(CBSE) Atoms

Chapter-7
ATOMS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The structure of matter that shapes the world around us has been a subject of study since long.
The first contribution came from Dalton, who postulated that matter is made of atoms, which are
indivisible. J.J. Thomson proposed a structure for the atom, which was modified by Rutherford
and later by Niels Bohr. In this unit, we shall discuss these models of atoms in some detail.
The phenomenon of ‘Radioactivity’ has probably played the most significant role in the development
of both, the atomic and nuclear Physics. We shall study important aspects of this phenomenon.
Further, nuclear reactions provide useful information regarding interaction of nuclei. This led us to
the phenomena of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion whereby the vast reservoirs of nuclear energy
were discovered.
7.2 RUTHERFORD’S -RAY SCATTERING EXPERIMENT
S is a speck of radioactive source contained in a lead cavity. The alpha particles emitted by the
source are collimated into a narrow beam with the help of the lead slit (collimator). The collimated
beam is allowed to fall on a thin gold foil. The -particles scattered in different directions are
observed through a rotatable detector consisting of a zinc sulphide screen and a microscope. These
are observed in the microscope and counted at different angles from the direction of incidence of
the beam. The angle of deviation of an alpha particle from the original direction is called its
scattering angle .

Fig. 7.1.

Observations. A graph is plotted between the scattering angle and the number of -particles
N ( ), scattered at for a very large number of -particles. This is shown in figure below.

Fig. 7.2.

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(i) most of the alpha particles pass straight through the gold foil. It means they do not suffer any
collision with gold atoms.
(ii) only about 0.14% of incident a particles scatter by more than 1º.
(iii) about one particle in every 8000 particles deflect by more than 90º.
Explanation. This led Rutherford to postulate that the entire positive charge of the atom must be
concentrated in a tiny central core of the atom. The tiny central core of each atom was called
atomic nucleus.
An alpha particle (1), tending to collide head on with the nucleus, slows down due to repulsive
force of the nucleus, finally stops and is then repelled back. This particle, therefore, retraces its
path, scattering through 180º

Fig. 7.3.

Alpha particles 2, 2´ tending to hit the nucleus at its periphery, experience strong repulsive forces
and get scattered through large angles ( > 90º).
The alpha particles 3, 3´ which pass at a distance from the nucleus experience small repulsive
forces and get scattered through small angles. The particles which pass at still larger distances
from the nucleus go almost undeviated.
7.3 DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH (SIZE OF NUCLEUS)
To calculate the nuclear dimensions from the scattering experiment, Rutherford assumed the
following :
(i) The atomic nucleus is so heavy that its motion during the impact is disregarded.
(ii) The nucleus and the alpha particle both are taken as point charges having no dimensions.
(iii) The scattering is due to elastic collision between nucleus and -particle.
Suppose an -particle with initial kinetic energy E is directed towards the centre of the nucleus
of an atom. On account of Coulomb’s repulsive force between nucleus and alpha particle, kinetic
energy of alpha particle goes on decreasing and in turn, electric potential energy of the particle
goes on increasing. At a certain distance r0 from the nucleus, K.E. of -particle reduces to zero.
The particle stops and it cannot go closer to the nucleus. It is repelled by the nucleus and therefore
it retraces its path, turning through 180º. Therefore, the distance r0 is known as the distance of
closest approach. At this distance, the entire K.E. of particle is converted into electric potential
energy.
Now, charge on particle, q1 = +2e
charge on nucleus, q2 = +Ze,
where Z is the atomic number of material of the foil and +e is charge on a proton.
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Electric potential at distance r0 due to the nucleus

Ze
= ... (i)
4 0 0r
1
where 9 109 Nm 2 C 2 .
4 0
Potential energy of alpha particle at this distance (r0) from the nucleus = potential × charge

Ze Ze(2e)
= (2e) ... (ii)
4 r
0 0 4 0 r0
Kinetic energy of alpha particle of mass m moving with velocity v is
1 2
E mv ... (iii)
2
If we neglect the loss of energy due to interaction of particle with the electrons, then at the
distance of closest approach, as K.E. P.E.
1 2 Ze(2e)
mv
2 4 0 r0
Ze(2e)
r0
1 ... (iv)
4 0 mv 2
2
Obviously, the radius of the nucleus must be smaller than the calculated value of r0, as an alpha
particle cannot touch the periphery of the nucleus on account of strong repulsion.

