty. Silts will wash away easily or can be
brushed off fingers if dry
 Sands will give gritty feel and large number of sand particles stick to fingers

14
8) List the different systems of soil classification.

 Particle Size Classification System

 MIT Classification System
 Indian Standard System of Classification System (ISCS)
 Textural Classification System
 Highway Research Board Classification System (HRBS)
 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

15
 Experiment No. 4

In situ Density of Soil by Core-Cutter Method

Objective

Determination of field density of soil by core-cutter method

Theory

Field density is defined as weight per unit volume of soil mass in the field at insitu
conditions.

d = _t___
(1 + w)

Where, d = dry density, d = dry unit weight, t = field moist density, t =field moist unit
weight, w =water content, w = unit weight of water = 9.81 kN/m³

Apparatus

Core cutter, dolly and rammer and weighing balance.

Procedure

1. Determine the internal volume of the core-cutter Vc in cm³and weigh the cutter accurate
to 1 g. (M1).
2. Select the area in the field where the density is required to be found out and level it.
3. Place the cutter over the ground with the dolly and drive the cutter with the hammer until
top of the cutter is just below the ground level.
4. Remove the soil outside the cutter by digging up to the bottom level of the cutter. Take
out the cutter with sample inside. Remove the dolly and trim both sides of the cutter with
a knife and straight edge.
5. Determine mass of the cutter with the soil (M2).
6. Take a small sample of soil from the site for water content determination and seal it
properly.
7. The field test may be repeated at other places if required.

The water content of sample collected is determined in the laboratory (as per the
procedure explained earlier). Use the above equation for determining d or d.

16
Observations & Calculations

Length of core cutter, L = cm

Diameter of core cutter, d = cm

Volume of core cutter, Vc = cm3

Sl. Test nos.

Particulars
No 1 2 3
01 Mass of empty cutter (M1), g

02 Mass of cutter + wet soil (M2), g

03 Volume of core cutter (Vc) cm³

04 Mass of empty container (M3), g

05 Mass of container + wet soil (M4), g

06 Mass of container + dry soil (M5), g

Water content (w) = (M4-M5) x 100
07
(M5-M3)
08 Field moist density  =(M2-M1) (g/cm³)
Vc
09 Dry density d = _t___ (g/cm³)
(1 + w)

Result:

In-situ field dry density =

17
 Viva questions

1) Define insitu density

 In-situ (field) density is defined as weight per unit volume of soil mass in the field
at insitu conditions.

2) What are the methods of determining insitu density? Indicate their suitability.

 Core cutter method: for cohesive and c-φ soils

 Sand replacement method: for non-cohesive soils (granular soils)

3) What are the applications/uses of insitu density?

 for the determination of bearing capacity of soils

 for the purpose of stability analysis of natural slopes
 for the determination of pressures on underlying strata
 for the calculation of settlement

In compacted soils, the in-situ density is needed to check the amount of compaction
that the soil has undergone for the comparison with design data.

4) What is the effect of density on void ratio, permeability, shear strength,

deformation?

As the density increases void ratio, permeability and deformation decreases but
shear strength increases

18
 Experiment No 5

In situ Density by Sand Replacement Method

Objective

Determine the in situ density of natural or compacted soils using sand pouring cylinders.

Need and Scope

The in situ density of natural soil is needed for the determination of bearing capacity of
soils, for the purpose of stability analysis of slopes, for the determination of pressures on
underlying strata for the calculation of settlement and the design of underground
structures.

It is a very good quality control test, in the embankment and pavement construction,
where controlled compaction is required.

Apparatus Required

1. Sand pouring cylinder with pouring cone, separated by a shutter cover plate.
2. Tools for excavating holes.
3. Cylindrical calibrating container.
4. Balance to weigh to an accuracy of 1g.
5. Metal containers to collect excavated soil.
6. Metal tray with hole in the centre.
7. Glass plate about 450 mm square and 10 mm thick.
8. Suitable non-corrodible airtight containers.
9. Thermostatically controlled oven with interior made of non-corroding material to
maintain the temperature between 1050C to 1100C.
10. Desiccators with any desiccating agent other than sulphuric acid.

19
Materials Required

Clean, uniformly graded natural sand passing through 600 , I.S.sieves and retained on
the 300 , I.S.sieves. It shall be free from organic matter and shall be oven dried and
exposed to atmospheric humidity.

Theory
Field density is defined as mass per unit volume of soil mass in the field at in-situ
conditions.

d = _t___
(1+w)

Void ratio is defined as volume of voids to volume of solids in a soil mass.

e = Gw - 1
d

Where, d = dry density, d = dry unit weight, t = field moist density, t =field moist unit
weight, w =water constant, w = unit weight of water = 9.81 kN/m³

The basic equations in determination of density using sand replacement method are:
t = Ms
Vh
d = _t_
(1+w)

Where, Vh = Volume of hole made in the field.

Ms = mass of moist soil removed from the hole.
w = moisture content of soil removed from the hole.
t = in-situ bulk density.

20
 d = dry density of the soil.
G = specific gravity of the solids.
w = density of water.
e = void ratio

Procedure

(I) Determination of mass of sand that fills the cone.

1. With the valve closed, fill the cylinder with sand and weight it (M1).
2. Keep the cylinder on a glass plate, which is kept on a horizontal surface. Open the valve
and allow the sand to fill the cone completely. Close the valve and weigh the cylinder +
balance sand (M2)
3. Mass of sand that fills the conical portion, M3 = M1- M2

(II) Determination of bulk density of sand (Calibration of the container)

1. Measure the internal dimensions of the calibrating container and find its volume (Vc).
2. With the valve closed, fill the cylinder with sand upto about 1 cm below the top and
weight it (M4).
3. Place the cylinder over the container, open the valve and allow the sand to flow into the
container. When no further movement of sand is seen close the valve. Find the mass of
the cylinder and sand left in the cylinder (M5).
4. The bulk density of sand s is: s = (M4-M5-M3)
Vc

(III) Determination of in-situ density:

1. Level the area where the density is required to be found out.

2. Place the metal plate on the surface, which is having a circular hole of about 10 cm
diameter at the centre. Dig a hole of this diameter up to about 15 cm depth. Collect all the
excavated soil in a container.
Let the mass of the soil removed = (Ms)
3. With the valve closed, fill the cylinder with sand upto about 1 cm below the top and
weight it (M6).

