GENDER, POWER, AND RELIGION: AN INTIMATE INTERFACE

Dr. Kalyani Sarangi

Asst. Professor, Dept. Of Philosophy
Rama Devi Women’s University
… Bhubaneswar, Odisha

ABSTRACT
We are in the age of dualities, dichotomies, discriminations, exclusions and marginalizations.
Species biasness (human-nonhuman), racial (black-white), sexual (male-female-transgender),
caste discrimination (Brahmana-Ksatriya-Vaisya-Sudra) and male chauvinism are the order of
the day. Gender plays a crucial role in the lives of both men and women. Being a woman, she is
excluded and if she is a dalit woman, she is doubly excluded. She is leveled as the
second sex. Neither her voice is heard in the family nor in the community. A philosophic gaze
points to the intricate relationship between gender, power and religion and their
interconnectedness. Gender roles and power dynamics have long been intertwined with religious
ideologies, shaping societal structures, norms, and individual identities. This paper examines
how religious beliefs and practices both reinforce and challenge gender norms and power
hierarchies.
The intersection of gender, power, and religion is multifaceted, encompassing diverse
manifestations such as the exclusion of women from religious leadership roles, the enforcement
of gender-specific dress codes, the entry of specific gender to the sanctum sanctorum and the
regulation of reproductive rights. Furthermore, religious institutions often serve as sites of both
resistance and perpetuation of gender inequalities, reflecting broader power struggles within
society.
Ultimately, this paper underscores the importance of critically examining the intersections of
gender, power, and religion to understand the complexities of social inequality and to foster more
inclusive and equitable societies. It tries to show that how religion is more misunderstood than
understood regarding women. By shedding light on these dynamics, it provides insights for
scholars, policymakers, practitioners and ethical thinkers seeking to address issues of gender
justice and religious pluralism in contemporary contexts.

Key Words - Gender, Humanism, Power, Religion, Women Empowerment

1
INTRODUCTION
People are categorised by sexuality or culture. These labels are given to individuals based on
their sexual orientation or, in certain cases, based on qualities that have been built by culture. 1
Individuals can be assigned a particular biological sex, yet it is also possible for their self-
identified gender to not correspond with this assigned sex. Gender of an individual may
occasionally be assumed by depending on cultural norms. These cultural norms may include the
individual's outer appearance, body shape and size, physical activity, and other factors of a
similar nature2. When it comes to the formation of an individual's gender identity, psychology
plays a significant impact. One can also build his/her gender identity by adopting particular
behaviors, such as speaking a particular language, wearing particular attire, and partaking in
activities that are typically associated with a given gender within a particular community. When
it comes to the fields of feminist anthropology and psychology, Anne Fausto-Sterling employs
the term "embodiment" to characterize this occurrence.3

It is possible for gender, which covers the set of roles, behaviours, and attitudes that cultures
consider to be proper for women and men, to act as the source of power dynamics, religious
activities and the phenomenon that results from them. The manifestation of these power
dynamics can take place in a variety of contexts, ranging from the private sector of the household
to the highest echelons of political and religious decision-making.
Distinction between Gender and Sex
The terms "sex" and "gender" are frequently used interchangeably by a large number of
individuals because of their conceptual nuances. Their distinct meanings and uses in different
contexts help us in avoiding any philosophical problems. The term "sex" is utilized in the process
of classifying an individual's biological assignment, which is frequently determined by gathering
data from scientific research.4 It is usual practice to establish this biological determination at the
moment of a person's birth. It is a normal practice for medical professionals to determine the sex
1
Valentine, David, Wilchins,Riki Anne (1997). One Percent on the Burn Chart: Gender, Genitals, and
Hermaphrodites with Attitude. Duke University: Duke University Press. p. 217
2
Gorely Trish, Holroyd Rachel Holroyd, et al (2003). "Muscularity, the Habitus and the Social Construction of
Gender: Towards a Gender-Relevant Physical Education", British Journal of Sociology of Education, 24 (4),
pp.429–448
3
Fausto-Sterling, Anne (2019-03-15). "Gender/Sex, Sexual Orientation, and Identity Are in the Body: How Did
They Get There?” The Journal of Sex Research, 56 (4–5), pp.529–555
4
Anne Fausto-Sterling, (2000). Sexing the Body, Basic Books New York, pp. 1-29.

