Geotech Lab Manual-1

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
JAMSHEDPUR
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Laboratory Manual
Department of Civil Engineering
Prepared by DONAL NIXON DSOUZA
M.Tech (2014 - 2016)

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION.……………………………………………………….2

2. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL SOLIDS…………………………………………………………..4
3. DIFFERENTIAL FREE SWELL INDEX……………………………………………………………8
4. A) SIEVE ANALYSIS – DRY SIEVE ANALYSIS……………………………………………..11
B) SIEVE ANALYSIS – WET SIEVE ANALYSIS…………………………………………..
5. HYDROMETER ANALYSIS…………………………………………………………………..
6. ATTERBERG’S LIMITS………………………………………………………………………
7. A) COMPACTION TEST – LIGHT COMPACTION………………………………
B) COMPACTION TEST – HEAVY COMPACTION………………………………..
8. A) FIELD DENSITY – CORE CUTTER METHOD………………………………………..
B) FIELD DENSITY – SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD……………………………
9. RELATIVE DENSITY TEST…………………………………………………………….
10. A) PERMEABILITY TEST – CONSTANT HEAD…………………………….
B) PERMEABILITY TEST – FALLING HEAD…………………………………
11. DIRECT SHEAR TEST……………………………………………………………….
12. LABORATORY VANE SHEAR TEST……………………………………………
13. UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST………………………………………………
14. UU TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST…………………………………………………..
15. CU TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST………………………………………..
16. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST………………………………………….
17. CONSOLIDATION TEST……………………………………………………………..
18. SWELL PRESSURE TEST…………………………………………………………..
19. STANDARD PENETRATION TEST……………………………………………….
20. DYNAMIC CONE PENETRATION………………………………………………
21. STATIC CONE PENETRATION TEST………………………………………………
22. PLATE LOAD TEST…………………………………………………………………..
23. STATIC PILE LOAD TEST……………………………………………………….
24. LATERAL PILE LOAD TEST……………………………………………………………..
25. PILE PULL OUT TEST………………………………………………………………….
26. CYCLIC PLATE LOAD TEST…………………………………………………………….
27. DYNAMIC PILE LOAD TEST…………………………………………………………
28. BLOCK VIBRATION TEST……………………………………………………………
29. COMPRESSION TEST ON ROCK…………………………………………………..
30. TENSILE TEST ON ROCK………………………………………………………………
EXPERIMENT: 1
WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the water content in the soil by oven drying method.
THEORY:
The water content (w) is also called moisture content is defined as the ratio of the weight of
water to the weight of the solids in a given mass of soil. This ratio is usually expressed as
percentage.
w= x 100
In general, it can be written that w ≥ 0, however there can be no upper limit to water content.
The water content can range from zero (dry soil) to several hundred percent. The natural water
content for most soils is well under 100%, but for the soils of volcanic origin (for example
bentonite) it can range up to 500% or more.
‘Water content’ of a soil has a direct bearing on its strength and stability. The water content of
a soil in its natural state is termed its ‘Natural moisture content’, which characterizes its
performance under the action of load and temperature. The water content may range from a
trace quantity to that sufficient to saturate the soil or fill all the voids in it. If the trace moisture
has been acquired by the soil by absorption from the atmosphere, then it is said to be
‘hygroscopic moisture’.
In almost all the soil tests, the natural moisture content of the soil is to be determined. The
knowledge of the natural moisture content is essential in all studies of soil mechanics. To sight a
few, natural moisture content is used in determining the bearing capacity and settlement. The
natural moisture content will give an idea of the state of soil in the field. The knowledge of
water content is necessary in soil compaction control, in determining consistency limits of soil,
and for the calculation of stability of all kinds of earth works and foundations.
The water content of a given soil sample can be determined by the following methods:
(i) Over-drying method
(ii) Pycnometer method
(iii) Rapid moisture Tester method.
The method for the determination of water content, recommended by the Indian Standards is
set out in “IS: 2720 (Part-II)–1973, Methods of Test for soils-Part II Determination of Moisture
content”, and is based on oven-drying of the soil sample.
APPRATURS REQUIRED:
1. Non-corrodible container, also called moisture content tin.
2. Thermostatically controlled electric oven
3. Electronic Balance of sensitivity 0.01 g
4. Heat Resistant Gloves
5. Spatula
TEST PROCEDURE:
1) Clean the containers. Note down the empty weight of the container (W1).
(Make sure you do this after you have tarred the balance)
2) Take about 30-40 g of moist soil sample in the container. Note down the weight
of the container plus moist soil (W2).
3) Keep the container in the oven. Dry the specimen at a temperature between
105o C to 110o C for a period of 24 hours.
4) Record the final constant weight (W3) of the container with dried soil sample.
FIGURE:
W1 = weight of empty W2 = weight of container W3 = weight of

container + wet soil container + dry soil
Figure 1: Schematic representation of experimental procedure
CALCULATIONS:
Where, w = water content in percentage
W1 = weight of empty container
W2 = weight of container + wet soil
W3 = weight of container + dry soil
RESULT:
The natural moisture content of the soil sample is
NOTE:
1. Sandy soils need only about four hours of drying, while clays need at least 15 hours. To
ensure complete drying, 24 hours of oven drying is recommended.
2. A temperature of more than 110°C may result in the loss of chemically bound water
around clay particles and hence should not be used.
3. A low value such as 60°C is preferred in the case of organic soils such as peat to prevent
oxidation of the organic matter.
4. If gypsum is suspected to be present in the soil, drying at 80°C for longer time is
preferred to prevent the loss of water of crystallization of gypsum.
REFERENCE:
1) IS : 2720 (Part II) – 1973, Method of Test for soil : Part II: Determination of water content
SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS:

1. Remember to tare the weighing balance before taking any weight.
2. While weighing, be careful not to place the container on the balance in an eccentric
position.
3. Switch off the oven and use hand gloves while removing the soil sample from oven.
4. Use clean and dry moisture content tins.
WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION
Sample Description: Date of Sampling:
Location: Date of testing:
Depth: Test No:
Sampled by: Tested by:
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Container No.
Weight of container (W1)
Weight of container + moist soil

(W2)
Weight of container + dry soil
(W3)
Weight of water
(Ww = W2 – W3)
Weight of dry soil
(Ws = W3 – W1)
Water content ‘w’ in %
W=
Average of three trials should be reported as the water content of soil
Result:
Verified by: Approved by:

EXPERIMENT: 2
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL SOLIDS
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the specific gravity of soil solids by pycnometer method.
THEORY:
The specific gravity of soil solids, Gs (Sometimes written as G), is defined as the ratio of the
weight of a given volume of solids to the weight of an equal volume of water at a specified 4 oC.
Gs =
Specific Gravity of solids can also be defined as the ratio of the unit weight of solids to that of
water.
Gs =
The knowledge of specific gravity is needed in calculation of soil properties like void ratio,
degree of saturation etc.
The value of Gs for a majority of soils lies between 2.65 and 2.80. Lower values are for coarse-
grained soils. The presence of organic matter leads to very low values, sometimes even below
2.0. Soils high in iron or mica exhibit high values.
APPRATUS REQUIRED:
1. Standard pycnometer with conical cap attached with a rubber washer.
2. Electronic balance of accuracy to 0.001 g.
3. A thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining a temperature of
105oC to 110°C.
4. Desiccator containing anhydrous silica gel.
5. Vacuum desiccator with vacuum pump.
6. Glass rod about 150 mm long and 3 mm diameter.
7. A wash bottle containing air-free distilled water.
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
Take about 200 g of soil sample passing through 2mm IS Sieve. Oven-dry it at a temperature of
105°C to 110°C for a period of 24 hours and cool it in the desiccator containing anhydrous silica
gel.
TEST PROCEDURE:
1. Thoroughly clean the pycnometer with distilled water and dry it using hot air.
2. Weigh the pycnometer bottle along with the stopper to the nearest 0.001g (W 1).
3. Take about 50 g of oven-dried sample and transfer it to the pycnometer bottle.
4. Weigh the bottle and its contents together with the stopper to the nearest 0.001g (W 2).
5. Using wash bottle, add air-free distilled water to fill the bottle to about half. Ensure the
soil completely submerged under water.
6. Gently stir the soil in the with a clean glass rod to remove entrapped air. Carefully wash
off the adhering particles from the rod with some drops of distilled water and see that
no more soil particles are lost.
7. Leave it for a period of 2 to 3 hours to ensure all soil grains are completely soaked.
8. Keep the bottle without the stopper in a vacuum desiccator for about 1 to 2 hours, or
until there is no further loss of air.
(Care shall be taken during this operation to see that the air trapped in the soil does not
bubble too violently, so as to prevent small drops of the suspension being lost through
the mouth of the bottle.)
9. Firmly fix the conical cap to the bottle using a rubber washer coated with water
repellent grease. This ensures complete water tightness.
10. Using wash bottle completely fill the pycnometer to the top with air-free distilled water.
11. Wipe and dry the outsides of the pycnometer and weigh the capped pycnometer with
all its contents to the nearest 0.001 g (W3)
12. Now empty the bottle, clean it thoroughly and dry it.
13. Fix the conical cap using rubber washer coated with grease. Fill it with air-free distilled
water. Wipe dry from the outside and weigh the pycnometer with water to the nearest
0.001 g (W4 ).
14. Take at least two such observations for the same soil.
15. The average of the values obtained shall be taken as the specific gravity of the soil
particles and shall be reported to the nearest 0.01. If the two results differ by more than
0.03, the teats shall be repeated.
FIGURE:
Figure 1: Pycnometer bottle
Weight of empty Weight of Weight of Weight of

Pycnometer Pycnometer Pycnometer bottle Pycnometer bottle
bottle bottle + dry soil + soil + water + water

CALCULATIONS:
Gs(T°C) =
Where, Gs(T°C) = The specific gravity of the soil solids at T °C

W1 = Weight of empty Pycnometer bottle
W2 = Weight of Pycnometer bottle + dry soil
W3 = Weight of Pycnometer bottle + soil + water
W4 = Weight of Pycnometer bottle + water
The specific gravity should be calculated at a temperature of 27°C and reported to the nearest
two decimal values.
If the room temperature is different from 27°C, the following correction should be done
Gs(27°C) = k . Gs(T°C)
where, Gs(27°C) = Corrected specific gravity at 27°C
k is a correction Factor =
Refer Appendix for standard specific gravity of water at different temperatures.
RESULT:
Specific gravity of given soil solids is

1. Clean the sieves with the help of a brush, after sieving
3. Remember to tare the balance before weighing the samples.
4. Oven drying of the soil has been specified for convenience. If there is any reason to
believe that this will change the specific gravity due to loss of water of hydration the soil
should be dried at not more than 80°C. This fact should be reported.
5. Use of alternative Liquids for Specific Gravity determination: With certain soils, for
example, those containing soluble salts, alternate liquids like kerosene (paraffin oil) or
white spirit may be used. If one of these is used, record the fact and carry out a separate
experiment to determine the specific gravity of the liquid at the room temperature of
that fluid.
6. Experience has shown that the largest source of error in the test is due to the difficulty
in ensuring the complete removal of air from the sample. To obtain reliable results, the
soil should be left under vacuum for several hours, preferably overnight. Shaking the
bottle in hand once or twice interrupting the vacuum gives quicker results.
7. Many soils have a substantial proportion of heavier or lighter particles. Such soils will
give erratic values for the specific gravity even with the greatest care in testing and a
number of repeated tests may be needed to obtain a good average value.
REFERENCE:
IS: 2720 (Part III/Sec 1) – 1980: Determination of specific gravity - Fine Grained Soils
COMMENTS:
Grain specific gravities of some soils
Soil type Specific Gravity Soil type Specific Gravity
Quartz sand 2.64 – 2.65 Loess 2.65 – 2.75
Silt 2.68 – 2.72 Lime 2.70
Silt with organic matter 2.40 – 2.50 Peat 1.26 – 1.80
Clay 2.44 – 2.92 Humus 1.37
Bentonite 2.34 Fly ash 1.80 – 2.80

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL SOLIDS
Depth: Test No:
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4
Weight of pycnometer
(W1) g
Weight of pycnometer + dry soil
(W2) g
Weight of pycnometer + soil + water
(W3) g
Weight of pycnometer + water
(W4) g
Specific Gravity at Lab temperature,
Gs(T°C)
Lab temperature
(°C)
Specific gravity of water at Lab
temperature
Specific gravity of water at 27 oC
Temperature correction “k”
Specific Gravity at 27 oC,

Gs(27°C)
Result:
Remarks:

EXPERIMENT 3
DIFFERENTIAL FREE SWELL INDEX
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the differential free swell (DFS) index of the given soil.
THEORY:
Free swell or differential free swell is the increase in volume of soil without any external
constraint when subjected to submergence in water.
Swelling soils, which are clayey soils, are also called expansive soils. When these soils are
partially saturated, they increase in volume with the addition of water. They shrink greatly on
drying and develop cracks on the surface. These soils possess a high plasticity index. Black
cotton soils found in many parts of India belong to this category. Their color varies from dark
grey to black. It is easy to recognize these soils in the field during either dry or wet seasons.
Shrinkage cracks are visible on the ground surface during dry seasons. The maximum width of
these cracks may be up to 20 mm or more and they travel deep into the ground. A lump of dry
black cotton soil requires a hammer to break. During rainy seasons, these soils become very
sticky and very difficult to traverse.
Expansive soils contain minerals like montmorillonite, which due to large specific surface are
capable of absorbing large amount of water. When they absorb water, they increase in volume.
The more water they absorb the more their volume increases. Expansions of ten percent or
more are not uncommon. This change in volume can exert large force on a building or other
structure to cause damage. Cracked foundations, floors and basement walls are typical types of
damage done by swelling soils.
Expansive soils will also shrink when they dry out. This shrinkage can remove support from
buildings or other structures and result in damaging subsidence. Fissures in the soil can also
develop. These fissures can facilitate the deep penetration of water when moist conditions or
runoff occurs. This produces a cycle of shrinkage and swelling that places repetitive stress on
structures.
Expansive soils are residual soils which are the result of weathering of the parent rock. The
depths of these soils in some regions may be up to 6 m or more.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. 425 micron IS sieve.
2. Graduated glass cylinders 100 ml capacity 2 Nos. (IS: 878 -1956).
3. Glass rod for stirring.
4. Balance of capacity 500grams and sensitivity 0.01 gram.
TEST PROCEDURE:
1. Take two oven dried soil samples each of 10 grams passing through 425 micron sieve.
2. Pour each soil sample in to each of the two glass graduated cylinders of 100ml capacity.
3. Fill one cylinder with kerosene and the other with the distilled water up to the100ml
mark.
4. Remove the entrapped air in the cylinder by gentle shaking and stirring with a glass rod.
5. Allow the samples to settle in both the cylinders.
6. Sufficient time, not less than 24 hours shall be allowed for soil sample to attain
equilibrium state of volume without any further change in the volume of the soils.
7. Record the final volume of the soils in each of the cylinders.
8. Read the level of the soil in the kerosene graduated cylinder as the original volume of
the soil samples, kerosene being non polar liquid does not cause swelling of the soil.
9. Read the level of the soil in the distilled water cylinders as free swell level.
FIGURES:
Soil in kerosene Soil in Distilled

Water
CALCULATION:
Free swell index = x 100
Vd = volume of soil specimen read from the graduate cylinder containing distilled water.
Vk = volume of soil specimen read from the graduate cylinder containing kerosene.
RESULT:
The Differential free swell index (DFS) of the given soil is

1. Record the individual and the mean results to the nearest second decimal.
2. In the case of highly expansive soils such as Sodium Betonites the sample size may be 5
grams or alternatively a cylinder of 250ml capacity for 10 grams of sample may be used.
3. Clean the sieves with the help of a brush, after sieving.
5. Remember to tare the balance before weighing the samples.
REFERENCE:
IS: 2720 (Part 40) 1977. Methods of test for soils, Part 40: Determination of free swell index
of soils
COMMENTS:
DIFFERENTIAL FREE SWELL INDEX DEGREE OF EXPANSIVENESS

< 20 LOW
20 –35 MODERATE
35 –50 HIGH
>50 VERY HIGH
DIFFERENTIAL FREE SWELL INDEX

Depth: Test No:
OBSERVATION:
Volume of soil in Volume of soil in Volume of soil in
Time
cylinder containing cylinder 1 containing cylinder 2 containing
Date Time elapsed
Kerosene distilled water distilled water
(in hours)
( Vk ) in cc ( Vd ) in cc ( Vd ) in cc
24
48
Average Vd:
Free swell Index =
Result:
Remarks:

EXPERIMENT 4 A
DRY SIEVE ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVE:
To perform the dry sieve analysis on the given soil sample and plot the grain size distribution
curve. The data obtained from grain size distribution is used to classify the soil.
THEORY:
This test determines the range of sizes of particles in the soil and the percentage of particles in
each of these size ranges. This is also called ‘grain-size distribution’, which means the
separation of a soil into its different size fractions.
Grain size analysis of cohesionless soils (sands and gravel) is carried out by dry sieve analysis,
whereas, cohesive soils are analyzed by wet sieve method. Sieves are wire screens having
square openings. Different standards, such as Indian, British and U.S. designate the sieves
differently. According to the Indian Standard Code, IS: 460-1962, the sieve number is the mesh
width expressed in mm for large sizes and microns for small sizes. Sieves vary in size from 80
mm to 75µ.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Electronic balance with an accuracy of 0.1g
2. Set of fine I.S. sieves: 4.75 mm, 2.0 mm, 1.0 mm, 425µ, 250µ, 150µ, 106µ, 75µ, Pan
3. Set of coarse I.S. sieves: 20 mm, 10mm.
4. Brush
5. Thermostatically controlled oven
6. Trays
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
1. Sand sample as received from the field should be dried in air or in the sun.
2. Tree roots and pieces of bark should be removed from the sample.
3. The sand sample is then dried in the oven at 105 °C to 110 °C for 24 hours and cooled in
the desiccator.
TEST PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the sieves with a brush and check for any possible damage in mesh openings.
2. Note down the empty weight of individual sieves.
3. Arrange the sieves according to their sizes. The sieve with the largest aperture is placed
at the top and the smallest aperture sieve at the bottom.
That is, 4.75 mm, 2.0 mm, 1.0 mm, 425µ, 250µ, 150µ, 106µ, 75µ, top to bottom.
4. A receiver pan is kept at the bottom to collect the material passing through 75µ sieve.
5. Place the entire sieve stack on the sieve shaker.
6. Take 500 g of oven dried sand and transfer it to the sieve at the top of the stack.
7. Place the lid on the top sieve and secure the entire stack tightly using clamps.
8. Switch on the sieve shaker and run it for at least 8 minutes.
9. After shaking, the sieve stack it carefully removed from the shaker and the amount of
sand retained on each sieve is weighed to the nearest 0.1 g.
10. If the cumulative weight retained is not equal to the soil added, i.e., 500 g. The error is
noted.
11. The error is distributed to all sieves and corrected weight of soil retained is calculated.
12. The grain size distribution curve is drawn on a semi-log scale, with percent finer than on
the natural y-axis and sieve size on the logarithmic x-axis.
FIGURE:
Fig 1: Sieve arrangement for dry sieve analysis

CALCULATION:
On the basis of the total weight of sample taken and the weight of soil retained on each sieve,
the percentage of total weight of soil passing through each sieve (also termed as percent finer
than) can be calculated as below.
Error = ΣW – weight of soil taken
Correction = Weight of soil taken – ΣW
Corrected weight, ( )
Percentage retained on a particular sieve = X 100
Cumulative percentage retained = Sum of percentage retained on all sieves of larger sizes and
percentage retained on that particular sieve.
Percentage finer than the sieve under reference = 100% - cumulative percent retained
RESULT:
Grain size distribution curve is drawn
Percentage of gravel:
(> 4.75 mm)
Percentage of coarse sand:
(4.75 mm – 2.00 mm)
Percentage of medium sand:
(2.00 mm – 0.425 mm)
Percentage of fine sand:
(0.425 mm – 0.075 mm)
Percentage of silt-clay fraction:
(<0.075 mm)
Effective size D10 :

Coefficient of uniformity (Cu):
Coefficient of curvature (Cc)
REFERENCE:
IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985: Methods of test for soils: PART 4 Grain Size Analysis (Second Revision)

1. Clean the sieves with a brush and ensure that no soil particles are stuck in them.
2. Check for any damages in the sieve openings like minute tears etc.
3. Clamp the sieve stack firmly to the sieve shaker.
5. While weighing, be careful not to place the sieve on the balance in an eccentric position.
COMMENTS:
Figure 2: Grain size distribution curve

DRY SIEVE ANALYSIS
Depth: Test No:
Sieve set No:
Weight of dry soil taken:
Sieve Wt. of soil Corrected Cumulative

Wt. of sieve Wt. of sieve Percent Percent
Sieve No. opening in retained ‘W’ weight percent
(g) + Soil (g) 1 retained finer
mm (g) ‘W ’ (g) retained
1 4.75
2 2.0
3 1.0
4 0.425
5 0.250
6 0.150
7 0.106
8 0.075
9 PAN
Ʃ= Ʃ= Ʃ=
Error:
Correction:
RESULT: Percentage gravel: Coefficient of uniformity (Cu):
Percentage sand Coefficient of curvature (Cc):
Percentage silt and clay:
REMARKS:

EXPERIMENT 4 B
WET SIEVE ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVE:
To perform the wet sieve analysis on the given soil sample and plot the grain size distribution
curve. The data obtained from grain size distribution is used to classify the soil.
THEORY:
There is large variation in types of soils from site to site. Accordingly, their behavior also varies.
To make understanding of soil in easy manner, their grouping has been done depending on the
size of soil particles and their water absorption capacity.
Grain size distribution, or the percentage of various sizes of soil grains present in a given dry soil
sample is an important soil grain property. Grain size analysis of coarse grained soils is carried
out by sieve analysis, whereas fine grained soils are analyzed by hydrometer method or the
pipette method. In general, as most soils contain both coarse and fine-grained constituents, a
combined analysis is usually carried out. In the combined grain size analysis, a soil in the dry
state is first subjected to wet sieve analysis and then finer fraction is analyzed by the
hydrometer or pipette method.
Sieves are wire screens having square openings. Different standards, such as Indian, British and
U.S. designate the sieves differently. According to the Indian Standard Code IS : 460-1962, the
sieve number is the mesh width expressed in mm for large sizes and microns for small sizes.
Sieves vary in size from 80 mm to 75µ.
The data obtained from grain size distribution curves is used in the design of filters for earth
dams and to determine suitability of soil for road construction, air field etc. Information
obtained from grain size analysis can be used to predict soil water movement, although
permeability tests are more generally used.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Electronic balance with an accuracy of 0.1g
2. Set of fine I.S. sieves: 4.75 mm, 2.0 mm, 1.0 mm, 425µ, 250µ, 150µ, 106µ, 75µ, Pan
3. Set of coarse I.S. sieves: 20 mm, 10mm.
4. Brush
5. Thermostatically controlled oven
6. Trays
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
1. Soil sample as received from the field should be dried in air or in the sun. In wet
weather, the drying apparatus may be used in which case the temperature of the
sample should not exceed 60°C. The clods may be broken with wooden mallet to
fasten drying.
2. Tree roots and pieces of bark should be removed from the sample.
3. The big clods may be broken with the help of wooden mallet. Care should be taken
not to break the individual soil particles
4. The soil sample is dried in the oven at 105 °C to 110 °C for 24 hours and cooled in
the desiccator.
5. Take 500 g of oven dried soil, add sufficient amount of water and mix thoroughly.
Using finger tips break all clods to achieve fine slurry like consistency. Rest the slurry
for at least 24 hours.
TEST PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the sieves with a brush and check for any possible damage in mesh openings.
2. Note down the empty weight of individual sieves.
3. Arrange the sieves according to their sizes. The sieve with the largest aperture is placed
at the top and the smallest aperture sieve at the bottom.
That is, 4.75 mm, 2.0 mm, 1.0 mm, 425µ, 250µ, 150µ, 106µ, 75µ, top to bottom.
4. A receiver pan is kept at the bottom to collect the material passing through 75µ sieve.
5. Now take water soaked soil slurry and transfer it to the sieve at the top of the stack,
that is, 4.75 mm sieve.
6. Wash the slurry through 4.75mm I.S. Sieve with enough water till clean water comes
out.
7. Fraction retained on 4.75mm IS Sieve should be air-dried for 24hrs. If the material
retained is substantially large in size and amount, it is dry sieved through 20 mm and 10
mm sieve.
8. The fraction passing through 4.75 mm is subsequently washed down the entire stack
with sufficient amount of water.
9. Fractions retaining on each sieve is air dried for at least 24 hours.
10. The amount of soil retained on each sieve is weighed to the nearest 0.1 g.
11. The fraction passing the 75 µ sieve is collected and dried. It is utilized for hydrometer or
pipette analysis.
FIGURE:
Figure 1: Arrangement of sieves for wet sieve analysis
CALCULATION:
On the basis of the total weight of sample taken and the weight of soil retained on each sieve,
the percentage of total weight of soil passing through each sieve (also termed as percent finer
than) can be calculated as below.
Percentage retained on a particular sieve = X 100
Cumulative percentage retained = Sum of percentage retained on all sieves of larger sizes and
percentage retained on that particular sieve.
Percentage finer than the sieve under reference = 100% - cumulative percent retained
RESULT:
Percentage of gravel:
(> 4.75 mm)
Percentage of coarse sand:
(4.75 mm – 2.00 mm)
Percentage of medium sand:
(2.00 mm – 0.425 mm)
Percentage of fine sand:
(0.425 mm – 0.075 mm)
Percentage of silt-clay fraction:
(<0.075 mm)
REFERENCE:
IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985: Methods of test for soils: PART 4 Grain Size Analysis (Second Revision)

