Earth and Life Science upon the first life-form that existed on Earth

over two billion years ago.

Module 4: Looking at Life: An Introduction
to Life Science All forms of life share common
characteristics. These characteristics of life
Life Science – This is a collection of
include the following:
disciplines that is made up of theories and
principles that tackles the structure and 1. The use of chemical energy to help
function of organism. organisms perform activities and carry out
chemical reactions (energy processing)
H1N1
2. The ability of individuals to adapt to their
- A novel influenza virus; was first detected in
environment (evolutionary processing)
the United States. The virus spread quickly
across the world as it was transmitted through 3. The consistent growth and development
contact with respiratory droplets. controlled by the inherited gene.
- The new viral strain was originally referred to 4. The systematic and highly ordered structure
as “swine flu” since laboratory analysis showed of organisms
that its gene segments were similar to
5. The ability of organisms to control their
influenza viruses present among pigs.
internal environment (regulation)
Gene Reassortment – a process by which
6. The ability of organisms to respond to
influenza viruses swap gene segments.
environmental stimuli
Pandemic – refers to the outbreak of a disease
7. The ability of every organism to reproduce
that occurs over a wide geographic area that
its own kind.
an exceptionally high proportion of the
population. Biosphere – the highest level in hierarchy. It
supports all ecosystems including all terrestrial
Evolution – is considered the core theme of
(e.g. forest, desert, grassland) and aquatic
biology. It is focused on how life forms adapts
ecosystems (e.g. river, lake, marine, estuarine)
to a constantly changing environment in order
that harbor organisms and the physical
to survive.
components of the environment with which
Paleontologists – are scientists who collect, they interact.
identify, and study pieces of evidence about
Growth – this refers to the ability of organism
earlier life-forms and try to determine how
to increase in size, weight, and height
these have evolved into the organisms of
today. Development – this refers to the differentiation
of cells to form highly specialized structures in
Fossil - is a remnant or trace of a plant,
an organism’s body.
animal, or another organism that may have
been replaced by rock material or left imprinted Community – different organisms living in a
on a sedimentary rock deposited in riverbeds particular ecosystem
or on ocean floor.
Population – several groups of organisms of
Microfossils – very small fossils and can be the same species
seen only with the aid of a microscope
Organ System – is made up of several tissues
Stramatolites – the fossils that are considered and other related structures which perform a
the oldest in the earth. These are sheetlike specific function.
sedimentary rocks that were created by layers
Cell – this is the fundamental and most basic Charles Darwin – published the book “On the
structure in an organism Origin of Species” by means of Natural
Selection in 1859.

Tissue – this structure is form when the basic

of unit of organism aggregated. Darwin also inferred the following:
Unifying Themes of Life 1. Individuals with traits suited to the
environment are more likely to survive than
3 major fields in biology cover the unifying
less suited individuals
themes of life:
2. Survival for existence depends on the
o Genetics o Biochemistry
hereditary constitution of survivors, and that
o Evolution this is part of the process of natural selection.

Genetics 3. The process of natural selection from one

generation to another will lead to a continuing
- is the branch of biology that studies heredity gradual change which may result in
and variation. evolutionary adaptions or productions of new
- this shows how the characteristics of the species.
parents are transmitted to their offspring Cells – are composed of chemical substances.
through the reproductive process.
Compounds – all organisms are made up of
- is a unifying theme of biology because it this element or a combination of this element.
allows humans to understand the complexities
of the existence in life. Organisms – are made up of matter that
occupies space and has mass.
DNA
Metabolism – this refers to the differentiation
- chemically known as genetic makeup or of cells to from highly specialized structures in
deoxyribonucleic acid an organism’s body.
- contains biological information that is passed Homeostasis – this refers to the state of
on from one generation to the next and equilibrium in the body of an organism
ensures the continuity of species.
Anaerobic Organism - are living organisms
Biology classify into three categories called that can survive and grow where there is no
domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya oxygen.
Prokaryotic Cell or Prokaryote – is a simple, o About 25 elements are essential to
single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus and organisms. Four of these elements make up
membrane-bound organelles. about 96% of the weight of most organisms.
Bacteria – are the most diverse, ubiquitous, These elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
and widespread prokaryotes and nitrogen.