2
of a patient by examining prenatal photographs or by performing a physical examination of the
genitalia of the baby.5 For this determination, the idea that gender and sex are usually equivalent
continues to be considered fundamental.6 When an individual does not fit within the
conventional definitions of "male" or "female," this is when the problem begins. Certain
individuals working in the field of medicine are currently employing the Karyotype method to
examine the chromosomes of individuals in order to ascertain the respective biological sexes of
those individuals.7 On the other hand, there is a particular group of people who believe that the
term "gender" will predominantly refer to psycho-social qualities rather than other factors. They
argue that gender is not defined by scientific knowledge but rather by the expressions and
behaviors that we exhibit towards one another. 8 Even many people identify gender with women.
But gender does not mean women only; it is about both men and women, their respected
identities, their representation and their mutually interrelated social worlds.. To make the
distinction more explicit, it can be said that sex is natural and biological whereas gender is social
and cultural. In other words, gender is a social construction only. Simon de Beauvoir gave the
existential mantra that ‘one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman. No biological,
psychological, or economic fate determine the figure that the human female presents in society:
it is civilization as a whole that produces this creature, intermediate between, male and eunuch,
which is described as feminine.”9 She further said that woman “is the incidental, the inessential,
as opposed to the essential. He is the Subject, he is the Absolute-she is the Other.” 10 This clearly
indicates that man defines woman not in herself but as relative to him. This is how gender
discrimination continues to fuel the binary distinction between male and female, femininity and
masculinity and their associated roles, duties and responsibilities.
Formation of gender identity
When people talk about their identities, they take into consideration how they perceive
themselves as well as the similarities they have with other people. Personal experiences that are
consistent with the experiences that are commonly linked with a given gender are what are meant

5
Ibid
6
Ibid
7
Ibid
8
Ibid

9
Beauvoir, Simone de (1949), In:Aspekt 1/2000. (The Second Sex)
10
Ibid

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to be referred to as gender identification situations. How a person perceives himself and interacts
with other people is significantly impacted by their preferred gender identification. The process
of obtaining knowledge about the fundamental aspects of being a particular gender from the
beginning is known as gender intensification. According to the gender intensification theory, an
increase in the amount of pressure placed on children to comply with socially accepted gender
norms leads to a greater distinction of gender roles between various genders.

Role of Gender & Politics

Power and gender are intimately intertwined and cannot be seen in isolation from one another
given the current state of affairs in society. 11 There is a connection between gender and power
because power can be acquired, utilized, and displayed in a variety of different ways. Power
inequalities explain gender differences in knowledge, behaviour and attitude on the part of the
individuals. Gender parity, stereotypes and patriarchy are the outcomes of gender politics which
are based on the principles of subordination, domination and inequality. This is corroborated by
Aristotle when he said that women
possess lesser reasoning than men. He further said that men are rulers and women are ruled. It
could be argued that Aristotle debars women from the highest position of governance. It is said
that women and men exhibit distinct levels of power motivation which is supported by facts from
both history and society. Throughout the course of Western history, there is no question that
women have had fewer opportunities than men to reach various forms of authority. This is a fact
that cannot be denied. The notion that men have a greater predisposition to seek power and
achieve it, whilst women do not have the same level of excitement in this endeavour, is one of
the ideas that are believed by most people. It is also believed that there are differences between
men and women in terms of how they gain, keep, and exhibit power.12 Women are not allowed to
exercise their right to vote for a pretty long period. They are not equally paid for equal work.
After a long battle, feminist movement as a socio-political movement demands for certain rights

11
Yoder, J.D., & Kahn, A.S.(1992). Towards a feminist Understanding of women and power,
Psychology of Women Quarterly, 16(4),pp.381-388

12
Winter, D. G. & Barenbaum, N. B. (1985), Responsibility and the Power Motive in Women and Men, Journal of
Personality, 53(2), pp.335-355

