CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY

Changes are expected to occur through a period of time among populations, this is rooted from the idea of organic
evolution (descent with modification) as described by Charles Darwin.
This module tackles the ideas about evolutionary change before the work of Charles Darwin has been released and
presents the modern version of Darwin8s theory based on the current genetic principles. The terms microevolution and
macroevolution are differentiated and also looks into macroevolution8s sources of evidence.

Lesson 1: History of Evolution

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744 to 1829), French naturalist who offered the first scientific explanation of
evolution. Lamarck's hypothesis that evolution proceeds by inheritance of acquired characteristics has been rejected and
replaced by neo-Darwinian theories.
Pre-Darwinian Theories of Change
Empedocles and Aristotle

● living organisms undergo changes through time

Georges-Louis Buffon

● specific organs of related animals have structural variations; change in organisms is brought about by action of the
environment; there is special creation of species, so change is degenerate (e.g. apes as degenerate humans)

Erasmus Darwin

● all organisms share a common ancestor

Jean Baptiste Lamarck

● basis of his theory is the widely accepted theory of inheritance during his time (need is the driving force to develop
new organs, or modify existing organ) on the other hand, disuse leads to degeneration of organs.
● Species could not become extinct; it simply evolves into different species is his conclusion.

Lesson 2: Darwin's Theory of Evolution

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection (Modern version of Darwin’s theory)
1. Greater reproductive potential is an attribute of all organisms;
2. Occurrence of inherited variations
● result from mutation, genetic recombination and random fertilization
● genetic variations can either be helpful, harmful or neutral to the individual and eventually passed on to offspring;
1. Survival is a constant struggle due to inadequate resources;
2. In succeeding generations, adaptive traits are commonly observed
● adaptive traits encourage successful reproduction while maladaptive traits are less likely to reproduce, so in the
population, it has decreased recurrence.
CHAPTER 2: The Evidence of Evolution

Microevolution

● alleles rate of recurrence changes through time;

● eventually leads to large-scale changes.
Macroevolution

● large-scale changes whose consequence is extinction and formation of new species

Sources of Evidence for Macroevolution
Biogeography

● study plants and animals’ geographic distribution;

● evolutionary histories are unique to particular life-forms;
● create and remove barriers to plants and animals’ movement are geological events such as volcanic
activity, movement of great landmasses, climatic changes and geological uplift;
● the world is divided into six major biogeographic regions.

Biogeographic Regions of the World. Hamiers, such as

oceans, mountain ranges, and deserts, separate biogeographic regions of the world. (a) The Sahara and Arabian
Desorts separate the Ethiopian and Palearctic regions, (b) the Himalayan Mountains separate the Palearctic and
Oriental regions, deep ocean channels separate the Oriental and Australian regions, and of the mountains of
southem Mexico and Mexico's tropical lowlands separate the Nearctic and Neotropical regions
Paleontology

● focuses on the fossil record;

● fossils are evidence of past plants and animals that became part of the earth’s crust;
● fossil record presents the sequences of appearance and disappearance organisms.

Four examples of fossil material. A, Fish fossil from rocks of the Green River Formation, Wyoming Such fish swam
here during the Eocene opoch of the Tertiary period, approximately 50 million years ago. B. Stalked crinoids from Devonian
rocks. The fossil record of these schinoderms shows that they reached their peak millions of years earlier and began a slow
decline to the present. C, an insect fossil that got stuck in the rain of a tree approximately 25 million years ago and that has
since hardened into amber D, Electron micrograph of tissue from a fly fossilized an shown in C; the nucleus of a call is marked
in red.

CHAPTER 3: continuation The Evidence of Evolution

Sources of Evidence for Macroevolution (Continuation)
Analogy and Homology

▪ Analogous
▪ brought about by convergent evolution;
▪ similar structures in organisms that are not related
Example: Wings (with flat and gliding surfaces) of birds and insects
▪ Homologous
▪ similar structures and processes in two kinds of organisms with a shared ancestry.

▪ Comparative Anatomy
▪ emphasizes on the structure of living and fossilized animals and their homologies.
Example: Common arrangement of bones in vertebrate appendages
Forelimbs of five vertebrates show skeletal homologies. Clear homologies of bones and patterns of
connection are evident despite evolutionary modification for different functions.
Example: Similar early embryonic stages of vertebrates

Comparison of pharyngeal arches of different embryos. All are shown separated from the
yolk sac. Note the remarkable similarity of the four embryos at this early stage in development.
Molecular Biology

▪ genetic change and evolution lead to changes in anatomical structures and physiological processes.

CHAPTER 4: VERTEBRATES & INVERTEBRAE

This module presents the invertebrate and vertebrate animals, their organ and organ system. It also illustrates the
anatomical similarities and differences of different animals including humans. Frog is the specimen in the laboratory to
study the 11 organ systems.
 We are all familiar with many of the organ systems that comprise the body of advanced animals: such as
the circulatory system, nervous system, etc. More of us are aware of the essential nature of the immune system in these
days of HIV, AIDS, and emergent viral diseases such as COVID-19. Later chapters will focus on animals, such as sponges
that have no organs at all, and other organisms that lack many of the organ systems we take for granted. Recall that in
the Introduction (Links to an external site.) chapter we discussed the levels of organization we see in foundations of
zoology, from atoms to organ systems that makeup a multicellular organism. We have also seen somewhat of the myriad
cells and tissues that occur in humans (and by extension in other animals). This chapter will introduce you to the eleven
organ systems that function within our own bodies, and how they coordinate to keep us functioning within a dynamic range
of internal conditions we refer to as homeostasis.

Integumentary System
The Integumentary System
The integumentary system is the body system which surrounds you, both literally and
metaphorically speaking. If you look in the mirror you see it, if you look anywhere on your body you see and if
you look around you in the outside world, you see it. It is the system that can instantly tell us whether someone
is young or old, someone8s ethnicity or race or if he/she has been on holidays recently.
It also protects us a great deal from harm and allows us to sense our surrounding environment.
Broadly speaking, the integumentary system is composed of skin and its appendages, subcutaneous tissue,
deep fascia, mucocutaneous junctions, and breast.
The skin and accessory structures perform a variety of essential functions, such as protecting
the body from invasion by microorganisms, chemicals, and other environmental factors; preventing dehydration;
acting as a sensory organ; modulating body temperature and electrolyte balance; and synthesizing vitamin D.
The underlying hypodermis has important roles in storing fats, forming a 5cushion6 over underlying structures,
and providing insulation from cold temperatures.
The integumentary system is composed of the following parts:
1. Skin
2. Skin appendages (Hairs, Nails, Sweat glands, Sebaceous glands)
3. Subcutaneous tissue and deep fascia
4. Mucocutaneous junctions
5. Breasts
Skin - The skin is the largest component of this system.
▪ It is an extensive sensory organ, which forms an outer, protective coat around the entire external surface
of the body. In fact, it is the largest organ of the human body, covering an area of 2 square meters. It has
a thickness between 1.5 and 5 mm, depending on location.
Lesson 1: The Integumentary and Skeletal System

▪ Integument came from the Latin word that means to cover. (Skin)
▪ It includes accessory organs such as hair, feather, scales, claws, hoofs etc.
Skin Glands
 1. Sweat Glands
▪ Respond differently to heat and FISHES nervous state and respond
to emotional and sensory stimuli.