Example: 7.1
In the original experiment, Geiger and Marsden calculated the distance of closest approach to the
gold nucleus (Z = 79) – of a 7.7 MeV particle before it comes momentarily to rest and reverses its
direction. What is its value ?
Solution :
In the original experiment,
K.E. of particle
1 2
E mv 7.7 MeV = 7.7 × 1.6 × 10–13 joule
2
i.e. E = 1.2 × 10–12 joule
Z = 79 for gold and
e = 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb.
From (4),
1 ( Ze)(2e)
r0
4 0 1 mv 2
2
9 19 2
9 10 79 2(1.6 10 )
r0
1.2 10 12
9 79 2 1.6 1.6 10 29
r0
1.2 10 12
r0 = 3.0 × 10–14 m = 30 fermi

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7.4 IMPACT PARAMETER

Impact parameter is defined as the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector by the alpha
particle from the central line of the nucleus, when the particle is far away from the nucleus of the
atom.
1 Ze 2 cot / 2
b ... (v)
4 0 E

Example: 7.2
Calculate the impact parameter of a 5 MeV alpha particle scattered by 10º when it approaches a
gold nucleus. Take Z = 79 for gold.
Solution :

1 2
Here, K .E. mv 5 MeV = 5 × 1.6 × 10–13 J, = 10º, Z = 79, b = ?
2

Ze 2 cot / 2
As b
1
4 0 mv 2
2

9 109 79(1.6 10 19 ) 2 cot 5º

b
5 1.6 10 13
16
9 79 1.6 1.6 10
= (tan 5º = 0.0875)
8 0.0875
b = 2.6 × 10–13 m

7.5 RUTHERFORD’S ATOM MODEL

1. Every atom consists of a tiny central core called the atomic nucleus, in which the entire positive
charge and almost entire mass of the atom are concentrated.
2. The size of nucleus of the order of 10–15 m, which is very small as compared to the size of the
atom which is of the order of 10–10 m.
3. The atomic nucleus is surrounded by certain number of electrons. As atom on the whole is
electrically neutral, the total negative charge of electrons surrounding the nucleus is equal to total
positive charge on the nucleus.
4. These electrons revolve around the nucleus in various circular orbits as do the planets around the
sun. The centripetal force required by electron for revolution is provided by the electrostatic force
of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus.

7.6 LIMITATIONS OF RUTHERFORD ATOM MODEL

In Rutherford atom model, an electron is revolving around the nucleus and is constantly experiencing
a centripetal force. As the revolving electron loses energy continuously, it must spiral inwards and
eventully fall into the nucleus.
Frequency of em waves emitted must change continuously. Therefore, atoms should emit continuous
spectrum, but what we observe only a line spectrum.

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7.7 ATOMIC SPECTRA

When an atomic gas or vapour at low pressure is excited usually by passing an electric current
through it, the gas/vapour emits radiations of certain specific wavelengths only. A spectrum of
this kind is called Line emission spectrum and it consists of a few bright lines on a dark background.

When white light is passed through the same gas/vapour, we observe a bright background crossed
by a few dark lines signifying the missing wavelengths or the wavelengths that are absorbed by
the gas. They form the line absorption spectrum. It was found that missing wavelengths are the
same as the wavelengths present in the emission spectrum of the gas/vapour.

The fact that every gas/vapour has its own characteristic line emission/absorption spectrum shows
that the line spectra serve as finger prints for identification of the gas.

7.8 SPECTRAL SERIES

The spacing between lines within certain sets of the hydrogen spectrum decreases in a regular
way. Each of these sets is called a spectral series.

Fig. 7.4.

Lyman series was discovered in the ultraviolet region of the hydrogen spectrum. It was represented
by

1 1 1
R , where n = 2, 3, 4, ...
l2 n2
Paschen Series was discovered in the infrared region of the hydrogen spectrum. It was represented
1 1 1
by R .
32 n2
Another spectrum, called Brackett series was discovered in the infrared region of hydrogen
spectrum. It was represented by

1 1 1
R , where n = 5, 6, 7, ...
42 n2
And in far infrared region of hydrogen spectrum, there was yet another spectral series called
Pfund series, represented by