1. While preparing soil sample, hammering should be done gently in order to break only
clods and not individual soil grains.
2. Clean the sieves with a brush and ensure that no soil particles are stuck in them.
3. Check for any damages in the sieve openings like minute tears etc.
4. No particle of soil sample shall be forcibly pushed through the sieve.
COMMENTS:
WET SIEVE ANALYSIS
Depth: Test No:
Sieve set No:
Weight of dry soil taken:
Sieve Wt. of Wt. of soil Cumulative

Sieve Wt. of sieve Percent Percent
opening sieve in retained in percent
No. + Soil in gm. retained finer
in mm gm. gm. retained
1 4.75
2 2.0
3 1.0
4 0.425
5 0.250
6 0.150
7 0.106
8 0.075
9 PAN
RESULT: Percentage gravel:

Percentage sand:
Percentage silt and clay:
REMARKS:
Verified by: Approved by

EXPERIMENT 5
HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the grain size distribution of fine grained soil by hydrometer analysis.
THEORY:
Fine grained analysis is carried out by the hydrometer method which works on the
principle of sedimentation analysis. The analysis is based on stokes law, according to which the
velocity of free fall of spherical, fine particles, through a liquid are different for different sizes.
In the case of soils, though the grains are of different shapes, it is assumed that they are
spherical and have the specific gravity. In the hydrometer method, the weight of solids present
at any time is calculated indirectly by reading the density of soil suspension.
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
Soil passing 75µ is oven dried for a period of 24 hours at a temperature between 105°C - 110°C.
The soil is cooled in a desiccator containing anhydrous silica gel.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Hydrometer calibrated at standard temperature.
2. Glass measuring cylinder of 1000 ml capacity -2 Nos.
Should be of uniform cross-sectional area (about 7 cm diameter and 33 cm high marked
at 1000 ml volume) and attached with glass or rubber stoppers
3. Thermometer - To cover the range 0 °C to 50 °C with an accuracy of 0.5 °C.
4. Stirring apparatus.
5. 75µ I.S sieve.
6. Electronic balance of accuracy to 0.01 gm.
7. Thermostat controlled electric oven - 105 °C to 110°C.
8. Stop watch.
9. Desiccator containing anhydrous silica gel.
10. Porcelain evaporating dish.
11. Thick funnel
12. Wash bottle-containing distilled water.
13. Glass rod-about 20 cm long and 4 to 5 mm in diameter.
14. Deflocculating agent : Sodium hexa-metaphosphate or Sodium oxalate
TEST PROCEDURE:
PART 1: Calibration of hydrometer:
1. Take about 800ml of water in one measuring cylinder. Place the cylinder on a table and
observe the initial reading.
2. Immerse the hydrometer in the cylinder. Take the reading after the immersion.
3. Determine the volume of the hydrometer (VH) which is equal to the difference between
the final and initial readings.
4. Alternatively weigh the hydrometer to the nearest 0.1g. The volume of the hydrometer
in ml is approximately equal to its mass in grams.
5. Determine the area of cross section (Aj) of the cylinder. It is equal to the volume
indicated between any two graduations divided by the distance between them. The
distance is measured with an accurate scale.
6. Cross-sectional area of the jar can also be measured by using a vernier caliper and
finding the internal diameter of the jar.
7. Trace the outline of the hydrometer on a sheet of paper. Mark the center point of the
bulb.
8. Measure the vertical distance between the center of the bulb and each reading on the
hydrometer. Plot a graph with vertical distance on the y-axis and hydrometer reading on
the x-axis. Mark the curve as C1.
9. Draw another curve C2 below C1, such that the vertical distance between every point is
equal to a factor “ .
10. To determine the effective height of fall use the calibration chart and determine the
effective height of fall (ZR) to the corresponding corrected hydrometer.
11. When the hydrometer is not taken out, when taking readings after the start of the
sedimentation, that is, ½, 1, and 2 minutes, use curve C1 to determine ZR.
12. For all subsequent readings, that is, 4 min, 8 min, 16 min and further, use curve C 2
PART 2: Hydrometer Correction
A few corrections are also applied to the hydrometer reading.
Meniscus correction: As the suspension is opaque, the hydrometer reading corresponds to the
upper level of the meniscus. A correction due to meniscus (Cm) is applied to the hydrometer
reading.
Insert the hydrometer in the measuring cylinder containing about 700ml of water. Take the
readings of the hydrometer at the top and at the bottom of the meniscus. Determine the
meniscus correction, which is equal to the difference between the two readings. The meniscus
correction (Cm) is always positive and is constant for the hydrometer.
Dispersing agent correction: The correction due to rise in specific gravity of the suspension on
account of the addition of the deflocculating agent is called dispersing agent correction (C d). Cd
is always negative.
Dispersing agent correction is obtained by first finding the hydrometer reading in 1000 cc.
distilled water. The same hydrometer is then immersed in a 1000 cc. solution containing 4 g of
dispersing agent. The difference is reading is the dispersion agent correction (CD).
Temperature correction: The hydrometers are generally calibrated at 27°C. In case the
temperature of the suspension is other than 27°C, a correction due to temperature (C t) is to be
applied to the observed hydrometer readings. If the test temperature is above the calibration
temperature, then the correction CD is added. If the temperature is below the calibration
temperature, it is subtracted. Temperature correction chart is usually supplied by the
manufacturer of the hydrometer.
PART 3: Sedimentation test
1. Weigh accurately, to the nearest 0.01g about 50g oven dried soil passing through 75µ.
2. Put the sample in a evaporating dish and cover with 100 cc of distilled water.
3. Add 4 grams of deflocculating agent (Sodium hexa-metaphosphate) and allow the
sample to soak for five minutes.
4. Transfer the solution to a dispersion cup. The cup is filled three-fourths using distilled
water. Stir the suspension for 10 minutes using a glass rod.
5. Transfer the suspension to a 1000 cc jar of uniform cross-section. Add more distilled
water and bring the total volume to 1000 cc.
6. Place the rubber stopper on the open end of the measuring cylinder containing the soil
suspension. Shake it vigorously end-over-end to mix the suspension thoroughly.
7. Alternatively, the solution can be mixed by firmly placing the palm of the hand on the
open end and turning the jar upside down and back.
8. Simultaneously, fill another 1000 cc jar of uniform cross section with distilled water and
bring the volume exactly to 1000 cc.
9. When the suspension is well mixed, place the jar on a flat table.
10. Immerse the hydrometer gently to a depth slightly below the floating depth, and then
allow it to float freely.
11. Take observed hydrometer reading (RH”) after ½, 1 and 2 minutes without removing the
hydrometer from the cylinder.
12. Take out the hydrometer from the cylinder, rinse it with distilled water. Float the
hydrometer in another cylinder containing only distilled water at the same temperature
as that of the test cylinder.
13. Take out the hydrometer from the distilled water cylinder and clean its stem. Insert it in
the cylinder containing suspension to take the reading at the total elapsed time interval
of 4minutes. Remove the hydrometer, rinse it and place it in the distilled water after
reading.
14. Repeat the above step to take readings at 8, 16, 30, 60, 120 and 240minutes elapsed
time interval.
15. After the 240 minutes (4 hours) reading, take next readings at 24 hours, 48 hours and 72
hours. Exact time of reading should be noted.
16. Record the temperature of the suspension once during the first 16 minutes and
thereafter at the time of every subsequent reading.
17. Apply meniscus correction (Cm) and dispersing agent correction (Cd) to RH” to obtain
hydrometer reading corrected for meniscus and dispersing agent (RH’).
18. Using the temperature correction values provided by the manufactured of hydrometer,
apply temperature correction (Ct) to RH’ to obtain hydrometer reading corrected for
temperature (RH).
19. Obtain corrected ZR using the calibration graph plotted. For readings of ½, 1 and 2
minutes, curve 1 is used. For readings after 4 minutes, used curve 2.
20. Calculate particle size (D) in mm, percentage finer for the soil taken in hydrometer
analysis (N’), percentage finer for total soil taken (N).
21. Combining the values from wet sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis, plot the graph of
particle size (D) v/s percentage finer (N)
22. From the graph determine D10, D30 and D60. Compute coefficient of uniformity (Cu),
coefficient of curvature (Cc).
FIGURE:
Fig 1: Hydrometer
Fig 2: Hydrometer dimensions Fig 3: Immersion correction

C1
𝑽𝑯
𝟐𝑨𝒋
C2
Fig 4: Calibration graph between hydrometer reading and effective depth
CALCULATIONS:
1) Meniscus and dispersing agent correction:
RH’ = RH” + Cm - CD
Where, RH’ = Hydrometer reading corrected for meniscus and dispersing agent
RH” = Observed hydrometer reading
Cm = Meniscus correction
CD = Dispersing agent correction
2) Temperature correction:
RH = RH’ ± Ct
Where, RH = Hydrometer reading corrected for temperature
RH’ = Hydrometer reading corrected for meniscus and dispersing agent
Ct = Temperature correction
3) Particle size diameter (D):
√ √
Where, D = Particle size in mm
µ = dynamic viscosity of water in poise
ϒS = unit weight of soil grains (g/cm3)
ϒw = unit weight of water (g/cm3)
ZR = effective height of fall in cm
t = elapsed time in minutes
4) Percent finer than for than soil taken in hydrometer analysis (N’):
N’ = X -
Where, N’ = Percent finer than for the soil taken in hydrometer analysis
Gs = Specific gravity of soil solids
RH’ = Hydrometer reading corrected for meniscus and dispersing agent
Rw = Hydrometer reading in water at the same temperature
5) Percent finer than for the total soil taken (N):

N=
Where, N = Percentage finer than for the total soil taken
Wf = Weight of fines (from wet sieve analysis)
W = Weight of total soil taken in wet sieve analysis
N’ = Percentage finer than soil taken in hydrometer analysis
6) Coefficient of uniformity (Cu):

Cu =
Where, Cu = Coefficient of uniformity
D10 = Particle size corresponding to 10% finer
7) Coefficient of curvature (Cc):

Cc =
Where, Cc = Coefficient of curvature
RESULT:
1) The grain size distribution of the soil is plotted.
2) Coefficient of uniformity (Cu):
3) Coefficient of curvature (Cc):
REFERENCE:
IS : 2720 ( Part 4 ) – 1985: INDIAN STANDARD: METHODS OF TEST FOR SOILS PART 4 GRAIN SIZE
ANALYSIS ( Second Revision )

1. Weigh the soil and dispersing agent accurately to the nearest 0.01 g
2. The settling jar used should be of uniform cross-sectional area throughout the entire
depth.
3. The soil and dispersing agent should be mixed well by using a stirrer. Ensure no lumps
are present before transferring the solution to the settling jar.
4. Shake well the jar before the start of the sedimentation. The stop watch is started
immediately when the jar is placed on the table.
5. The jar should be placed on a perfectly horizontal surface so as to ensure vertical fall of
soil particles.
6. The hydrometer should be immersed gently into the suspension and reading should be
taken precisely with the elapsed time.
7. The settling jar should not be disturbed while the sedimentation is in progress.
COMMENTS:
SAMPLE GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE:
HYDROMETER ANALYSIS TEST
Sample Description: Date of Testing: Area of Jar (Aj):

Location: Test No: Vol. of Liquid + Soil:
Depth: Tested by: Wt. of soil taken (Ws):
Sampled by: Hydrometer No: Weight of fines (Wf):
Date of Sampling: Meniscus correction (Cm): De-flocculent used:
Specific gravity of soil solids: Volume of Hydrometer (VH): Dispersion correction (Cd):
Hydrometer
Specific Observed Observed reading Corrected % finer than
Viscosity % finer
Elapsed gravity hydrometer hydrometer corrected for Temp. hydrometer Particle soil taken in
Temp of water Corrected than total
Date Time time in of reading in reading in meniscus and Correction reading for Rh’-Rw size Hydrometer
T °C at T°C in Zr soil taken
minutes water suspension water dispersing ± Ct temp. D (in mm) analysis
millipoise N
at T °C Rh ” Rw agent Rh=Rh’±Ct N’
Rh’=Rh”+Cm+Cd
½
1
2
4
8
16
30
60
120
240
24 hr
48 hr
72 hr

EXPERIMENT: 6
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the Atterberg’s limits of the given soil sample.
THEORY:
The Atterberg’s limits are a basic measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil. Depending on
the water content of the soil, it may appear in four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid. In
each state, the consistency and behavior of a soil is different and so are its engineering
properties. Thus, the boundary between each state can be defined based on a change in the
soil's behavior. The Atterberg’s limits can be used to distinguish between silt and clay, and it
can also be used to distinguish between different types of silts and clays. These limits were
created by Albert Atterberg, a Swedish chemist. They were later refined by Arthur Casagrande.
Shrinkage limit:
The shrinkage limit (ws) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in
any more volume reduction. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used than the liquid
limit and the plastic limit.
Plastic limit:
The plastic limit (wp) is the water content where soil starts to exhibit plastic behavior. A thread
of soil is at its plastic limit when it is rolled to a diameter of 3 mm begins to crumble.
Liquid Limit:
The liquid limit (wL) is defined as the arbitrary limit of water content at which the soil is just
about to pass from the plastic state into the liquid state. At this limit, the soil possesses a small
value of shear strength thus losing its ability to flow as a liquid.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Casagrande’s liquid limit apparatus
2. Cone penetration meter
3. Grooving tools
4. Porcelain evaporating dish
5. Spatula or Palette knife
6. Electronic Balance
7. Thermostatically controlled electric oven
8. Moisture content containers.
9. Flat glass plate.
10. Wash bottle with distilled water
11. Shrinkage dish
12. 425 micron I.S. sieve
13. Mercury
14. Glass cup
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
Take about 250g of dry soil passing through 425µ I.S. sieve. Keep it in a desiccator containing
anhydrous silica gel.
TEST PROCEDURE:
To determine liquid limit:
By Casagrande’s liquid limit apparatus
1. Take roughly 100 g soil and place it in the porcelain dish. Thoroughly mix the soil with a
small amount of distilled water until it appears as a smooth uniform paste.
2. In the case of clayey soils, the soil paste should be left in a sealed container to stand for
a sufficient time (24 hours ) so as to ensure uniform distribution of moisture throughout
the soil mass
3. Weigh six empty moisture cans and record the respective weights and can numbers on
the observation sheet.
4. Adjust the liquid limit apparatus by checking the height of drop of the cup. The point on
the cup that comes in contact with the base should rise to a height of 10 mm.
(The block on the end of the grooving tool is 10 mm high and should be used as a gage)
5. Place a portion of the previously mixed soil into the cup of the liquid limit apparatus.
Squeeze the soil down to eliminate air pockets and spread it into the cup to a depth of
about 10 mm at its deepest point. The soil pat should form an approximately horizontal
surface.
6. Use the grooving tool carefully cut a clean straight groove down the center of the cup.
The tool should remain perpendicular to the surface of the cup as groove is being made.
Use extreme care to prevent sliding the soil relative to the surface of the cup.
7. To avoid tearing of the sides of the groove or slipping of the soil cake on the cup, up to
six strokes, from front to back or from back to front counting as one stroke, shall be
permitted. Each stroke penetrate a little deeper until the last stroke from back to front
scrapes the bottom of the cup clean. The groove shall be made with as few strokes as
possible.
8. With soils having low plasticity indices it is sometimes difficult to cut a smooth groove in
the soil with casagrande’s grooving tool. ASTM grooving tool may be used in such cases.
ASTM grooving tool inserts a wedge into the pat of soil causing the two halves of the pat
to slide at the cup-soil interface.
9. Turn the crank of the liquid limit apparatus at a rate of approximately two drops per
second and count the number of drops “N” it takes to make the two halves of the soil
pat come into contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 13 mm.
10. If the number of drops exceeds 50, then go directly to step ten and do not record the
number of drops. Else, record the number of drops on the data sheet.
11. Using the spatula Take a sample from edge to edge of the soil pat. The sample should
include the soil on both sides of where the groove came into contact. Place the soil into
a moisture can cover it. Immediately weigh and record the weight of the moisture can
containing the soil and place it in the oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for at
least 24 hours.
12. Place the soil remaining in the cup into the porcelain dish. Clean and dry the cup and the
grooving tool.
13. Remix the entire soil specimen in the porcelain dish. Add a small amount of distilled
water to increase the water content so that the number of drops “N” required for
closing the groove decrease.
14. Repeat steps four, five, seven and eight for at least six trials producing successively
lower numbers of drops to close the groove. The number of blows reported should be
between 10 to 50.
15. Determine the water content from each trial by using the same method used in the first
laboratory. Remember to use the same balance for all weighing.
16. Plot the flow cure, that is, the graph of moisture content v/s number of blows “N”, on a
semi-log graph sheet. N on a logarithmic scale and moisture content on the natural
scale.
17. It will be seen that the semi-logarithmic plot is a straight line called flow curve. The
moisture content corresponding to 25 blows is the liquid limit.
18. The liquid limit should be reported to the nearest whole number
By Cone Penetrometer method

1. Take roughly 100 g soil and place it in the porcelain dish. Thoroughly mix the soil with a
small amount of distilled water until it appears as a smooth uniform paste.
2. Weigh six empty moisture cans and record the respective weights and can numbers on
the observation sheet.
3. Using a spatula transfer the wet soil paste to the cylindrical cup of the cone
penetrometer apparatus.
4. Completely fill the cylindrical cup and level the surface of the soil.
5. Keep the filled cylindrical cup on the base of the penetrometer.
6. Using the spirit level, maintain the base of the penetrometer to perfect horizontal.
7. Adjust the penetrometer such that the cone point just touches the surface of the soil
paste in the cup. Note down the initial reading.
8. Release the vertical clamp to allow the cone to penetrate the soil paste under its own
weight.
9. Record the penetration of the cone after 5 seconds to the nearest millimeter.
10. Repeat the test so as to get at least 5 readings between 14 mm and 28 mm. This can be
done by either addition of moisture or reduction of moisture. Moisture can be reduced
by spreading the soil paste on a glass plate.
11. The test should proceed from the drier (more number of drops) to the wetter (less
number of drops) condition of the soil.
12. The test may also be conducted from the wetter to the drier condition provided drying
is achieved by kneading the wet soil and not by adding dry soil.
13. For every trial, immediately determine the moisture content of the soil paste by oven
drying method.
14. Plot a graph with water content on the y-axis and cone penetration on the x-axis. Draw
a best fitting line.
15. Moisture content corresponding to 20 mm penetration is taken as liquid limit of soil.
16. The liquid limit should be reported to the nearest first decimal place.
To determine Plastic limit:
1. Weigh the empty moisture cans and record the respective weights and can numbers on
the data sheet.
2. Take the remaining 1/4th of the original soil sample and add distilled water until the soil
is at a consistency where it can be rolled without sticking to the hands.
3. Form the soil into an ellipsoidal mass. Roll the mass between the palm or the fingers and
the glass plate. Use sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform
diameter by using about 90 strokes per minute
(A stroke is one complete motion of the hand forward and back to the starting position.)
4. The thread shall be deformed so that its diameter reaches 3 mm.
5. When the diameter of the thread reaches the correct diameter, break the thread into
several pieces. Knead and reform the pieces into ellipsoidal masses and re-roll them.
6. Continue this alternate rolling, gathering together, kneading and re-rolling until the
thread crumbles when rolled into a 3 mm diameter thread.
7. At no time shall an attempt be made to produce failure at exactly 3 mm diameter by
allowing the thread to reach 3 mm, then reducing the rate of rolling or pressure or both,
and continuing the rolling without further deformation until the thread falls apart.
8. Gather the portions of the crumbled thread together and place the soil into a moisture
can. The can should contain at least 6 grams of soil.
9. Immediately weigh the moisture can containing the soil, record its mass and place the
can into the oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for at least 24 hours and
determine the moisture content.
10. Repeat the above steps for at least three trials and take the average moisture content.
Report it as plastic limit.
To determine Shrinkage limit:
Preparation of soil paste

1. Place about 30 g of the prepared sample in evaporating dish and mix it thoroughly with
distilled water to make a creamy paste (use water content slightly higher than the liquid
limit)
Determination of mass and volume of the shrinkage dish

2. Clean the shrinkage dish and determine its weight accurately.
3. To determine the volume of the shrinkage dish, place the shrinkage dish on evaporating
dish and fill it to overflowing the mercury.
4. Remove the excess mercury by pressing the plain glass plate firmly on its top, taking
care that no air is entrapped.
5. Carefully wipe off any mercury which may be adhering to the outside of the shrinkage
dish.
6. Carefully transfer the mercury of the shrinkage dish to another evaporating dish and
accurately determine the weight of mercury.
7. The weight of mercury divided by its density gives the volume of the shrinkage dish.
Filling the shrinkage dish soil pat

8. Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of Vaseline to prevent the soil
sticking to the dish.
9. Fill the dish in three layers by placing approximately 1/3rd of the amount of wet soil with
the help of spatula.
10. Tap the dish gently on a firm base until the soil flows over the edges and no apparent air
bubbles exist.
11. Repeat this process for 2nd and 3rd layer also till the dish is completely filled with soil
paste. Strike of the excess soil paste and make the top smooth. Wipe off all the soil
paste adhering to the outside of the dish.
Determination of wet and dry mass of soil pat

12. Weigh immediately the shrinkage dish with soil paste.
13. Air dry the wet soil paste for 6-8 hours, until the color of the pat turns from dark to light.
14. Then oven dry it at a temperature of 105°C to 110°C for about 12-16 hours.
15. Remove the dried pat of soil from oven and cool is a desiccator. Immediately determine
the weight of dry soil pat with the shrinkage dish.
16. Carefully remove the dried pat from the shrinkage dish.
17. The volume of the shrinkage dish which is evidently the volume of the wet soil.
Determination of volume of dry soil pat

18. To determine the volume of dry soil pat, keep the glass cup in a evaporating dish. Fill the
cup to overflowing of mercury.
19. Remove the excess mercury by pressing the glass plate with the three prongs firmly over
the top of the cup.
20. Transfer the cup to another evaporating dish after carefully wiping off excess mercury
adhering to the outside of the cup.
21. Place the oven dried soil pat on the surface of mercury in the cup and carefully force the
pat into the mercury by pressing it by the same glass plate containing three prongs.
Press the plate firmly on top of the cup.
22. Collect carefully the displaced mercury and find its weight. The volume of the pat is
determined by this weight divided by the density of mercury
For undisturbed soil

23. Undisturbed soil sample obtained from the field is trimmed approximately 45 mm in
diameter and 15 mm in length. The edges of the pat are rounded off so that no air is
entrapped during mercury displacement.
24. Keep the pat in a suitable container and air dry it for some time so that its color changes
dark to light. Keep the container in the oven and dry it at 105 to 110°C for 4 hours. Take
out the pat and smoothen the edges by sand paper.
25. Place the pat in the oven and dry it for 20 hours. Cool in desiccator and determine its
dry weight. Determine the volume of dry pat by mercury displacement technique as
explained above.
The tests shall be repeated at least three times for each soil sample and the average of
the results thus obtained reported. If any individual value varies from the average by
more than 2 percent, it shall be discarded and the test repeated.
FIGURE:
Fig 1: Casagrande’s liquid limit apparatus
All dimensions in mm
Fig 2: Casagrande Grooving tool Fig 3: ASTM grooving tool
Divided soil cake before the test Soil cake after test
Fig 4: Illustration of liquid limit test
Fig 5: Cone penetrometer