21
4. Remove the plate and place the sand-pouring cylinder concentrically on the hole. Open
the valve and allow the sand to run into the hole till no movement of the sand is noticed.
Close the valve and determine the mass of cylinder and balance sand that is left in the
cylinder (M7)
5. Volume of hole, Vh = (M6-M7-M3)
s

Observations and Calculations

Determination of mass of sand that fills the cone

Wt of sand pouring cylinder + sand, (M1) = g

Wt of sand pouring cylinder + balance sand after filling cone (M2) = g

Mass of sand filling cone ( M3) = (M1 – M2) = g

Determination of bulk density of sand (Calibration of the container)

Length of calibrating container (L) = ____________cm

Diameter of calibrating container (d) = __________cm
Volume of calibrating container (Vc) = _________cc

Wt of sand pouring cylinder + sand (M4) = g

Wt of sand pouring cylinder + balance sand after filling calibrating container and cone
(M5) = g

The bulk density of sand s is: s = (M4-M5-M3) = g/cc

Vc.

Determination of in-situ density

Mass of the soil removed from the hole (Ms) = g

Mass of sand pouring cylinder + sand ( M6) = g

Mass of sand pouring cylinder +balance sand after filling hole and cone (M7) = g

22
 Volume of hole (Vh) = (M6 – M7 –M3) = cc
s
Bulk density of soil in-situ, t = (Ms) = g/cc
Vh
Water content

Weight of empty container (W1) = g

Weight of container + wet soil (W2) = g

Weight of container + dry soil (W3) = g

Water content (w) = (W2-W3) x 100 =

(W3-W1)
Dry density of soil (d) = __t__ = g/cc
(1+w)
Void ratio (e) = Gw - 1 =
d
Result

1) Bulk density of the soil (t) =

2) Dry density (d) =
3) Voids ratio ( e ) =

General Remarks

1. The excavated hole must be equal to the volume of the calibrating container.

2. Weight of sand that filled the cylinder should be maintained constant.

23
 Experiment No 6

Liquid Limit Test by Casagrande Method

Objective

Draw the flow curve and find out liquid limit.

Need and scope

Liquid limit is significant, to know the stress history and general properties of the soil,
met with during construction. From the liquid limit value, the compression index may be
estimated. The compression index value will be useful for the settlement analysis. If the
natural moisture content of soil is closer to the liquid limit, the soil can be considered as
soft. If the moisture content is lesser than liquids limit, the soil can be considered as
brittle and stiffer.

Theory

The liquid limit is the moisture content at which the groove, formed by a standard tool
into the sample of soil taken in the standard cup, closes by 12 mm on being given 25
blows in a standard manner. At this limit the soil possess low shear strength.

Apparatus Required

Balance, Liquid limit device (Casagrande’s), grooving tool, mixing dishes, spatula, oven

24
Procedure

1. About 120 g of air-dried soil from thoroughly mixed portion of material passing 425 

I.S sieve is to be obtained.

2. Distilled water is added, to the soil in a mixing dish to form a uniform paste.

3. A portion of the paste is placed in the cup of Liquid Limit device and spread with few

strokes of spatula.

4. Trim it to a depth of about 1cm at the point of maximum thickness and return excess of
soil to the dish.

5. The soil in the cup shall be divided by the grooving tool along the diameter through the
centre line, so that clean sharp groove of proper dimension is formed.

6. Lift and drop the cup by turning the crank at the rate of two revolutions per second
until the two halves of soil cake come in contact with each other for a length of about
12 mm by flow only.

7. The number of blows required to cause the groove to close for about 12 mm shall be
recorded.

8. A representative portion of soil is taken from the cup for water content determination.

9. Repeat the test with different moisture contents at least three more times to get blows
between 10 and 40.

25
Observations and Calculations
Sl. Number 1 2 3 4
Container number
Weight of container
W1 g
Weight of container +
wet soil W2 g
Weight of container +
dry soil W3 g
Moisture content (%)

w = W2-W3 x 100
W3-W1

No. of blows (N)

Draw a graph showing the relationship between water content (on y-axis) and number of
blows (on x-axis) on semi-log graph. The curve obtained is called flow curve. The
moisture content corresponding to 25 drops (blows) as read from the graph represents the
liquid limit. It is usually expressed to the nearest whole number.

Result

Liquid limit of the given soil =

Flow index (slope of the flow curve), If = (w2-w1) = .

(logN1/N2)

26
 Viva questions

1) Define Consistency (Atterberg) Limits, Plasticity Index, Consistency Index,

Flow Index, and Toughness Index. What is its significance?

2) List the methods to determine liquid limit

 Casagrande method
 Cone penetration method

3) What are the applications/uses of Consistency Limits?

- Liquid Limit and Plasticity Index are the important properties for the
identification and classification of fine grained soils. Classification of silty
and clayey soils by HRB and USCS systems are based on Liquid Limit
and Plasticity Index
- The Liquid Limit of clay indicates its compressibility. Higher the liquid
limit, higher is the compressibility. The compression index of the normally
consolidated clay is found to be dependent on the liquid limit. The plastic
limit of a soils depends both on the amount and type of clay in the soil
- Plasticity index gives the idea about the clay content in a soil. Plasticity
Index increases with clay content
- Plastic limit indicates the moisture content above which moulding of soil
or its compaction in the field can be done without cracking.
- In standard compaction test, the plastic limit can be taken as a rough guide
for the value of OMC
- Shrinkage Limit gives the idea about shrinkage or swelling which is likely
to takes place after being compacted at specified moisture content. If a soil
is compacted at its OMC which happens to be higher than its shrinkage
limit, the compacted soil mass is likely to shrink on drying after
compaction. If such clay is compacted at about shrinkage limit (lower than
OMC) it is likely to swell on soaking subsequently.

27
 - Higher the value of liquid limit and plasticity index are considered as
indication of poor subgrade soils

4) Differentiate between Consistency Limits and Relative Density

Consistency limits Relative Density

Applicable for cohesive soils Applicable for cohesionless soils
Denotes degree of firmness Denotes degree of compaction
Function of water content (w) Function of void ratio (e)

5) Explain plasticity chart

Plasticity chart is used to classify the fine grain (<75 µ) soils into silt, clay and
organic. The plasticity chart is based on the values of liquid limit (WL) and
plasticity index (IP). The 'A' line in this chart is expressed as IP = 0.73 (WL - 20).

28
 Experiment No 7

Liquid Limit Test by Cone Penetration Method

Objective

To find out liquid limit.

Apparatus

Cone Penetrometer

This method is based on the principle of static penetration.

Procedure
 A 310 cone of stainless steel is made to penetrate the soil pat under a mass of
80 g inclusive of mass of cone.
 The soil pat is kept in a cylindrical mould/container (5 cm dia, 5 cm height)
below the cone. The cone is allowed fall freely into the container.
 The depth of penetration of cone is measured.
 Procedure is repeated for soil pats at different moisture content and depth of
penetration for each point is noted.