2. Sebaceous Glands or Oil Glands

▪ Found in the skin of mammals and these glands secrete sebum.
3. Ceruminous glands
▪ Are involved in skin problems such as acne and keratosis pilaris.
4. Mammary glands
▪ are the organs that, in the female mammal, produce milk for the
sustenance of the young.

Amphibians

Are transitional between aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates.

• 2 layers: Epidermis- Stratified epidermis with thin stratum corneum and very little keratin; Leydig
cells. Dermis- with chromatophores, poison glands and mucous glands. Composed of fibrous
connective tissues.
• Chromatophores- pigment bearing cells.
• Serous glands- poison glands produce toxins.
• Mucous glands- Gas exchange and produce watery substance that makes them slimy and protect
them against predator.
• Scales are rare.
Reptiles
Has two principal layers:

▪ Dermis- Deeper layer of connective tissue with a rich supply of blood vessels and nerves, and the
▪ Epidermis- Consists of up to seven sublayers of closely packed cells.
Thick, lack of glands, and modified into keratinized cells.
Bony Fish
▪ The skin of bony fishes contains scales
▪ Integument of a bony fish showing epidermis, dermis, embedded scale and related structures.

Types of scales
▪ CYCLOID SCALES- concentric ridges-milkfish
▪ CTENOID SCALES- w/spines or ctenoid
▪ GANOID SCALES- rhomboid shape
▪ COMOID SCALES- extinct fish’s dermal armor
▪ PLACOID SCALES- spines directed caudally-sharks, skates

Cartilaginous
⮚ The skin is covered with horny teeth-like scales and on the jaws, these are modified to form teeth.
⮚ Placoid scales or dermal denticles
⮚ Outer enamel; inner dentin
⮚ Epidermis does not cover scales

JAWLESS FISH
▪ the simplest of all fish, and the simplest of all vertebrates.
▪ Include the lampreys and hagfish. These creatures have no jaws. The mouth is surrounded by a large, round
sucker.
Birds
▪ Integumentary system consists of the skin, the feathers and the appendages (claws and beak).
▪ Provide protection to the bird.
▪ Skin is composed of two different tissues:
▪ Connective tissue of the dermis and hypodermis.
▪ Cellular stratified epithelium of the epidermis
Invertebrates Integument

▪ Consist of simple columnar cells.

▪ Thin layer of connective tissue.
▪ Some invertebrates possess CUTICLES that are highly variable structure.

Fishes Amphibians Reptiles Mammals Birds

Epidermis -very thin w/ 2 - with thin stratum - epidermal scale, with Epiderm - thin
types of cell: corneum and thick outer layer
is with 5 layers: and blayered
+epidermal cells very little of keratin. - Compris es of:
+unicellular glands keratin leydig cells. corneum -
-lucidum corneum
-mucous cuticle on Granolos um -basale
suface. -
spinosu m
- basale
Dermis -contains -with -with Wellvasculari Wellvasculari
chromatoph ores - chromatoph ores, chromatoph zed and zed and
organized into poison glands and ores in many. May innervate d - innervate d
regular layers of mucous glands. possess Osteoderm outer papillary -richly supplied
fibrous connective s. layer by blood
tissue. -composed of - fibrous - deeper reticular vessels,
fibrous connective tissues layer. sensory nerves
connective and smooth
tissues. muscles.

CHAPTER 5: SKELETAL SYSTEM

The Skeletal System
The skeleton is the supporting structure of an organism. There are three different types of skeletons:
hydrostatic skeletons, endoskeletons and exoskeletons.
Hydrostatic skeleton:
A hydrostatic skeleton is a structure found in many cold-blooded and soft-bodied organisms. It consists of a
fluid-filled cavity, which is surrounded by muscles. The cavity is called a coelom and in some animals this cavity is filled with
a blood-like substance called haemocoel. The fluid presses against the muscles, which in turn contract against the pressure
of the fluid. The fluid is incompressible and thus maintains a constant volume against which the muscles can contract. The
hydrostatic skeleton prevents the collapse of the body. The muscles in the body act against the fluid and in doing so bring
about movement. If the body is segmented, the pressure of the fluid is localised in a few segments at a time. Hydrostatic
skeletons occur in flatworms, round worms, earthworms, starfish and slugs.
Exoskeleton:
An exoskeleton is an external skeleton that supports and protects an animal's body. The skeleton is non-living and
consists of a cuticle strengthened by chitin, a substance secreted by the epidermis (skin). Crustaceans such as crabs have
their exoskeleton further strengthened by calcium carbonate. There are muscles attached to the inside of the exoskeleton
which provides the resistance needed for muscle action. The exoskeleton is confined to animals such as insects, spiders,
scorpions, crabs etc., all of which belong to the Phylum Arthropoda (jointed-legged and jointed-bodied animals). The
exoskeleton acts as a hard-outer covering, and is made up of a series of plates or tubes. We often call large exoskeletons.
Endoskeleton:
An endoskeleton consists of hard, mineralized structures located within the soft tissue of
organisms. An example of a primitive endoskeletal structure is the spicule of sponges. The bones of vertebrates
are composed of tissues, whereas sponges have no true tissues. Endoskeletons provide support for the body,
protect internal organs, and allow for movement through contraction of muscles attached to the skeleton.

Skeletal System

The skeletal system is all the bony tissues in an animal8s body. It is a structural framework that provides
support and protection to the animal organs and body.
Functions of the Skeletal System

▪ Giving the body shape and form,

▪ Protecting vital organs,
▪ Allowing for body movement,
▪ Storing minerals, and
▪ Serving as a site for formation of blood cells.
3 kinds of skeletons

▪ hydrostatic skeletons
▪ exoskeletons
▪ endoskeletons
HYDROSTATIC SKELETONS

▪ Fluid-filled internal body. - the most common skeletal system used by animals for movement and support.
o very common in invertebrates.
▪ usually comprise both circular and longitudinal muscle fibers, and their shapes are typically cylindrical.
Animals with hydrostatic skeletons
▪ Earthworm, Jelly Fish, Starfish, and anemone
Exoskeletons

▪ Gr. exo, outside + skeleton

 ▪ Hard, thick, outer covering made of protein and chitin.
▪ provide sites for muscle attachment and movements.
▪ prevent internal tissues from drying out.
Arthropods
▪ invertebrate animals that have jointed limbs, a segmented body, and an exoskeleton.
In some species, the exoskeleton is a continuous covering over most of the body. ex. Beetles, and crustaceans
Endoskeletons

▪ Gr. endo, within + skeleton

▪ Consists of hard supporting elements, such as bones, buried in soft tissue
▪ Functions: Protection and support

Vertebrates

▪ Animals with a backbone and an internal skeleton called endoskeleton.

▪ Endoskeleton is composed of cartilage and bone.