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and gender equality in all walks of women’s lives. The different waves of feminism demand for
right to vote, social rights (Anti-discrimination), reproductive rights, right to be treated equally,
right to property and many more. Increasing the number of women who hold positions of power
has been demonstrated to contribute to a reduction of occurrences of corruption. Women are less
likely to engage in corrupt practices and are less likely to advocate the acceptance of bribes. This
is because women are less likely to corrupt themselves.
Women in leadership Roles
The term "women in positions of power" refers to individuals who hold high-ranking positions in
organizations or the government, positions in which they have authoritative roles, influence and
responsibility. There has been a persistent imbalance in the distribution of power between the
sexes throughout the course of human history. Women have historically been underrepresented
in positions of power and influence, whereas men have traditionally occupied the majority of
these positions. This difference in representation has persisted throughout history. 13 Initially,
men were labeled as bread earners and women as care givers. The debate between public-private,
mental-material, reason-emotion etc. was addressed by the second wave feminists (Carol Hanish
etc,) in the slogan “The personal is political” 14 No issue/problem is personal. All personal
problems are political problems. Hence, there is no personal solution rather collective action for
collective solution. An increase in the number of significant positions that women are taking on
across a wide range of human endeavours has been brought about as a direct consequence of the
progress that has been made towards gender equality. 15 Nature maintains the balance but the
imbalance is purely manmade or because of intervention by men for their self -interest. Hence,
women must be included in societal structures in a manner that is both accurate and
proportionate within those institutions for humankind to continue to thrive and survive. Further,
the most significant obstacle that prevents women from advancing in their jobs for top positions
in corporations is the multiple interruptions that are associated with parenting The lack of women
in positions of authority not only shows adversity and a lack of empowerment, but it also
contributes to the continuation of gender stereotypes, patriarchy and impedes the advancement of

13
Hartsock, N. (1990). Foucault on power: a theory for women? Feminism/postmodernism, p.162

14
Alice Ginsberg, (20008),The Evolution 0f American Women’s Studies: reflections on triumphs, controversies and
change, New York, p. 69
15
C.Cockburn (1991) In the way of women: Men’s resistance to sex equality in organisations (No.18), Cornell
University Press.

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gender equality. The lack of women in authority positions leads to the lack of women
empowerment..
Place of Authority
In the context of a particular profession or industry, the term "occupational power" 16 refers to the
ability to exert authority or influence on subordinates within that profession or sector. The
positions that are part of this category can range from those of significant national leaders or
chief executive officers (CEOs) of businesses to those of club members or members of very
small, informal groupings. The government, industry, business, science, academia, media, non-
governmental organisations and other sectors of society are all examples where formal settings
are prevalent.

The Academics
Within the realm of academia, there exists a significant disparity between the recognition and
achievements of female academics and those of their male peers. 17 There is a huge gender gap in
several departments, particularly in the subjects of science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM), where the number of males significantly surpasses the number of females.
This is especially true in the STEM fields. 18 Women obtaining tenure and advancing to higher-
ranking or more prominent positions is lower than the male employees achieving the same goals
simultaneously. Most of the tedious works related to academia are assigned to women where as
women are the least represented in the work related to finance. It is for this reason that, even
though there has been a marginal rise in the number of women being hired for academic
positions, the majority of this expansion has been seen in lower-level positions. 19 To promote the
cause of gender equality in the future, it is vital to increase the number of women in academic
institutions.
Additional elements

16
Thornton J, (2010), “Positions of Power”, Mechanical Engineering.132 (1): pp. 42-45
17
Clark S. M., & Corcoran,M. (1986), Perspectives in the professional socialization of women faculty: A case of
accumulative disadvantage? Journal of Higher Education, 57(1), pp. 20-43

18
Story, M. O. T., & Academia, W. I., (2005). Women faculty make little progress. Education, 83(44), pp.38-39
19
Winkler, J. A. (2000). Focus Section: Women in Geography in the 21st Century: Faculty Reappointment, Tenure
and Promotion: Barriers for Women. The Professional Geographer.52(4),pp.737-750