29
  A graph is plotted representing water content (w) on y-axis and cone
penetration on x-axis. The best fitting straight line drawn. The water content
corresponds to cone penetration of 20 mm is taken as Liquid Limit.

Sl. Number 1 2 3 4
Container number
Weight of container
W1 g
Weight of container +
wet soil W2 g
Weight of container +
dry soil W3 g
Moisture content (%)

w = W2-W3 x 100
W3-W1
Cone penetration
(mm)

Result

Liquid Limit =

30
 Experiment No 8

Plastic Limit Test

Objective

To find the plastic limit of soil

Need and Scope

Soil is used for making bricks, tiles, soil cement blocks in addition to its use as
foundation for structures. Plastic limit indicates the moisture content above which
moulding of soil or its compaction in the field can be done without cracking.

Apparatus Required

Porcelain dish, glass plate, air tight containers, balance, oven etc.

Procedure

1. Take about 20 g of thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing through 425 μ
I.S. sieve obtained in accordance with I.S. 2720 (part 1).

2. Mix it thoroughly with distilled water in the evaporating dish till the soil mass becomes
plastic enough to be easily moulded with fingers.

3. Allow it to season for sufficient time to allow water to permeate throughout the soil
mass

4. Take about 10 g of this plastic soil mass and roll it between fingers and glass plate with
just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter throughout its
length. The rate of rolling shall be between 60 and 90 strokes per minute.

5. Continue rolling till you get a thread of 3 mm diameter.

6. Kneed the soil together to a uniform mass and re-roll.

31
7. Continue the process until the thread crumbles when the diameter is 3 mm.

8. Collect the pieces of the crumbled thread in an air tight container for moisture
content determination.

9. Repeat the test for at least 3 times and take the average of the results calculated to the
nearest whole number.

Observations and Calculations

Compare the diameter of thread at intervals with the rod. When the diameter reduces to
3 mm, note the surface of the thread for cracks.

Container No.

Weight. of container + lid,W1 (g)

Weight of container + lid + wet sample,W2 (g)

Weight of container + lid + dry sample,W3 (g)

Weight of dry sample = W3 – W1 (g)

Weight of water in the soil = W3 – W2 (g)

Water content , w = (W3 – W2)  100

(W3 – W1)

Result

Average Plastic Limit, PL =

Plasticity Index, Ip = (LL - PL) =

Toughness Index, It = Ip =
If

32
 Experiment No 9

Shrinkage Limit Test

Objective

To determine the shrinkage limit and calculate the shrinkage ratio for the given soil.

Need and Scope

Soils which undergo large volume changes with change in water content may be
troublesome. Volume changes may not be equal. A shrinkage limit test should be
performed on a soil.

1. To obtain a quantitative indication of how much change in moisture can occur before
any appreciable volume change occurs

2. To obtain an indication of change in volume.

The shrinkage limit is useful in areas where soils undergo large volume changes when
going through wet and dry cycles (as in case of earth dams)

Theory

As the soil loses moisture, either in its natural environment, or by artificial means in
laboratory it changes from liquid state to plastic state, from plastic state to semi-solid
state and then to solid state. Volume changes also occur with changes in water content.
But there is a particular limit at which any change in water content does not cause any
volume change in soil.

Shrinkage limit (ws) = [w - (V – Vd) w ] x 100

Md

If G is known,

Shrinkage limit (ws) = [(Vd/Md) - (1/G]) x 100

33
Shrinkage ratio (SR) = Md / (Vd x w)

Volumetric Shrinkage (VS) = [(V – Vd) /Vd] x 100 = (w – ws) x SR

w = Water content of wet soil

V = Volume of wet soil pat
Vd = Volume of dry soil pat
Md = Mass of dry soil pat

Apparatus

1. Evaporating Dish- Porcelain, about 12 cm diameter with flat bottom.

2. Spatula
3. Shrinkage Dish. Circular, porcelain or non-corroding metal dish (3 nos) having a flat
bottom and 45 mm in diameter and 15 mm in height internally.
4. Straight edge- Steel, 15 cm in length.
5. Glass cup. 50 to 55 mm in diameter and 25 mm in height, the top rim of which is
smooth and level.
5. Glass plates. Two, each 75  75 mm one plate shall be of plain glass and the other
shall have prongs.
7. 425  IS sieve.
8. Oven-thermostatically controlled.
9. Balance-sensitive to 0.01 g minimum.
10. Mercury sufficient to fill the glass cup to over flowing.
11. Wash bottle containing distilled water.

34
Procedure

Preparation of soil paste

1. Take about 100 g of soil sample from a thoroughly mixed portion of the material
passing through 425  I.S. sieve.

2. Place about 30 g of the above soil sample in the evaporating dish and thoroughly mix it
with distilled water and make a creamy paste.

Use water content some where around the liquid limit.

Filling the shrinkage dish

3. Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of Vaseline to prevent the soil
sticking to the dish.

4. Fill the dish in three layers by placing approximately 1/3 rd of the amount of wet soil
with the help of spatula. Tap the dish gently on a firm base until the soil flows over the
edges and no apparent air bubbles exist. Repeat this process for 2nd and 3rd layers also
till the dish is completely filled with the wet soil. Strike off the excess soil and make the
top of the dish smooth. Wipe off all the soil adhering to the outside of the dish.

5. Weigh immediately, the dish with wet soil and record the weight (W2).

6. Air- dry the wet soil cake for 6 to 8 hrs, until the colour of the pat turns from dark to
light. Then oven-dry the pat to a constant weight at 1050C to 1100C say about 12 to 16
hrs.

7. Remove the dried disk of the soil from oven. Cool it in a desiccator. Then obtain the
weight of the dish with dry sample (W3).

8. Determine the weight of the empty dish and record (W1).

9. Determine the volume of shrinkage dish which is evidently equal to volume of the wet
soil as follows. Place the shrinkage dish in an evaporating dish and fill the dish with
mercury till it overflows slightly. Press it with plain glass plate firmly on its top to
remove excess mercury. Take the weight of mercury in the shrinkage dish (M0).

35
Volume of the Dry Soil Pat

10. Determine the volume of dry soil pat by removing the pat from the shrinkage dish and
immersing it in the glass cup full of mercury in the following manner.

Place the glass cup in a larger one and fill the glass cup to overflowing with mercury.
Remove the excess mercury by covering the cup with glass plate with prongs and
pressing it. See that no air bubbles are entrapped. Wipe out the outside of the glass cup to
remove the adhering mercury. Then, place it in another larger dish, which is, clean and
empty carefully. Place the dry soil pat on the mercury in the glass dish. Immerse the dry
pat with the pronged glass plate and flush it with top of the cup. The mercury spills over
into the larger plate and find the mass of that mercury (M). From that volume of dry soil
pat can be found out.