Fig 6: Illustration of shrinkage limit test
Fig 7: Determination of volume of dry soil pat by mercury displacement method
CALCULATIONS:
1) Plasticity Index
IP = LL – PL
Where, IP = Plasticity index
LL = liquid limit
PL = Plastic limit
2) Flow index:
IF =
( ⁄ )
Where, IF = Flow index

= water content corresponding to N1 and N2 number of blows
3) Toughness index:
IT =
Where, IT = Toughness index
IP = Plasticity index
IF = Flow index
4) Shrinkage limit (for remoulded sample):
[ ]
Where, ws = shrinkage limit

w = water content of wet soil pat
V = volume of wet soil pat
Vd = volume of dry soil pat
Wd = weight of dry soil pat
5) Shrinkage limit (for undisturbed sample):
( )
Where, ws = shrinkage limit

G = specific gravity of soil solids
6) Shrinkage ratio
Where, SR = shrinkage ratio

7) Volumetric Shrinkage
Where, VS = volumetric shrinkage

ws = shrinkage limit
w = water content of wet soil pat
SR = shrinkage ratio
RESULT:
Liquid Limit (LL):
(by Casagrande’s liquid limit apparatus)
Liquid Limit (LL):

(by Cone penetrometer)
Plastic Limit (PL):
Plasticity Index (IP):
Flow index (IF):
Toughness index (IT):
Shrinkage limit (remoulded):
Shrinkage limit (undisturbed):
Shrinkage ratio:
Volumetric shrinkage:
REFERENCES:
1. IS : 2720 (Part V) – 1985 Indian Standard: Test for soils – Determination of liquid and
plastic limit
2. IS : 2720 (Part VI) – 1972 Indian Standard: Test for soils – Determination of shrinkage
factors
3. IS : 9259 - 1979 Indian Standard: Liquid limit Apparatus
4. IS : 11196 – 1985 – Indian Standard: Cone - Specification for equipment for
determination of liquid limit of soils by cone penetration method.
5. IS : 2720 (Part II) – 1973, Indian Standard - Method of Test for soil : Part II:
Determination of water content

1. Practice using the cup and determine the correct rate to rotate the crank so that the
cup drops approximately two times per second.
2. The height of fall of the cup should be exactly 10 mm.
3. While placing the soil on the cup, squeeze the soil down to eliminate air pockets.
4. Make sure that the base of the apparatus below the cup and the underside of the
cup is cleaned of soil.
5. The groove should close by flow and not by slippage.
6. Some soils tend to slide on the surface of the cup instead of the soil flowing. If this
occurs, the results should be discarded and the test repeated until flowing does
occur. If sliding still occurs, the test is not applicable and a note should be made that
the liquid limit could not be obtained.
7. Care shall be taken to see that the soil paste does not dry out too rapidly between
repeat tests as the number of blows for closure will increase gradually as the sample
dries out.
8. In the case of sandy soils plastic limit should be determined first. When plastic limit
cannot be determined, the plasticity index should be reported as NP (non-plastic).
9. When the plastic limit is equal to or greater than the liquid limit, the plasticity index
shall be reported as zero.
10. Clean the cup after every trial and wipe it dry.
11. Keep the cone penetrometer well lubricated. Before every trial, clean and dry the
cone tip with a moist cloth.
12. The history of the soil sample, that is, natural state, air-dried, oven dried or
unknown, the method used for the test reported and the period of soaking allowed
after mixing of water to the soil shall also be reported.
14. While weighing, be careful not to place the container on the balance in an eccentric
position.
16. Do not wear gold rings while handling mercury.
17. Wash hands with soap after handling mercury.
COMMENTS:
GRAPH:
Graph of determination of liquid limit by casagrande’s apparatus
Liquid Limit
Water content (%)
Line of best fit
5 10 15 20 25 30
Cone penetration in mm
Graph of determination of liquid limit by Cone penetrometer

ATTERBERG’S LIMITS

Depth: Test No:
LIQUID LIMIT (By Casagrande’s Apparatus)

1 2 3 4 5 6
No. of Blows
Container No.
Wt. of container (g)
Wt. of container + wet soil (g)
Wt. of container + dry soil (g)
Wt. of water (g)
Wt. of dry soil (g)
Water content (%)
Liquid limit: water content corresponding to 25 blows
LIQUID LIMIT (By Cone Penetrometer)

1 2 3 4 5 6
Initial Reading (mm)
Final Reading (mm)
Penetration (mm)
Container No.
Wt. of water (g)
Wt. of dry soil (g)
Water content (%)
Liquid limit: Water content corresponding to 20 mm penetration

PLASTIC LIMIT
1 2 3
Container No.
Wt. of container + wet soil

(g)
Wt. of water (g)
Wt. of dry soil (g)
Water content (%)
Average water content:
SHRINKAGE LIMIT (Remoulded sample)

Water content of wet soil paste
Trial number 1 2 3
Shrinkage dish number
Weight of shrinkage dish (W1)
Weight of shrinkage dish + wet soil (W2)
Weight of shrinkage dish + dry soil (W3)
Weight of dry soil pat (Wd = W3 –W1)
Weight of water (Ww = W2 – W3)
Water content of wet soil past, ( )

Volume of wet soil paste
Evaporating dish number
Weight of mercury filling shrinkage dish +

mass of evaporating dish (W4)
Weight of evaporating dish (W5)
Weight of mercury filling shrinkage dish

(W6 = W4 – W5)
Volume of wet soil paste (V)
Volume of dry soil pat
Weight of mercury displaced by dry soil pat +

mass of evaporating dish (W7)
Weight of mercury displaced by dry soil pat

(W9 = W7 – W8)
Volume of dry soil pat (Vd)
Shrinkage limit (ws)
Shrinkage ratio (SR)
Volumetric shrinkage (VS)
Average shrinkage limit:

SHRINKAGE LIMIT (Undisturbed sample)
Trial No
Shrinkage dish number
Weight of dish + dry soil pat (W1)
Weight of dish (W2)
Weight of dry soil pat (WD = W1 – W2)
Weight of mercury displaced by dry soil pat +

Mass of evaporating dish (W3)
Weight of mercury displaced by dry soil pat

(W5 = W3 – W4)
Volume of dry soil pat, Vd
Specific gravity of soil (G)
Shrinkage limit (ws)
Average shrinkage limit:
RESULT: Liquid limit

Plastic limit
Shrinkage limit
COMMENTS:
Approved by: Verified by:

EXPERIMENT: 7A
COMPACTION TEST – LIGHT COMPACTION
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the Optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of a soil by light
compaction test.
THEORY:
Compaction test is a laboratory method of experimentally determining the optimal moisture
content at which a given soil type will become most dense and achieve its maximum
dry density. It is also called as Proctor test, in honor of R. R. Proctor, who in 1933 showed that
the dry density of a soil for a given compactive effort depends on the amount of water the soil
contains during soil compaction. His original test is most commonly referred to as the standard
Proctor compaction test. Later on his test was updated to create the modified Proctor
compaction test.
These laboratory tests generally consist of compacting soil at known moisture content into a
cylindrical mold of standard dimensions using a compactive effort of controlled magnitude. The
soil is usually compacted into the mold to a certain amount of equal layers, each receiving a
number of blows from a standard weighted hammer at a specified height. This process is then
repeated for various moisture contents and the dry densities are determined for each. The
graphical relationship of the dry density to moisture content is then plotted to establish the
compaction curve. The maximum dry density is finally obtained from the peak point of the
compaction curve and its corresponding moisture content, also known as the optimal moisture
content.
The Indian Standard equivalent of the Standard Proctor Test is called the light compaction test.
The volume of the mould is 1000 cc, the weight of the hammer 2.6 kg and the drop 310 mm.
The soil is compacted in 3 layers tamped 25 times. The Indian standard equivalent of the
Modified Proctor Test is called Heavy Compaction test. The weight of the hammer is 4.9 kg and
the drop 450 mm. The soil is compacted in 5 layers, each layer tamped 25 times.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Indian Standard compaction mould with accessories including detachable base plate,
removable Collar
(Volume 1000 cc; internal diameter 100mm; effective height 127.3 mm)
2. Indian Standard Light Compaction Rammer (2.6Kg with free drop of 310 mm).
3. I.S. sieve 20 mm.
4. Balance of capacity 10 kg and sensitivity of 0.1 gm.
5. Thermostatically controlled electric oven.
6. Desiccators in anhydrous silica gel.
7. Containers for determining water content.
8. Graduated Jar of 500 ml capacity.
9. Steel straight-edge about 30 cm in length and having one bevelled edge.
10. Trimming knife.
11. Large mixing tray
12. Trowel
13. Sample Extruder
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
Take about 5 kg of soil passing through 20 mm. Oven dry it for a period of 24 hours at a
temperature of 105°C to 110°C. Cool it in a desiccator containing anhydrous silica gel.
TEST PROCEDURE:
1. Take about 3 kg of dried soil in a large mixing tray and add 8% of water by weight. 4% in
case of sands. Mix the soil and water using a trowel. Leave the mix to mature for few
minutes.
2. Measure the diameter and height of the mould without the collar. Calculate the volume
of the mould and note it as Vm.
3. Clean and grease the inside surface of the mould and the base plate.
4. Take the weight of empty mould with the base plate, but without the collar. Note it as
W1 in grams.
5. Fit the collar and place the mould on a solid base, preferably on the concrete floor.
6. Divide the wet soil in the tray into three portions. Place first portion of soil inside the
mould and apply 25 blows of standard hammer.
7. With a trimming knife scratch the top of the compacted soil before the second layer is
placed.
8. Place the second portion of wet soil and follow the same procedure.
9. In all the soil is compacted in three layers, each given 25 blows of the standard rammer
weighing 2.6 Kg and having a drop of 310 mm.
10. Remove the collar and trim of the excess soil with trimming knife. With a steel
straightedge make the soil surface smooth.
11. Clean the outsides of the mould and weigh the mould along with the compacted soil
and the base plate. Note down the weight as W2 in grams.
12. Extrude the compacted soil using the sample extruder.
13. Take a representative sample from the mould and determine its water content.
14. Repeat all the above steps by incrementing water content in steps of 3%. That is 11%,
14%, 17%, 20% and so on.
15. Continue the procedure till two consecutive weights show a dropping trend.
16. Plot a graph moisture content v/s dry unit weight of soil. The moisture content
corresponding to maximum dry density is the optimum moisture content.
17. The maximum dry density in g/cm3 is to be reported to the nearest 0.01. The optimum
moisture content is to be reported to the nearest 0.2 for values below 5 percent, to the
nearest 0.5 for values from 5 percent to 10 percent and to the nearest whole number
for value exceeding 10 percent.
FIGURES:
Fig 1: I.S. Rammer for light compaction

120
110
100
127.3
150
180
Fig 2: I.S. Compaction mould for light compaction

CALCULATIONS:
1) Bulk unit weight:
ϒb =
Where, ϒb = Bulk unit weight in g/cc
W1 = weight of the mould and base in grams
W2 = weight of the mould, base and compacted soil in grams
Vm = Volume of the mould in cc.
2) Dry unit weight:

ϒd =
Where, ϒd = Dry unit weight in g/cc
ϒb = Bulk unit weight in g/cc
= moisture content in percentage
RESULT:
Optimum moisture content:
Maximum dry density:
REFERENCES:
1) IS: 2720 (Part VII ) 1980: Indian Standard - Methods of test for soils - Determination of water
content-dry density relation using light compaction
2) IS: 10074 – 1982 : Indian Standard - Compaction mould assembly for light and heavy
compaction.
3) IS: 9198 – 1979: Indian Standard - Specification for compaction rammer for soil testing

1. The amount of water to be mixed with air dried soil at the commencement of the test
will vary with the type of soil under test. In general, with sandy and gravelly soil a
moisture content of 4 percent to 6 percent would be suitable, while with cohesive soil, a
moisture content about 8 percent to 10 percent below the plastic limit of the soil would
be suitable.
2. It is important that the water is mixed thoroughly and adequately with the soil, since
inadequate mixing gives rise to variable test results. This is particularly important with
cohesive soils when adding a substantial quantity of water to the air dried soil. With
clays of high plasticity, or where hand mixing is employed, it may be difficult to
distribute the water uniformly through the air dried soil by mixing alone, and it may be
necessary to store the mixed sample in a sealed container for a minimum period of
about 16 hours before continuing with the test.
3. It is necessary to control the total volume of soil compacted, since it has been found
that if the amount of soil struck off after removing the extension is too great, the test
results will be inaccurate.
4. The water added for each stage of the test should be such that a range of moisture
contents is obtained which includes the optimum moisture. In general, a increment of 1
percent to 2 percent is suitable for sandy and gravelly soils, and 2 percent to 4 percent
for cohesive soils. To increase the accuracy of the test it is often advisable to reduce the
increment of water to 1 percent in the region of the optimum moisture content.
5. The blows shall be distributed uniformly over the surface or each layer. The operator
shall ensure that the tube of the rammer is kept clear of soil and that the rammer
always falls freely.
6. To avoid stratification each compacted layer should be scratched with spatula before
next layer is placed.
7. Use hand gloves & safety shoes while compacting.
NOTE:
For compacting soil containing coarse material up to 40 mm size, a 2250 cc mould should be
used. A sample weighing about 6 kg and passing the 40 mm IS sieve is used for the test. Soil
is compacted in three layers. Each layer being is given 55 blows of the 2.6 kg rammer. The
rest of the procedure is same as above.
COMMENTS:
GRAPH:
LIGHT COMPACTION TEST
Depth: Test No:
Mould: Internal diameter: Rammer: Weight of hammer:

Height: Height of fall:
Volume (Vm): No. of layers:
Weight of mould + base (M1): No. of blows per layer:
Trial No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Wt. of mould with
base plate +
compacted soil ‘M2’ (g)
Bulk density ϒb
(g/cc)
Dry density ϒd
(g/cc)
Container No.
Wt. of container + wet

soil (g)
Wt. of container + dry
soil (g)
Wt. of water (g)
Wt. of dry soil (g)
Water content ‘ω’ (%)
RESULT: Optimum moisture content:


EXPERIMENT: 7B
COMPACTION TEST – HEAVY COMPACTION
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the Optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of a soil by heavy
compaction test.
THEORY:
Compaction test is a laboratory method of experimentally determining the optimal moisture
content at which a given soil type will become most dense and achieve its maximum
dry density. It is also called as Proctor test, in honor of R. R. Proctor, who in 1933 showed that
the dry density of a soil for a given compactive effort depends on the amount of water the soil
contains during soil compaction. His original test is most commonly referred to as the standard
Proctor compaction test. Later on his test was updated to create the modified Proctor
compaction test.
Modified Proctor Compaction test was developed to deliver greater compactive effort with a
view to simulating the heavier compaction required for the construction of airport pavements.
The mould used is the same as that for Standard Proctor Test. The weight of the rammer is 10
lbs and the height of fall is 18 inches. The mould is filled in five layers, each layer being
compacted with 25 blows. The compactive energy delivered is of the order of 2726 N.m per
1000 cm3 of soil, which is about 4.5 times that of the Standard Proctor Test.
The moisture content-dry density relationship may be obtained by adopting a similar procedure
as in the light compaction case. Since the compactive effort is more for this test than for the
Standard Proctor Test, the compaction curve in this case may be expected to lie higher when
super-imposed over the curve for the latter, with the peak placed to the left.
The Indian Standard equivalent of the Modified Proctor Test is called the I.S Heavy Compaction
test. The volume of the mould is 1000 cc. The weight of the hammer is 4.9 kg and the drop 450
mm. The soil is compacted in 5 layers, each layer tamped 25 times.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Indian Standard compaction mould with accessories including detachable base plate,
removable Collar
(Volume 1000 cc; internal diameter 100mm; effective height 127.3 mm)
2. Indian Standard Heavy Compaction Rammer (4.9 Kg with free drop of 450 mm).
3. I.S. sieve 20 mm.
4. Balance of capacity 10 kg and sensitivity of 0.1 gm.
5. Thermostatically controlled electric oven.
6. Desiccators in anhydrous silica gel.
7. Containers for determining water content.
8. Graduated Jar of 500 ml capacity.
9. Steel straight-edge about 30 cm in length and having one bevelled edge.
10. Trimming knife.
11. Large mixing tray
12. Trowel
13. Sample Extruder
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
Take about 5 kg of soil passing through 20 mm. Oven dry it for a period of 24 hours at a
temperature of 105°C to 110°C. Cool it in a desiccator containing anhydrous silica gel.
TEST PROCEDURE:
1. Take about 3.5 kg of dried soil in a large mixing tray and add 6% of water by weight.
2% in case of sands. Mix the soil and water using a trowel. Leave the mix to mature
for few minutes.
2. Measure the diameter and height of the mould without the collar. Calculate the
volume of the mould and note it as Vm.
3. Clean and grease the inside surface of the mould and the base plate.
4. Take the weight of empty mould with the base plate, but without the collar. Note it
as W1 in grams.
5. Fit the collar and place the mould on a solid base, preferably on the concrete floor.
6. Divide the wet soil in the tray into five portions. Place first portion of soil inside the
mould and apply 25 blows of standard hammer.
7. With a trimming knife scratch the top of the compacted soil before the second layer
is placed.
8. Place the second portion of wet soil and follow the same procedure.
9. In all the soil is compacted in five layers, each given 25 blows of the standard heavy
rammer weighing 4.9 Kg and having a drop of 450 mm.
10. Remove the collar and trim of the excess soil with trimming knife. With a steel
straightedge make the soil surface smooth.
11. Clean the outsides of the mould and weigh the mould along with the compacted soil
and the base plate. Note down the weight as W2 in grams.
12. Extrude the compacted soil using the sample extruder.
13. Take a representative sample from the mould and determine its water content.
14. Repeat all the above steps by incrementing water content in steps of 3%. That is 9%,
12%, 15%, 21% and so on.
15. Continue the procedure till two consecutive weights show a dropping trend.
16. Plot a graph moisture content v/s dry unit weight of soil. The moisture content
corresponding to maximum dry density is the optimum moisture content.
17. The maximum dry density in g/cm3 is to be reported to the nearest 0.01. The
optimum moisture content is to be reported to the nearest 0.2 for values below 5
percent, to the nearest 0.5 for values from 5 percent to 10 percent and to the
nearest whole number for value exceeding 10 percent.
FIGURES:
Fig 1: I.S. Rammer for heavy compaction

120
110
100
127.3
150
180
Fig 2: I.S Compaction mould for heavy compaction

CALCULATIONS:
ϒb =
W1 = weight of the mould and base in grams
W2 = weight of the mould, base and compacted soil in grams
Vm = Volume of the mould in cc.
2) Dry unit weight:

ϒd =
RESULT:
Optimum moisture content:
REFERENCES:
1) IS: 2720 (Part 8 ) 1980: Indian Standard - Methods of test for soils - Determination of water
content-dry density relation using heavy compaction
2) IS: 10074 – 1982 : Indian Standard - Compaction mould assembly for light and heavy
compaction.
3) IS: 9198 – 1979: Specification for compaction rammer for soil testing

1. The amount of water to be mixed with air dried soil at the commencement of the
test will vary with the type of soil under test. In general, with sandy and gravelly soil
a moisture content of 4 percent to 6 percent would be suitable, while with cohesive
soil, a moisture content about 8 percent to 10 percent below the plastic limit of the
soil would be suitable.
2. It is important that the water is mixed thoroughly and adequately with the soil, since
inadequate mixing gives rise to variable test results. This is particularly important
with cohesive soils when adding a substantial quantity of water to the air dried soil.
With clays of high plasticity, or where hand mixing is employed, it may be difficult to
distribute the water uniformly through the air dried soil by mixing alone, and it may
be necessary to store the mixed sample in a sealed container for a minimum period
of about 16 hours before continuing with the test.
3. It is necessary to control the total volume of soil compacted, since it has been found
that if the amount of soil struck off after removing the extension is too great, the
test results will be inaccurate.
4. The water added for each stage of the test should be such that a range of moisture
contents is obtained which includes the optimum moisture. In general, a increment
of 1 percent to 2 percent is suitable for sandy and gravelly soils, and 2 percent to 4
percent for cohesive soils. To increase the accuracy of the test it is often advisable to
reduce the increment of water to 1 percent in the region of the optimum moisture
content.
5. The blows shall be distributed uniformly over the surface or each layer. The operator
shall ensure that the tube of the rammer is kept clear of soil and that the rammer
always falls freely.
6. To avoid stratification each compacted layer should be scratched with spatula
before next layer is placed.
9. While weighing, be careful not to place the sieve on the balance in an eccentric
position.
NOTE:
For compacting soil containing coarse material up to 40 mm size, a 2250 cc mould should be
used. A sample weighing about 6 kg and passing the 40 mm IS sieve is used for the test. Soil
is compacted in five layers. Each layer being is given 55 blows of the 4.9 kg rammer. The rest
of the procedure is same as above.
COMMENTS:
GRAPH:
HEAVY COMPACTION TEST
Depth: Test No:
Mould: Internal diameter: Rammer: Weight of hammer:

Height: Height of fall:
Volume (Vm): No. of layers:
Weight of mould + base (M1): No. of blows per layer:
Trial No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Wt. of mould with
base plate +
compacted soil ‘M2’ (g)
Bulk density ϒb
(g/cc)
Dry density ϒd
(g/cc)
Container No.

soil (g)
soil (g)
Wt. of water (g)
Wt. of dry soil (g)
RESULT: Optimum moisture content:


EXPERIMENT: 8A
FIELD DENSITY – CORE CUTTER METHOD
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the in-situ dry density of soil by core cutter method.
THEORY:
The Core-cutter method consists of driving a core-cutter of known volume into the soil after
placing it on the cleaned soil surface. The cutter filled with soil is removed and excess soil is
trimmed off. The cutter with the soil is weighed. The volume of the cutter is calculated from the
dimensions of the cutter and the in-situ weight is determined by dividing the weight of the soil
in the cutter by the volume of the cutter. By determining the water content of the soil in the
laboratory, the dry unit weight of the soil can be computed.
The in-situ density of the soil is needed for stability analysis, for the determination of the
degree of compaction of compacted soil, etc. The core-cutter method is suitable for fine-
grained soils free from aggregations. It is less accurate than the sand-replacement method and
is not recommended, unless speed is essential or unless the soil is well compacted.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Cylindrical core cutter - seamless steel tube, 130 mm long and 10 cm internal diameter,
with a wall thickness of 3 mm and beveled at one end.
2. Steel rammer - With solid mild steel foot 140 mm diameter and 75 mm height with a
concentrically screwed 25 mm diameter solid mild steel staff. The overall length of the
rammer including the foot as well as the staff should be approximately 900 mm. The
rammer (foot and staff together) should weigh approximately 9 kg.
3. Steel dolly – 2.5 cm high and 10 cm internal diameter with a wall thickness of 7.5 mm
and with a lip to enable it to be fitted on top of the core-cutter
4. Electronic balance with an accuracy of 1 gm.
5. Steel rule
6. Spade or pickaxe
7. Straight edge - A steel strip about 30 cm long, 2.5 cm wide and 3 to 5 mm thick with
one bevelled edge.
8. Knife
9. Sample extruder
SITE PREPARATION:
Clear a small area, approximately 30 cm square and level it. The area should be free from
vegetation and should not contain tree roots, rocks and boulders. The ideal site would be
cohesive soil.
TEST PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the height (h) and internal diameter (d) of the core cutter. Determine the inner
volume of the core-cutter (Vc)
2. Apply grease to the inside of the core cutter and weigh the empty core cutter (W 1)
3. Clean and level the place where density is to be determined.
4. Attach the steel dolly on the top of the core cutter. With the help of the steel rammer
drive the core cutter vertically into the soil until only about 15 mm of the dolly
protrudes above the surface.
5. Excavate the soil around the cutter with a crow bar and gently lift the cutter without
disturbing the soil in it.
6. Trim the top and bottom surfaces of the sample and clean the outside surface of the
cutter.
7. Weigh the core cutter with soil (W2)
8. Remove the soil from the core cutter using a sample ejector and take representative soil
sample from it to determine the moisture content.
9. Report the dry density of the soil to second place of decimal in g/cm 3 and water content
of the soil to two decimal figures.
CALCULATIONS:
ϒb =
W1 = empty weight of the core cutter in grams
W2 = weight of the core cutter with soil in grams
Vc = Volume of the cutter in cc.
2) Dry unit weight:

ϒd =
3) in-situ void ratio:
= –
Where, e = in-situ void ratio
ϒw = Unit weight of of water in g/cc
ϒd = Dry unit weight of soil in g/cc
RESULT:
The in-situ dry density of the soil is
The in-situ void ratio of soil is
REFERENCES:
IS : 2720 ( Part XXIX) – 1975 – Indian Standard: METHODS OF TEST FOR SOILS - Determination
of dry density of soils in place by the core-cutter method

1. The cutting edge should be kept sharp. The cutter should not be used in stony soils.
2. The site should be free from tree roots.
3. It is necessary to make a number of repeat determinations (at least three) and to
average results. Since the dry density of the soil varies appreciably from point to point,
the number of determinations should be such that an additional one would not alter the
average significantly.
4. When the cutter is dug out of the surrounding soil care should be taken to allow some
soil to project from the lower end of the cutter.
5. The soil core shall be transported to the laboratory in an air-tight container.
COMMENTS:
FIGURES:
All dimensions in mm
Fig 1: Core cutter setup

FIELD DENSITY – CORE CUTTER METHOD
Location:
Depth: Date of testing:
Date of Sampling: Test No:
CORE CUTTER: Internal diameter:

Internal height:
Volume of the core-cutter (VC): cc
Weight of the core-cutter (M1): grams
Trial No. 1 2 3 4
Wt. of the core-cutter +
soil ‘M2’ (g)
Bulk density ϒb
(g/cc)
Dry density ϒd
(g/cc)
Container No.

soil (g)
soil (g)
Wt. of water (g)
Wt. of dry soil (g)
Void ratio ‘e’
RESULT: In-situ dry density

In-situ void ratio
REMARKS:
EXPERIMENT: 8B
FIELD DENSITY – SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the in-situ dry density of soil by sand replacement method.
THEORY:
Determination of field density of cohesion less soil is not possible by core cutter method,
because it is not possible to obtain a core sample. In such situation, the sand replacement
method is employed to determine the unit weight. In sand replacement method, a small
cylindrical pit is excavated and the weight of the soil excavated from the pit is measured. Sand
whose density is known is filled into the pit. By measuring the weight of sand required to fill the
pit and knowing its density the volume of pit is calculated. Knowing the weight of soil excavated
from the pit and the volume of pit, the density of soil is calculated.
The in-situ density of natural soil is needed for the determination of bearing capacity of soils,
for the purpose of stability analysis of natural soils, for the determination of pressures on
underlying strata, for calculation of settlement, etc. In compacted soils the in-situ density is
needed to check the amount of compaction that the soil has undergone for comparing with
design data. The correct estimation of the in-situ density of both natural and compacted soils is
therefore of great importance.
By conducting this test it is possible to determine the bulk density of the soil. The moisture
content is likely to vary from time and hence the bulk density also. So it is required to report
the test result in terms of dry density.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Sand pouring cylinder: Sand pouring cylinder of 3 liter capacity, mounted above a
pouring cone and separated by a shutter cover plate.
2. Calibrating can: With an internal diameter of 100 mm and an internal depth of 150
mm. Fitted with a flange approximately 50 mm wide and about 5 mm thick
surrounding the open end. The volume of the container should be given to an
accuracy of 0.25 percent.
3. Metal tray with a central hole: 300 mm square and 40 mm deep with 100 mm hole
in the centre.
4. Dry sand: Clean, uniformly graded natural sand passing the 1.00 mm IS Sieve and
retained on the 600 micron IS Sieve. It shall be free from organic matter and should
be oven dried and stored for a suitable period to allow its water content to reach
equilibrium with atmospheric humidity.
5. Balance accurate to 1 gram.
6. Moisture content bins
7. Glass plate
8. Metal container: To collect excavated soil. A convenient size is one about 150 mm
in diameter and 200 mm deep with a removable cover.
9. Excavation tools: suitable tools, such as a scraper tool to make a level surface; bent
spoon, dibber etc.
SITE PREPARATION:
Clear a small area, approximately 60 cm square and level it with a scraper. The area should be
free from vegetation and should not contain tree roots and rocks.
TEST PROCEDURE:
Part 1: CALIBRATION OF SAND DENSITY:

1. Measure the internal dimensions (diameter, d and height, h) of the calibrating can and
compute its internal volume, Vc = πd2h/4.
2. Fill the sand pouring cylinder (SPC) with sand with 1 cm top clearance (to avoid any
spillover during operation) and find its weight (W1)
3. Place the SPC on a glass plate, open the slit above the cone by operating the valve and
allow the sand to run down. The sand will freely run down till it fills the conical portion.
When there is no further downward movement of sand in the SPC, close the slit.
Measure the weight of the sand required to fill the cone. Let it be W2.
4. Place back this W2 amount of sand into the SPC, so that its weight becomes equal to W1.
5. Place the SPC concentrically on top of the calibrating can. Open the slit to allow the sand
to run down until the sand flow stops by itself. This operation will fill the calibrating can
and the conical portion of the SPC. Now close the slit and find the weight of the SPC
with the remaining sand (W3)
Part 2: MEASUREMENT OF SOIL DENSITY:

1. Clean and level the ground surface where the field density is to be determined
2. Place the tray with a central hole over the portion of the soil to be tested.
3. Excavate a pit into the ground, through the hole in the plate, approximately 12 cm deep
(same as the height of the calibrating can). The hole in the tray will guide the diameter
of the pit to be made in the ground.
4. Collect the excavated soil into the tray and weigh the soil (W)
5. Determine the moisture content of the excavated soil.
6. Place the SPC, with sand having the latest weight of W1, over the pit so that the base of
the cylinder covers the pit concentrically.
7. Open the slit of the SPC and allow the sand to run into the pit freely, till there is no
downward movement of sand level in the SPC and then close the slit.
8. Find the weight of the SPC with the remaining sand (W4).
CALCULATIONS:
ϒb =
W1 = empty weight of the core cutter in grams
W2 = weight of the core cutter with soil in grams
Vc = Volume of the cutter in cc.
2) Dry unit weight:

ϒd =
3) in-situ void ratio:

= –
Where, e = in-situ void ratio
ϒw = Unit weight of of water in g/cc
ϒd = Dry unit weight of soil in g/cc
RESULT:
The in-situ dry density of the soil is
The in-situ void ratio of soil is
REFERENCES:
IS-2720-Part-28: Indian Standards: METHODS OF TEST FOR SOILS - Determination of dry density of
soils in place by the sand replacement method.

1. Care should be taken in excavating the pit, so that it is not enlarged by levering, as this
will result in lower density being recorded.
2. No loose material should be left in the pit.
3. There should be no vibrations during this test.
4. It should not be forgotten to remove the tray, before placing the SPC over the pit.
5. To prevent loss of moisture on transit, the excavated material should be transported to
the laboratory in an air tight container.
6. It is necessary to make a number of repeat determinations (at least three) and to
average results. Since the dry density of the soil varies appreciably from point to point,
the number of determinations should be such that an additional one would not alter the
average significantly.
COMMENTS:
FIGURES:
115
All Dimensions in mm
380 13
85 75
115
200
Fig 1: Sand Pouring Cylinder

All Dimensions in mm
Fig 2: Calibration container

FIELD DENSITY – SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD
Location:
Depth: Date of testing:
Date of Sampling: Test No:
Part 1:
CALIBRATION:
Calibration can No:
Calibration can diameter:
Calibration can height:
Calibration can volume:
Trial No. 1 2 3 4
Volume of the calibrating container, V (cm3)
Weight of SPC + sand, W1 (g)
Weight of sand required to fill the conical portion

on a flat surface, W2 (g)
Weight of SPC + sand (after filling calibrating

can), W3 (g)
Weight of sand required to fill the calibrating
container,
Wc = (W1-W2 –W3) (g)
Unit weight of sand,

ϒsand = (Wc)/V (g/cc)
Average unit weight of sand:

Part 2:
DETERMINATION OF FIELD DENSITY
Trial No. 1 2 3 4
Empty weight of Tray (WT)
Weight of excavated soil + tray (WS)
Weight of soil excavated from the pit
W = WS - WT (g)
Weight of sand + SPC, before pouring, W1 (g)
Weight of SPC after filling the hole & conical
portion, W4 (g)
Weight of sand in the pit
Wp = (W1-W4-W2) (g)
Volume of sand required to fill the pit
Vp=Wp/ϒsand (cc)
Bulk unit weight of the soil
ϒb=W/Vp (g/cc)
Container No
Wt. of water (g)
Wt. of dry soil (g)

Dry unit weight of the soil
ϒd = 100ϒb/100+ω (g/cc)
Void ratio ‘e’
RESULT: Average field density:

Average in-situ void ratio:
COMMENTS:

EXPERIMENT: 9
RELATIVE DENSITY
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the relative density or density index of cohesionless soil.
THEORY:
The degree of denseness or looseness of natural deposits of coarse-grained soils can be
measured in terms of their relative density. Relative density is, for a coarse grained soil, the
equivalent of relative consistency for a clay soil. It is the most important soil aggregate property
of a coarse-grained soil.
Relative density, Dr (Id) is defined as the ratio of the difference between the void ratio of a
cohesionless soil in the loosest state and void ratio in its natural state to the differences
between its void ratios in the loosest and densest states.
Where emax = void ratio in the loosest state

enat = void ratio obtained in the field in the natural state
emin = void ratio in the densest state
Relative density is a better indicator of the denseness of an in situ coarse grained deposit than
the void ratio. Two sand deposits possessing similar grain shape and size characteristics can,
however, exhibit quite dissimilar engineering behavior if they happen to have different relative
density values. If the relative density is high, the granular soil will be dense and will have high
shearing strength and low compressibility. A loose granular soil is rather unstable, especially if
subjected to vibratory loads. Various soil properties, such as penetration resistance,
compressibility, compaction friction angle, permeability and California bearing ratio are found
to have simple relationships with relative density.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Vibratory Table: A steel table with cushioned steel vibrating deck about 75 x 75 cm. The
vibrator should have a net mass of over 45 kg. The vibrator shall have a frequency of
3600 vibrations per minute.
2. Moulds with guide sleeves - Cylindrical metal unit mass moulds of 3000 cm3 or 15000
cm3 conforming to the requirements as given in IS : 10837-1984.
3. Surcharge Masses - One surcharge mass for each size mould conforming to
requirements given in IS : 10837-1984.
4. Surcharge Base Plates with Handle - one surcharge base plate 10 mm in thickness for
each size mould conforming to requirements given in IS : 10837-1984.
5. Dial gauge with holder
6. Pouring Devices - consisting of funnels 12 mm in diameter and 15 cm long with
cylindrical spouts and lipped brims.
7. Weighing Scale
8. Thermometer
9. Stop-watch
10. Metal Straight Edge - about 40 cm long.
11. Micrometer - 0 to 25 mm, accurate to 0.025 mm.
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
1. Collect the representative sample of soil. Dry the soil sample in an oven at a
temperature of 105 to 110°C.
2. Pulverize the soil sample without breaking the individual soil particles.
3. The mass of soil sample to be taken depends upon the maximum size of particle in the
soil as given in below table.
Max size of soil Mass of soil Size of mould to Surcharge Pouring device
particles (mm) sample be used (cm3) weight to be
required (kg) used (kg)
75 45 15000 86.0 ± 0.5 Scoop
37.5 12 3000 24.7 ± 0.2 Scoop
19 12 3000 24.7 ± 0.2 Scoop
9.5 12 3000 24.7 ± 0.2 25 mm dia spout
4.75 12 3000 24.7 ± 0.2 12 mm dia spout
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Part 1) Calibration:
1) Determination of volume of the mould by filling with water:
1. Fill the mould with water.
2. Slide a glass plate carefully over the top surface of the mould in such a manner as to
ensure that the mould is completely filled with water.
3. Calculate the mass of water in grams required to fill the mould.
4. Note down the temperature of the water. From standard charts determine the unit
weight of water at that temperature.
5. The volume of the mould is calculated in cubic centimeters by multiplying the mass of
water by the unit weight of water measured at that temperature.
2) Determination of initial dial reading for computing the volume of the specimen:
1. Using a micrometer measure the thickness of the surcharge base plate and the
calibration bar to an accuracy of 0.025 mm.
2. Place the calibration bar across the diameter of the mould along the axis of the guide
brackets.
3. Insert the dial gauge holder in each of the guide brackets on the mould with the dial
gauge stem on top of the calibration bar and on the axis of the guide brackets.
4. The dial gauge holder should be placed in the same position in the guide brackets each
time by means of match-marks on the guide brackets and the holder.
5. Obtain six dial gauge readings, i.e, three on the left side and three on the right side.
Average the six readings.
6. Compute the initial dial reading by adding together the surcharge base plate thickness
and the average of the six dial gauge readings and subtracting the thickness of the
calibration bar.
7. The initial dial reading is constant for a particular mould and surcharge base plate
combination.
PART 2) Determination of minimum density:

1. Select the pouring device and mould according to the maximum size of particle as
indicated in the table above.
2. Weigh the mould and the record the mass.
3. For soils containing particles smaller than 9.50 mm, place the soil as loosely as possible
in the mould by pouring the soil through the spout in a steady stream.
4. The spout should be adjusted so that the height of free fall of the soil is always 25 mm.
While pouring the soil the pouring device should be moved in a spiral motion from the
outside towards the centre to form a soil layer of uniform thickness without
segregation.
5. Fill the mould approximately 25 mm above the top and level it by making one
continuous pass with the steel straightedge.
6. If all excess matter is not removed, an additional continuous pass should be made.
7. Great care shall be exercised to avoid jarring the mould during the entire pouring and
trimming operation.
8. Weigh the mould with the soil and record the mass.
9. For soils containing particles larger than 9.50 mm, place the soil by means of a large
scoop (or shovel) held as close as possible to and just above the soil surface to cause the
material to slide rather than fall into the previously placed soil.
10. If necessary, large particles may be held by hand to prevent them from rolling off the
scoop. The mould should be filled approximate 25 mm above the top. Level the surface
of the soil using a steel straightedge.
PART 3) Determination of maximum density:
(i) DRY METHOD

1. The mould is filled with oven dried soil for minimum density by the procedure explained
above. (The mould filled for the determination of minimum density may also be used for
this test)
2. The guide sleeve is assembled on top of the mould and the clamp assemblies are
tightened so that the inner surfaces of the walls of the mould and the sleeve are in line.
3. The surcharge base plate is placed on the soil surface. The surcharge weight is then
lowered on the base-plate. In the case of the 15,000 cm3 mould a hoist may be used.
4. The mould is then fixed to the vibrator deck. The vibrator control should be set at
maximum amplitude and the loaded soil specimen should be vibrated for 8 minutes.
5. After vibration, the surcharge weight and guide sleeves are be removed from the mould.
6. The dial gauge readings on two opposite sides of the surcharge base plate are obtained
and the average reading is recorded.
7. The mould with the soil is weighed and its mass recorded.
(ii) WET METHOD
1. The mould should be filled with wet soil. The mould is fixed with guide sleeves and
attached to the vibrating table.
2. Sufficient water should be added to the soil to allow a small quantity of free water to
accumulate on the surface of the soil during filling.
3. After filling the mould is vibrated for a period of 6 minutes. During this period the
amplitude of the vibrator is reduced as much as necessary to avoid excessive boiling and
fluffing of the soil, which may occur in some soils.
4. During the final minutes of vibration, any water appearing above the surface of the soil
should be removed.
5. After the vibration, the surcharge weight and the guide sleeves are removed from the
mould.
6. Dial gauge readings are obtained on two opposite sides of the surcharge base plate and
recorded.
7. The entire wet specimen is carefully removed from the mould, dried to constant mass,
weighed and the mass is recorded.
FIGURE:
Fig 1: Assembly of the relative density apparatus

CALCULATIONS:
1) Minimum Density :
ϒmin =
Where, ϒmin is minimum density in g/cm3

is weight of soil filled in mould in grams
is the volume of the mould in cubic centimeter
2) Maximum Density :
ϒmin =
Where, is the mass of dry soil in the maximum density test in grams
is the volume of soil in maximum density test in cm3
Vs = Vc – (Di – Df) A
Di is the initial dial gauge reading in cm
Df is the final dial gauge reading in cm
A is cross-sectional area of mould in cm2
3) Density of Soil in place:
The dry density of soil in-place, ϒd should be determine in accordance with IS : 2720 ( Part 28)
1966.
4) Density Index (Relative Density):
The density index, Id (Relative density DR) expressed as a percentage should be calculated as
follows
Or in terms of void ratio,

RESULT:
Minimum Density:
Maximum Void Ratio:
Maximum Density:
Minimum Void Ratio:
In-situ Density:
In-situ Void Ratio:
Relative Density:
REFERENCES:
1) IS 2720-14 (1983): Methods of test for soils, Part 14: Determination of density index (relative
density) of cohesionless soils
2) IS : 10837-1984: Moulds and accessories for determination of density index (relative density)
of cohesionless soils
3) IS : 2720 ( Part 28): Methods of test for soils, Part 28: Determination of dry density of soils,
in-place, by the sand replacement method

3. Tighten all nuts and bolts firmly before starting the vibrating table and stay at a safe
distance.
4. Always wear safety shoes and gloves. Take extra care while hoisting surcharge weight.
COMMENTS:
Relative density (%) Density description

0 -15 Very loose
15 – 35 Loose
35 – 65 Medium
65 – 85 Dense
85 - 100 Very Dense
RELATIVE DENSITY TEST
Depth: Test No:
Specific gravity (G) =
Mould: Internal diameter:

Internal height (h):
Volume of mould (Vm):
Weight of mould (W1):
Calculation of minimum density:

Weight of mould + Loosely filled soil (W2):
Minimum density (ϒmin):
Calculation of maximum density:

(a) Initial dial gauge reading on top of the calibration bar:
Left side: d1 = Right side: d4 =
d2 = d5 =
d3 = d6 =
Average dial gauge reading (A):
(b) Final dial gauge reading on top of the surcharge base plate plate:
Left side: d1 = Right side: d4 =

d2 = d5 =
d3 = d6 =
Average dial gauge reading (B):
(c) Thickness of calibration plate (C):
(d) Thickness of surcharge base plate (D):

Height of compacted sample in the mould:
Hc = h – C
Where, h = height of mould

C = Settlement in cm
C = (A – B) x 0.01 – C + D
(e) Volume of compacted soil sample:
(f) Weight of compacted soil + mould:
(g) Weight of compacted soil:
(h) Maximum density (ϒmax) :
(i) Field density of soil sample (ϒ):
(j) Minimum void ratio:
(k) Maximum void ratio:
(l) Insitu void ratio:
(m) Relative density:
RESULT:
COMMENTS:

EXPERIMENT: 10 A
CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the coefficient of permeability of a soil using constant head method.
THEORY:
The passage of water through porous material is called seepage. A material with continuous
voids is called a permeable material. Hence permeability is a property of a porous material
which permits passage of fluids through inter connecting voids. Hence permeability is defined
as the rate of flow of water under laminar conditions through a unit cross-sectional area
perpendicular to the direction of flow through a porous medium under unit hydraulic gradient
and under standard temperature conditions.
The test is based Darcy’s law for laminar flow.
q= kiA
Where, q = Discharge per unit time.
A = Total area of c/s of soil perpendicular to the direction of flow.
i = hydraulic gradient.
k = Darcy’s coefficient of permeability
Coefficient of permeability for a constant head test is given by
Where, k = coefficient of permeability in cm/sec

q = discharge in cm3
L = Length of specimen in cm
A = Cross-sectional area of specimen in cm2
H = Head causing flow in cm
The knowledge of the permeability is essential in the solution of many engineering problems
involving flow of water through soils such as: Dewatering and drainage of excavations, back fills
and subgrades; Determining yield of water bearing strata; Assessing seepage through the body
of earth dams; and Computing losses from canals. In addition since the soil may be used to
inhibit flow of water, the permeability of soil governs the type of soil to be used.
Constant head permeability test is used for coarse grained soils with a reasonable discharge in a
given time. For very fine-grained soil, capillarity permeability test is recommended.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Permeameter mould : Jodhpur type - Made of non-corrodible material having a capacity

of 1000 ml, with an internal diameter of 100 ± 0.1 mm and internal effective height of
127.3 ± 0.1 mm. The mould shall be fitted with a detachable base plate and removable
extension collar.
2. Compacting equipment : Weight 2.76 kg and height of fall 310 mm as specified in I.S
2720 part VII 1965.
3. Drainage base : A bade with a porous disc, 12 mm thick which has the permeability 10
times the expected permeability of soil.
4. Drainage cap : A porous disc of 12 mm thick having a fitting for connection to water inlet
or outlet.
5. Constant head tank: A suitable water reservoir capable of supplying water to the
permeameter under constant head.
6. Miscellaneous Apparatus - Such as IS sieves, mixing pan, graduated cylinder, metre
scale, stop watch, thermometer etc.
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
Disturbed Soil Sample

1. Weight about 2.5 kg of oven dried soil sample passing through 4.75 mm I.S. sieve.
2. Evenly sprinkle the calculated quantity of water corresponding to the OMC determined
by I.S. light compaction test. Mix the soil sample thoroughly and keep it in an air-tight
container for 24 hours.
3. Clean the permeameter mould and apply a small portion of grease inside the mould and
around the porous stones in the base plate.
4. Attach the collar to it and fix the mould on the compaction base plate.
5. Keep the apparatus on solid base and place the soil sample inside the mould and
compact it by the standard proctor compaction tools in three layers with 25 blows per
layer.
6. Remove the collar and trim of the excess soil.
7. Saturate the porous stones. Place the filter papers on both ends of the soil specimen in
the mould.
8. Attach the mould with the drainage base and cap having saturated porous stones.
Undisturbed Soil Sample
1. Undisturbed specimens are trimmed in the form of a cylinder not larger than about
85 mm in diameter and having a height equal to that of the mould.
2. Place the specimen centrally over the porous disc of the drainage base fixed to the
mould.
3. Fill the annular space between the mould and the specimen with an impervious material
such as cement slurry or a mixture of 10 percent dry powdered bentonite and 90
percent fine sand by weight to provide sealing between the soil specimen and the
mould against leakage from the sides.
4. When using the cement slurry the mould shall be kept on a flat surface other than the
porous discs.
5. Fix the drainage cap over the top of the mould.
1. Connect the specimen through the top inlet to the constant head water reservoir.
2. Open the bottom outlet and establish a steady state of flow.
3. Measure the head difference between the top of water reservoir and outlet of
permeameter.
4. Measure the quantity of flow for a convenient time interval.
5. Alternatively, the inlet may be at the bottom and water may be collected from the
outlet at the top.
6. The quantity of flow for the same time interval shall be repeated thrice.
7. Measure the temperature of water.
CALCULATIONS:
1) Coefficient of permeability:
Where, k = coefficient of permeability in cm/sec

q = discharge in cm3
L = Length of specimen in cm
A = Cross-sectional area of specimen in cm2
H = Head causing flow in cm
( )
Where, K27 is the coefficient of permeability at 27 °C
ϒT is the unit weight of water at T °C
ϒ27 is the unit weight of water at 27 °C
RESULT:
The coefficient of permeability of the given soil is:
FIGURES:
Fig 1: Experimental setup for constant head permeability test

REFERENCES:
1) IS 2720-17 (1986): Methods of test for soils, Part 17: Laboratory determination of
permeability
2) IS: 10074 – 1982 : Compaction mould assembly for light and heavy compaction.
4) IS 11209 (1985): Mould assembly for determination of permeability of soils