6
Beyond the gender difference, there are a great number of additional factors that contribute to the
differentiation in the distribution of power. These factors include, but are not limited to,
ethnicity, class, sexuality, age, and others. When they are considered in conjunction with gender
differences, these factors become even more important than they already were. According to the
conclusions of a study that was published in the Journal of the National Association of Social
Workers, the "simultaneous impact of racism and sexism" hurts the mental well-being of
individuals and restricts the options that are open to them during their lifetime.20
Reservations for Women as an Equity Measure

Adoption of some equity measures may bring equality in the society. Some nations have decided
to establish reservation policies that require a certain minimum number of women to hold elected
posts/jobs within the government. Overall, the reservation system has been successful in
expediting the inclusion of a higher number of women into governmental institutions, which has
led to an increase in the prevalence of female representation. When it comes to meeting
reservation standards, several countries that have effectively adopted reservation systems have
recently outperformed countries that have traditionally been more gender-representative. This is
the case in terms of satisfying quota requirements.21 On the other hand, reservation systems are
not completely free of the possibility of negative consequences, and there is an ongoing debate
on the efficiency of representation.
India
An important component that was introduced by the new Companies Act of India is that every
defined type of company in India must have at least one female member on its Board of
Directors. The provision in question can be interpreted as a revolutionary step taken by the
Government of India to empower women working in the corporate sector of India. This would
ultimately result in the enhancement and encouragement of their contributions to the economic
development of the country. Women, in comparison to men, had more restricted access to food,
which engages them in doing some unethical practices. As a direct result of this, a significant
number of women and girls who were living in poverty at the time ended up going to brothels.
Govt. of India has already taken some initiatives in this regard. One-third of all seats for women

20
Gutierrez L.M.(1990), Working with Women of Color: An empowerment perspective, Social Work,35(2)pp.149-
153
21
Kang, Alice (March 2008), The global impact of quotas on the fast track to increased female legislative
representation, Comparative Political Studies. 41 (3): 338–361

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in Lok Sabha, State Lagislative Assembly, Legislative Assembly of the National Capital
Territory of Delhi, including those reserved for SCs and STS by introducing 33% reservations
for girls/women. A deep analysis of the issue will show that how men are taking all the political
decisions in the name of women. The implementation of right to property for girl child is highly
questionable because as a male member naturally inherit the property; the same is not the case
with the female folk. She has to run from pillar to post for her legitimate claim.
Religion and Women
Human history, culture and literature are best understood only in association with religion.
Religion is not a mere aggregate of abstract set of beliefs but also something practiced by both
men and women. The individuals particularly women and their social identities are both
impacted by this encounter. At one time, the relationship between gender and religion might
serve to strengthen and maintain gender roles, while at other times it can serve to constrain
gender roles from occurring. It is abundantly evident that religious beliefs and rituals can both
enforce specific gender norms and create opportunities for participants to express their gender.
However, it is a fact that very little importance has been given to women community and their
representation in socio-religious affairs throughout history.

There is not a single definition of religion rather multiple ones. There have been more than 3000
religions practiced across the Globe. We broadly divide religion into
i) Semitic /Abrahamic Religion
ii) Oriental /Indic Religion
It would be really very difficult to see the position of women in each religion. Women and
religion are a subfield of religious studies that focuses on the roles that women play and the
experiences that they have within various religious traditions. This includes both the analysis of
women's participation in religious practices as well as the assessment of female gender roles
throughout the history of religion. The issue of attention that is taken into consideration is the
utilization of religion as a patriarchal instrument to elevate the position and power of men over
women.22 In addition, the notions of religious beliefs depict gender roles in their respective