Shrinkage limit of undistributed soil:

In this case G is known in advance. The equation to be used for determining ws is
ws = [(Vd/Md)-(1/G)]100. For the undistributed soil we need to know only the volume
of an undistributed dry pat of soil sample of diameter 45 mm and thickness 15 mm.
Round off its edges to prevent the entrapment of air during mercury displacement. Air-
dry the sample initially and then oven dry the same. Find its mass (Md) after cooling it in
a desiccator, and then its volume Vd by mercury displacement method. Ws may now be
found out by use of equation:

ws = [(Vd/Md)-(1/G)]100.

36
Observations and Calculations

Sl.no Details Symbol 1 2

1 Wt. of container W1 g

2 Wt. of container + wet soil pat W2 g

3 Wt. of container + dry soil pat W3 g

4 Wt. of oven dry soil pat W3-W1

5 Moisture content (%) w W2-W3/ W3-W1

6 Mass of mercury in shrinkage dish + dish M1 g

7 Mass of glass dish M2 g

8 Mass of Mercury in shrinkage dish, M0 M1 - M2

9 Volume of shrinkage dish, V M0/13.6 cc

10 Mass of Mercury displaced by soil pat + dish M3 g

11 Mass of mercury displaced by soil dry pat, M M3 –M2 g

12 Volume of dry pat, Vd M/13.6 cc

Shrinkage limit (ws)
13
=[w - ( V – Vd ) x w ] x 100
Md
Shrinkage ratio (SR) = Md / (Vd x w)
14

Volumetric Shrinkage (VS) =

15
[ ( V – Vd) /Vd] x 100 = ( w – ws ) x SR

16 Shrinkage limit, (ws) =

[ (Vd/Md) - ( 1/G] )x 100

Result
Shrinkage limit of the given soil =

37
 Experiment No 10

Standard Proctor Compaction Test

Objective

To find the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density

Apparatus Required

1. Proctor mould having a capacity of 1000 cc with an internal diameter of 100 mm and
a height of 127.3 mm. The mould shall have a detachable collar assembly and a
detachable base plate.
2. Rammer of weight 2.6 kg. The rammer shall be equipped with a suitable arrangement
to control the height of drop to a free fall of 310 mm.
3. Sample extruder.
4. A balance of 15 kg capacity.
5. Straight edge.
6. Graduated cylinder.
7. Mixing tools such as mixing pan, spoon, towel, spatula etc.
8. Moisture tins.

Theory

1. Bulk density t = (M2-M1) =

V
2. Dry density d = _t___ =
(1 + w)
3. Dry density d for zero air voids line: d = ___Gw ___
(1 + (wG/S))

where, M1 = mass of mould used for proctor test

M2 = mass of mould + compacted soil.
M = mass of wet soil.
V = volume of mould.
w = density of water.
G = Specific gravity of soils.
W = water content.
S = degree of saturation.

38
 Procedure

1. Take a representative air dry soil sample of about 3 kg.

2. Add sufficient water to the sample (about 7 % for sandy soils and 10 % for clay soils),
which will be less than the estimated optimum moisture content and mix it thoroughly.
3. Fix the mould to the base plate after cleaning its inside surface. Find the mass of the
mould with the base plate (M1).
4. Attach the extension collar to the mould.
5. Place the soil in the mould, in three equal layers (approximately 6 cm). Each layer is
compacted by giving 25 blows by the rammer weighing 2.6 kg and dropping from a
height of 310 mm. The compaction must be uniform over the whole area, and a spatula
scratches each layer before adding another layer. The filling must be such that the last
layer projects into the collar by about 5 mm. After the completion of compaction, remove
the collar and remove the excess soil with the help of a straight edge.
6. Find the mass of the mould with the base plate and the soil (M2).
7. Remove the soil from the mould by making use of an ejector and take a representative
sample for water content determination.
8. Repeat the tests 4 times for different water contents (increments of 3%), such that at least
one value of dry density is showing decreasing trend.

39
Observations and Calculations

The following observations were made on the compaction of a soil by standard proctor
test. Six tests were carried out on the selected samples of soil by varying the water
content. Water contents of samples of each test were found out by the procedure
explained earlier.

Sl.
Test No 1 2 3 4 5 6
No
01 Mass of empty mould M1 g
02 Volume of mould, cm3
03 Mass of mould + sample, M2, g
04 Mass of wet soil, M, g
05 Wet density, t g/cm3
06 Water content, w%
07 Dry density, d, g/cm3
08 Water content for saturation line
09 d, g/cm3for S=100% (zero air void line)
10 d, g/cm3for S=90%

Result
Maximum dry density d = ___________ g/cm3

Optimum moisture content, w = ______________ %

40
 Experiment No 11

Modified Proctor Compaction Test

Objective

To find the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density

Theory

In this test, the soil is compacted in the standard proctor mould, but in five layers, each
layer being given 25 blows of 4.89 kg rammer dropped through a height of 45 cm.
Calculation of dry density and water content is same as the one for standard compaction
test.

Applications

1) To determine the design values of density and rolling moisture content in the field.
2) For field control – to see that design values (maximum dry-density, OMC) are
achieved in the field.
3) Determination of field moisture content from the observations of penetration
resistance. For this purpose it is necessary to know in advance the relationship
between moisture content and penetration resistance for the same soil, from lab tests.

41
Observations and Calculations

The following observations were made on the compaction of a soil by standard proctor
test. Six tests were carried out on the selected samples of soil by varying the water
content. Water contents of samples of each test were found out by the procedure
explained earlier.

Sl.
Test No 1 2 3 4 5 6
No
01 Mass of empty mould, M1 g
02 Volume of mould, cm3
03 Mass of mould + sample, M2, g
04 Mass of wet soil, M, g
05 Wet density, t , g/cm3
06 Water content, w%
07 Dry density, d, g/cm3
08 Water content for saturation line
09 d, g/cm3 for S=100% (zero air void line)
10 d, g/cm3 for S=90%

Result
Maximum dry density, d = ___________ g/cm3

Optimum moisture content, w = ______________ %

To draw percentage Air void line:

Specific gravity of soil solids, G = 2.65

Unit weight of water, γw = (g/cm3) = 1.00

42
Case( i): na = 0% (Zero Air Void Line)

Water Content, w% 8 10 12 14 16 20
Dry Density, ρd = (1-na) Gρw
1+wG

Case (ii): na = 5%
Water Content, w% 8 10 12 14 16 20
Dry density, ρd (g/cm3)

Case (iii): na = 10%

Water Content, w% 8 10 12 14 16 20
Dry density, ρd (g/cm3)

43
Viva questions

1. What are the factors that affect the compaction of a soil?

 Water content
 Compactive effort
 Method of compaction
 Type of soils

2. What are the applications/uses of compaction?

 To determine the design values of density and moisture content in the field
 For field control, to check whether the design values (MDD & OMC) are
achieved in the field

3. Explain the characteristics of compaction curve

4. What is the difference between compaction and consolidation? Discuss the effect
of increased compactive effort on OMC and dry density.