1 1 1
R , where n = 6, 7, 8, ...
52 n2

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Example: 7.3
Using the Rydberg formula, calculate the wavelengths of the first four spectral lines in the Lyman
series of the hydrogen spectrum.
Solution :
From Rydberg’s formula,
hc 19 1 1
13.6 1.6 10
n12 n22
hc
19 1 1
21.76 10
n12 n22
For Lyman series, n1 = 1,

6.6 10 34
3 108 0.9134 n22
= 2
10 7 metre
19 1 1 (n2 1)
21.76 10
1 n22

913.4 n22
Å
( n22 1)
Put n2 = 2, 3, 4, 5 to get = 1218 Å; 974.3 Å and 951.4 Å.
Example: 7.4
Using Bohr’s formula for energy quantization determine
(i) the longest wavelength in Lyman series of hydrogen atom spectrum.
(ii) the excitation energy of the n = 3 level of He+ atom
(iii) the ionization potential of the ground state of Li++ atom
Solution :
(i) According to Bohr, the wavelength emitted when an electron jumps from n1th to n2th orbit is
hc 2 2 mK 2 e 4 1 1
E E2 E1
h2 n12 n22
1 2 2 mK 2 e 4 1 1
or ch3 n12 n22
ch3
1 1
2 2 mK 2 e4
n12 n22
In Lyman series, n1 = 1
For longest wavelength, n2 = 2

ch3 4 ch3 4 3 108 (6.6 10 34 )3

=
2 1 2 4 6 2 mK 2 e 4 6 (22 / 7) 2 9.1 10 31 (9 109 ) 2 (1.6 10 19 4
)
2 mK e 1
4

= 1.210 × 10–7 m = 1210 Å.

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(ii) Energy required to excite the electron from the ground state (n = 1) to n = 3 level of He+ atom
(Z = 2) is
2 2 mZ 2 K 2 e4 1 1 2 (22 / 7) 2 9.1 10 31 4 (9 109 ) 2 (1.6 10 19 4
) 8
E3 E1 =
h2 12 32 (6.6 10 34 )2 9
77.44 10 19
= 77.44 × 10 –19
joule = eV 48.4 eV .
1.6 10 19
(iii) Ionisation energy of ground state of Li++ atom.
Li atom has 3 electrons, out of which 2 are in first orbit and 1 is in 2nd orbit. Li++ atom is
doubly ionised i.e., two electrons are already removed. The third electron has to be removed
from n1 = 1 to n2 = .
2 2 mZ 2 K 2 e4 1 1
E 2 2 2
.
h 1
E = 122.7 eV
Ionisation potential = 122.7 volt

7.9 BOHR MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM

1. Every atom consists of a central core called nucleus, in which entire positive charge and almost
entire mass of the atom are concentrated. A suitable number of electrons (having as much
negative charge as the positive charge on the nucleus) revolve around the nucleus in circular
orbits. The centripetal force required for revolution is provided by the electrostatic force of
attraction between the electron and the nucleus.
If m is the mass of electron moving with a velocity v in a circular orbit of radius r, then the
necessary centripetal force is
mv 2
F
r
Also, the electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus of charge (+Ze) and electron
of charge (–e) is
1 ( Ze)(e) KZe 2
F
4 0 r2 r2

1
where, K
4 0
2 2
mv KZe
... (i)
r r2
2. Bohr’s second postulate defines these stable orbits.
According to Bohr, electron can revolve only in certain discrete non radiating orbits, called
stationary orbits, for which total angular momentum of the revolving electron is an integral
multiple of h/2 , where h is Planck’s constant.
Thus the angular momentum of the orbiting electron is quantised.
As angular momentum of electron = mvr,
nh
for any permitted (stationary) orbit mvr ... (ii)
2

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3. The emission/absorption of energy occurs only when an electron jumps from one of its specified
non-radiating orbit to another. The difference in the total energy of electron in the two permitted
orbits is absorbed when the electron jumps from inner to the outer orbit, and emitted when
electron jumps from outer to the inner orbit.
If E1 is total energy of electron in an inner stationary orbit and E2 is its total energy in an
outer stationary orbit, then frequency v of radiation emitted on jumping from outer to inner
orbit is given by
hv = E2 – E1 ... (iii)
(a) Radii of Bohr’s stationary orbits
nh nh
From (ii), mvr , or v
2 2 mr
m n2 h 2 KZe 2
Put in (i),
r 4 2 m2 r 2 r2
n2h2
or r ... (iv)
4 2 mKZe 2
for hydrogen atom, Z = 1
n2 h 2
r ... (v)
4 2 mKe 2
(b) Velocity of electron in Bohr’s stationary orbit
KZe 2
From (i), r
mv 2
nh
From (ii), r
2 mv
KZe 2 nh
mv 2 2 mv