22
Linda Woodhead, (2002). Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations.
Psychology Press,p-173
8
organizations.23 Therefore, feminists in general and religious feminists in particular examine and
interrogate discriminatory and unequal practices against women within religion, question why
and how the rituals and practices that women engage in are rendered unnoticed.
In Judaism, there is the mention of Adam and Eve 24. The first couple was put in the paradise or
the Garden of Eden. They have to face the consequences when Adam ate the fruit from the tree
of knowledge of good and evil. Both of them thrown to this world and in this way we all are the
fallen angels/animals. In some sense, woman is considered to be temptress who tempted Adam to
eat the fruit. She is the cause of all forms of suffering. This is one of the perspectives of women.
Further, the Jews women completely lose any control over her property and earnings to her
husband as soon as she gets married. This might be one of the reasons for which feminist as a
movement takes place in the western context.
Christianity, the prominent Semitic religion, where it has been said that “ A women shall not
wear a man’s garment nor shall a man put on a woman’s cloak, for whoever does these things is
an abomination to the Lord your God.” 25Women are always depicted in relation to men and the
religious authorities. In the Genesis, it is said that “So God created man in his own image, in the
image of God created he him; male and female, created he them. 26 The idea that men and women
are on equal footing in the eyes of God is a fundamental principle that is central to the religion of
Islam.

Hinduism, the Indic religion, is not an exception to this practice. Gender equality was a practice
in the early Vedic period. There were Brahmabadinis27 (Bidusi) like Gargi, Maitreyi, Alapa,
Ghosa, Swaha, Lopamudra etc. who wrote commentaries on different Upanisads. They were
jivanmuktas. Gradually, gender parity became visible in all the Indic religions, namely, Jainism,
Budhhism and Sanatana Dharma. Gender as a category and gendering as a social practice
becomes central to all religions. It promotes patriarchy and gender roles. In Jainism, it is
mentioned that women cannot obtain liberation without being born as a men in next life. 28 There

Arora, Veenat; Jumar Mishra, Anil (January–June 2016). "Women and Religion: Portrayal of
23

Women in Christianity and Islam", The Journal of Social Understanding. 6 (1): PP,111–146
24
Hendel, Ronald S (2000). "Adam". In David Noel Freedman (ed.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, Eerdmans,
p.18-19
25
Deuteronomy in the Old Testament, Deuteronomy 22:5
26
Cited in Matthew 19:4 and Mark 10:6
27
Cited in’ Vedic Women: Loving, Learned, Lucky!’, Retrieved 2006-12-24
28
C.D. Sharma (2003), A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,p.68

9
is also a mention that women approached Buddha including his mother to give entry to them in
embracing monkhood. There by, Bikhuni Sanghavas organized and came into existence. Buddha
have taken a feminist approach in the modern sense of the term and tried to emancipate women
from the clutches of male dominion. However, logical analysis of some concepts like
‘Ardhangini’ (Better-half), ‘Siva-Sakti’, ‘Ardha Nareswara (Skandha Purana)” etc. explicate the
importance of both male and female. Both male and female energy are required for creation. The
Supreme deity is both the father and the mother at the same time. Further, these concepts
emphasized upon the dissolution of the sectarian practices and the adoption of a totalistic
worldview. Science also proves that all men and women possess cross elements. These concepts
best describe the coexistence of men & women working for the benefit of the Universe. Further,
the function of a Hindu woman within the context of the family and community has experienced
significant shifts over the course of history. Most of these shifts have taken place as a result of
several different circumstances like patriarchal attitude, power game, and repeated invasions by
foreign invaders, Colonial rules, Cultural impositions, lack of education and many more. We can
cite the concept of ‘double blindness’ by saying “Religion is gender blind and gender is religion
blind.”29 Who (religion/patriarchy) is influencing whom is a million dollar question.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the interface between gender, power, and religion is a complex and dynamic
terrain that encompasses historical legacies, contested interpretations, and ongoing struggles for
equality and justice. Religious beliefs and practices have both reflected and perpetuated gender
hierarchies, while gender dynamics and power relations have influenced religious institutions
and interpretations. Efforts to challenge patriarchal norms, promote gender equality, and foster
intersectional perspectives within religious contexts are essential for creating more inclusive and
equitable religious communities. Religion is not to be treated as an obstacle rather an opportunity
to understand the feminists and to interprete the female forces, their inner fears and realize their
inner worth. It’s time to re-understand religion, re-interpret scriptures, continued dialogue,
advocacy, and activism are needed to create religious spaces that affirm the dignity, agency, and
equality of all individuals, regardless of gender or other social identities.

29
U.King & Tina Beattie (2005), Gender, Religion And Diversity – Cross Cultural Perspectives (Ed.),Continuum,
London,p .67

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