As the compactive effort increases OMC decreases and MDD increases

44
 Experiment No 12
Coefficient of Permeability by Constant Head Method

Objective

To determine the coefficient of permeability of soils, using constant head permeameter,

as per IS: 2720 (Part XVII)-1966

Apparatus

Constant head permeameter setup, stop watch. Volume measuring beaker, etc.

Procedure

1. Take the dimensions of permeameter mould, such as length and diameter.

2. Fix the mould to the bottom perforated base plate and plate the filter paper on it. Fill
the soil sample into the mould. Place the filter paper on top perforated plate and fix
the top cap on it.

3. Connect the outlet tube of the constant head tank to the inlet nozzle of the
permeameter, after removing the air in the flexible rubber tubing connecting the
tube. Adjust the hydraulic head by controlling the inflow to the constant head tank.
A constant water level in the supply reservoir is maintained by always having a
small overflow taking at its top.

4. Start the stop watch, and at the same time put a beaker under the outlet of the
Permeameter. Run the test for some convenient time interval. Measure the quantity
of water collected in the beaker during that time.

5. Repeat the test twice more, under the same interval.

45
Tabulation

Diameter of the soil sample, d (cm) =

C/s area of the soil sample, A = d2/4 (cm2) =

Length of the soil Sample, L (cm) =

Hydraulic head, H (cm) =

Sl.No 1 2 3
Time Interval t (sec)
Quantity of flow Q (cm3)
i) l Test
ii) ll Test
iii) lll Test
Average
Coefficient of Permeability K (cm/sec)

Average Coefficient of Permeability K (cm/sec)

46
Specimen Calculation:

Sl.No. of the reading =

Diameter of the soil sample d (cm) =

C/s area of the soil sample A= d2/4 (cm2) =

Length of soil sample L (cm) =

Hydraulic head h (cm) =

Time interval t (sec) =

Quantity of flow (Average) Q (cm3) =

Coefficient of permeability = K = QL = (cm/sec)

tHA

1. Use distilled water (desired) so that the permeability measured is constant with time.
2. Allow enough time to attain steady state of flow. Make sure that the soil is fully
saturated.

Result:
The coefficient of permeability soil K (cm/sec) =

47
 Experiment No 13
Coefficient of Permeability by Variable Head Method

Aim

To determine coefficient of permeability by variable head method for fine grained soils

Theory

The below equation can be used:

k = ((2.303  a  L)
(At) log10 (h1/h2)

Apparatus

The test setup for a falling-head assembly is as shown in the figure. All other accessories
remain the same as for a constant-head test.

Procedure:

1. Open the valves in the standpipe and the bottom outlet. Ensure that the soil sample is
fully saturated with out any entrapping of air bubble before starting the test.
2. Fill the standpipe with water keeping the valves V1 and V2 open and allow the water to
flow out through the outlet pipe for some time and then close the valves.
3. Select in advance the heights h1 and h2 for the water to fall and determine the height
h1h2 and mark this height on the stand pipe.
4. Open the valves and fill the standpipe with water up to height h1 and start the stopwatch.
5. Record the time intervals for water to fall from height h1 to h1h2 and from h1h2 to h2.
These two time intervals will be equal if a stead flow condition has been established.
6. Repeat the step (e) at least after changing the heights h1 and h2.
7. Stop the test and disconnect all the parts.
8. Take a small quantity of the sample for water content determination.

48
 Observations: Length of Soil sample L = cm

Diameter of Soil sample D = cm

Area of soil sample A =

Area of Sand Pipe a =

l. Initial Head Final Head Time t k= (2.3  a  L)_____

No (h1) cm (h2) cm In seconds (At))log10 (h1/h2)
01
02
03
04
05

Specimen calculation:

Result: Coefficient of Permeability of soil k = cm/sec

49
 Viva Questions

1) List types of permeability tests and indicate their suitability

 constant head: cohesion-less soils, because void ration is higher for cohesion-
less soils and hence permeability is also higher

 Variable head: cohesive soils, because void ration is less for cohesion-less
soils and hence permeability is also less
2) List the factors that affect the permeability of soils
 Soil characteristics (grain size, void ratio, composition, soil structure, degree of
saturation, Presence of entrapped air and other foreign matter)
 Permeant fluid properties (Viscosity, density and concentration of permeant)

3) What are the applications/uses of permeability tests?

 with the permeability values of soils, the soils can be classified as free
draining, semi-pervious or impervious which enables selection of materials for
different zones of a dam
 for estimating the quantity of seepage through the foundation and body of the
dam
 to fix the c/c distance of relief wells, approximate thickness of filter beds and
size and spacing of longitudinal cross drains

4) List the assumptions of Darcy’s law

 The flow is laminar that is, flow of fluids is described as laminar if a fluid
particles flow follows a definite path and does not cross the path of other
particles.
 Water & soil are incompressible that is, continuity equation is assumed to be
valid
 The soil is saturated
 The flow is steady state that is, flow condition do not change with time.

50
 Experiment No 14
Unconfined Compression Test

Objective

To determine the unconfined compressive strength and the undrained shear strength of a
clayey soil with φ = 0.

Introduction

This is a special case of a triaxial shear test in which the minor principal stress is equal to
zero, that is σ3 = 0. The specimen is sheared under a vertical or axial stress. The tests
are carried out only on saturated sample which can stand without any lateral support. The
test is applicable for only cohesive soils. The test is an undrained test and it is based on
the assumption that there is no moisture loss during the test. The UCC test is one of the
simplest and quickest tests used for the determination of the shear strength of cohesive
soils. In undrained tests on saturated or nearly saturated cohesive soils, the contribution
of friction is negligible and the strength is almost entirely due to cohesion.

Apparatus

Sampling tube, 3.75 cm in internal diameter 4 cm in outside dia and 15 to 20 cm in

length. Split mould, 3.75 cm internal diameter, and 7.5 cm long, Sample extractor,
trimming knife, unconfined compression tester with arrangement for the autographic
recording of the load/deformation characteristic of the specimen by a pencil moving
across a chart on the drawing plate.