1. All possible leakage of joints must be eliminated.
2. Porous stones must be saturated before being put to use.
3. Take care while applying grease. Do not clog the pores of porous stones with grease.
4. De-aired, distilled water should be used to prevent choking of flowing water.
5. Steady state flow must be established before taking the observations.
6. Use of high heads, which result in turbulent flows, should be avoided.
7. Care must be taken to maintain constant head in the reservoir.
EXPERIMENT: 10 B
FALLING HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the coefficient of permeability of a soil using variable head method.
THEORY:
Water can flow through the pore spaces in the soil and hence the soil is considered to be
‘permeable’. Thus, the property of a porous medium such as soil by virtue of which water (or
other fluids) can flow through it is called its ‘permeability’. Some soils like clean sands are highly
permeable, whereas the clayey soils are less permeable. The rate of flow under laminar flow
conditions through a unit cross sectional are of porous medium under unit hydraulic gradient is
defined as coefficient of permeability.
The permeability of a soil can be measured in either the laboratory or the field. Laboratory
methods are much easier than field methods. Field determinations of permeability are often
required because permeability depends very much both on the microstructure, (i.e, the
arrangement of soil grains) and on the macrostructure (such as stratification etc.). Laboratory
tests are done either on disturbed (remoulded) sample or undisturbed sample.
Laboratory methods permit the relationship of permeability to the void ratio to be studied and
are thus usually run whether or not field determinations are made.
The following are some of the methods used in the laboratory to determine permeability.
1. Constant head permeameter
2. Falling or variable head permeameter
3. Horizontal capillarity test.
The falling head method of determining permeability is used for soil with low discharge,
whereas the constant head permeability test is used for coarse grained soils with a reasonable
discharge in a given time. For very fine-grained soil, capillarity permeability test is
recommended.
In falling head method, the water level in the stand-pipe falls continuously as water flows
through the soil specimen. Observations should be taken after a steady state of flow has
reached. If the head or height of water level in the standpipe above that in the constant head
chamber falls from h0 to h1, corresponding to elapsed times t0 and t1, the coefficient of
permeability, k, can be shown to be:
( ⁄ )
Where,
a = area of cross-section of standpipe
L and A = length and area of cross-section of the soil sample
The knowledge of permeability is much useful in solving problems involving yield of water in a
water bearing strata, seepage through earthen dams, stability of earthen dams, rate of
consolidation and settlement calculation, design of grouting etc.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Permeameter mould: Jodhpur type - Made of non-corrodible material having a

capacity of 1000 ml, with an internal diameter of 100 ± 0.1 mm and internal
effective height of 127.3 ± 0.1 mm. The mould shall be fitted with a detachable base
plate and removable extension collar.
2. Compacting equipment: Weight 2.76 kg and height of fall 310 mm as specified in I.S
2720 part VII 1965.
3. Drainage base: A bade with a porous disc, 12 mm thick which has the permeability
10 times the expected permeability of soil.
4. Drainage cap: A porous disc of 12 mm thick having a fitting for connection to water
inlet or outlet.
5. Stand pipe arrangement: 2 or 3 glass pipes of different diameters (5 – 20 mm) fitted
to a board having graduated marking.
6. Miscellaneous Apparatus - Such as IS sieves, mixing pan, graduated cylinder, metre
scale, stop watch, thermometer etc.
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
Disturbed Soil Sample

1. Weight about 2.5 kg of oven dried soil sample passing through 4.75 mm I.S. sieve.
2. Evenly sprinkle the calculated quantity of water corresponding to the OMC
determined by I.S. light compaction test. Mix the soil sample thoroughly and keep it
in an air-tight container for 24 hours.
3. Clean the permeameter mould and apply a small portion of grease inside the mould
and around the porous stones in the base plate.
4. Attach the collar to it and fix the mould on the compaction base plate.
5. Keep the apparatus on solid base and place the soil sample inside the mould and
compact it by the standard proctor compaction tools in three layers with 25 blows
per layer.
6. Remove the collar and trim of the excess soil.
7. Saturate the porous stones. Place the filter papers on both ends of the soil specimen
in the mould.
8. Attach the mould with the drainage base and cap having saturated porous stones.
Undisturbed Soil Sample

1. Undisturbed specimens are trimmed in the form of a cylinder not larger than about 85
mm in diameter and having a height equal to that of the mould.
2. Place the specimen centrally over the porous disc of the drainage base fixed to the
mould.
3. Fill the annular space between the mould and the specimen with an impervious material
such as cement slurry or a mixture of 10 percent dry powdered bentonite and 90
percent fine sand by weight to provide sealing between the soil specimen and the
mould against leakage from the sides.
4. When using the cement slurry the mould shall be kept on a flat surface other than the
porous discs.
5. Fix the drainage cap over the top of the mould.
Saturation
1. In the case of soils of medium to high permeability the specimen shall be subjected to
sufficient head, flow or immersion so as to obtain full saturation.
2. Soils of low permeability require flow under a high head for periods ranging from a day
to a week depending upon the permeability and the head.
3. Connect the water reservoir to the outlet at the bottom of the mould and allow the
water to flow in the soil. Wait till the water has been able to travel up and saturate the
sample. Allow about 1 cm depth of free water to collect on the top of the sample.
4. Fill the remaining portion of cylinder with de-aired water without disturbing the surface
of soil.
5. Fix the cover plate over the collar and tighten the nuts in the rods.
6. In the case of soils of low permeability the specimen shall be subjected to a gradually
increasing vacuum with bottom outlet closed so as to remove to form the soil voids.
7. The vacuum shall be increased to at least 70 cm of mercury which shall be maintained
for 15 minutes or more depending upon the soil type.
8. The evacuation shall be followed by a very slow saturation of the specimen with de-
aired water from the bottom upwards under full vacuum.
9. When the specimen is saturated both the top and bottom outlets shall be closed.
1. After saturation disconnect the water reservoir from the outlet at the bottom and
connect the stand pipe to the inlet at the top plate.
2. Fill the stand pipe with water. Open the stop cock at the top and allow water to flow
out so that all the air in the cylinder is removed.
3. Fix the height h1 and h2 on the stand pipe from the center of the outlet such that (h 1
– h2) is about 30 cm to 40 cm.
4. When all the air has escaped, close the stop clock and allow the water from the pipe
to flow through the soil and establish a steady flow.
5. Record the time interval, t, for the head to drop from h 1 to h2.
6. Take about five such observations by changing the values of h 1 and h2.
7. Measure the temperature of water.
FIGURES:
Fig 1: Experimental setup for variable head permeability test

Fig 2: Permeameter cell assembly
CALCULATIONS:
1) Coefficient of permeability:
( ⁄ )
Where, KT is the coefficient of permeability in cm/sec at temperature T °C

a is the cross sectional area of the stand pipe in cm2
A is the cross sectional area of the permeameter mould in cm2
L is the length of the soil sample in cm
t1 and t2 are initial and final time in seconds
h1 and h2 are initial and final head of water in cm
2) ( )
Where, K27 is the coefficient of permeability at 27 °C
ϒT is the unit weight of water at T °C
ϒ27 is the unit weight of water at 27 °C
RESULT:
The coefficient of permeability of the given soil is:
REFERENCES:
1) IS 2720-17 (1986): Methods of test for soils, Part 17: Laboratory determination of
permeability
2) IS: 10074 – 1982 : Compaction mould assembly for light and heavy compaction.
4) IS 11209 (1985): Mould assembly for determination of permeability of soils

1. All possible leakage of joints must be eliminated.
2. Porous stones must be saturated before being put to use.
3. Take care while applying grease. Do not clog the pores of porous stones with grease.
4. De-aired, distilled water should be used to prevent choking of flowing water.
5. Soil sample must be carefully saturated before taking the observations.
6. Use of high heads, which result in turbulent flows, should be avoided.
7. Care must be taken to prevent evaporation losses from the stand pipe.
COMMENTS:
Typical values of coefficient of permeability:
Type of soil Values of permeability (cm/sec)
Gravel 10 - 10-1
Sand 10-1 - 10-3
Silt 10-3 - 10-6
Clay Less than 10-5

FALLING HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST
Depth: Test No:
Permeameter details:
Diameter (D): cm
C/S Area (A): cm2
Length (L): cm
Volume (V): cm3
Standpipe Diameter (a): cm
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Initial reading on Standpipe (cm)
Final reading on standpipe (cm)
Headloss (cm)
Start time
Finish time
Elapsed time (sec)
Test temperature (°C)
KT (cm/sec)
K27 (cm/sec)
RESULT:
Coefficient of permeability:

EXPERIMENT: 11
DIRECT SHEAR TEST
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the shear strength parameters of the given soil sample by direct Shear Test.
THEORY:
Shear strength of a soil is the maximum resistance to shearing stress at failure on the failure
plane.
Shear strength is composed of:

i. Internal friction which is the resistance due to friction between individual
particles at their contact points and interlocking of particles. This interlocking
strength is indicated through parameter φ.
ii. Cohesion which resistance due to inter-particle force which tend hold the
particles together in a soil mass. The indicative parameter is called Cohesion
intercept (c).
Coulomb has represented the shear strength of soil by the equation:
Where, shear strength of soil = shear stress at failure.

c = Cohesion intercepts.
= Total normal stress on the failure plane
= Angle of internal friction
The direct shear device, also called the ‘shear box apparatus’, essentially consists of a brass box,
split horizontally at mid-height of the soil specimen. The soil is gripped in perforated metal
grilles, behind which porous discs can be placed if required to allow the specimen to drain. For
undrained tests, metal plates and solid metal grilles may be used. The usual plan size of the
specimen is 60 mm square ; but a larger size such as 300 mm square or even more, is employed
for testing larger size granular material such as gravel. The minimum thickness or height of the
specimen is 20 mm.
After the sample to be tested is placed in the apparatus or shear box, a normal load which is
vertical is applied to the top of the sample by means of a loading yoke and weights. Since the
shear plane is predetermined as the horizontal plane, this becomes the normal stress on the
failure plane, which is kept constant throughout the test. A shearing force is applied to the
upper-half of the box, which is zero initially and is increased until the specimen fails.
Two types of application of shear are possible—one in which the shear stress is controlled and
the other in which the shear strain is controlled. In the stress-controlled type, the shear stress,
which is the controlled variable, may be applied at a constant rate or more commonly in equal
increments by means of calibrated weights hung from a hanger attached to a wire passing over
a pulley. Each increment of shearing force is applied and held constant, until the shearing
deformation ceases. The shear displacement is measured with the aid of a dial gauge attached
to the side of the box. In the strain-controlled type, the shear displacement is applied at a
constant rate by means of a screw operated manually or by motor. With this type of test the
shearing force necessary to overcome the resistance within the soil is automatically developed.
This shearing force is measured with the aid of a proving ring—a steel ring that has been
carefully machined, balanced and calibrated. The deflection of the annular ring is measured
with the aid of a dial gauge set inside the ring, the causative force being got for any
displacement by means of the calibration chart supplied by the manufacturer. The shear
displacement is measured again with the aid of another dial gauge attached to the side of the
box.
The purpose of direct shear test is to get the ultimate shear resistance, peak shear resistance,
cohesion, angle of shearing resistance and stress-strain characteristics of the soils. Shear
parameters are used in the design of earthen dams and embankments. These are used in
calculating the bearing capacity of soil-foundation systems. These parameter help in estimating
the earth pressures behind the retaining walls. The values of these parameters are also used in
checking the stability to natural slopes, cuts and fills.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Direct shear box apparatus: The shear box, grid plates, porous stones, base plates, and
loading pad and water jacket shall conform to IS : 11229-19857.
a. Shear box: Shear box of internal dimension 60 mm x 60 mm x 25 mm. Shear box,
divided into two halves by a horizontal plane and fitted with locking and spacing
screw
b. Base plate having cross grooves on its top surface
c. Grid plates perforated (2 nos.)
d. Porous stones 6 mm thick (2 nos.)
e. Loading yoke, loading pad.
2. Loading frame (motor attached).

3. Dial gauge.
4. Proving ring.
5. Tamper.
6. Straight edge.
7. Balance.
8. Aluminum container.
9. Spatula.
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
UNDISTURBED SAMPLE :
Specimen is prepared by pushing a cutting ring of size 10 cm dia and 3 cm high, in the
undisturbed soil sample. The square specimen of size 6 cm x 6 cm x 2.4 cm is then cut from
circular specimen.
DISTURBED SAMPLE :
(a) cohesive soil : The soil is compacted to the required density and moisture content directly
into the shear box after fixing the two halves of the shear box together by means of the fixing
screw.
(b) cohesion less soil : The soil is tamped in the shear box itself with base plate and grid plate or
porous stone as required in place at the bottom of the box.
TEST PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the internal dimension of the shear box.
2. Fix the upper part of the box to the lower part using the locking screw. Attach the
base to the lower part.
3. Place the grid plate in the shear box keeping the serration’s of the grid at right angle
to the direction of shear.
4. Place a porous stone over the grid plate.
5. Weight the shear box with base plate, grid plate and porous stone.
6. Place soil specimen in the box and weight the box.
7. Place inside the box container and the loading pad on the box. Mount the box
container on the loading pad.
8. Bring the upper half of the box in contact with the proving ring. Check the contact by
giving slight movement.
9. Fill the container with water and mount the loading yoke on the ball placed on
loading pad.
10. Mount one dial gauge on the loading yoke to record the vertical displacement and
another dial gauge on the container to record the horizontal displacement.
11. Place the weight on loading yoke to apply a normal stress.
12. Allow the sample to consolidate under the applied normal stress. Note reading of
vertical displacement dial gauge.
13. Remove the locking screws. Using the spacing screws, raise the upper part slightly
above the lower part such as that gap is slightly larger than the maximum particle
size. Remove the spacing screws.
14. Adjust all dial gauges to read zero. The proving ring also read zero.
15. Apply the horizontal shear load at constant rate of strain.
16. Record reading of the proving ring, the vertical displacement dial gauge.
17. Continue the test, till the specimen fails or till a strain of 20 % is reached.
18. At the end of the test, remove the specimen from the box.
19. Repeat the test on identical specimens under the normal stress.
20. From the calibration chart of the proving-ring, the loads corresponding to the load
dial readings obtained during the test should be calculated.
21. The loads so obtained divided by the corrected cross-sectional area of the specimen
gives the shear stress in the sample.
22. The maximum shear stress and the corresponding longitudinal displacement and
applied normal stress should be recorded for each test and the results should be
presented in the form of a graph in which the applied normal stress is plotted as
abcissa and the maximum shearing stress is plotted as ordinate to the same scale.
23. The angle which the resulting straight line makes with the horizontal axis and the
intercept which the straight line makes with the vertical axis shall be reported as the
angle of shearing resistance and cohesion intercept respectively
FIGURES:
Fig 1: Direct shear apparatus setup
Fig 2: Shear Box Assembly

CALCULATIONS:
1) Shear strength of soil
Where, shear strength of soil = shear stress at failure.

c = Cohesion intercepts.
= Total normal stress on the failure plane
= Angle of internal friction
2)
3) Corrected Area
( )
Where, A = corrected area
Ao= Initial area of specimen
δ = displacement
4) Normal load = normal weight added + weight of yoke
5) Normal stress
6) Shear stress
RESULT:
Angle of internal friction :
Cohesion (c) :
REFERENCES:
1) IS 2720-13 (1986): Methods of test for soils, Part 13: Direct shear test.
2) IS 11229 (1985): Shear box for testing of soils.

1. Before starting the test, the upper half of the box should be brought in proper contact
with the proving ring.
2. Before subjecting the specimen to shear, the fixing screws should be taken out.
3. No vibrations should be transmitted to the specimen during the test.
4. Do not forget to add the self-weight of the loading yoke in the vertical loads.
GRAPH:
Fig 3: Stress-strain plot
Fig 4: Mohr’s circle for direct shear test

DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Depth: Test No:
Size of shear box:

Proving reading No:
Calibration factor of proving ring:
Strain rate:
Weight of yoke:
Density of specimen:
Water content:
Normal Normal Peak Peak Shear Peak Shear

Normal
S.I. No. weight stress Proving ring Load Stress
load (kg)
added (kg) (kg/cm2) reading (kg) (kg/cm2)
RESULT:
Angle of internal friction (φ):
Cohesion intercept (c):

Trial 1:
Normal Stress:
Elapsed Deformation Shear strain Corrected Proving ring Shear load Shear stress
time (min) ‘δ’ (mm) (%) Area (cm2) reading (kg) (kg/ cm2)
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
6.00
6.50
7.00
7.50
8.00
8.50
9.00
9.50
10.00
Peak shear stress:

Trial 2:
Normal Stress:
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
6.00
6.50
7.00
7.50
8.00
8.50
9.00
9.50
10.00
Peak shear stress:

Trial 3:
Normal Stress:
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
6.00
6.50
7.00
7.50
8.00
8.50
9.00
9.50
10.00
Peak shear stress:

Trial 4:
Normal Stress:
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
6.00
6.50
7.00
7.50
8.00
8.50
9.00
9.50
10.00
Peak shear stress:

Trial 5:
Normal Stress:
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
6.00
6.50
7.00
7.50
8.00
8.50
9.00
9.50
10.00
Peak shear stress:

EXPERIMENT: 12
LABORATORY VANE SHEAR TEST
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the shear strength of a soft clay deposit and to measure the sensitivity.
THEORY:
A difficulty often encountered in determining the shearing resistance of soft, saturated clay
deposits in the field is in obtaining undisturbed samples. The shear strength of such sensitive
clays may be significantly altered in the process of sampling and handling. Vane shear test
offers a method of overcoming this problem. The test can be carried both on undisturbed and
remoulded specimen, and are used for evaluating the sensitivity of the soft clays, especially
marine clays.
The shear vane consists of four steel blades called vanes welded at right angles to a steel rod.
The vane is gently pushed into the soil up to the required depth or at the bottom of the
borehole and torque is applied gradually to the upper end of the torque rod until the soil fails in
shear, due to the rotation of the vane. The torque is measured by noting the angle of twist.
Shear failure occurs over the surface and the ends of a cylinder having a diameter ‘d’ equal to
the diameter of the vane.
If the torque is measured at failure, the undrained shear strength q can be calculated. If, after
the initial test, the vane is rotated rapidly several times, the soil becomes remolded or
disturbed and the shear strength of the remolded or disturbed clay can be calculated, and thus
the sensitivity of the clay soil determined.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. One assembled Vane Shear Apparatus with container
2. Four calibrated torsion springs
3. Electronic balance with an accuracy of 1 gm.
4. Moisture content tins
5. Steel rule or vernier calipers
6. Spade or pickaxe
7. Straight edge - A steel strip about 30 cm long, 2.5 cm wide and 3 to 5 mm thick with
one bevelled edge.
8. Knife
9. Sample extruder
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
Specimen preparation (Undisturbed):
Push the sample out of the sampler by about 6 mm and trim it flush with the cutting edge of
the sampler. Force 75 mm length of the sample out and cut it and trim it to 50 mm diameter,
and transfer it into sample container.
Specimen preparation (Remoulded):

Compact the calculated amount of soil either in a proctor mould or in a CBR Mould to give a
particular dry density at particular moisture content. Force the sample container into the
compacted soil mass until the flange of the sample container just touches the top surface of the
compacted soil mass. Pull out the container with the sample in it and mount it on the
instrument base for test.
Otherwise mix the predetermined quantity of water in a required quantity of soil mixture with
spatula, into the sample container eliminating the formation of the voids. Level the sample
surface with the spatula or knife edge and compact it to specific volume through static pressure
applied on it by some contrivance.
TEST PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the height (h) and internal diameter (d) of the vane.
2. Clean the apparatus thoroughly. Apply grease to the lead screw and thin oil to support
pillar. Apply thin grease to gears.
3. Place the instrument on a firm base.
4. Select a suitable torsion spring and fix it to the apparatus.
5. Mount the specimen container with the specimen on the base of the vane shear
apparatus and fix it securely to the base. The specimen in the tube should be at least
37.5 mm in diameter and 75 mm long.
(If the specimen container is closed at one end it should be provided at the bottom with
a hole of about 1 mm diameter)
6. Move the strain indicating pointer up to its original position on the torque shaft and
clamp it tight. Turn the maximum pointer into contact with the strain indicating pointer.
7. Lower the shear vanes into the specimen to their full length gradually with minimum
disturbance of the soil specimen so that the top of the vane is at least 10 mm below the
top of the specimen.
8. Note the readings of the strain indicators.
9. Rotate the vane at a uniform rate approximately 0.1 degrees per second by suitably
operating the torque applicator handle until the specimen fails, which is indicated by the
return of the strain indicating pointer.
10. Note the final reading of the torque indicator. The difference between the two readings
(initial & final) gives the angle of torque.
11. Just after the determination of the maximum torque, rotate the vane rapidly through a
minimum of ten revolutions. The remolded strength should then be determined within
1 minute after completion of the revolution.
FIGURE:
Handle to move the

vane up and down
Torsional spring
Fig 1: Laboratory vane shear apparatus

Fig 2: Vane shear
CALCULATIONS:
1) Torque:
T= K x θ
Where, T = Torque in kg-cm
K = Torsional constant of spring
θ = Angle of Torque
2) Shear strength (for fully immersed vane):

( )
Where, T = Torque in kg-cm
qu = Undrained shear strength in kg/cm2
d = diameter of vane in cm
h = height of the vane in cm
3) Sensitivity
Where, St = Sensitivity
qu undisturbed = undrained shear strength in undisturbed state
qu remoulded = undrained shear strength in remoulded state
RESULT:
Undisturbed shear strength
Disturbed or remoulded shear strength
Sensitivity
REFERENCES:
1. IS : 2720 (Part 30) : Indian Standard: Methods of test for soils Part 30: Laboratory vane shear
test

1. Keep the instruments and accessories clean.
2. Keep the lead screw and gears greased.
3. Keep support pillars oiled.
4. Keep instrument in its case when not in use.
5. It is important that the dimensions of the vane are checked periodically to ensure that
the vane is not distorted or worn.
COMMENTS:
Sensitivity Classification
1 Insensitive
2–4 Normal or less sensitive
4–8 Sensitive
8 – 15 Extra sensitive
> 16 Quick
VANE SHEAR TEST
Depth: Test No:
Spring No:
Spring Constant:
Diameter of vane: cm
Height of vane: cm
Undistured Sample
Initial Final Shear
Difference Torque ‘T’ Average S
SI No. Reading Reading Strength ‘S’
(degrees) (kg-cm) (kg/cm2)
(degrees) (degrees) (kg/cm2)
Disturbed Sample
Initial Final Shear
Difference Torque ‘T’ Average S
SI No. Reading Reading Strength ‘S’
(degrees) (kg-cm) (kg/cm2)
(degrees) (degrees) (kg/cm2)
RESULT:
COMMENTS:

EXPERIMENT: 13
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil
THEORY:
The unconfined compression test is by far the most popular method of soil shear testing
because it is one of the fastest and cheapest methods of measuring shear strength. The method
is used primarily for saturated, cohesive soils recovered from thin-walled sampling tubes. The
unconfined compression test is inappropriate for dry sands or crumbly clays because the
materials would fall apart without lateral confinement.
A cylindrical soil specimen is subjected to gradually increasing axial stress until it fails. Since the
test is quick, water is not allowed to drain out of the sample. Hence it is also called undrained
or ‘quick’ test. Since the test produces only one mohr’s circle (corresponding to σ 3 = 0), the test
is applicable only to soils for which φu = 0, i.e, fully saturated, non fissured clay.
For σ3 = 0, √
The subscript u is used since the test in an undrained test.
Since φu = 0, = 2 Cu
In the unconfined compression test, the major principal stress at failure, is called the
unconfined compressive strength and is usually denoted by the notation qu.
Hence, qu = 2 Cu
The undrained shear strength of saturated clay is expressed as,
The Mohr-Coulomb plot for an unconfined compression test on saturated clay is as shown
below.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Unconfined compression apparatus, proving ring type
2. Proving ring, capacity 1 KN, with accuracy 1N.
3. Dial gauge, accuracy 0.01 mm.
4. Weighing balance
5. Oven
6. Sampling tube
7. Split mould, 38mm diameter, 76mm long.
8. Sample extractor
9. Trimming knife
10. Vernier calipers
11. Miscellaneous Equipment: Weighing Balance, mixing tray, water content cans, data
sheets, etc. as required.
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
The type of soil specimen to be used for test shall depend on the purpose for which it is tested
and may be compacted, remoulded or undisturbed.
(a) Specimen size: The specimen for the test shall have a minimum diameter of 38 mm and the
largest particle contained within the test specimen shall be smaller than 1/8 of the specimen
diameter. If after completion of test on undisturbed sample, it is found that larger particles
than permitted for the particular specimen size tested are present, it shall be noted in the
report of test data under remarks. The height to diameter ratio shall be within 2 to 2.5.
Measurements of height and diameter shall be made with vernier calipers or any other suitable
measuring device to the nearest 0.1 mm.
(b) Undisturbed Specimens: Undisturbed specimens shall be prepared from large undisturbed
samples or samples secured in accordance with IS 2132 : 1986.
(c) Remoulded Specimen: The specimen may be prepared either from a failed undisturbed
specimen or from a disturbed soil sample. In the case of failed undisturbed specimen, the
material shall be wrapped in a thin rubber membrane and thoroughly worked with the fingers
to assure complete remoulding. Care shall be taken to avoid entrapped air, to obtain a uniform
density, to remould to the same void ratio as that of the undisturbed specimen, and to preserve
the natural water content of the soil.
(d) Compacted specimen: When compacting disturbed material, it shall be done using a CBR
mould. Compacted specimen may be prepared at any predetermined water content and
density. After the specimen is formed, the ends shall be trimmed perpendicular to the long axis
and removed from the mould. Representative sample cuttings shall be obtained or the entire
specimen shall be used for the determination of water content after the test.
TEST PROCEDURE:
1. Place the sampling soil specimen at the desired water content and density in the large
mould.
2. Push the sampling tube into the large mould and remove the sampling tube filled with
the soil. For undisturbed samples, push the sampling tube into the clay sample.
3. Saturate the soil sample in the sampling tube by a suitable method.
4. Coat the split mould lightly with a thin layer of grease. Weigh the mould.
5. Extrude the sample out of the sampling tube into the split mould, using the sample
extractor and the knife.
6. Trim the two ends of the specimen in the split mould. Weigh the mould with the
specimen.
7. Remove the specimen from the split mould by splitting the mould into two parts.
8. Measure the length and diameter of the specimen with vernier calipers.
9. Place the specimen on the bottom plate of the compression machine. Adjust the upper
plate to make contact with the specimen.
10. Adjust the dial gauge and the proving ring gauge to zero.
11. Apply the compression load to cause an axial strain at the rate of ½ to 2% per minute.
12. Record the dial gauge reading, and the proving ring reading every thirty seconds upto a
strain of 6%. The reading may be taken after every 60 seconds for a strain between 6%,
12% and every 2minutes or so beyond 12%.
13. Continue the test until failure surfaces have clearly developed or until an axial strain of
20% is reached.
14. Measure the angle between the failure surface and the horizontal, if possible.
15. Take the sample from the failure zone of the specimen for the water content
determination.
16. The values of compressive stress σ and strain ϵ obtained are plotted on a natural graph
along Y axis and X axis respectively.
17. The maximum stress from this plot gives the value of the unconfined compressive
strength (qu).
18. In case no maximum occurs within 20 percent axial strain, the unconfined compressive
strength shall be taken as the stress at 20 percent axial strain.
FIGURES:
Fig 1: Mohr-Coulomb plot for unconfined compression test
Fig 2: Experimental setup for unconfined compression test

CALCULATIONS:
1) Axial Strain (ϵ):
2) Average Cross sectional area (A)
Where, Ao is the original cross-sectional area of the specimen
3) Compressive stress (σc)
Where, P is compressive force

A is average cross sectional area
RESULT:
Unconfined compressive strength (qu):
Undrained shear strength (τf):
Failure pattern:
Water content in specimen at testing:
REFERENCES:
IS 2720-10 (1991): Indian Standards: Methods of test for soils, Part 10: Determination of
unconfined compressive strength.
IS 2132 (1986): Indian Standards: Code of practice for thin-walled tube sampling of soils.
1. When samples are pushed from the drive sampling tube the ejecting device the
principal concern should be to keep the degree of disturbance negligible.
2. The specimen shall be handled carefully to prevent disturbance, change in cross section,
or loss of water.
3. The specimen shall be of uniform circular cross-section with ends perpendicular to the
axis of the specimen.
4. Where the prevention of the possible development of appreciable capillary forces is
required, the specimens shall be sealed with rubber membranes, thin plastic coatings,
or with coating or grease or sprayed plastic immediately after preparation and during
the entire testing cycle.
5. Representative sample cuttings taken from the tested specimen shall be used for the
determination of water content.
COMMENTS:
Unconfined compressive strength, qu
Consistency
(kg/cm2)
< 0.25 Very soft
0.25 – 0.50 Soft
0.50 – 1.00 Medium
1.00 – 2.00 Stiff

2.00 – 4.00 Very Stiff
> 4.00 Hard

UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST
Depth: Test No:
Proving ring number:

Calibration Factor:
Least count of dial gauge:
Strain rate:
Sample Number 1 2 3
Average Diameter (cm)
Sample Length (cm)
Sample Volume (cc)
Sample Weight (g)
Sample Density (g/cc)
Water content at mixing
Water content at testing
Failure type
Strain at Failure
Angle of failure surface (α)

Compressive strength
(kg/cm2)
Average compressive strength:

Sample 1
Deformation Axial Corrected Proving Compressive

Axial strain Axial force
dial gauge deformation area A ring dial stress
e P (kg)
reading ΔL (mm) (cm2) reading (kg/cm2)
0
25
50
75
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
1500
1550
Peak compressive stress:

Sample 2

e P (kg)
0
25
50
75
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
1500
1550

Sample 3

e P (kg)
0
25
50
75
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
1500
1550

EXPERIMENT: 14
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
OBJECTIVE:
To determine shear strength parameters of the given soil sample by conducting unconsolidated
undrained (UU) triaxial shear test.
THEORY:
The triaxial compression test, introduced by Casagrande and Terzaghi in 1936, is by far the
most popular and extensively used shearing strength test, both for field application and for
purposes of research. As the name itself suggests, the soil specimen is subjected to three
compressive stresses in mutually perpendicular directions, one of the three stresses being
increased until the specimen fails in shear. Usually a cylindrical specimen with a height equal to
twice its diameter is used. The desired three-dimensional stress system is achieved by an initial
application of all-round fluid pressure or confining pressure through water. While this confining
pressure is kept constant throughout the test, axial or vertical loading is increased gradually
and at a uniform rate. The axial stress thus constitutes the major principal stress and the
confining pressure acts in the other two principal directions, the intermediate and minor
principal stresses being equal to the confining pressure.
The apparatus, consists of a lucite or perspex cylindrical cell, called ‘triaxial cell’, with
appropriate arrangements for an inlet of cell fluid and application of pressure by means of a
compressor, outlet of pore water from the specimen if it is desired to permit drainage which
otherwise may serve as pore pressure connection and axial loading through a piston and
loading cap, as shown in Fig.
The soil sample is placed inside a rubber sheath which is sealed to a top cap and bottom
pedestal by rubber O-rings. For tests with pore pressure measurement, porous discs are placed
at the bottom, and sometimes at the top of the specimen. Filter paper drains may be provided
around the outside of the specimen in order to speed up the consolidation process. Pore
pressure generated inside the specimen during testing can be measured by means of pressure
transducers.
The triaxial compression test consists of two stages:

(i) First stage: In this, a soil sample is set in the triaxial cell and confining pressure is then
applied.
(ii) Second stage: In this, additional axial stress (also called deviator stress) is applied which
induces shear stresses in the sample. The axial stress is continuously increased until the sample
fails.
During both the stages, the applied stresses, axial strain, and pore water pressure or change in
sample volume can be measured.
Test types
There are several test variations, and those used mostly in practice are:
1. UU (unconsolidated undrained) test: In this, cell pressure is applied without allowing
drainage. Then keeping cell pressure constant, deviator stress is increased to failure
without drainage.
2. CU (consolidated undrained) test: In this, drainage is allowed during cell pressure
application. Then without allowing further drainage, deviator stress is increased keeping
cell pressure constant.
3. CD (consolidated drained) test: This is similar to CU test except that as deviator stress is
increased, drainage is permitted. The rate of loading must be slow enough to ensure no
excess pore water pressure develops.
In the UU test, if pore water pressure is measured, the test is designated by .
In the CU test, if pore water pressure is measured in the second stage, the test is symbolized
as .
Fig 1: stresses on soil element under triaxial testing

Fig 2: Mohr’s circle plot for triaxial compression test
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Triaxial testing machine complete with triaxial cell
2. Water pressure unit with hand pump
3. Proving ring
4. Dial gauge
5. Rubber membranes
6. Membrane stretcher
7. Sample trimming apparatus
8. Bins for moisture content determinations
9. Balance and box of weights
10. Drying oven
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
Undisturbed Specimens
The object of the specimen preparation is to produce cylindrical specimens of height twice the
specimen diameter with plane ends normal to the axis and with the minimum change of the soil
structure and moisture content. The method of preparation will depend on whether the sample
is received in the laboratory in a tube or as a block sample.
Remoulded Samples
Remoulded samples prepared at the desired moisture and density by static and dynamic
methods of compaction or by any other suitable method, where necessary.
TEST PROCEDURE:
1. Trim the soil specimen (prepared from the sampling tube of an undisturbed sample tube
using universal extractor frame or from a compacted soil specimen as per standard
proctors method, at optimum moisture content or any other moisture content to suite
the field situations).
2. Using the trimming apparatus if necessary the trimmed specimen should be 76.2 mm
long and 38.1 mm in diameter. The diameter and the length are measured at not less
than 3 places and the average values are used for computation.
3. Note the weight of the specimen (W1).
4. The specimen is then enclosed in a 38.1 mm diameter and about 100 mm long rubber
membrane, using the membrane stretcher. Spreading back the ends of the membrane
over the ends of the stretcher and applying suction between the stretcher and the
rubber membranes does by inhalation.
5. The membrane and stretcher are then easily slide over the specimen, the suction is
released and membrane is unrolled from the ends of the stretcher.
6. Use non-porous stones on either side of the specimen as neither any pressure is to be
measured nor any drainage of air or water is allowed.
7. Remove the porous cylinder from its base removing the bottom fly nuts.
8. The pedestal at the centre of the base of the cylinder on which the specimen is to be
placed is cleaned and a 38.1 mm diameter rubber O-ring is rolled over to its bottom.
9. The specimen along with the non-porous plate on either side is centrally placed over the
pedestal and the bottom edge of the machine covering the specimen is sealed against
the pedestal by rolling back the O-ring over the membrane.
10. The cap is placed over the top plate of the specimen and the top of the rubber
membrane is sealed against the cap by carefully rolling over it another O-ring. This
arrangement of rubber O-ring forms the effective seal between the specimen with the
membrane and the water under pressure.
11. The specimen is checked for its verticality and co-axiality with the cylinder chamber.
12. The chamber along with the loading plunger is carefully placed over its base without
disturbing the soil specimen and taking care to see that the plunger rests on the cap of
the specimen centrally.
13. The loading frame is then adjusted so that it just touches the plunger top by naked eye.
The chamber is then rotated if necessary such that the dial gauge, recording
compression, rests centrally over the top of the screw which can be locked at any level
and which is attached to the top of the cylinder chamber carrying the specimen.
14. The cylinder is then attached to the base plate tightly by means of tightening the nuts.
15. The valve to drain out the chamber and the valve to drain out the air and water from
the sample are closed and the air lock nut at the top of the cylinder is kept open to
facilitate the exit of air as water enters the chamber through another valve which
connects the chamber to the water storage cylinder subjected to a pressure by a
compressor or by any other means.
16. The water storage cylinder is filled with water completely and its top is then closed by
means of a valve. Necessary pressure is built up in the cylinder by working the hand
pump and the pressure communicated to the cylinder where the specimen is placed, by
opening the connecting valve.
17. The cylindrical chamber is allowed to be filled up completely which is indicated by the
emergence of water through the air lock nut at the top of the chamber. Then the airlock
nut is closed to develop necessary confining pressure by using compressor and the same
is maintained constant.
18. If necessary, bring the loading plunger down until it is in contact with the specimen top
cap by means of hand operated loading device. This is indicated by a spurt in the reading
of the proving ring dial gauge.
19. For this position, adjust the deformation dial gauge reading to zero.
20. Record the initial reading of the proving ring and compression dial gauge.
21. The vertical load is applied to the specimen by starting the motor at the loading frame.
The change in the proving ring dial gauge gives the measure of the applied load.
22. The deformation dial gauge gives the deformation in the soil specimen, which can be
used to compute strain in the soil.
23. Take readings of proving ring dial gauge at 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0% (or any other smaller
values) of strain and for every 1.0% strain thereafter up to failure or 20% strain
whichever is earlier.
24. Throughout the test, make sure that the chamber, containing pressure is kept constant
at the desirable value as indicated by the pressure gauge on the water cylinder. If
necessary, the pressure can be made good for any possible losses by working the
compressor.
25. After specimen has failed or 20% strain is recorded, as the case may be
(a) stop application of load
(b) disconnect the chamber from water storage cylinder by closing the linger valve
(c) open the air lock knob a little and
(d) open the valve to drain out the water in the cylinder.
26. After a few seconds open the airlock nut completely to facilitate quick draining out of
water, by entry of air at top of the cylinder.
27. After the water is completely drained out, take out the cylinder from loading frame
carefully, loosen the nuts and remove the Lucite cylinder from its base, without
disturbing the sample.
28. Note the space of the failed specimen, angle of shear plane if any and dimensions of the
specimen.
29. Wipe the rubber membrane dry and find its weight W2 that should be same as W1.
30. Remove the membrane from the specimen and take a representative specimen
preferably from the sheared zone.
31. Repeat the test with three specimens of the same soil sample subjected to three
different lateral pressures (confining) of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 kg/cm (5, 10 and 15 psi or 50,
100 and 150 kpa)
32. A graph is drawn between the deviator stress and strain. The deviator stress is the
difference between the stresses in axial and radial direction i.e. (σ1 –σ3 ) and is equal to
the vertical stress P/A. σ3 is the lateral confining pressure at any time, which is constant
for a test.
33. From the plot, determine the second result at half the ultimate stress, which can be
taken as modulus of elasticity.
34. The mohr’s circle of stress to define the state of stress at failure is drawn for each
sample. The circle has for its centre point (σ1 +σ3 )/2 and the radius equal to (σ1 – σ3 )/2.
35. An envelope, which approximates to a straight line, is drawn touching the circle.
36. The intercept made on Y-axis and the slope of the envelope gives the values of strength
parameters of the soil C and φ respectively.
FIGURES:
Fig 3: Triaxial cell assembly
Figure 4: Mohr-coulomb plot for triaxial compression test

CALCULATIONS:
1) Axial Strain (ϵ):
2) Average Cross sectional area (A)
Where, Ao is the original cross-sectional area of the specimen
3) Deviator stress (σd)
Where, P is axial load

A is average cross sectional area
4) Major Principal Stress (σ1)
Where, σd is deviator stress

σ3 is cell pressure
5) Correction to allow for the restraining effect of the rubber membrane:
Where, M is the compression modulus of the rubber membrane in kg/cm.

ϵ is the axial strain at the maximum principal stress.
D is initial diameter of the sample in cm.
The value of the correction calculated as above shall be deducted from the measured maximum
principal stress difference to give the corrected value of the maximum principal stress.
RESULT:
Cohesion intercept (c):
Angle of internal friction (φ):
Modulus of Elasticity (Es) : Initial tangent modulus
Secant modulus
REFERENCES:
1) IS 2720-11 (1993): Methods of test for soils, Part 11: Determination of the shear strength
parameters of a specimen tested in unconsolidated undrained triaxial compression without the
measurement of pore water pressure.

1. The most convenient method of recording the mode of failure is by means of sketch
indicating the position of the failure planes. The angle of the failure plan to the
horizontal may be recorded, if required. These records should be completed without
undue delay to avoid loss of moisture from specimen.
2. Comparison with the recorded mass of the specimen before testing provides a check on
the impermeability of the rubber membrane if water has been used as the operating
fluid in the cell.
3. Precautions shall be taken to prevent adhesion between the soil and the extruder, for
example, by interposing oiled paper discs or lightly oiling the face of the extruder.
4. The length, diameter and mass of the specimen shall be measured to an accuracy
enabling the bulk density to be calculated to an accuracy of ± 0.1 percent.
UU TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
Depth: Test No:
Proving ring number:

Calibration Factor:
Strain rate:
Sample Number 1 2 3
Average Diameter (cm)
Sample Length (cm)
Sample Volume (cc)
Sample Weight (g)
Sample Density (g/cc)
Water content at mixing
Water content at testing
Cell Pressure ‘σ3’ (kg/cm2)
Strain at Failure
Deviator Stress at Failure
(kg/cm2)
Major Principal Stress ‘σ1’
(kg/cm2)
RESULTS: Cohesion intercept (c):
Angle of internal friction (φ)

Sample 1 Cell Pressure:
Deformation Axial Corrected Deviator

Axial strain Proving ring Axial Load
dial gauge deformation area A stress
e dial reading P (kgf)
reading ΔL (mm) (cm2) (kg/cm2)
0
25
50
75
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
1500
1550
Deviator stress at failure:


0
25
50
75
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
1500
1550


0
25
50
75
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
1500
1550

EXPERIMENT: 15
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the California bearing ratio (CBR) value of a given soil sample.
THEORY:
The California bearing ratio (CBR) is defined as the rate of the force per unit area required to
penetrate a soil mass with a standard circular plunger of 50 mm diameter at the rate of 1.25
mm/min to that required for the corresponding penetration of a standard material.
The standard material is crushed stone and the load which has been obtained from a test on it
is the standard load, this material being considered to have a CBR of 100%. The CBR value is
usually determined for penetrations of 2.5 mm and 5 mm. Where the ratio at 5 mm is
consistently higher than that at 2.5 mm, the value at 5 mm is used. Otherwise, the value at 2.5
mm is used, which is more common.
The CBR test is usually carried out in the laboratory either on undisturbed samples or on
remoulded samples, depending upon the condition in which the subgrade soil is likely to be
used. Efforts shall be put in to simulate in the laboratory the pressure and the moisture
conditions to which the subgrade is expected to be subjected in the field.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Standard CBR mould: 150 mm inside diameter and 175 mm height, having volume of
2250cc with base plate, stay rod and wing nut.
2. Collar 50 mm in height and a detachable perforated base plate 10 mm thick.
3. Spacer Disc 148 mm in diameter and 47.7 mm in height.
4. Metal rammer confirming to IS: 9189-1979.
5. Expansion measuring apparatus with the adjustable stem, perforated plates, tripod.
6. Loading machine having a capacity of at least 5000 kg and equipped with a movable
head or base that travels at a uniform rate of 1.25mm / min for use in forcing the
penetration plunger in to the specimen.
7. Penetration plunger 50 mm in diameter and not less than 100 mm in length.
8. Dial gauge two numbers reading to 0.01mm.
9. IS sieves.
10. Miscellaneous apparatus such as mixing bowl, straight edge, scales, soaking tank, drying
oven, filter paper, dishes and calibrated measuring jar.
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
The test may be performed on undisturbed specimens or remoulded specimens which may be
compacted either statically or dynamically.
Undisturbed Specimens :
1. Undisturbed specimens shall be obtained by fitting to the mould, the steel cutting edge
of 150 mm internal diameter and pushing the mould as gently as possible into the
ground.
2. This process may be facilitated by digging away soil from the outside as the mould is
pushed in. When the mould is sufficiently full of soil, it shall be removed by under
digging, the top and bottom surfaces are then trimmed flat so as to give the required
length of specimen ready for testing.
3. If the mould cannot be pressed in, the sample may be collected by digging at a
circumference greater than that of the mould and thus bringing out a whole
undisturbed lump of soil.
4. The required size of the sample to fit into the test mould shall then be carefully trimmed
from this lump.
5. If the specimen is loose in the mould, the annular cavity shall be filled with paraffin wax
thus ensuring that the soil receives proper support from the sides of the mould during
the penetration test.
6. The density of the soil shall be determined either by weighing the soil with mould when
the mould is full with the soil, or by measuring the dimensions of the soil sample
accurately and weighing or by measuring the density in the field in the vicinity of the
spot at which the sample is collected.
Remoulded Specimens:
The dry density for a remoulding shall be either the field density or the value of the maximum
dry density estimated by the compaction tests or any other density at which the bearing ratio is
desired. The water content used for compaction should be the optimum water content or the
field moisture as the case may be.
(a) Statically Compacted Specimens:

Statically compacted specimens may be obtained by placing the calculated mass of soil in the
mould and pressing in the displacer disc, a filter paper being placed between the disc and the
soil. The pressing may be stopped when the top of the displacer disc is flush with the rim of the
mould.
(b) Dynamically Compacted Specimen:

1. Take representative sample of soil weighing approximately 6kg and mix thoroughly at
OMC.
2. Record the empty weight of the mould with base plate, with extension collar removed
(M1).
3. Replace the extension collar of the mould.
4. Insert a spacer disc over the base plate and place a coarse filter paper on the top of the
spacer disc.
5. Place the mould on a solid base such as a concrete floor or plinth and compact the wet
soil into the mould..
For heavy compaction compact soil in five layers of approximately equal mass each layer
being given 56 blows with 4.90kg hammer equally distributed and dropped from a
height of 450 mm above the soil.
For light compaction compact soil in three layers of approximately equal mass each
layer being given 56 blows with 2.60 kg hammer equally distributed and dropped from a
height of 310 mm above the soil.
6. The amount of soil used shall be sufficient to fill the mould, leaving not more than about
6mm to be struck off when the extension collar is removed.
7. Remove the extension collar and carefully level the compacted soil to the top of the
mould by means of a straight edge.
8. Remove the spacer disc by inverting the mould and weigh the mould with compacted
soil (m2).
9. Place a filter paper between the base plate and the inverted mould.
10. Replace the extension collar of the mould.
11. In both the cases of compaction, if the sample is to be soaked, take representative
samples of the material at the beginning of compaction and another sample of
remaining material after compaction for the determination of moisture content.
12. Each sample shall weigh not less than 100 g for fine-grained soils and not less than 500 g
for granular soils.
13. Place the adjustable stem and perforated plate on the compacted soil specimen in the
mould.
14. Place the weights to produce a surcharge equal to the weight of base material and
pavement to the nearest 2.5 kg on the perforated plate.
15. Immerse the whole mould and weights in a tank of water allowing free access of water
to the top and bottom of specimen for 96 hours.
TEST FOR SWELLING:

1. This test is optional and may be omitted if not necessary.
2. Determine the initial height of specimen (h) in mm.
3. Mount the expansion-measuring device along with the tripod on the edge of the mould
and record the initial dial gauge reading (ds).
4. Keep this set up as such undisturbed for 96 hours noting down the readings everyday
against the time of reading.
5. Maintain a constant water level through out the period of soaking.
6. Note the final reading of the dial gauge at the end of soaking period (df).
7. Expansion ratio
8. The expansion ratio is used to qualitatively identify the potential expansiveness of the
soil.
TEST PROCEDURE:
UNSOAKED TEST
1. Place the mould on the lower plate of the testing machine with top face exposed.
2. Surcharge weights, sufficient to produce an intensity of loading equal to the weight of
the base material and pavement shall be placed on the specimen.
3. To prevent upheaval of soil in to the hole of surcharge weights, place 2.5 kg annular
weights on the soil surface prior to seating the penetration plunger after which place
the reminder of the surcharge weights.
4. Set the plunger under a load of 4 kg so that full contact is established between the
surface of the specimen and the plunger.
5. Set the stress and strain gauges to zero.
6. Consider the initial load applied to the plunger as the zero load.
7. Apply the load at the rate of 1.25 mm / min.
8. Take the readings of the load at penetration of 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4, 5, 7.5, 10
and 12.5.
9. Collect the sample of about 20 to 50 gms of soil from the top 30 mm layer of specimen
and determine the water content in accordance with IS: 2720 (Part 2) 1973.
10. If the average water content of the whole specimen is desired, water content sample
shall be taken from the entire depth of the specimen.
11. Examine the specimen carefully after the test is completed for the presence of any
oversize soil particles, which are likely to affect the results if they happen to be located
directly below the penetration plunger.
12. The penetration test may be repeated as a check test for the rear end of the sample.
SOAKED TEST
13. After 96 hours of soaking take out the specimen from the water and remove the
extension collar, perforated disc, surcharge weights and filter paper.
14. Drain off the excess water by placing the mould inclined for about 15 minutes and weigh
the mould.
15. Care shall be taken not to disturb the surface of the specimen during the removal of the
water.
16. Carefully record the weight of the mould with soaked soil.
17. Place the surcharge weight equal to that used during the soaking period.
18. Place the mould on the lower plate of the testing machine and continue the penetration
tests same as that of unsoaked condition
FIGURES:
Fig 1: Experimental setup for CBR test
CALCULATIONS:
1. Plot the load penetration curve in natural scale, load on Y - axis and penetration on X –
axis. If the curve is uniformly convex upwards although the initial portion of the curve
may be concave upwards due to surface irregularities make correction.
2. A correction shall then be applied by drawing a tangent to the point of greatest slope
and then transposing the axis of the load so that zero penetration is taken as the point
where the tangent cuts the axis of penetration. The corrected load-penetration curve
would then consist of the tangent from the new origin to the point of tangency on the
re-sited curve and then the curve itself, as illustrated in Fig 2.
Fig 2: Correction for concavity
3. Take the intersection point of the tangent and the X – axis as the origin. Calculate the
CBR values for penetration of 2.50mm and 5.00mm. Corresponding to the penetration
value at which CBR is to be desired, take the corrected load values from the load
penetration curve and calculate the CBR from the equation
X 100
PT = Corrected unit test load corresponding to the chosen penetration from load penetration
curve
PS = Total standard load for the same depth of penetration, which can be taken from the Table
1 given below
Table 1: Standard penetration load
Penetration depth Load Load
(mm) (kg/cm2) (kgf)
2.5 70 1370
5.0 105 2055
NOTE:
Generally, the CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration will be greater than that at 5 mm penetration
and in such a case, the former shall be taken as the CBR value for design purposes. If the CBR
value corresponding to a penetration of 5 mm exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test shall be
repeated. If identical results follow, the CBR corresponding to 5 mm penetration shall be taken
for design.
RESULT:
Unsoaked CBR value:
Soaked CBR value:
Expansion ratio:
REFERENCES:
1. IS 2720-16 (1987): Indian standard: Methods of test for soils, Part 16: Laboratory
determination of CBR.
2. IS 9669 (1980): Indian standard: CBR moulds and its accessories.
3. IS 9198 (1979): Indian standard: Compaction rammer for soil testing.