Invertebrates

▪ Animals that do not have a backbone. Have soft inner bodies which are held in shape by a flexible or hard covering.
Cartilage

▪ a specialized connective tissue that provides a site for muscle attachment, aids in movement at joints, provide
support, and transmits the force of muscular contraction from one part of the body to another during movement.
▪ Like other connective tissues, it consists of cells (chondrocytes), fibers, and a cellular matrix.
Bone or Osseous tissue

A specialized connective tissue that provides a point of attachment for muscles and transmits the force of
muscular contraction from one part of the body to another during movement.
Store reserve calcium and phosphate, and manufacture red blood cells and some white blood cells.
Tetrapods

▪ four-limbed vertebrates.
▪ lift themselves to walk on land.
▪ Amphibians, Reptiles and Mammals.
▪ Their endoskeleton became modified for support on land.
This added support resulted from the specializations of the invertebral disks that helps hold the vertebral
column together and also absorbs shock and provide joint mobility.
CHAPTER 6: Muscular and Digestive System (Part1)
The Muscular System
Muscles make up the bulk of an animal8s body and account for about half its weight. The meat on the chop or roast
is muscle and is composed mainly of protein. The cells that make up muscle tissue are elongated and able to contract to a
half or even a third of their length when at rest. There are three different kinds of muscle based on appearance and function:
smooth, cardiac and skeletal muscle.
Types of Muscles
Smooth muscle
▪ Smooth or Involuntary muscle carries out the unconscious routine tasks of the body such as moving food
down the digestive system, keeping the eyes in focus and adjusting the diameter of blood vessels. The
individual cells are spindle-shaped, being fatter in the middle and tapering off towards the ends with a
nucleus in the center of the cell. They are usually found in sheets and are stimulated by the nonconscious
or autonomic nervous system as well as by hormones.
Cardiac muscle
▪ Cardiac muscle is only found in the wall of the heart. It is composed of branching fibres that form a three-
dimensional network. When examined under the microscope, a central nucleus and faint stripes or
striations can be seen in the cells. Cardiac muscle cells contract spontaneously and rhythmically without
outside stimulation, but the sinoatrial node (natural pacemaker) coordinates the heartbeat. Nerves and
hormones modify this rhythm.

Skeletal muscle
▪ Skeletal muscle is the muscle that is attached to and moves the skeleton, and is under voluntary control.
It is composed of elongated cells or fibres lying parallel to each other. Each cell is unusual in that it has
several nuclei and when examined under the microscope appears striped or striated. This appearance
gives the muscle its names of striped or striated muscle. Each cell of striated muscle contains hundreds,
or even thousands, of microscopic fibres each one with its own striped appearance. The stripes are
formed by two different sorts of protein that slide over each other making the cell contract.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscle is a band or bundle of fibrous tissue in a human or animal body that has the ability to
contract, producing movement in or maintaining the position of parts of the body.
Terrestrial Locomotion in Invertebrates:
▪ Muscles make up approximately 40 percent of total weight.
▪ The heart is the hardest-working muscle in the body.
▪ The gluteus maximus is the body's largest muscle.
▪ The ear contains the smallest muscles in the body alongside the smallest bones.
▪ A muscle called the masseter in the jaw is the strongest muscle by weight.
Walking
▪ motion in Invertebrates: Walking
 ▪ Has flexible joints, tendons, and muscles that attach rigid skeletal cuticle and form limbs
▪ Examples: arthropods, 3Lobsters, spider: forwards

Water-Vascular System

TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

Skeletal muscle
Cardiac muscle
Smooth muscle

Looping movement 3 arching movements

are equivalent to the contraction of
longitudinal muscle.

FUNCTIONS OF MUSCLE: HUMAN BODY

• Star Fish: along each canal are reservoir ampullae and tube feet. The tube feet extend by hydraulic pressure and
can perform simple step-like motions.
Terrestrial Locomotion in Invertebrates:

Flight

• The physical properties of an arthropods cuticle are such that true flight evolved for pterygote insects some 100
million years ago.
• The basic mechanism for flight has been modified.
• Present day insects exhibit a wide range of structural adaptations and mechanism for flight.
•

Terrestrial Locomotion in Invertebrates: Jumping

• Long legs increase the mechanical advantage of the leg extensor muscle.
Types of Non-muscular movement

• AMOEBOID MOVEMENT with the aid of PSEUDOPODIA (Gr. Pseudes, false + podion, little foot)
As the name suggests, it is first observed in amoebas.
The plasma membrane of an amoeba has adhesive properties since new pseudopodia attach to the
substrate as they form by means of membrane adhesion

• CILIARY AND FLAGELLAR MOVEMENT With the exception of the arthropods, locomotor cilia and flagella occur
in every animal phylum.
Cilia (L. 5eyelashes6) and Flagella (L. 5small whips) are structurally similar but cilia are shorter and more
numerous whereas flagella are long and occur singly or in pairs. Cilia (L. 5eyelashes6) and Flagella (L.
5small whips) are structurally similar but cilia are shorter and more numerous whereas flagella are long
and occur singly or in pairs.

The Digestive System

All living organisms need nutrients to survive. While plants can obtain the molecules required for cellular function
through the process of photosynthesis, most animals obtain their nutrients by the consumption of other
organisms. At the cellular level, the biological molecules necessary for animal function are amino acids, lipid
molecules, nucleotides, and simple sugars. However, the food consumed consists of protein, fat, and complex
carbohydrates. Animals must convert these macromolecules into the simple molecules required for maintaining
cellular functions, such as assembling new molecules, cells, and tissues. The conversion of the food consumed
to the nutrients required is a multi-step process involving digestion and absorption. During digestion, food
particles are broken down to smaller components, and later, they are absorbed by the body.

Invertebrate Digestive Systems

Animals have evolved different types of digestive systems to aid in the digestion of the different foods they consume. The
simplest example is that of a gastrovascular cavity and is found in organisms with only one opening for digestion.
Platyhelminthes (flatworms), Ctenophora (comb jellies), and Cnidaria (coral, jelly fish, and sea anemones) use this type of
digestion. Gastrovascular cavities are typically a blind tube or cavity with only one opening, the 5mouth6, which also serves
as an 5anus6. Ingested material enters the mouth and passes through a hollow, tubular cavity. Cells within the cavity secrete
digestive enzymes that break down the food. The food particles are engulfed by the cells lining the gastrovascular cavity.

Vertebrate Digestive Systems

Vertebrates have evolved more complex digestive systems to adapt to their dietary needs. Some animals have a single
stomach, while others have multi-chambered stomachs. Birds have developed a digestive system adapted to eating
unmasticated food.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestion
• It is the chemical breakdown of complex biological molecules into their component parts which are:
• Lipids to fatty acids
• Proteins to individual amino acids
• Carbohydrates into simple sugars

Nutrition
• Processed by which organisms obtain and utilize their food
Nutrients
• Substances that provide energy and materials needed for growth, repair, and maintenance of the cell.

Are the main nutrients that make up the

foods we eat.

Micronutrients

Are one of the major groups of nutrients your

body needs. They include vitamins and
minerals.
Vitamins are necessary for energy
production, immune function, blood clotting
and other functions.

Macronutrients
Types of digestion

CHEMICAL DIGESTION:
Chemical breakdown of food using enzymes, bile, hydrochloric acid.