Procedure

1. Obtain a sample by the sampling tube. Samples can be undisturbed or remoulded.

2. Lightly oil the inside of the split mould and weigh. Push the sample out of tube
into the split mould. Cut off flush with the ends and weigh the mould with

51
 specimen. Keep the cutting for water content determination. Open the mould and
take out the specimen.

3. Oil the flat upper and lower platens of the machine lightly and place the specimen
centrally on the lower platens. Turn the handle until the upper platen is just in
contact with the specimen.

4. By adjusting top on which the fulcrum rests, the pencil is set to right hand vertical
line of the chart. Apply the load to the specimen by turning the handle uniformly
at a rate of half a revolution per second until the failure occurs. In some cases
plastic failure occurs. For such soils carry the operation of applying the load until
20% strain has been obtained, by which time the specimen will become
noticeably barrel-shaped.

5. Take out the chart and fix in another chart and duplicate the test. Determine the
moisture content. Super-impose the mark over the chart and note down the
reading where the failure occurred.

UCC Test setup

52
Observation:

Diameter of specimen, d (mm) =

Length of specimen, L (mm) =

Initial c/s area of specimen, A0 (mm2) = d2 =

4
Proving ring constant (PRC) =

Least count of dial gauge (LC) =

Sl Dial gauge Deformation Proving ring Axial load Strain, Area, A Stress
No.
reading
(mm) reading(PRR) (P) Ʃ= L = A0____
(DGR) 1-  =P
(Divisions)  = DGR x LC (div) PRR x L
A
PRC

53
Result

The unconfined compressive strength of the given soil sample (U.C.S). Kg/cm2 =

Applications

The unconfined compression test has an advantage over the direct shear test because of
the more uniform stresses and strains imposed. Also the soil tends to fail on the weakest
plane in contrast to the predetermined horizontal plane as in the direct shear test. This
method can be used to find the sensitivity of a clay sample.

54
 Viva Questions

1) What is shear strength? List the tests for determining shear strength
 Shear strength is defined as capacity of a material to resist internal and
external forces which slide past each other
 Direct shear, UCC, Triaxial and Vane shear tests

2) What are the applications/uses of shear tests?

 Stability analysis of dam
 Design of footings, well foundations & pile foundations
 Design of retaining walls wherein the calculations of earth pressure requires
values of cohesion and angle of internal friction
 Estimating the loads on buried structures like conduits

3) What are the parameters of shear strength?

 Cohesion & angle of internal friction

4) When do you prefer unconfined compression test and why?

 UCC test is preferred for pure cohesive soils. Because the cylindrical test
specimen can stand without any lateral support

5) Draw failure envelope for different soils

55
 Experiment No 15
Direct Shear Test

Introduction

The direct shear test provides the simplest method of determining the angle of internal
friction of cohesionless soil. India standard give the procedure for conducting undrained,
direct shear test. There are two types of direct shear apparatus, namely, ‘Stress Control
Type’ and Strain Control Type. In stress control type, the rate of shear stress applied is
constant, that is, increase in shear stress for a given interval of time is constant. In strain
control type, rate of shear strain is constant, that is, the deformation of the soil sample for
a given interval of tie is constant.

Theory

In direct shear test only the normal and shear stresses on the horizontal plane of shear are
known. It is not possible to construct Mohr’s circle for stresses before failure. At failure,
if it is assumed that the measured stresses are in the ratio τ = σ tanφ then it is possible
to construct the Mohr’s circle. Σ and τ are shear and normal stresses on the failure plane
at failure.

Objective

To determine the shear strength parameters (c, φ) of soil, by box shear test, as per IS:
2720 (Part XII) - 1972.

Apparatus

Square shear box 6 cm square and with two porous stones, plain grids (2 nos.) and
pressure pad. Shearing machine fitted with a geared jack to give constant rate of strain,
proving ring, loading yoke, and set of weights.

56
 Direct Shear Test Setup
Procedure

1. Fix the upper part of the box to the lower part by tightening the locking screws.
Place a porous stone in the box and a plain grid on the stone, keeping the
serrations of the grid at right angles to the direction of shear. Place the specimen
(soil sample) carefully in the box. Place the upper porous stone on the grid and
pressure pad on the stone.

2. Mount the shear box with specimen inside on the shearing machine and adjust
so that the upper part touches the proving ring. Bring toward the jack to bear up
against the box which will be indicated by a slight movement of the proving
ring dial gauge. Adjust the dial gauge to read ‘zero’.

3. Set the loading yoke over a steel ball placed centrally on the pressure pad and
apply the desired normal load.

4. Remove the locking screws. Shear the specimen at a suitable constant rate of
strain. (1 to 2.5 mm per minute.) Record reading when specimen fails.

5. Repeat the test on identical specimen under increasing normal load. At least
three tests should be carried out.

57
 6. Plot shear stress versus normal stress ‘Y’ intercept gives ‘C’ (cohesion) and the
angle made by the strength envelope with the horizontal gives (angle of
internal friction).

Then, shear strength of the soil, τ = c +σ tan φ

Observation:

C/s. area of the soil specimen, A =

S.N Normal load (N) Shear force (N) Normal stress Shear stress
(σ = N/A) (τ = F/A)

Result

The angle of internal friction, φ =

Cohesion, C =

58
Application of Shear Tests:

Shear test results play an important role in the following cases.

1. Stability analysis of dam.

2. Design of footings, well-foundations and pile foundations.

3. Design of retaining walls wherein the calculation of earth pressure requires

values of cohesion and angle of internal friction.

4. Estimating loads on buried structures like conduits.

References

Methods of test for soils, Direct Shear Test, IS: 2720 (Part XIII) – 1972

Viva Questions

1. What are the advantages and limitations of direct shear test

Advantages

 Test is simple
 Suitable for cohesionless soils

Limitations
 Failure plane is pre-determined
 Measurements of pore pressure and volume change not possible
 Test can be performed only for drained condition
 Stress distribution on the failure plane is not uniform
 Not possible to determine state of stress during the test

59
 Experiment No 16
Triaxial Compression Test (undrained)

Introduction

Shear tests are generally carried out on small samples in the laboratory to evaluate the
strength propertied of the element in the soil mass. The strength propertied, namely the
cohesion and angle of shearing resistance are usually found from these tests. The two
methods of shear tests commonly used are the direct shear test and triaxial shear test. In
triaxial test a cylindrical specimen is stressed in lateral and vertical directions and the
shear strength of the soil is evaluated. The plane of shear failure is not pre-determined.
The triaxial test is considered as a much superior strength test than the direct shear test.