2 KZe 2
or v ... (vi)
nh
For hydrogen atom, Z = 1

2 Ke 2
v ... (vii)
nh
(c) Total energy of electron in Bohr’s stationary orbit
The energy of electron revolving in a stationary orbit is of two types :
Kinetic energy which is due to velocity and potential energy which is due to position of
electron.
mv 2 KZe 2
From the first postulate of Bohr’s atom model,
r r2
1 2 1 KZe 2
mv
2 2 r
1 2 KZe 2
i.e. K.E. of electron = mv ... (viii)
2 2r

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KZe
Potential due to the nucleus, in the orbit in which electron is revolving =
r

KZe( e) KZe 2
Potential energy of electron = potential × charge =
r r

n2h2 2 2 K 2 Z 2 e4
Putting r , we get, E ... (ix)
4 2 mKZe 2 n 2 h2
Substituting the standard values, we get

21.76 19 21.76 10 19 Z 2
E 10 joule = eV
n2 n2 1.6 10 19

13.6 Z 2
E eV ... (x)
n2
For hydrogen atom, Z = 1

13.6
E eV ... (xi)
n2

Example: 7.5
The energy of hydrogen atom in its ground state is –13.6 eV. Determine the energies of those energy
levels whose quantum numbers are 2 and 3.
Solution :
The energy of hydrogen atom when the electron revolves in nth orbit is

13.6
E eV
n2
In the ground state,
n=1

13.6
E 13.6 eV
12

13.6
for n 2, E 3.4 eV
22

13.6
for n 3, E 1.51 eV
32

7.10 ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM

A diagram which represents the total energies of electron in different stationary orbits of an atom
is called the energy level diagram of that atom. In this diagram, total energies of electron in various
stationary orbits are represented by parallel horizontal lines drawn according to some suitable energy
scale.

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n=
n=5 Pfund series
Brackett series
n=4 um
e ctr
n=3 sp
Paschen series - red
ra
Inf

n=2 Balmer series

4000 5000 6000 7000

Wave length
(Å)
Lyman
series
Visible region
Ultra-violet
n=1
spectrum
Line spectrum of hydrogen
Fig. 7.5.

Total energy of electron in nth orbit of hydrogen atom is

2 2 mK 2 e 4
E ... (i)
n2h2
On substituting the standard values, we get
13.6
E eV ... (ii)
n2
Putting n = 1, 2, 3, ... we get the energies of electrons in various stationary orbits as :
13.6
E1 13.6 eV
12
13.6
E2 3.4 eV
22
13.6
E3 1.51 eV
32
13.6
E4 0.85 eV
42
13.6
E5 0.54 eV
52
13.6
E6 0.37 eV
62
13.6
E7 0.28 eV
72
Clearly, as n increases, En becomes less negative until at n = , En = 0.
7.11 DE BROGLIE’S EXPLANATION OF BOHR’S SECOND
POSTULATE OF QUANTIZATION
The second postulate of Bohr atom model says that angular momentum of electron orbiting around
nh
the nucleus is quantized, i.e., mvr , where n = 1, 2, 3.
2
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According to de Broglie, a stationary orbit is that which contains an integral number of de Broglie
waves associated with the revolving electron.
For an electron revolving in nth circular orbit of radius rn,
total distance covered = circumference of the orbit = 2 rn
For the permissible orbit, 2 rn = n

h
According to de Broglie,
mvn
where vn is speed of electron revolving in nth orbit.