MECHANICAL DIGESTION:
⮚ Physical breakdown of food

⮚ Chewing, grinding, and mixing food with mouth, tongue, and teeth
Four Types of Digestive Systems
 • Monogastric (simple)- dogs, cats, Human
• Avian 3 Chicken, Birds. Ducks
• Ruminants (polygastric) - Carabao, Goat,
Cow
• Pseudo-ruminants 3 Rabbit
Parts of digestive system
MAJOR PARTS:

⮚ Mouth
⮚ Salivary glands
⮚ Pharynx
⮚ Esophagus
⮚ Stomach
⮚ Small and Large Intestine
⮚ Rectum
⮚ Anus
ACCESSORY PARTS:

⮚ Teeth
⮚ Tongue
⮚ Gall Bladder
⮚ Pancreas
⮚ Liver

Animals dietary categories (Herbivore, Carnivore and Omnivore)

Digestive system of invertebrates

PORIFERA (sponges)

⮚ Rely on keeping up a constant water flow

through their bodies to obtain food and
oxygen

SUSPENSION FEEDERS:

⮚ Sifts small food particles from the water

⮚ Whale, oysters, clams

SUBSTRATE FEEDERS:

⮚ Animals that live on their food source

⮚ Caterpillar, earthworms

FLUID FEEDERS:

⮚ Suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host

⮚ Mosquito, tick, flea

BULK FEEDERS:
 ⮚ Eats relatively large pieces of food
⮚ Snake, lion, humans
anus
PLATYHELMINTHES (Uses gastrovascular cavity as mouth and anus

ECHINODERMS (starfish, sea urchins)

⮚ With a mouth, stomach, anusflatworms, tapeworms)

Extracellular digestion

ARTHROPODA (crabs, grasshoppers,) spiders

CHORDATA (sea squirts, lancelets, hagfish)

⮚ Permits one way flow of ingested food without mixing it with waste and food From mouth and ends in anus
MOLLUSCA (snails, octopus, squid)

NEMATODA (hookworms, roundworms)

⮚ Permits one way flow of ingested food without mixing it with waste and food
⮚ From mouth and ends in anus

CHAPTER 7 : Respiratory and Circulatory System (Part 1)

The Respiratory System

Respiration is the process of releasing energy from food and this takes place inside the cells of the body. The process of
respiration involves taking in oxygen (of air) into cells, using it for releasing energy by burning food, and then eliminating
the waste products (carbon dioxide and water) from the body. Respiration is an essential for life because it provides energy
for carrying out all the life processes which are necessary to keep the organisms alive.

Breathing and Respiration:

The mechanism by which organisms obtain oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide is called breathing.
But on the other hand respiration is a complex process it includes breathing as well as the oxidation of food in
the cells of the organism to release energy. Breathing is a physical process whereas respiration is a biochemical
process of oxidation of food. Breathing process involves lungs of the organism whereas respiration involves the
mitochondria in the cells where food is oxidised to
release energy.
 Various Modes of respiration in animals:
In simple unicellular animals like Amoeba, respiration takes place by the simple diffusion of gases through the
cellmembrane. Most of the animals have, however, specific organs for respiration.
The animals like earthworms which live in the soil use their skin to absorb oxygen from air and remove carbon
dioxide. So, the respiratory organ in the earthworm is the skin.

The aquatic animals like fish, prawns and mussels have gillsas the respiratory organs which extract oxygen
dissolved in water and take away carbon dioxide from the body.
In the insects like grasshopper, cockroach, housefly and a mosquito, the tiny holes called spiracleson their body
and the air tubes called tracheae are the respiratory organs.
The respiratory organs of the land animals such as man (humans), birds, lizard, dog and frog etc. are the lungs.
However, Frogs breathe both by lungs and skin.

Therefore, we can say that all the respiratory organs whether skin, gills, trachea or lungs have three common
features:
All the respiratory organs have a large surface area to get enough oxygen.
All the respiratory organs have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of respiratory gases.
All the respiratory organs like skin, lungs and gills have a rich blood supply for transporting gases. But only in
tracheal system of respiration, air reaches the cells directly.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The Nature of Respiration

⮚ All animals must supply their cells with oxygen and rid their body of carbon dioxide
RESPIRATION

⮚ The physiological process by which an animal exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide with its environment
Invertebrate Respiratory System
Integumentray exchange

⮚ Some invertebrates that live in aquatic or damp environments have no respiratory organs;
⮚ Gases diffuse across the skin
Gills

⮚ Filamentous respiratory organs that increase surface area for gas exchange in water
Lungs

⮚ Saclike respiratory organs with branching tubes that deliver air to a respiratory surface
⮚ Snails and slugs that spend some time on land have a lung instead of, or in addition to, gills
Invertebrate Respiratory System
Tracheal system

⮚ Insects and spiders with a hard integument have branching tracheal tubes that) d open to the surface through
spiracles (no respiratory protein require).

Book lungs

⮚ Some spiders also have thin sheets of respiratory tissue that exchange oxygen with a respiratory pigment
(hemocyanin) in blood.

Key Concepts . Gas Exchange in Invertebrates

Gas exchange occurs across the body

surface or gills of aquatic invertebrates
In large invertebrates on land, it occurs
across a moist, internal respiratory surface
or at fluid-filled tips of branching tubes that
extend from the surface to internal tissues

Functions of the Respiratory System

M5 - Lesson 3 : ( Part 2 )

The Circulatory System

Vertebrate Respiration

⮚ Fishes use gills to extract oxygen from water

 ⮚ Countercurrent flow aids exchange (blood flows through gills in opposite direction of water flow)
⮚ Amphibians exchange gases across their skin, and at respiratory surfaces of paired lungs
⮚ Larvae have external gills

Frog Respiration

Vertebrate Respiration

⮚ Reptiles, birds and mammals exchange gases through paired lungs, ventilated by chest muscles
⮚ Birds have the most efficient vertebrate lungs
⮚ Air sacs allow oxygen-rich air to pass respiratory surfaces on both inhalation and exhalation
Human Respiratory System

⮚ The human respiratory system functions in gas exchange, sense of smell, voice production, body defenses, acid-
base balance, and temperature regulation.