Types of Triaxial Compression Tests

Drainage conditions during the two stages of triaxial testing

Sl.No 2nd stage Types of test
1st stage (Application of
(Application of cell additional axial
pressure only stress at constant
cell pressure)
1 Drainage allowed Drainage allowed Consolidated
Therefore Therefore Drained - CD
consolidated Drained
2 Drainage allowed Drainage not Consolidated
Therefore allowed Therefore Undrained - CU
consolidated undrained
3 Drainage not Drainage not Unconsolidated
allowed Therefore allowed Therefore Undrained - UU
consolidated undrained

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Objective

To determine the shear strength parameters (c,) by triaxial compression test, as per the IS
2720 (Part XI) – 1971.

Apparatus

Triaxial cell, solid end caps and pressure cap for specimen, rubber membrane, sealing
rings. Constant rate of strain compression machine fitted with a proving ring and dial
gauge. Dial gauge accurate to 0.01 mm for measuring axial deformation. Apparatus for
building cell pressure consisting of a water reservoir, pump, pressure gauge and
connecting tube for the cell.

Procedure

1. Obtain an undisturbed or remoulded soil specimen. Undisturbed samples are

sued when it is required to find the shear strength of the in – situ soil
accurately for the purpose of determining the Bearing capacity, earth pressure
and slope stability of the soil. Remoulded soil samples are used in the
laboratory for research and other purposes. Remoulded specimens may be
prepared by compacting the soil, at required water content. Enclose the
specimen with the rubber membrane. Mount it on the base of the triaxial cell
with solid end cap. Placed on either side of the specimen. Place also the
pressure cap on top. Seal the membrane on to the caps with rubber rings.
Carefully assemble the cell with piston of the top cap raised in the upward
position.

2. Place the triaxial cell in the compression machine. Admit water in the cell
with air release valve open until water escapes from the valve, which is then
closed. Raise the cell pressure to required amount and keep it constant till the
end of test. Record the magnitude of the cell pressure (σ3)

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 3. by hand operation of the compression machine, lower the proving ring to rest
on the cell piston. Set the proving ring dial gauge and deformation ring dial
gauge to read zero.

4. the axial load is applied at a constant rate of strain of approximately 1.25 mm

per minute. Take the readings of the proving ring and strain dial gauges for
every 0.5 mm deformation until the soil fails by shear. The experiment is done
for three more specimens by changing the soil pressure.

Observation:
Diameter of the soil specimen d (cm) =
C/s. area of the soil specimen A = πd2/4 = cm2

S.N Cell pressure Axial load Deviator stress Principal stress

(σ3) (σd = P/A) (σ1 = σ3 + σd)

Plot graph σ on x axis and τ on y axis to obtain C & ø.

Result
Angle of internal friction φ =
Cohesion C (kg/cm2) =

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 Viva Questions

1. What are the advantages and limitations of triaxial test?

Advantages of triaxial shear test

 The shear tests under all three conditions (undrained, consolidated undrained,
drained) can be performed with complete control
 precise measurements of the pore pressure and volume change during the test
is possible
 stress distribution on the failure plain is uniform.
 the state of stress within the specimen during any stage of the test, as well as at
failure is completely determined.

Limitations of triaxial shear test

 The triaxial test is more complicated than the direct shear test.
 Samples of cohesionless soil such as sand are difficult to prepare and are
perhaps more conveniently tested in a shear box.
2. Distinguish between Direct shear test and Triaxial compression test

Direct Shear Test Triaxial Compression Test

Test is simple Complicated
Stress distribution on the failure plane is not Uniform
uniform
Failure plane is pre-determined Failure plane occurs at maximum stress zone
Not possible to determine state of stress
during the test Possible
Suitable for cohesionless soils Suitable for all types of soils but samples of
cohesionless soils are difficult to prepare
Measurements of pore pressure and volume
change NOT possible Possible
Test can be performed only for drained Tests can be performed under all 3 conditions of
condition drainage

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 Experiment No 17
Vane Shear Test

Introduction

Vane shear tests are coming into wider use for determining the in-situ strength of
cohesive soils. The vane shear apparatus consists of thin blade vanes than can be
pushed into soil with a minimum of disturbance. A torque applied to rotate the vanes
is related to the shear strength of the soil. A vane shear apparatus can be attached to a
long vertical rod and inserted into borings, so that the in-situ strength of soil can be
determined without removing the soil from its natural state in the ground.

Aim

To determine the undrained shear strength of soft clayey soils using vane shear
apparatus, as per IS (Part XXX)-1968

Apparatus

Vane shear apparatus consists of four thin stainless steel rectangular plates, welded
orthogonally to a high tensile steel rod. A torque measuring arrangement, such as a
calibrated torsion spring is attached to the rod which is rotated by some arrangement
from the top
.
Procedure

Prepare remoulded soil sample in a mould and the vane shear tester is then pushed
carefully into the soil to a depth somewhat greater than the length of the vane. The
torque rod is now rotated at a uniform speed (usually one degree per minute). The
rotation of vane shears the soil along a cylindrical surface. The rotation is continued
till the soil fails, which will be indicated by a sudden decrease of torque without any
back movement of torque-wheel. The maximum torque given, till failure is measured
and recorded, sometimes it is directly indicated in kg-cm, and sometimes only the

64
 rotation angle ‘θ’ is indicated, which has to be multiplied by ‘spring factor’ and
divided by 180 to obtain the applied torque.

Applications

The laboratory vane shear test for the measurement of shear strength of cohesive soils
is useful for soils of low shear strength, less than about 0.3kg/cm2 for which triaxial
or unconfined compression tests cannot be performed. The test gives the undrained
strength of the soil and the undisturbed and remoulded strengths obtained are used for
evaluating the sensitivity of the soil.

Tabulation
Diameter of the vane, d (cm) =
Height of the vane, h (cm) =
Spring factor =

Sl no. 1 2 3
Initial reading on the circular graduated scale
Final reading on the circular graduated scale
Angle of torque of the spring
Torque applied, T
Shear strength of soil kg/cm2= τ = ____T_____
Π(d2h +d3)
2 6

Result
The shear strength of the given soil sample =

65
 Experiment No 18

Consolidation Test

Introduction

When a saturated soil mass is subjected to a load increment, the load is usually carried
initially by the water in the pores because the water is incompressible in comparison with
the soil structure. The pressure which develops in the water because of the load increment
is called “excess hydrostatic pressure” because it is in excess of that due to the weight of
water. As the water drains from the soil pores, the load increment is shifted to the soil
mass. The load transfer of load is accompanied by a change in the volume of soil equal to
the volume of water drained. This process is known as consolidation.

Purpose

The purpose of this test is to obtain the compressible properties of a saturated soil in
determining the magnitude and rate of settlement of structure as per IS: 2720 (Part XV)-
1965.

Apparatus

Consolidometer as shown in the figure, two porous stones and loading frame.