nh
2 rn
mvn
nh
or mvn rn n (h / 2 )
2
i.e., angular momentum of electron revolving in nth orbit must be an integral multiple of h/2 ,
which is the quantum condition proposed by Bohr in second postulate.
7.12 LIMITATIONS OF BOHR’S THEORY
1. This theory is applicable only to simplest atom like hydrogen, which Z = 1. The theory fails in
case of atoms of other elements for which Z > 1.
2. The theory does not explain why orbits of electrons are taken as circular, while elliptical orbits
are also possible.
3. Bohr’s theory does not explain the fine structure of spectral lines even in hydrogen atom.
4. Bohr’s theory does not say anything about the relative intensities of spectral lines.
5. Bohr’s theory does not take into account the wave properties of electrons.
7.13 EXCITATION AND IONISATION POTENTIALS
1. This process in which absorption of energy by an electron takes the electron from an inner
orbit to some outer orbit of higher energy is called excitation. The minimum accelerating
potential which provides an electron energy sufficient to jump from the inner most orbit (ground
state) to one of the outer orbits is called excitation potential or resonance potential.
2. Ionisation is the phenomenon of removal of an electron from the outermost orbit of an atom.
The minimum accelerating potential which would provide an electron energy sufficient just to
remove it from the atom is called ionisation potential.

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 EXERCISE
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
1. In Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom, what is the implication of the fact that the potential energy is
negative and is greater in magnitude than the kinetic energy.
2. Write the relation for (i) the distance of closest approach and (ii) impact parameter.
3. Write an empirical relation for Paschen series lines of hydrogen spectrum.
4. Define distance of closest approach and impact parameter.
5. What is the impact parameter for scattering of -particle by 180º ?
6. What are the limitations of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom ?
7. Distinguish between excitation potential and ionisation potential.
8. Describe Rutherford atom model. What are the drawbacks of this model ?
9. State the basic postulates of Bohr’s theory of atomic spectra. Hence obtain an expression for radius of
orbit and the energy of orbital electron in hydrogen atom.
10. Show that Bohr’s second postulate “The electron revolves around the nucleus only in certain fixed
orbits without radiating energy” can be explain on the basis of de-Broglie hypothesis of wave nature of
electron.

HIGH ORDER THINKING (HOTs)

1. For scattering of a-particles at large angles, only the nucleus of the atom is responsible, explain why ?
2. What would happen if the electrons in an atom were stationary ?
3. Using Bohr’s formula of energy quantization, determine
(i) the longest wavelength in Lyman series of hydrogen atom spectrum.
(ii) the excitation energy of the n = 3 level of He+ atom.
(iii) the ionization potential of the ground state of Li++ atom.
4. Which state of the triply ionized Be++ has the same orbital radius as that of the ground state of hydrogen?
Compare the energies of two states.
5. Which level of the doubly ionized lithium has the same energy as the ground state energy of the hydrogen
atom ? Compare the orbital radii of the two levels.
6. Determine the speed of electron in n = 3 orbit of He+. Is the non relativistic approximation valid ?
7. Name the series of hydrogen spectrum lying in the infrared region.
8. The electron in the hydrogen atom passes from the n = 4 energy level to the n = 1 level. What is the
maximum number of photons that can be emitted and minimum number ?

NUMERICALABILITY
1. An alpha particle is scattered through an angle of 10º on passing through a thin foil of copper (Z = 29).
If energy of the particle is 5 MeW, what is the impact parameter ?

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2. An alpha particle of energy 4 MeV is scattered through 180º by a gold foil (Z = 79). Calculate the
maximum volume in which positive charge of the atom is likely to be concentrated ?
3. Determine the radius of the first orbit of hydrogen atom. What would be the velocity and frequency of
electron in this orbit ? Given : h = 6.62 × 10–34 Js, m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg; e = 1.6 × 10–19 C, K = 9 × 109
Nm2C–2.
4. The wavelength of K line for copper is 1.36 Å. Calculate the ionisation potential of a K shell electron
in copper.
5. The ionisation potential of hydrogen is 13.6 volt. Calculate the energy of its first excited state.
6. The energy of an electron in an excited hydrogen atom is –3.4 eV. Calculate the angular momentum of
the electron according to Bohr’s theory. Planck’s constant h = 6.626 × 10–34 Js.
7. The energy of an electron in nth orbit is given by En = –13.6/n2 eV. Calculate the energy required to take
an electron from ground state of the second excited state.

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 ANSWERS
HIGH ORDER THINKING (HOTs)
3. (i) 1210 Å, (ii) 48.4 eV, (iii) 122.7 volt
4. 4
5. 3
6. 0.048

NUMERICALABILITY
1. 0.95 × 10–13 m
2. 7.7 × 10–40 m3
3. 0.53 Å, 2.19 × 106 ms–1, 6.6 × 1015 Hz
4. 1.22 × 104 V
5. –3.4 eV
6. 2.11 × 10–34 Js
7. 12.09 eV

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