The Circulatory System

The circulatory system varies from simple systems in invertebrates to more complex systems in vertebrates. The simplest
animals, such as the sponges (Porifera) and rotifers (Rotifera), do not need a circulatory system because diffusion allows
adequate exchange of water, nutrients, and waste, as well as dissolved gases (figure a). Organisms that are more complex,
but still have only two layers of cells in their body plan, such as jellies (Cnidaria) and comb jellies (Ctenophora), also use
diffusion through their epidermis and internally through the gastrovascular compartment. Both their internal and external
tissues are bathed in an aqueous environment and exchange fluids by diffusion on both sides (figure b). Exchange of fluids
is assisted by the pulsing of the jellyfish body. For more complex organisms, diffusion is not efficient for cycling gases,
nutrients, and waste effectively through the body; therefore, more complex circulatory systems evolved. Closed circulatory
systems are a characteristic of vertebrates; however, there are significant differences in the structure of the heart and the
circulation of blood between the different vertebrate groups due to adaptation during evolution and associated differences in
anatomy In contrast to a closed system, arthropods (including insects, crustaceans, and most mollusks) have an open
circulatory system. In an open circulatory system, the blood is not enclosed in the blood vessels, but is pumped into a cavity
called a hemocoel. The blood is called hemolymph because it mixes with the interstitial fluid. As the heart beats and the animal
moves, the hemolymph circulates around the organs within the body cavity, reentering the heart through openings called ostia
(singular: ostium). This movement allows for gas and nutrient exchange. An open circulatory system does not use as much
energy to operate and maintain as a closed system; however, there is a trade-off with the amount of blood that can be moved
to metabolically-active organs and tissues that require high levels of oxygen.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Functions:
- Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport
- Nutrient and Waste Product Transport
- Disease Protection and Healing
- Hormone Delivery
- Regulates Blood Supply
- Body Temperature Regulation
- Generates Blood Pressure

3 components of Circulatory System:

1. HEART

⮚ Pumps blood through the blood vessels of

the circulatory system
2. BLOOD VESSELS

⮚ ARTERIES- blood vessels that carry blood

away from the heart to the other parts of the
body.
⮚ VEINS- blood vessels that carry blood from
the body back to the heart.
⮚ CAPILLARIES - tiny tubes that carry blood
rom the arteries to the body8s cells, and then
back to the veins.
3. BLOOD

⮚ Transport nutrient materials, hormones,

gases and fight infections.

Components of blood
 ⮚ Red Blood Cells– carries oxygen from lungs
to all cells of the body; carries carbon dioxide
away from cells

⮚ White Blood Cells- are the cells of the

immune system that are involved in
protecting the body against infection and
foreign invaders.

⮚ Plasma- liquid portion of the blood

composed mostly of water.
Plasma transports nutrients, hormones, and
proteins to the parts of the body.

⮚ Platelets- blood clotting and blood

Coagulation

Two types of circulation Pulmonary Circulation

Systematic Circulation
Pathway of Blood Through the Heart and Lungs

1. Superior and Inferior Vena Cava

2. Right atrium
3. Tricuspid valve
4. Right ventricle
5. pulmonary semilunar valve
6. Pulmonary trunk
7. pulmonary arteries
8. Lungs
9. pulmonary veins
10. Left atrium
11. bicuspid valve
12. Left ventricle
13. Aortic semilunar valve
14. Body

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AN Open and closed circulatory system

a) In closed circulatory systems, the heart pumps blood through vessels that are separate from the interstitial
fluid of the body. Most vertebrates and some invertebrates, such as this annelid earthworm, have a closed circulatory
system.
b) In open circulatory systems, a fluid called hemolymph is pumped through a blood vessel that empties into
the body cavity. Hemolymph returns to the blood vessel through openings called ostia. Arthropods, such as this bee
and most mollusks, have open circulatory systems.
Open circulatory system and closed circulatory system

Open circulatory system

Arthropods
Mollusks
Crustaceans
Insects
Echinoderms
Starfish
 Snails
Invertebrates

Closed circulatory system

Annelids
Mammals
Cephalopods
Vertebrates

Single and double loop circulation

Fish are vertebrates that only have a single loop circulatory system, unlike mammals that have a double loop
circulatory system.
In a single loop system, blood only passes through the heart one type on each circuit through the body.

Double loop circulation

The evolution of the second circulatory loop allows more oxygen to be delivered to their bodies

In the circulatory loop that connects an amphibian8s heart to its lungs there are blood vessels called pulmonary
veins
Pulmonary veins are the vessels that carry the oxygen-rich blood from the amphibian8s lungs directly back to its
heart

Vertebrates
All of the vertebrates have closed circulatory systems and chambered hearts with valves that prevents from backflow
of the blood.

Circulatory System of Invertebrates

PORIFERA
Sponges have no real circulatory system.
Sponges have flagellated cells over the surface of their bodies, these are cells that have tails that wiggles.
 The collective effort of all these cells creates a water current through the many porous openings in the
sponge’s body.

CNIDARIANS
do not have a circulatory system simply because it is not needed;
all cells are in contact with the water, which contains oxygen and nutrients.
The cells undertake a process of diffusion to transport the oxygen, nutrients and waste in and out of the
organism.

NEMATODES

-The Nematodes do not obtain a circulatory system and are

able to transfer the oxygen and the necessary nutrients
for themselves by diffusion
ANNELIDS
have a closed circulatory system.
MOLLUSKS
have a open circulatory system.

ECHINODERMS
have a open circulatory system.

ANTHROPODS
have a open circulatory system.

CHAPTER 8: Excretory and Reproductive System (Part 1)

The Excretory System

Excretion is the process of removing wastes and excess water from the body. It is one of the major ways the body
maintains homeostasis. Although the kidneys are the main organs of excretion, several other organs also excrete
wastes. They include the large intestine, liver, skin, and lungs. All of these organs of excretion, along with the
kidneys, make up the excretory system.
The kidneys play many vital roles in homeostasis. They filter all the blood in the body many times each day and
produce a total of about 1.5 liters of urine. The kidneys control the amount of water, ions, and other substances in
the blood by excreting more or less of them in urine. The kidneys also secrete hormones that help maintain
homeostasis. Erythropoietin, for example, is a kidney hormone that stimulates bone marrow to produce red blood
cells when more are needed. The kidneys themselves are also regulated by hormones. For example, antidiuretic
hormone from the hypothalamus stimulates the kidneys to produce more concentrated urine when the body is low
on water.
In vertebrates, the main organs of excretion and maintenance of water balance are the kidneys.
Excretion in invertebrates
Many unicellular organisms like Amoeba throw out their wastes by diffusion from their body surface. Protozoans
have no organs for excretion. As they live in an aquatic habitat, their wastes are eliminated by diffusion through the
plasma membrane.

Simple multicellular organisms like Hydra throw out solid waste matter through their mouth. Higher multicellular
organisms have well-defined specialized excretory organs. These organs could be simple tubular structures as in
flatworms and leech.
The excretory organs of insects (e.g., grasshopper, cockroach and housefly) are also tubular. They remove
nitrogenous wastes from the body fluid and help in maintaining the water balance in the body.