66
Procedure:

1. The sample is trimmed to fit exactly in the metallic ring of the consolidometer. The
sample is held between the two porous stones (double drainage) at the top and bottom
through which pore water can flow out when compression takes under load. The soil
specimen is saturated by passing water from the inlet before the loading is applied.
Pressure is applied to the loading plate by a load frame through a hard steel ball to
maintain centric action. As the compression takes place, the clay sample consolidates,
the excess pore water escaping through the porous stones.
2. Each increment of load (0.1 kg/cm2) is kept constant on the sample for a time
sufficient to create equilibrium (usually upto 24 hours). For a particular load when
placed on the loading, the stop watch is started and readings are taken at elapsed
times of 0, 0.25, 1, 2.2.5, 4, 6.25, 9, 12.5, 16, 20, 25, minutes until 90% consolidation
is reached. This point can be determined by plotting the compression dial gauge
reading v/s square root of time elapsed.

Tabulation:

Height of specimen H (cm) =

Elapsed time, t Dial gauge reading

t
(min) DGR
0
0.25
0.50
1
2
4
8
15
60
120
240
480
1440

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Calculations

From Graph, t90 =

Time required for 90% consolidation = t90 =

Time factor corresponding to 90% consolidation T90 =

Height of sample H (cm) =

Drainage depth d (cm) =

Coefficient of consolidation, CV = T90 d2 = cm2/sec

t90

Result

Coefficient of consolidation of given soil sample =

Application

The consolidation characteristics of a soil are extremely useful in predicting the

settlement of structures.

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 Experiment No 19

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

Introduction:
The strength of subgrades and base courses of pavements can be expressed in terms
of California Bearing Ratio value. The CBR value is measured by an empirical test
devised by the California State Highway Association. The CBR is defined as the ratio
of the load required to penetrate a soil mass with a circular plunger of 50 mm
diameter at the rate of 1.25mm/min to the standard load for corresponding penetration
of a standard material (crushed stone). CBR is usually the 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm is used
for design. Usually the 2.5 mm value is higher.

Standard load:
Penetration depth Unit standard load Total standard load
(mm) (kg/cm2) (kg)
2.5 70 1370
5 105 2055
7.5 134 2630
10 162 3180
12.5 183 3600

CBR Test Setup

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 Aim:
To determine the California Bearing Ratio of a compacted soil sample in the
laboratory as per IS:2720 (part XVI)-1965

Apparatus:
1. Mould: the mould shall be made of non-corrodible metal, shall be cylindrical in
shape, with an inside diameter of 150 + 0.1 mm and of height 175 + 0.1 mm. It
shall be provided with a detachable metal extension collar 50 mm in height and a
detachable perforated base plate 10 mm thick. The perforations in the base plate
shall not exceed 1.5 mm in diameter.
2. Circular metal spacer disc: 148 mm in diameter and 47.7 mm in height. A handle
shall also be provided for screwing into the disc to facilitate the removal.
3. Metal rammer: 2.6 kg weight with a drop of 310 mm or 4.89 kg weight with a
drop of 450 mm. weights: one annular metal weight and several slotted weights
weighing 2.5 kg each, 147 mm in diameter with a centre hole 53 mm in diameter.
4. Loading machine: with a capacity of at least 5000 kg and equipped with a
movable head or base that travels at a uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min for use in
forcing the penetration piston into the specimen.
5. Metal penetration piston: plunger 50 + 0.1 mm in diameter and not less than
100 mm long.
6. Dial gauges: two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm.
7. Sieves: 4.75 mm IS sieve and 20 mm IS sieve.
8. Miscellaneous apparatus: other general apparatus, such as a mixing bowl, straight
edge, scales, drying oven, filter paper.

Procedure: dynamic compaction.

Take about 4.5 to 5.5 kg of soil and mix it thoroughly with the desired (optimum
moisture content determined from standard compaction test) water. Fix the extension
collar to the top of the mould and base plate to its bottom. Insert the spacer disc over a
base (with the central hole of the disc at the lower side). Put a filter paper on the top of
the spacer disc. Compact the mixed soil in the mould using either light compaction or
heavy compaction. For light compaction, compact the soil in three equal layers, each

70
layer being given 56 blows, uniformly distributed, by the 2.6 kg rammer falling through a
height of 310 mm. for heavy compaction, compact the soil in 5 layers, by giving 56
blows to each layer by the 4.89 kg rammer falling through a height of 450 mm. remove
the collar and trim off the excess soil. Turn the mould upside down and remove the base
plate and the displacer disc. Weigh the mould with the compacted soil, so that its bulk
density and dry density may be determined. Put filter paper on top of the compacted soil
(collar side) and clamp the perforated base plate on to it.

Penetration test:
1. place the surcharge weights back on the top of the soil specimen, an place the
mould assembly on the penetration test machine.
2. seat the penetration piston at the centre of the specimen with the smallest possible
load but in no case excess of 4 kg, so that full contact is established between the
surface of the specimen and the piston.
3. set the stress and strain dial gauge to zero. Apply the load on the penetration
piston, so that the penetration is approximately 1.25 mm/min. record the load
readings at penetrations of 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 12.5
mm.
4. plot the load penetration curve. If the initial portion of the curve is concave
upward apply the correction by drawing tangent to the curve at the point of
greatest slope. The corrected origin will be the point where the tangent meets the
abscissa. Find and record the corrected load reading corresponding to each
penetration.

Tabulation

Proving ring constant (PRC) =

Least count of the dial gauage (LC) =

71
Sl Dial gauge reading Penetration Proving ring Axial load (P) =
(DGR)
No. (mm) reading(PRR) PRR x PRC
(Divisions)
 = DGR x LC

Specimen Calculation

From graph,
The load corresponding to 2.5 mm penetration PT =

Standard load corresponding to 2.5 mm penetration PS =

California Bearing Ratio = PT =

PS

72
Result

The California Bearing Ratio for the given soil is

Application

The CBR value, in conjunction with certain empirical curves based on experience is used
for the design of flexible airport and highway pavements.

73
 Consolidated Report of Index Properties and Strength Properties of Soil

Index Properties Test Results Remarks

Water content

Specific Gravity

Particle size distribution

 Coefficient of uniformity (CU)
 Coefficient of curvature (CC)
Consistency (Atterberg) Limits

 Liquid Limit
 Plastic Limit
 Shrinkage Limit

Consistency indices

 Plasticity Index (IP)

 Consistency Index (IC)
 Liquidity Index (IL):

In-situ density

Density Index

Strength Tests

Direct Shear Test

Unconfined Compression Test

Triaxial Shear Test

Vane Shear Test

Conclusion

74