1. Clean the holes of the base plate and that of perforated disc thoroughly.
2. Align the surcharge weight with the plunger so that the plunger penetrates freely into
the soil.
3. After soaking the free water collected in the mould shall be removed and the specimen
allowed to drain downwards for 15 minutes. Care shall be taken not to disturb the
surface of the specimen during the removal of water.
CBR TEST
Depth: Test No:
Diameter of mould: Compaction type:

Height of mould: Weight of hammer:
Volume of mould: Height of fall:
Thickness of base plate: No. of layers:
No. of blows per layer:
Condition of specimen UNSOAKED SOAKED
Wt. of mould + base plate (g)

Wt. of compacted sample +
mould + base plate (g)
Wt. of sample (g)
Height of specimen (cm)
Volume of specimen (cm3)
Wet density (g/cm3)
Moisture content (%)
Dry density (g/cm3)
EXPANSION RATIO DETERMINATION:

Surcharge weight:
Initial height of specimen:
Initial dial gauge reading (0 hour):
dial gauge reading (24 hour):
Final dial gauge reading (96 hour):
Difference (mm):
Expansion ratio:
PENETRATION TEST:
Loading rate:
Proving Ring No:
Calibration factor:
Least count of Dial gauge:
TEST TYPE: UNSOAKED
Deformation dial Penetration Proving ring Corrected Load

Load (kg)
gauge reading (mm) reading (kg)
0
25
50
75
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
CBR VALUE:
PENETRATION TEST:
Loading rate:
Proving Ring No:
Calibration factor:
Least count of Dial gauge:
TEST TYPE: SOAKED
Deformation dial Penetration Proving ring Corrected Load

Load (kg)
gauge reading (mm) reading (kg)
0
25
50
75
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
CBR VALUE
EXPERIMENT: 1
CONSOLIDATION TEST
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the consolidation characteristics of the given soil sample.
THEORY:
When a soil is loaded because of construction of a structure, its volume will decrease due to a
rearrangement of soil particles. If it is assumed that both the soil particles and the water in the
voids are incompressible and the soil is completely saturated, the change in volume of the soil
can occur if only the water is forced out of the voids. The vertical downward displacement
brought about by this volume change shows itself as the settlement of the structure standing
over the soil. Since, the rate at which the water moves out of the voids is depend on the
permeability of the soil, the settlement of the structure itself is a function of the permeability of
the soil and is thus time dependent. While the rate of volume change is related directly to the
permeability of the soil, the amount of deformation per unit increase in stress depends on a
property of a soil called its compressibility.
In a saturated soil mass having its voids filled with incompressible water decrease in
volume or compression can take place when the water is expelled out of the voids. Such a
compression resulting from a long term static load and the consequent escape of pore water is
termed as consolidation.
It is necessary to determine both the magnitude of volume change (or the settlement)
and the time required for the volume change to occur. The magnitude of settlement is
dependent on the magnitude of applied stress, thickness of the soil layer, and the
compressibility of the soil
The total settlement of a loaded soil has three components: Elastic settlement, primary
consolidation, and secondary compression. Elastic settlement is on account of change in shape
at constant volume, i.e. due to vertical compression and lateral expansion. Primary
consolidation (or simply consolidation) is on account of flow of water from the voids, and is a
function of the permeability and compressibility of soil. Secondary compression is on account of
creep-like behaviour.
Primary consolidation is the major component and it can be reasonably estimated. A

general theory for consolidation, incorporating three-dimensional flow is complicated and only
applicable to a very limited range of problems in geotechnical engineering. For the vast majority
of practical settlement problems, it is sufficient to consider that both seepage and strain take
place in one direction only, as one-dimensional consolidation in the vertical direction.
OEDOMETER:
The apparatus developed by Terzaghi for the determination of compressibility characteristics
including the time-rate of compression is called the Oedometer. It was later improved by A.
Casagrande and G. Gilboy and referred to as the Consolidometer.
There are two types: The fixed ring type and the floating ring type. In the fixed ring type, the
top porous plate along is permitted to move downwards for compressing the specimen. But, in
the floating ring type, both the top and bottom porous plates are free to move to compress the
soil sample. Direct measurement of the permeability of the sample at any stage of the test is
possible only with the fixed ring type. However, the effect of side friction on the soil sample is
smaller in the floating type, while lateral confinement of the sample is available in both to
simulate a soil mass in-situ.
The consolidation test consists in placing a representative undisturbed sample of the soil in a
consolidometer ring, subjecting the sample to normal stress in predetermined stress
increments through a loading machine and during each stress increment, observing the
reduction in the height of the sample at different elapsed times after the application of the
load. The test is standardized with regard to the pattern of increasing the stress and the
duration of time for each stress increment. Thus the total compression and the time-rate of
compression for each stress increment may be determined. The data permits the study of the
compressibility and consolidation characteristics of the soil.
Fig 1: Schematic diagram of consolidometer
The time-rate of volume change differs significantly for cohesionless soils and cohesive soils.
Cohesionless soils experience compression relatively quickly, often instantaneously, after the
load is imposed. But clay soils require a significant period before full compression occurs under
an applied loading. Relating the time-rate of compression with compression is consolidation.
Laboratory compression tests are seldom performed on cohesionless soils for two reasons: first,
undisturbed soil samples cannot be obtained and secondly, the settlement is rapid, eliminating
post-construction problems of settlement. If volume change or settlement characteristics are
needed, these are obtained indirectly from in-situ density and density index and other
correlations.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
14. Consolidation ring made up of non-corrosive material. The diameter should be 60 mm.
the height of the ring shall not be less than 20 mm. Height shall not be less than 10
times the maximum size of the particles.
15. Porous stone made up of silicon-carbide
16. Consolidation Cell
17. Loading device - It shall enable vertical force to be applied axially, in suitable
increments to the test specimen, through a suitable loading yoke.
18. Water reservoir to saturate the sample
19. Whatman No. 54 filter paper.
20. Soil trimming tools like fine wire saw, knife, spatula, etc
21. Dial gauge, accuracy 0.001 mm
22. Water content cans
23. Vernier calipers
24. Weighing balance, accuracy 0.01 g.
25. Oven
26. Stop watch
SAMPLE PREPARATION:
Undisturbed specimen:
If the specimen is to be prepared from a tube sample, a representative sample for testing shall
be extruded and cut off. Care must be taken to ensure that the two plane faces of the resulting
soil disc are parallel to each other. The thickness of the disc of soil shall be somewhat greater
than the height of the consolidation ring.
If the specimen is to be prepared from a block sample, a disc similar in size to that
specified above shall be cut from the block with two parallel faces. The diameter of the disc
shall be at least 10 mm greater than the inside diameter of the consolidation ring. Care shall be
taken to ensure that the soil stratum is oriented such that the laboratory test will load the soil
in the same direction relative to the stratum as the applied force in the field.
Using the weighed consolidation ring as a template, the edges of the disc obtained shall
be trimmed carefully until the ring just slides over the soil. The last fraction of soil is pared away
by the cutting edge of the ring as it is pushed down slowly and evenly over the sample with no
unnatural voids against the inner face of the ring. This process is best done using a mechanical
guide to prevent tilting or horizontal movement of the ring. The top and bottom surfaces shall
project above and below the edges of the ring to enable final trimming.
Should an occasional small inclusion interfere with the trimming operation, it shall be
removed, and the cavity filled completely with material from the parings. Alternatively, if
sufficient sample is available, it would be preferable to eventually extrude and discard the
portion of the specimen containing the inclusion from the ring, leaving a specimen free of such
disturbed zones. If inclusions are known to exist in a soil sample, a large diameter consolidation
ring should be used, in order to minimize the relative effect of the disturbed zones. If excessive
inclusions are encountered during trimming, the sample should be discarded. If no alternative
exists, the tube sample shall be extruded directly into a consolidation ring of equal diameter.
The soil sample thus obtained shall be trimmed flush with the top and bottom edges of
the ring. For soft to medium soils, excess soil should be removed using a wire saw, and final
trimming may be done with a straight edge if necessary. For stiff soils a straight edge alone may
be used for trimming. Excessive remoulding of the soil surface by the straight edge should be
avoided. In the case of very soft soils, special care should be taken so that the specimen may
not fall out of or slide inside the ring during trimming.
Remoulded specimen:
Take about 3 kg of soil passing through 1 mm. Oven dry it for a period of 24 hours at and
compact it at desired moisture at the desired compaction effort. Place the consolidation ring on
glass plate with cutting edge upward. Press the remoulded soil into the ring by suitable means.
Flush the soil specimen with the top end of the ring and weigh. Alternatively, the soil specimen
may be intruded into the consolidation ring.
TEST PROCEDURE:
18. Clean and dry the metal ring. Measure its diameter and height. Take the mass of the empty ring.
19. Press the ring into the soil sample contained in a large container at the desired density
and water content. The ring is to be pressed with hands.
20. Remove the soil around the ring. The soil specimen should project about 10mm on
either side of the ring. Any voids in the specimen due to the removal of large size
particles should be filled back by pressing the soil lightly.
21. Trim the specimen flush with the top and bottom of the ring.
22. Remove any soil particles sticking to the outside of the ring. Weigh the ring with the
specimen.
23. Take a small quantity of the soil removed during trimming for the water content
determination.
24. Saturate the porous stones by boiling them in distilled water for about 15min.
25. Assemble the consolidometer. Place the bottom porous stone, bottom filter paper,
specimen, top filter paper and the top porous stone, one by one.
26. Position the loading block centrally on the top porous stone. Mount the assembly on the
loading frame. Centre it such that the load applied is axial. In the case of the lever
loading system, counterbalance the system.
27. Set the dial gauge in position. Allow sufficient margin for the swelling of the soil.
28. Connect the mould assembly to the water reservoir having the water level at about the
same as the soil specimen. Allow the water to flow into the specimen till it is fully
saturated.
29. Take the initial reading of the dial gauge.
30. Apply an initial seating load to give a pressure of 0.05 kg/cm2 (0.025 kg/cm2 for very soft
soils) to the assembly so that there is no swelling. Allow the setting load to stand till
there is no change in the dial gauge reading for 24 hours.
31. Take the final gauge reading under the initial setting load.
32. Apply the first load increment to apply a pressure of 0.1 kg/cm2 and start the stop
watch. Record the dial gauge readings at 0, 0.25, 1, 2.25, 4.0, 6.25, 9.0, 12.25, 16.00,
20.25, 25.00, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, 169, 196, 225, 256, 289, 324, 361, 400, 500,
600, and 1440 minutes.
33. For soils which have slow primary consolidation loads should act for at least 24 hours
and in extreme cases (for peaty soils) where secondary consolidation must be
evaluated, the load should act much longer, preferably up to 72 hours.
34. Increase the load to apply a pressure of 0.2 and repeat the step (15). Likewise increase
the load to apply a pressure of 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 or up to the desired pressure.
35. Smaller increments may be desirable for very soft soil samples.
36. After the last load increment had been applied and the readings taken, decrease the
load to 1/4 of the last load and allow it to stand for 24 hours. Take the dial gauge
reading after 24 hours.
37. Further reduce the load to 1/4 of the previous load and repeat the above procedure.
Likewise, further reduce the load to 1/4 previous and repeat the procedure.
38. Finally reduce the load to the initial seating load of 0.1 kg/cm2 and keep it for 24 hours
and take the final dial gauge reading.
39. An alternative loading or reloading schedule may be employed that reproduces the
construction stress changes, obtains better definition of some part of the stress-void
ratio curve, or aids in interpreting the field behavior of the soil.
40. Throughout the test, the container shall be kept filled with water in order to prevent
desiccation and to provide water for rebound expansion.
41. Dismantle the assembly. Take out the ring with the specimen. Wipe out the excess
surface water using a blotting paper.
42. Take the mass of the ring with the specimen.
43. Dry the specimen in the oven for 24 hours and determine the dry mass of specimen.
CALCULATIONS:
1) Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation(Cv)
The coefficient of consolidation c can be evaluated by means of laboratory tests by fitting the
experimental curve with the theoretical.
There are two laboratory methods that are in common use for the determination of cv. They are
1. Casagrande Logarithm of Time Fitting Method.
2. Taylor Square Root of Time Fitting Method.
Square root of time fitting method (Taylor’s method)

 Plot the displacement gage readings (y-axis) versus square root of times (x-axis) on a
normal graph sheet.
(Fig 2 shows a sample curve)
 Draw the best straight line through the initial part of the curve intersecting the ordinate
(displacement reading) at O and the abscissa √ at A.
 Note the time at point A; let us say it is √
 Locate a point B, 1.15 √ on the abscissa.
 Join OB.
 The intersection of the line OB with the curve, point C, gives the displacement gage
reading and the time for 90% consolidation (t90).
CAUTION: You should note that the value read off the abscissa is √ and not t90.
Remember to take the square root value.
 Coefficient of consolidation cv is given by
( )
Where, cv is coefficient of consolidation in cm2/sec

Hav is the average specimen thickness in cm for the load increment
t90 is time in seconds for 90% consolidation (obtained from graph)
Fig 1: Root time method to determine Cv.

The Logarithm of Time Fitting Method (Casagrande’s method)
 Plot the displacement gage readings (y-axis) against the time in log scale (x-axis) on a
semi-log graph sheet.
(Fig 3 shows a sample curve)
 Project the straight portions of the primary consolidation and secondary compression to
intersect at A.
 The ordinate of A, d100, is the displacement gage reading for 100% primary
consolidation.
 Correct the initial portion of the curve to make it a parabola.
 Select a time t1, point B, near the head of the initial portion of the curve (U < 60%) and
then another time t2, point C, such that t2 = 4t1.
 Calculate the difference in displacement reading, Δd = d2 – d1, between t2 and t1.
 Plot a point D at a vertical distance Δd from B.
 The ordinate of point D is the corrected initial displacement gage reading, do, at the
beginning of primary consolidation.
 Calculate the ordinate for 50% consolidation as
 Draw a horizontal line through this point to intersect the curve at E.

 The abscissa of point E is the time for 50% consolidation, t50.
 Time factor for 50% consolidation is 0.197.
 The coefficient of consolidation cv is given by
( )
Where, cv is coefficient of consolidation in cm2/sec

Hav is the average specimen thickness in cm for the load increment
T50 is time in seconds for 50% consolidation (obtained from graph)
The log time method makes use of the early (primary consolidation) and later time
responses (secondary compression), while the root time method only utilizes the early time
response, which is expected to be a straight line.
In theory, the root time method should give good results except when nonlinearities arising
from secondary compression cause substantial deviations from the expected straight line.
These deviations are most pronounced in fine-grained soils with organic materials.
Root time method is more suitable for inorganic clay and log time method is more suitable
for peaty soils which show significant secondary consolidation.
Fig 3: Root time method to determine Cv.
2) Calculation of void ratio
Height of solids
Where, Hs = height of solids in cm

Wd = weight of dried specimen in gm
A = area of specimen in cm2
G = specific gravity of solids `
2) Dry unit weight:
Where, e = void ratio

H = height of specimen (cm) at equilibrium under various applied pressures
= H0 + ΣΔH = H1 + ΔH
H0 = initial height of specimen
ΔH = change in specimen thickness under any pressure increment
H1 = height of specimen at the beginning of load increment.
3) Coefficient of compressibility (av)
Where, av = coefficient of compressibility in cm2/kg

de = change in void ratio
dσ = change in applied pressure
4) Coefficient of volume change (mv)
Where, mv = coefficient of volume change in cm2/kg

H0 = initial height of specimen
ΔH = change in specimen thickness under any pressure increment
Δσ = change in applied pressure
5) Compression Index (Cc)

Plot the void ratio, e versus log σ. The slope of the straight line portion is designated as Cc.
This can be directly obtained from the plot or calculated as
( )
Where, Cc = compression index

de is change in void ratio when pressure is increased from σ1 to σ2
6) Coefficient of permeability (k)
Where, k = permeability in cm/s

cv is coefficient of consolidation in cm2/sec
av = coefficient of compressibility in cm2/kg
ϒw = unit weight of water in g/cc
e = average void ratio
7) Determination of preconsolidation pressure(σc)
Casagrande proposed an empirical construction to obtain, from the e–log σ curve for
overconsolidated clay. Figure 4 shows a typical e–log σ curve for a specimen of clay. The
The construction for estimating the preconsolidation pressure (σc) consists of the following
steps:
 Produce back the straight-line part (BC) of the curve.

 Determine the point (D) of maximum curvature on the recompression part (AB) of the
curve.
 Draw the tangent to the curve at D and bisect the angle between the tangent and the
horizontal through D.
 The vertical through the point of intersection of the bisector and CB produced gives the
approximate value of the preconsolidation pressure.
Fig 4: Determination of preconsolidation pressure.

NOTE: Whenever possible the preconsolidation pressure for overconsolidated clay should not
be exceeded in construction.
Compression will not usually be great if the effective vertical stress remains below (σc).
Only if the external stress from construction exceeds the preconsolidation pressure (σc) will the
compression be large.
RESULT:
e – log σ curve is plotted.
Coefficient of Consolidation(cv), Coefficient of compressibility (av), Coefficient of volume

change (mv), Coefficient of permeability (k) is tabulated for various pressure increments.
Preconsolidation pressure (σc):
Compression Index (Cc):
REFERENCES:
1) IS : 2720 (Part 15) 1986: INDIAN STANDARD - Methods of test for soils PART 15
Determination of Consolidation Properties
2) IS : 2720 (Part VII) 1980: INDIAN STANDARD - Methods of test for soils - Determination of
water content-dry density relation using light compaction
3) IS : 9198 – 1979: Specification for compaction rammer for soil testing
4) IS : 2720 (Part II) – 1973, Method of Test for soil : Part II: Determination of water content

1. The porous stones shall be saturated by boiling in distilled water for at least 15 minutes.
2. The loading block shall be positioned centrally on the top porous stone without any
eccentricity.
5. While weighing, be careful not to place the weight on the balance in an eccentric
position.
7. Keep all parts of the swell apparatus clean, when the equipment is not in use.
8. Keep LVDT clear of water.
9. Filler paper shall not be used when stiff clays are being tested since the paper has high
compressibility
CONSOLIDATION TEST
Depth: Test No:
Sample type:
For remoulded sample:

Mould: Internal diameter: Compaction type:
Height: Weight of hammer:
Volume (Vm): Height of fall:
Weight of mould (M1): No. of layers:
Bulk density (ϒb): No. of blows per layer:
Dry density (ϒd): Moisture added:
Consolidometer number:
Diameter of ring:
Area of ring:
Height of ring:
Water content calculation

Before test After test
weight of ring + wet soil
weight of ring + dry soil
weight of ring
Weight of dry soil (Wd)
Weight of water
Water content
Specific gravity of soil solids (G)
Degree of saturation
Height of specimen
Height of voids
Void ratio (e)
Seating pressure: Loading duration:
Pressure
intensity 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 4 8 16 32 8 2 0.5 0.1
(kg/cm2)
Elapsed
time Dial gauge reading
(mins)
0
0.25
1
2.25
4
6.25
9
12.25
16
20.25
25
36
49
64
81
100
121
144
169
196
225
256
289
324
361
400
500
600
1440
Pressure void ratio
Change Average
Applied Initial Drainage Coefficient of Coefficient of Coefficient of Coefficient of
Final dial in height Specimen Height
pressure ‘σ’ dial Void ratio path consolidation compressibility volume change permeability
2 reading (ΔH) height (H) of voids
(kg/cm ) reading Cv av mv k
(mm) ( )
0.1
0.2
0.5
16
32
0.5
0.1
EXPERIMENT: 3
STANDARD PENETRATION TEST
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the bearing capacity of a shallow foundation by standard penetration test (SPT)
THEORY:
The following methods are available for the determination of bearing capacity of a foundation:
(i) Bearing capacity tables in various building codes
(ii) Analytical methods
(iii) Plate bearing tests
(iv) Penetration tests
(v) Model tests and prototype tests
(vi) Laboratory tests
Penetration tests are those in which the resistance to penetration of a soil for a standard value
of penetration is determined in a standard or specified manner. Devices known as
‘penetrometers’ are used for this purpose. A wide variety of these tests has become available,
but the more important are the ‘Standard Penetration Test’ and the ‘Dutch Cone Penetration
Test’.
Standard penetration test (SPT) consists of driving a split-spoon sampler (Fig. 18.6) into the soil
through a bore hole 55 to 150 mm in diameter at the desired depth. A hammer of 640 N (65 kg)
weight with a free fall of 750 mm is used to drive the sampler. The number of blows for a
penetration of 300 mm is designated as the “Standard Penetration Value” or “Number” N. The
test procedure is standardised by ISI and set out in “IS: 2131-1986 - Standard Penetration Test”.
Methods of calculation of bearing capacity of soils based on N values are covered in IS: 6403-
1981.
Standard penetration test is recommended for coarse grained, fine grained cohesion less soils
and c – φ soils with clay up to about 30 percent.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
(i) Drilling Equipment: The equipment used shall provide a clean borehole, 100 to 150
mm in diameter, for insertion of the sampler to ensure that the penetration test is
performed on undisturbed soil and shall permit driving of the split spoon sampler to
obtain penetration record and the sample.
(ii) Split-Spoon Sampler: The split spoon sampler shall conform to IS: 9640-1980.
(iii) Driving Rod: The rods used for the test should be of suitable lengths with threads for
coupling at either end. The rods should be marked at every 100 mm. The outer and
internal diameter of rods is 41.27 mm and 28.57 mm respectively.
(iv) Driving Head: The driving head shall be of mild steel with threads at either end for a
rod coupling. It shall have a diameter of 100 mm and a length of 100 to 150 mm.
(v) Hoisting Equipment: Any suitable hoisting equipment, such as a tripod may be used.
The equipment shall be designed to be stable under conditions of impact of the
hammer over the driving head when the sampler is driven during the test. Provision
shall be made to enable the operator to climb up the equipment for fixing the
pulley, ropes, etc. Suitable guides shall be provided to keep the driving rod vertical.
(vi) Hammer: The hammer used for driving the cone shall be of mild steel or cast iron
with a base of mild steel. It shall be 250 mm high and of suitable diameter. The
weight of the hammer together with the chain shall be 63.5 kg. It shall have a hole at
the center running throughout its length and of suitable diameter such that the
guide rod passes freely through it. The clearance between the guide rod and the
hole in the hammer shall be about 5 mm.
SITE PREPARATION
Spacing of Boreholes
1. For a compact building site covering an area of about 0.4 hectare, one bore hole in each
corner and one in the center should be adequate.
2. For smaller and less important buildings even one borehole in the center will suffice.
3. For very large areas covering industrial and residential colonies, the geological nature of
the terrain will help in deciding the number of bore holes or trial pits.
Depth of exploration
1. The depth of exploration required depends upon the type of the proposed structure, its
total weight, the size, shape and disposition of the loaded area, soil profile and the
physical properties of the soil that constitutes each individual stratum.
2. Normally, it should be one and half times the width of the footing below foundation
level.
3. If a number of loaded areas are in close proximity, the effect of each is additive. In such
cases, the whole area may be considered as loaded and exploration should be carried
out up to one and half times the lower dimension.
4. In any case, the depth to which seasonal variations affect the soil should be regarded as
the minimum depth for the exploration of the sites.
5. But, where industrial processes affect the soil characteristics, this depth may be more.
The presence of fast-growing and water-seeking trees also contributes to the
weathering processes.
The depth of exploration at the start of the work may be decided as given in Table below.
Table 1: Depth of exploration for shallow foundations