Introduction
The excretory system is the system of an organism's body that performs the function of excretion, the bodily process
of discharging wastes. The Excretory system is responsible for the elimination of wastes produced by homeostasis.
FUNCTION of EXCRETORY SYSTEM
- IT ELIMINATES NITROGENOUS WASTES FROM THE BODY AND MAINTAIN
WATER BALANCE
- INVERTEBRATE ORGANS: EXCRETORY PORE, NEPHRIDIA AND MALPIGHIAN
TUBULES

- VERTEBRATES: SKIN, KIDNEYS, URETERS, URINARY BLADDER, URETHRA

FUNCTION
COLLECT WATER AND FILTER BODY FLUIDS
REMOVE AND CONCENTRATE WASTE
PRODUCTS FROM THE BODY FLUIDS AND RETURN
OTHER SUBSTANCES TO BODY FLUIDS AS
NECESSARY FOR HOMEOSTATIS
ELIMINATE EXCRETORY PRODUCTS FROM
THE BODY
Excretory Organs of Invertebrates NEPHRIDIUM
Flatworms uses as their excretory organ

MALPHIGIAN TUBULES
 Body fluids are drawn into the malphigian tubules by osmosis use to large concentrations of potassium
inside the tubule
PROTONEPHRIDIA
Protonephridia are generally found in basal organisms such as in case of flatworms. Protonephridia is likely
a defense mechanism which tends to cope with a hypotonic environment by removing excess water from the
organism.
AQUATIC INVERTEBRATE EXCRETION
• Some aquatic invertebrates simply diffuse ammonia out of their bodies into the surrounding water
• Example; sponges, cnidarians and some round worms
Other aquatic invertebrates swell up with water, dilute the wastes and excrete the wastes through tiny pores
in their skin.
Porifera
All members of the Porifera phylum lack a distinct excretory system
Waste products such as ammonia diffuse into cells as water follows through its body
Cnidarians
This phylum does not have a distinct excretory system
In some coelenterates the waste material diffuses into the surrounding through epidermal cells
Animals like sea anemones have a single opening
Platyhelminthes
This excretory system main function is to remove excess water from the body of the organism
Organisms like flatworm possess defined excretory structures called protonephridia, which help in waste
disposal
Echinodermata
Echinoderms have a primary organ for excretion but instead release the nitrogenous waste in the form of
ammonia through their respiratory system.
The anus though is located most echinoderms and used for jettison waste.
Mollusca
The mollusks undigested food becomes a solid waste that is eliminated through the anus as feces.
The mollusks use a simple tubed shaped organ called the nephridia to eliminate the ammonia from the blood
stream and to the outside.
Arthropoda
Arthropoda have what is considered a complete excretory system which means they have a mouth, anus and
digestive system.
 Lobsters excrete their waste through their antennae. This acts a method to retain water as it does not have
to expend energy to pass waste.
ANNELIDA
Nephridia are organs of excretion in annelids.
The nephridia are coiled tubules with an expanded funnel-shaped nephrostome.
Filtration of the blood across the tubule wall can occur because of the close association between capillaries
and the nephridium.

TERRESTRIAL INVERTEBRATE EXCRETION

Many terrestrial invertebrates convert ammonia into urea.

Urea is a simpler nitrogenous compound that is much less toxic than ammonia.
This urea is eliminated from the body in the urine

VERTEBRATE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Aquatic vertebrates kidneys and rely on gill slits to release excretory wastes into surrounding water for
dilution
Terrestrial vertebrates rely on the kidney8s to filter out the ammonia and change it into urea and send it to
be released in urine
Fish
Fish utilize kidneys to filter out the wastes from their blood and then use their skin and gills to excrete
nitrogenous wastes, ammonia and excess water (they rely a lot on diffusion)
 Do not have a Loop of Henle

Amphibians
When they are in water, they absorb specific salts through their skin and the kidney then produces very dilute urine
When amphibians are on land they conserve water by reabsorbing water across the epithelium of the urinary bladder
Reptiles
Reptiles have a very small kidney and in diapsids
Reptiles do not have the ability to produce liquid urine that is more concentrated than
their own body fluid because they lack loop of Henle
Birds
Birds require everything to be much lighter to assist them in flying more easily. Therefore, they do not have
a bladder, as it is too heavy
Instead the excretory system joins the digestive system by connecting the cloaca and the ureter, which
results in a liquid excrement (urine and feces are mixed)
Animal reproduction is necessary for the survival of a species. In the animal kingdom, there are innumerable ways
that species reproduce. Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical organisms (clones), whereas in sexual
reproduction, the genetic material of two individuals combines to produce offspring that are genetically different
from their parents.
During sexual reproduction the genetic material of two individuals is combined to produce genetically diverse
offspring that differ from their parents. The genetic diversity of sexually produced offspring is thought to give
species a better chance of surviving in an unpredictable or changing environment. Species that reproduce sexually
must maintain two different types of individuals, males and females, which can limit the ability to colonize new
habitats as both sexes must be present.
Asexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent because the offspring are all
clones of the original parent. A single individual can produce offspring asexually and large numbers of offspring can
be produced quickly; these are two advantages that asexually reproducing organisms have over sexually
reproducing organisms. In a stable or predictable environment, asexual reproduction is an effective means of
reproduction because all the offspring will be adapted to that environment. In an unstable or unpredictable
environment, species that reproduce asexually may be at a disadvantage because all the offspring are genetically
identical and may not be adapted to different conditions.
(Links to an external site.) There are four main forms of asexual reproduction in animals: budding, fission,
fragmentation, and parthenogenesis. Each form is similar in that one organism is able to create many more
organisms without the need for a mate, but they differ in the mechanism by which they create those organisms.

The Reproductive System Introduction

The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs 4 in both males and
females 4 that work together for the purpose of procreating.
To ensure survival of species.

Both male and female consist of primary and secondary sex organs and sex glands.
Functions of Reproductive System
To produce egg and sperm cells
To transport and sustain these cells
To nurture the developing offspring
To produce hormones

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ASEXUAL and SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Requires only one parent
 Offspring have 100% same chromosomes as the parent. In other words, the offspring are the exact 5clone6
of the parent.
Most unicellular organisms
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
A process in which a new living organism is produce by combining genetic information from two individuals
of different sexes.
Kinds of Asexual Reproduction BINARY FISSION
Is a form of asexual reproduction where every organelle is copied and the organism divides into two.
Examples : Bacteria and Protists
Multiple Fission
By the means of splitting of a cell or organism into many cells or organism.
Examples : flatworms and annelids
BUDDING
Asexual reproduction whereby a new individual develops from an outgrowth of a parent, splits off, and lives
independently.
Example: Hydra
FRAGMENTATION

It is whereby a single parent breaks into parts that regenerate into whole new individuals. A new organism grows
from a fragment of a parent.
Examples : Molds and Planaria
Parthenogenesis
Can produce without sperm and normal fertilazation.
A spontaneous activation of a mature egg, followed by normal egg divisions and subsequent embryonic
development.
Examples : some flatworms, rotifers, roundworms, insects, lobsters, some lizards, and some fishes
REGENERATION
Regeneration occurs when a body part has broken off and the organism grows a new one.
Common in multicellular creatures, such as worms, sea stars or geckos.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Requires two parents that share each ½ of the genetic information.
Offspring share the characteristic of each parent.
All members of the animal kingdom
• Fish
• Mammals
• Amphibians
• Birds
• Reptiles
• Insects
• Crustaceans
M5 - Lesson 5 : Endocrine and Nervous System (Part 1)
The Endocrine System
Endocrine system, any of the systems found in animals for the production of hormones, substances that regulate
the functioning of the organism.
Hormones are chemicals secreted by the endocrine glands, which are carried by the blood to the respective organs
to regulate certain physiological processes. The organs on which the hormones act are known as the target organs.
The target cells have receptors on their surface that recognize the respective hormones.
Hormones in animals are secreted through two types of glands, namely:
Endocrine Glands3 These glands that do not have ducts and transport their secretions directly to the site of action
through the blood. For eg., adrenal glands (Links to an external site.), pituitary glands, etc.
Exocrine Glands3 These glands have ducts to pass their secretions. For eg., sweat, liver, etc.
WHAT IS THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM?
• Chemical messenger system comprising feedback loops of hormones released by internal glands of an
organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs.
• In humans, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands.
What is hormone?
• a regulatory substance produced in an organism and transported in tissue fluids such as blood to stimulate
specific cells or tissues into action.