SI
Type of foundation Depth of exploration
No.
Isolated spread footings or raft or adjacent
1 One and half times the width
footings
Adjacent footings with clear spacing less than One and half times the length
2
twice the width
3 Adjacent rows of footings
 With clear spacing between rows less than Four and half times the width
twice the width
 With clear spacing between rows greater Three times the width
than twice the width
 With clear spacing between rows greater One and half times the width
than or equal to four times the width
One and half times the width
4 Pile and Well foundations of structure from bearing level
(toe of pile or bottom of well)
Equal to the bottom width
5 Road cuts
of the cut
Two meters below the ground
6 Fill level or equal to the height of
the fill whichever is greater
TEST PROCEDURE
1) Borehole marking
1. Mark the borehole locations on site with clear visible marker like flags/banners etc.
2. Clearly note down the borehole number and RL of the borehole.
3. Clear the vegetation around the borehole and level the ground such that the drill
platform can be easily erected.
2) Borehole drilling
1. The drilling rig is placed over the marked borehole and leveled perfectly.
2. The drill rods should be perfectly vertically.
3. Borehole can be drilled by either auger boring, wash boring, percussion boring or rotary
boring.
4. Auger boring is suitable for shallow depths and for sites with saturated sands, silts and
medium to stiff cohesive soils.
5. Wash boring can be used even below water table and practically all types of soils except
hard soils or rock.
6. For boulder and gravelly strata percussion boring is best suitable.
7. Rotary boring or rotary drilling is useful if the soil is highly resistant to augering or wash
boring.
8. Casing should be used when drilling in sand, soft clay or other soils in which the sides of
borehole are likely to cave in.
9. In sandy and other non-cohesive soils, below water table it is often preferable to use
drilling mud rather than a casing.
10. If drilling mud alone is not successful, casing may be used along with the drilling mud.
11. Where casing is used, it shall not be driven below the level at which the test is made or
soil sample is taken.
12. In the case of cohesionless soils which cannot stand without casing, the advancement of
the casing pipe should be such that it does not disturb the soil to be tested or sampled.
13. The casing shall preferably be advanced by slowly turning the casing rather than by
driving, as the vibration caused by driving may alter the density of such deposits
immediately below the bottom of the borehole.
Cleaning of borehole
1. In case wash boring is adopted for cleaning the borehole, side-discharge bits are
permissible, but in no case shall a bottom-discharge bit be permitted.
2. The process of jotting through an open tube sampler, and then testing and sampling
when the desired depth is reached shall not be permitted.
3. While boring through soils, such as sands that may be disturbed by the flow of water
into the drill hole, no water shall be added to the borehole while boring above the water
table.
4. While boring below water table, the water in the borehole shall be maintained at least
1.5 m above the level of the water table.
5. Bentonite slurry of appropriate consistency may be required to help the water level to
be maintained above the water table.
6. The raised level of the water in the borehole should be maintained even if casing is used
to stabilize the borehole.
7. While boring through sand using casing to stabilize the sides of the borehole, the outer
diameter of the shell shall be at least 25 mm smaller than the inner diameter of the
casing.
8. The distance between the end of the casing and the bottom of the borehole should be
as close as possible and in any case not exceed 150 mm, if only water is used to stabilize
the borehole; in case bentonite is used, this distance may be up to 300 mm.
9. The borehole shall be cleaned up to testing or, sampling elevation, using suitable tools,
such as augers, that will ensure that there is minimum mixing up of the soil from the
bottom of the borehole.
10. In cohesive soils, the borehole may be cleaned with bailer with a f-lap valve. This should
not be used in sands.
PENETRATION TEST
1. The SPT is carried out at every 0.75 m vertical intervals in a borehole.
2. This can be increased to 1.50 m if the depth of borehole is large.
3. Tests shall be made at every change in stratum.
4. The interval can be increased to 3 m if in between vane shear test is performed.
5. The borehole is advanced to the required depth, the drill bit is removed and the bottom
is cleaned.
6. The split spoon sampler is attached to the driving rods by means of couplers.
7. The spilt spoon sampler is lowered to the borehole by means of a pulley and rested at
the bottom.
8. The driving rods are attached to the arrangement which keeps driving rods vertical
during testing.
9. The driving head is attached at the top of the driving rods.
10. The guide rod is attached over the driving head and attached to the hoist.
11. Hammer is placed over the guide rod and secured to the rope via a pulley.
12. The split spoon sampler is driven into the soil for a distance of 450 mm by blows of a
drop hammer of 63.5 kg falling vertically and freely from a height of 750 mm.
13. The number of blows required to penetrate every 150 mm is recorded while driving the
sampler.
14. The number of blows required to effect the first 150 mm of penetration called the
‘seating drive’ is disregarded.
15. The number of blows required for the last 300 mm of penetration is added together and
recorded as the N value at the particular depth of the borehole.
16. Due to the presence of boulders or rocks, it may not be possible to drive the sampler to
a distance of 450 mm.
17. In such a case, the N value can be recorded for the first 300 mm penetration.
18. The boring log shows refusal and the test is halted if
 50 blows are required for any 150 mm penetration
 100 blows are required for 300 mm penetration
 10 successive blows produce no advance
19. The sampler is raised to the surface and detached from the drill rods.
20. The split-barrel is disconnected from the cutting shoe and the coupling.
21. The barrel is carefully split open to obtain the sample.
22. The sample or samples of soil from the opened split spoon should be put into jars
without ramming.
23. The jars should have a self-sealing top, or should be sealed with wax to prevent
evaporation of the soil moisture.
24. Jars should be of such a size that they can be filled without deforming the sample.
25. Typical samples should be cut to such a size as to fill the jars and thereby reduce the
water loss to the air in the jars.
26. If packing as specified is not available, liner may be used in the sampling spoon.
27. In such a case, the internal diameter of the sampling spoon should be so adjusted that
the total internal diameter after incorporating the liner is 35 mm.
28. The sample in the liner should be waxed properly at both the ends to keep up the
natural moisture content during transit.
29. Labels should be fixed to the jar or notations should be written on the covers with the
following information:
 Origin of sample
 Job designation
 Boring number
 Sample number
 Depth of sampling
 Penetration record
 Length of recovery
 Date of sampling.
30. The jars containing samples shall be stored in suitable containers for shipment.
31. Samples should not be placed in the sun.
FIELD OBSERVATIONS
1. Information with regard to water table, elevations at which the drilling water was lost or
elevations at which water under excess pressure was encountered should be recorded on
the field logs.
2. Water levels before and after putting the casing, where used, should be measured.
3. In sands, the level should be determined as the casing is pulled and then measured at least
30 min after the casing is pulled; in silts, at least 24 h after the casing is pulled; in clays, no
accurate water level determination is possible unless pervious seams are present. However,
the 24 h level should be recorded for clays.
4. When drilling fluid is used and the water level is desired, casing perforated at the lower end
should be lowered into the borehole and the borehole bailed down.
5. Ground water levels should be determined after bailing at time intervals of 30 min and 24 h
until all traces of drilling mud are removed from inside the casing.
REPORT
Data obtained in borings shall be recorded in the field and shall include the following:
a) Date of boring
b) Reference datum
c) Job identification
d) Boring number
e) Sample number
f) Type of sampler
g) Drilling method
h) Sample elevation and recovery ratio
i) Limits of stratum
j) Water table information
k) Soil identification, including condition of samples
l) Penetration records
m) Casing used
n) Weather data
SPT CORRECTIONS
SPT values obtained in field have to be corrected before they are used for estimating bearing
capacity. IS : 2131-1981 recommends that the field value of N be corrected for two effects,
namely, (a) effects of overburden pressure, and (b) effect of dilatancy.
(a) Correction for overburden pressure

The corrected N value is given by
Where, N’ = corrected value of observed N
CN = corrected factor for overburden pressure
Fig 1: Correction factor CN due to overburden
(b) Correction for dilatancy

Dilatancy correction is applied when N’ obtained after overburden correction exceeds 15 in
saturated fine sands and silts. Dilatancy correction is applied below water table.
Where, N” = final corrected value to be used in design charts.
If N’ ≤ 15,
FIGURES
Fig 2: Setup of Standard Penetration Test

Fig 3: Assembly of split spoon sampler
Fig 3: Cutting shoe

Fig 4: Head
Fig 5: Split body (for use with liner)

Fig 6: Liner
Fig 7: Coupling
ESTIMATION OF BEARING CAPACITY FROM SPT VALUES
1. After site investigation has been completed and the results of laboratory tests become
available, the ground conditions discovered in each borehole are summarized in the
form of a borehole log.
2. A sub-soil profile is drawn using data from all boreholes.
3. The depth of foundation and groundwater level is marked on the sub-soil profile. Figure
shows a sample sub-soil profile.
4. The final values of N” (with the corrections mentioned above) are tabulated with depth
for all the boreholes.
5. The N” values between the base of the footing and a depth equal to 1.5 to 2 times the
width of the footing are averaged.
6. Any N” more than 50% of the average N” are eliminated.
7. After elimination, the remaining N” values are re-averaged and N” values with more
than 50% the average are eliminated.
8. The iteration process is repeated until one single N” is obtained.
9. The process is followed for all boreholes.
10. The minimum N” of different boreholes is used in the design.
11. It is designated as design N.
12. The angle of internal friction (φ) can be obtained by using empirical chart (Fig 8)
13. Bearing capacity factors, shape factors, depth factors, inclination factors are obtained
using tables and equations provided in IS : 6403-1981
Bearing capacity of a cohesionless soil is given by
( )
qnu = net ultimate bearing capacity
q = effective surcharge at the base level of the foundation
Nq ,Nϒ = Bearing capacity factors (obtained from table 2)
Sq , Sϒ = shape factor
For rectangular footing, ;
Where, B = width or diameter of foundation and L = length of foundation

For square footing, ;
For circular footing, ;
For continuous strip, ;
dq , dϒ = depth factor
For φ > 10° ( )
For φ < 10°
Where, Df = depth of foundation below ground surface
iq , iϒ = inclination factor
( )
( )
Where, α = inclination of resultant load in degrees
( )
Where, H = horizontal load

V = vertical load
W’ = water table factor

1. If the water table is likely to remain permanently at or below a depth of (Df + B) beneath
the ground level surrounding the footing then W’= 1
2. If the water table is located at a depth Df or likely to rise to the base of the footing or
above, then the value of W' should be taken as 0.5
3. If the water table depth (Dw) is likely to permanently get located at a depth
Df < Dw < (Df + B) , then the value of W' be obtained by linear interpolation
Fig 8: Relationship between φ and N
Table 2: Bearing capacity factors

Angle of internal friction ‘φ’
Nq Nϒ
(degrees)
0 1.0 0.0
5 1.6 0.07
10 2.5 0.37
15 3.9 1.2
20 6.4 2.9
25 10.7 6.8
30 18.4 16.7
32 23.2 22.0
34 29.4 31.1
36 37.8 44.5
38 48.9 64.0
40 64.2 93.7
45 134.9 262.8
50 319.1 874.0
ESTIMATION OF SETTLEMENT FROM SPT VALUES
1. The final values of N” (with the corrections mentioned above) are tabulated with depth
for all the boreholes.
2. The N” values between the base of the footing and a depth equal to width (B) of the
footing are averaged.
3. The process is followed for all boreholes.
4. The minimum N” of different boreholes is used in the design.
5. It is designated as design N.
6. Figure 9 gives a chart for the calculation of settlement per unit pressure (1 kgf/cm 2) as a
function of the width of the footing and the standard penetration value N.
7. The settlement at any other pressure is computed by assuming the settlement to be
proportional to the intensity of the pressure.
Water table correction: If the water table is at a shallow depth, the settlement read from
Figure 9 shall be multiplied by the correction factor W’ read from the inset in the same
figure.
Where, D’w = depth of water table measured from the base of the footing
Correction for Depth: The above chart is applicable for computing the settlement of
foundations located at surface. For the computation of settlement of foundations founded
at certain depth, a correction should be applied to the calculated Sf in the form of a depth
factor to be read from Fig 10.
Correction of rigidity of foundation: In the case of rigid foundations, for example, a heavy
beam and slab raft or a massive pier, the total settlement at the center should be reduced
by a rigidity factor.
PERMISSIBLE SETTLEMENT
1. A structure with rigid raft or mat foundation will experience uniform settlement.
2. A structure is said to undergo differential settlement if one of its part settles more
than the other.
3. The difference in total settlement between any two points is the magnitude of
differential settlement.
4. Angular distortion is the ratio of the differential settlement between two columns
(δ) to the spacing between them (l)
5. Table 3 gives the permissible settlement based on the type of structure as per IS :
1904 (1986)
Fig 9: Settlement per Unit Pressure from Standard Penetration Resistance

Fig 10: Depth factor
Table 3: Permissible settlement as per per IS : 1904 (1986)
Isolated foundations
Sand and hard clay Plastic clay

Sl. Max. Differential Max. Differential
Type of structure Angular Angular
No. settlement settlement settlement settlement
distortion distortion
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 For steel structures 50 0.0033 L 1/300 50 0.0033 L 1/300
2 For reinforced concrete structure 50 0.0015 L 1/666 75 0.0015 L 1/666
3 For plain brick walls in multi-
storeyed buildings
(a) For L/H ≤ 3 60 0.00025 L 1/4000 80 0.00025 L 1/4000
(b) For L/H > 3 60 0.00033 L 1/3000 80 0.00033 L 1/3000
4 For water towers and silos 50 0.0015 L 1/666 75 0.0015 L 1/666
Raft foundations
Sand and hard clay Plastic clay

Sl. Max. Differential Max. Differential
Type of structure Angular Angular
No. settlement settlement settlement settlement
distortion distortion
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 For steel structures 75 0.0033 L 1/300 100 0.0033 L 1/300
2 For reinforced concrete structure 75 0.002 L 1/500 100 0.002 L 1/500
3 For plain brick walls in multi-

Not likely to be encountered
storeyed buildings
4 For water towers and silos 100 0.0025 L 1/400 125 0.0025 L 1/400
L denotes the length of deflected part of wall/raft or center-to-center distance between columns.
H denotes the height of wall from foundation/footing.
Note: The values given in the table may be taken only as a guide and the permissible settlement
in each case should be decided as per the requirements of the designer.
CALCULATIONS:
Depth of Foundation
1. The depth to which foundations should be carried depends upon the following principal
factors:
 The securing of adequate allowable bearing capacity.
 In the case of clayey soils, penetration below the zone where shrinkage and swelling
due to seasonal weather changes, and due to trees and shrubs are likely to cause
appreciable movements.
 In fine sands and silts, penetration below the zone in which trouble may be expected
from frost.
 The maximum depth of scour, wherever relevant, should also be considered and the
foundation should be located sufficiently below this depth.
 Other factors such as ground movements and heat transmitted from the building to
the supporting ground may be important.
2. All foundations shall extend to a depth of at least 50 cm below natural ground level. On
rock or such other weather resisting natural ground, removal of the top soil may be all
that is required. In such cases, the surface shall be cleaned and, if necessary, stepped or
otherwise prepared so as to provide a suitable bearing and thus prevent slipping or
other unwanted movements.
3. Where there is excavation, ditch, pond, water course, filled up ground or similar
condition adjoining or adjacent to the subsoil on which the structure is to be erected
and which is likely to impair the stability of structure, either the foundation of such
structure shall be carried down to a depth beyond the detrimental influence of such
conditions, or retaining walls or similar works shall be constructed for the purpose of
shielding from their effects.
4. A foundation in any type of soil shall be below the zone significantly weakened by root
holes or cavities produced by burrowing animals or works. The depth shall also be
enough to prevent the rainwater scouring below the footings.
5. Clay soils, like black cotton soils, are seasonally affected by drying, shrinkage and
cracking in dry and hot weather, and by swelling in the following wet weather to a depth
which will vary according to the nature of the clay and the climatic condition of the
region. It is necessary in these soils, either to place the foundation bearing at such a
depth where the effects of seasonal changes are not important or to make the
foundation capable of eliminating the undesirable effects due to relative movement by
providing flexible type of construction or rigid foundations. Adequate load
counteraction swelling pressures also provide satisfactory foundations.
Loads on foundations
1. Loads on a foundation are those forces imparted by the structure, it is supporting, in any
of the form (i) vertical either upwards or downwards, (ii) horizontal or lateral, and (iii)
moment or couple. The following loads shall be considered for design of foundations.
 Permanent Load - This is the actual service load/sustained load consisting of dead
loads and live loads of a structure which give rise to stresses and deformations in the
soil below foundation causing its settlement.
 Transient Load - This is a momentary or sudden load imparted to a structure due to

wind or seismic vibrations. Due to its transitory nature, the stresses in the soil below
the foundation carried by such loads are allowed certain percentage increase over
the allowable safe values.
2. Foundations shall be proportioned for the following combination of loads:
a) Dead load + live load
b) Dead load + live load + wind load or seismic load.
3. Dead load also includes the weight of column/wall, footings, foundations, the overlying
fill but excludes the weight of the displaced soil.
4. Live loads from the floors above as specified in IS : 875 (Part 2)-1987 shall be taken in
proportioning and designing the foundations.
5. Where wind or seismic load is less than 25 percent of that due to dead and live loads, it
may be neglected in design and first combination of load shall be compared with the
safe bearing load to satisfy allowable bearing pressure.
6. Where wind or seismic load is more than 25 percent of that due to dead and live loads,
foundations may be so proportioned that the pressure due to combination of load (that
is, dead load + live load + wind load) does not exceed the safe bearing capacity by more
than 25 percent.
7. When seismic forces are considered, the safe bearing capacity shall be increased as
specified in IS : 1893-1984.
8. In non-cohesive soils, analysis for liquefaction and settlement under earthquake shall
also be made.
Where, qnu = net ultimate bearing capacity
F = factor of safety
Maximum net intensity of loading that can be imposed on

the soil without the settlement exceeding the permissible value. No factor of safety is used
when dealing with the settlement.
Maximum intensity of loading that can be

imposed on the soil with no possibility of shear failure or the possibility of excessive settlement.
It is smaller of the safe bearing pressure (shear failure criterion) or allowable bearing pressure
(settlement criterion).
RESULT:
REFERENCES:
1. IS 2131 (1981): Method for standard penetration test for Soils

2. IS 9640 (1980): Split spoon sampler
3. IS 1904 (1986): Code of practice for design and construction of foundations in soils:
General requirements
4. IS 8009-1 (1976): Code of practice for calculation of settlements of foundations, Part 1:
Shallow foundations subjected to symmetrical static vertical loads
5. IS 6403 (1981): Code of practice for determination of bearing capacity of shallow
foundations

1. Use safety shoes, helmet and gloves at all the times.
2. The drill rods should be of standard specification and should not be in bent condition.
3. The split spoon sampler must be in good condition and the cutting shoe must be free
from wear and tear.
4. The drop hammer must be of the right weight and the fall should be free, frictionless
and vertical.
5. The height of fall must be exactly 750 mm. Any change from this will seriously affect the
N value.
6. The bottom of the borehole must be properly cleaned before the test is carried out. If
this is not done, the test gets carried out in the loose, disturbed soil and not in the
undisturbed soil.
7. When a casing is used in the borehole, it should be ensured that casing is driven just
short of the level at which SPT is carried out. Otherwise, the test gets carried out in the
soil plug enclosed at the bottom of the casing.
8. When the test is carried out in a sandy soil below the water table, it must be ensured
that the water level in the borehole is always maintained slightly above the ground
water level. If the water level in the borehole is lower than the ground water level,
‘quick’ condition may develop in the soil and very low N values may be recorded.
9. The entire sampler may sometimes sink under its own weight when very soft sub-soil
stratum is encountered. Under such conditions, it may not be necessary to give any
blow to the split spoon sampler and SPT value should be indicated as zero.
Project Name: Borehole No:
Location: R.L. of Borehole:
Boring method: Date of start:
Diameter: Date of completion:
Bulk SPT Blows

Soil Depth Sample
Description of strata Legend Density N N” Remarks
type (m) No 150 150 150
(g/cc)
mm mm mm
Drill operator: Site Investigator:

Bulk SPT Blows

Soil Depth Sample
type (m) No 150 150 150
(g/cc)
mm mm mm

Bulk SPT Blows

Soil Depth Sample
type (m) No 150 150 150
(g/cc)
mm mm mm

Bulk SPT Blows

Soil Depth Sample
type (m) No 150 150 150
(g/cc)
mm mm mm

Bulk SPT Blows

Soil Depth Sample
type (m) No 150 150 150
(g/cc)
mm mm mm

Determination of bulk density
Borehole No: Average bulk density:
Wet Dry weight Kerosene Kerosene Volume Bulk

Sample Container Moisture Dry density
weight of of sample reading before reading after of sample Density
number No Content (%) (g/cc)
sample (g) (g) immersion (cc) immersion (cc) (cc) (g/cc)




Sample classification
Borehole No:
Sample Specific Percentage Liquid Plastic Plasticity Soil
Cu Cc
number gravity Gravel Sand Silt Clay limit (%) limit (%) index (%) Classification
Borehole No:
Cu Cc
Borehole No:
Cu Cc
Borehole No:
Cu Cc
Borehole No:
Cu Cc
Correction for N
Borehole number: Average bulk density:

Corrected Corrected
Overburden Design ‘N’ for Design ‘N’ for
Sample Observed Depth Correction value for value for
pressure shear settlement
Number N (m) 2 factor CN overburden dilatancy
(kg/cm ) criterion criterion
N’ N”

Corrected Corrected
N’ N”
Corrected Corrected
N’ N”

Corrected Corrected
N’ N”
Corrected Corrected
N’ N”

Geotech Lab Manual-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geotech Lab Manual-1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geotech Lab Manual-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

Prepared by DONAL NIXON DSOUZA

M.Tech (2014 - 2016)

1. WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION.……………………………………………………….2

WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION

W1 = weight of empty W2 = weight of container W3 = weight of

Figure 1: Schematic representation of experimental procedure

SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS:

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Weight of container (W1)

Weight of container + moist soil

Average of three trials should be reported as the water content of soil

Verified by: Approved by:

Figure 1: Pycnometer bottle

Weight of empty Weight of Weight of Weight of

Figure 2: Schematic representation of experimental procedure

Where, Gs(T°C) = The specific gravity of the soil solids at T °C

Refer Appendix for standard specific gravity of water at different temperatures.

SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS:

Quartz sand 2.64 – 2.65 Loess 2.65 – 2.75

Silt 2.68 – 2.72 Lime 2.70

Silt with organic matter 2.40 – 2.50 Peat 1.26 – 1.80

Clay 2.44 – 2.92 Humus 1.37

Bentonite 2.34 Fly ash 1.80 – 2.80

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4

Specific gravity of water at 27 oC

Temperature correction “k”

Specific Gravity at 27 oC,

Verified by: Approved by:

Soil in kerosene Soil in Distilled

Free swell index = x 100

SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS:

DIFFERENTIAL FREE SWELL INDEX DEGREE OF EXPANSIVENESS

Sample Description: Date of Sampling:

Free swell Index =

Verified by: Approved by:

Fig 1: Sieve arrangement for dry sieve analysis

Error = ΣW – weight of soil taken

Correction = Weight of soil taken – ΣW

Percentage retained on a particular sieve = X 100

Grain size distribution curve is drawn

Effective size D10 :

Coefficient of curvature (Cc)

SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS:

Figure 2: Grain size distribution curve

Sieve set No:

Weight of dry soil taken:

Sieve Wt. of soil Corrected Cumulative

Verified by: Approved by:

Figure 1: Arrangement of sieves for wet sieve analysis

Percentage retained on a particular sieve = X 100

SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS:

Sieve set No:

Weight of dry soil taken:

Sieve Wt. of Wt. of soil Cumulative

RESULT: Percentage gravel:

Verified by: Approved by

PART 2: Hydrometer Correction