Anatomy of Endocrine System

Gland
FUNCTIONS of Endocrine system
• Metabolism
• Control of food intake and digestion
• Tissue development
• Ion regulation
• Water balance
• Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
• Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
• Control of reproductive functions
• Immune system regulation

Bisophenol, Octyphenol, Nonyphenol, Tributytin, Endosulfan, Methoprene, Fipronil

NEUROSECRETORY CELLS (NSC)
NSC IN BRAIN SECRETES BURSICON WHICH IS INVOLVED IN HARDENING AND DARKENING OF CUTICLE.
IN INSECTS, FOR PRODUCTION OF HORMONES, EXCEPT ECDYSONE AND JUVENILE HORMONES,
THE GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION IN INSECTS ARE UNDOUBTEDLY UNDER THE CONTROL OF
NEUROSECRETORY HORMONES
NEUROSECRETORY HORMONES HAVE ALSO BEEN ASSOCIATED WITH BEHAVIORAL ACTIVITIES, SUCH
AS, RESPONSE OF THE FEMALE TOWARDS THE MALE, COCOON FORMATION ETC.
CORPORA CARDIACA (CC)
FOUND IN MOST COLLEMBOLA OF INSECTS
LIES ON EACH SIDE OF AORTA BEHIND BRAIN
CONNECTED TO PROTOCERBRUM AND HYPOCERBRAL GANGLION
IT ACTS AS A CONVENTIONAL STORAGE AND RELEASE ORGAN FOR NEUROSECRETORY CELLS
IT CONTROLS HEART BEAT AND TREHALOSE LEVEL IN HAEMOLYMPH REGULATE
CORPORA ALLATA (CA)
 CA HORMONES ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE INHIBITION OF METAMORPHOSIS
THE CA HORMONE(S) IS THEREFORE SOMETIMES ALSO CALLED AS 7INHIBITORY OR STATUS QUO8
HORMONE
A SPECIAL TYPE WITH BOTH CC AND CA FUSED AND CONNECTED BY THE FUSED
PG TO FORM A SINGLE STRUCTURE IS REPRESENTED BY THE RING GLAND IN CYCLORRHAPHOUS
DIPTERA
Prothoracic glands(PG)
Also called as Pericardial or Ecdysial Gland
Secretes the molting hormone ECDYSONE
Neurosecretory cells (NSC) activate prothoracic glands to secrete ECDYSONE

CHAPTER 9: The Nervous System

The nervous system is made up of neurons, specialized cells that can receive and transmit chemical or electrical signals, and
glia, cells that provide support functions for the neurons by playing an information processing role that is complementary to
neurons. Nerves are bundles of nervous tissue, often containing hundreds to thousands of axons wrapped in connective
tissue. Nerves in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) carry information to and from neurons in the the central nervous system
(CNS), where information is integrated and processed.
● a central nervoussystem (CNS) consisting of:
● the brain, a structure that processes information, composed of inter-connected neurons and glial cells
● the spinal cord, a structure that transmitsinformation, consisting of a thick bundle of nerve tissue that carries
information about the body to the brain and from the brain to the body
● a peripheral nervous system (PNS) that collects information and sends commands, containing nerves that extend to
and from the spinal cord and are divided into:
● afferent nervesthat collect sensory information from the body and transmit it to the CNS; afferent nerves are also
sometimes called sensory nerves
● efferent nervesthat carry commands from the CNS to the body; efferent nerves are also sometimes called motor
nerves
Different kinds of Nervous Systems
Nervous systems throughout the animal kingdom vary in structure and complexity.
All animals have a true nervous system except sea sponges
Cnidarians, such as jellyfish, lack a true brain but have a system of separate but connected neurons called a nerve net.
Echinoderms, such as sea stars, have neurons that are bundled into fibers called nerves.
Flatworms of the phylum Platyhelminthes have both a CNS made up of a small brain and two nerve cords, and PNS containing
a system of nerves that extend throughout the body.
The insect nervous system is more complex but also fairly decentralized, with a brain, ventral nerve cord, and ganglia (clusters
of connected neurons). These ganglia can control movements and behaviors without input from the brain.
Cephalopods, such as octopi, may have the most complicated of invertebrate nervous systems, with neurons that are
organized in specialized lobes and eyes that are structurally similar to vertebrate species.
Compared to invertebrates, vertebrate nervous systems are more complex, centralized, and specialized. While there is great
diversity among different vertebrate nervous systems, they all share a basic structure: a CNS that contains a brain and spinal
cord and a PNS made up of peripheral sensory and motor nerves.
There are three different classes of neurons that make up the nervous system:
Afferent neurons (also called sensory neurons) get information about what8s going on inside and outside of the body and
bring that information into the CNS so it can be processed. For instance, if you picked up a hot coal, sensory neurons with
endings in your fingertips would convey the information to your CNS that it was really hot
Efferent neurons (also called motor neurons) get information from other neurons and convey commands to your muscles,
organs and glands. For instance, if you picked up a hot coal, it motor neurons innervating the muscles in your fingers would
cause your hand to let go.
Interneuons, which are found only in the CNS, connect one neuron to another. They receive information from other neurons
(either sensory neurons or interneurons) and transmit information to other neurons (either motor neurons or interneurons.
The Nervous System is the master controlling and communicating system of the body.
It controls and coordinates all essential functions of the body including all other body systems allowing the body to
maintain homeostasis or its delicate balance.
Functions of Nervous System
1. Gathers information from both inside and outside the body through our senses- Sensory Function
2. Transmits information to the processing areas of the brain and spine.

3. Processes the information in the brain and spine, Communication and Coordination.
- Integration Function
4. Sends information to the muscles, glands, and organs so they can respond appropriately 3 Motor Function
5. Controls all the body functions
Neuron
Basic functional unit of the nervous system
Transmit impulses ( up to 250 mph)

Parts of a Neuron

Dendrite 3 receive stimulus and carries it impulses toward the cell body
Cell Body with nucleus 3 nucleus & most of cytoplasm
Axon 3 fiber which carries impulses away from cell body
Schwann Cells- cells which produce myelin or fat layer in the Peripheral Nervous System
Myelin sheath 3 dense lipid layer which insulates the axon 3 makes the axon look gray
 Node of Ranvier 3 gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath
Impulses travel from dendrite to cell body to axon

3 types of neuron:
Sensory neurons 3 bring messages to CNS, to brain and spinal cord. AFFERENT
Motor neurons - carry messages from CNS, from brain and spinal cord to body. EFRERENT
Interneurons 3 between sensory & motor neurons in the CNS (both)

VERTEBRATES: NERVOUS SYSTEM

Simplest Vertebrates: mammals, fish, birds, reptiles and amphibians
Nervous system is responsible for the intelligence of the animal, for its awareness of the surroundings and for the
power of learning.
Nervous system regulates the actions of the animal
VERTEBRATES: NERVOUS SYSTEM
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM contains:
BRAIN- becomes much larger and more complex
SPINAL CORD- protected by vertebrae at the dorsal (back of heart and gut)
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Transmits sensory and motor signals between the CNS and the rest of the body
Vertebrae begun as: Vertebrae begun as:

⮚ Prosencephalon (forebrain)
⮚ Mesencephalon (midbrain)
⮚ Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) They are all present in all vertebrates

In more complex brains, they are further subdivided for integration of complete
tasks

Prosencephalon (forebrain)
Mesencephalon (midbrain)
Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) They are all present in all vertebrates
In more complex brains, they are further subdivided for integration of complete tasks

INVERTEBRATES: NERVOUS SYSTEM

Invertebrates nervous systems have different degrees of centralization,
cephalization, and specialization.
CNIDARIANS- (jellyfish) have a simple nerve net
ECHINODERMATA- (starfish, sea urchin, sea cuccumber) have a epidermal nerve net
PLATYHELMINTHES and ANNELIDA- (flat
worms, earthworms) composed of longitudinal nerve cords
 CEPHALOPOD MOLLUSKS- (octopus, snails, scallops, cattle fish) the most developed nervous system among
all invertebrates.
Ganglia
ANTROPODS- (spider, butterfly, scorpion, crab) they have segmental ganglia
NEMATODA- (round worm) they have nerve ring
PORIFERA- (sponges) they do not have true nervous system but there is oscula.

CHAPTER 10: Taxonomy: Preserving the Animal Kingdom

Systematics or Taxonomy
-focuses on the kinds and diversity of organisms as well as their evolutionary relationships.
Phylogeny
-describes the evolutionary history of a group of organisms; commonly represented through tree diagrams.
Taxonomic Hierarchy
Karl Von Linne (Carolus Linnaeus)
-introduced the binomial system of classification
-shared characteristics can be the basis for grouping different species into broader categories
Taxonomic ranks
-hierarchically arranged from broad to specific: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order,
Family, Genus and Species

Nomenclature
-gives a distinctive name to each species Scientific name
-derived from Latin terms
-genus begins with a capital letter while the species epithet begins with a lowercase letter; the entire scientific name is italicized
or underlined
Example:
Human Homo sapiens
H. sapiens (abbreviation)

Major Animal Groups

The "Protozoan" Protists
Characteristics:
1. Unicellular (Cytoplasmic) level of organization; Absence of collagen and chitinous cell walls
2. Some individuals group to form colonies but are independent for most function
3. Non-photosynthetic in primitive condition^
Members of this kingdom can be recognized through these characteristics
*Characteristic that is distinct in members of a given phylum

Phylum Porifera
Characteristics:
1. Body form: Assymmetrical or Radially symmetrical superficially
2. Unicellular (Cytoplasmic) level of organization; Possess three cell types namely, pinacocytes, mesenchyme cells,
and choanocytes
3. Flagella is surrounded by microvillar collars*
4. Absence of tissues or organs
5. With a central cavity or a series of branching chambers

Phylum Cnidaria
Characteristics:
1. Body form: Radially symmetrical or Biradial symmetry
2. Tissue level of organization - Diploblastic
3. Between its epidermal and gastrodermal layers is a gelatinous mesoglea
4. With a gastrovascular cavity
5. Cnidocytes (contain cnidae or nematocysts) serve for defense, feeding, and attachment*
6. Has nerve net that is made up of nerve cells
7. Life cycle includes planula larvae*

Phylum Platyhelminthes
Characteristics:
1. Body form: Bilaterally symmetrical; Acoelomate
2. Typically flattened dorsoventrally; Includes unsegmented worms; Class Cestoidea is strobilated
3. Tissue level of organization - Triploblastic
4. Presence of incomplete gut but for Class Cestoidea, gut is absent
5. Mainly monoecious; Reproductive system is complex
6. Cephalized to some extent; Pair of anterior ganglia is connected to longitudinal nerve cords through transverse
nerves makes up the nervous system
NO DISTINCT CHARACTERISTICS (Synapomorphic, share only homologous characteristics) *

Phylum Nematoda
Characteristics:
1. Body form: Bilaterally symmetrical; Worm like
(Vermiform); Unsegmented; Pseudocoelomate
2. Tissue level of organization 3 Triploblastic
3. Body is covered with layered collagenous cuticle
4. Only longitudinal muscles comprise the body wall
5. Digestive tract is complete
6. Excretory system includes one or two renette cells or a set of collecting tubules
7. On its head is a paired lateral sensory organs (Amphids)*
8. Usual part of growth in juveniles is molting

Phylum Mollusca
Characteristics:
1. Body form: Bilaterally symmetrical
2. Head-(foot*) and visceral mass are the two parts of its body
3. Mantle secretes calcareous spicules or one or more shells and envelop the visceral mass; Mantle cavity has a
variety of functions: excretion, gas exchange, elimination of digestive wastes, and release of reproductive products*
4. Usually with a radula for scraping food; this is not present or loss in bivalves*
5. All possess open circulatory system except Class Cephalopoda
6. Coelom surrounds the heart, nephridia, and gonads
7. Trochophore larvae, spiral cleavage, and schizocoelous coelom formation

Phylum Annelida
Characteristics:
1. Body form: Bilaterally symmetrical; Vermiform (Worm-like); Metameric
2. With one or more pairs of epidermal setae (chaetae)*
3. Possess a closed circulatory system
4. Either with metanephridia (generally) or protonephridia
5. Dorsal suprapharyngeal ganglia and ventral nerve cord/s with ganglia
6. Trochophore larvae (when larvae is present), spiral cleavage, and schizocoelous coelom formation

Phylum Arthropoda
Characteristics:
1. Metameric with modification (specialization of body regions for specific functions)
2. Segmented, jointed and hardened chitinous exoskeleton with intrinsic muscles in between individual joints of
appendages; Function for support and protection*
3. Possess an open circulatory system
4. Digestive tract is complete
5. Coelom surrounds gonads and sometimes excretory organs
6. Presence of central nervous system
7. Commonly undergoes metamorphosis
8. Part of growth is ecdysis or molting

Phylum Echinodermata
Characteristics:
1. Body form: (Pentaradially symmetrical in adults*) and Bilaterally symmetrical in larvae
2. Calcareous endoskeleton in the form of ossicles*
3. Water vascular system (fluid-filled canals) aids in locomotion, attachment and/or feeding*
4. Possess a hemal system
5. Digestive tract is complete
6. Nerve net, nerve ring and radial nerves are parts of its nervous system; Nervous system controls the stiffness and
fluidity of connective tissue.

Phylum Chordata
Characteristics:
1. Body form: Bilaterally symmetrical; Deuterostomate
2. Five characteristics are found at some stage in development: notochord, pharyngeal slits or pouches, dorsal
tubular nerve cord, postanal tail, and an endostyle or thyroid gland
3. Possess a ventral, contractile blood vessel (heart)
4. Digestive tract is complete