Archaea – live only in extreme environments, Evidence of Life

such as salty lakes and boiling hot springs. Historical Development of the Concept of
Eukaryotic Cells or Eukaryotes – are Life
grouped under domain eukarya. This possess LUCA – stands for Last Universal Common
true nuclei and membrane-bound organelles. Ancestor
Experiments on the Evolution of Life its breed lives on. This involves the creation of
offspring. This is also important to prevent
Spontaneous Generation – states that vital
extinction.
forces or organic matter can create organisms
from inanimate object. This describes that life Sexual Reproduction
comes from lifeless and nonliving material
- two parents are required to produce offspring
through a mysterious process.
whose traits come from both parents.
Redi’s Experiment
- sexual reproduction in plants takes place
Among the scientists who challenged the when the gametes, or the male and female sex
theory of Spontaneous Generation was cell of a plant, unite to form a single cell called
Francesco Redi (1626-1697). In 1668, Redi zygote.
designed a scientific experiment to
Petals – are the flower’s brightly colored parts
demonstrate that maggots do not just appear
that play an important role of attracting bees,
spontaneously but are produced from the eggs
birds, butterflies, and other animals that aid in
of flies.
transporting pollen grains to different places as
they move around.
Needham’s Test Receptacle – is the part of the plant unto
which the flower is attached.
In 1750, John Turberville Needham (1713-
1781), an English biologist attempted to test Sepals – are the leaflike parts that enclose and
the relevance of Redi’s experiment and prove protect the flower bud before it blooms
that spontaneous generation can occur under
Stamen – the male reproductive part of a
the right conditions. At that time, it was
flower which is made up of the anther and
believed that heat could kill even the tiniest
filament.
organisms.
Filament – is the stalk that supports the anther
Spallanzani’s Experiments
where pollen is produced.
Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) was an
Pollen – are tiny grains containing the sperm
Italian scholar who sought to verify Needham’s
that is necessary for sexual reproduction.
test in 1767. Spallanzani believed that
Needham had not heatedthe broth enough to Carpel or Pistil – the female reproductive part
kill the organisms in it. He then repeated of the flower which is made up of the stigma,
Needham’s experiment by boiling equal style, and ovary.
amounts of chicken broth in two containers.
Stigma – is the sticky part that catches the
Pasteur’s Test pollen grains coming from the stamen.
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) opposed the Style – is the long tubelike part that connects
concept of spontaneous generation. He the stigma to the ovary, which contains the
believed that microorganisms that decay or ovule or unfertilized egg.
spoil are present in the air or might have been
existing on the surface where decaying Pollution and Fertilization
materials are found. Reproduction in flowering plants starts with
Module 6: The Perpetuation of Life pollination, or the transfer of the pollen from the
anther to the stigma of the same plant.
Reproduction – is the process by which an
organism produces its own kind to ensure that
Self-Pollination – occurs when pollen falls Sexual Reproduction (Animals)
from the same stigma of the same flowering
Male and female animals have different
plant.
reproductive parts. Male and female
Cross Pollination – pollen from anther of one reproductive parts produce sperm and egg
plant may also be transferred to the stigma of cells respectively that fuse to form a zygote.
another plant.
Two types of Sexual Reproduction:
Fertilization – or the process by which the
Syngamy or Fertilization – is the sexual
sperm and egg cells unite, and this takes place
reproduction by the union of gametes – sperm
after pollination.
and ovum. Single-celled protists such as
paramecia reproduce by conjugation.
Asexual Reproduction Conjugation – involves two organisms of the
same species with similar appearance but have
- a single parent produces offspring that are
different biochemical compositions.
identical to the parent
Multicellular Animals – have primary sex
- some plants do not bear flowers, yet they are
organs called gonads. The male gonad is the
able to produce offsprings through this
testes or testis and the female gonad is the
Vegetative Propagation ovary.

- wherein a new plant can grow from a Asexual Reproduction

vegetative part taken from the parent plant.
- only one parent is needed to reproduce a
When the plant part grows, it will bear the
new individual. The single parent produces
parent plant’s characteristics. Almost all plants
offspring that is genetically identical to it. The
parts can be used for vegetative propagation,
offspring develops without meiosis or
but roots, leaves, and stems are used more
fertilization.
often than other parts.
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
Tubers – a thick and swollen stolons that are
modified stems that grow deep under the 1. Binary Fission – This is the simplest
ground and contain the nutrients that the plants process of asexual reproduction wherein the
need for growth. Ex. Potatoes and Camote body of an organism divides into new bodies.
Ex. Synechococcus
o other kinds of modified stems that can be
used for vegetative propagation are bulbs, 2. Budding – outgrowths or buds develop from
rhizomes, and runners the parent organism. The buds may break off
and develop into a new organism or remain
Apical Bud – a plant structure at the center of
attached to the parent organism. Ex.
each bulb
Flatworms, hydras, yeasts, sponges, jellyfish,
Rhizome – is a stem that grows horizontally sea anemones, and corals.
under the ground. A runner or stolon also
3. Fragmentation – in this type of asexual
grows in a horizontal direction. Ex. Gingers and
reproduction, an organism’s body is divided
Grasses
into two or more parts, wherein each fragment
Reproduction in Animals and Other develops into an organism with characteristics
Organisms like that of the parent. Ex. Fungi, Sea Stars,
Annelids
Animals also reproduce through sexual
reproduction or asexual reproduction.
4. Regeneration – this is a specialized form of The advantages of genetic engineering are
asexual reproduction wherein detached parts most evident in the field of agriculture and
of some organisms can regrow or regenerate. animal cultivation.
Ex. Sea Stars and Salamanders
Risks of using GMOs
Reproduction and the Genetic Makeup
1. Food Allergy – no allergic reaction to GMOs
Reproduction is the process that supports the has been reported. But if the protein from a
perpetuation of a species. Through it, the genetically modified food or GMF comes from a
characteristics of a parent plant, or an animal source that is known to cause allergy to
are passed on to its offspring. The nucleus of humans.
each cell contains chromosomes, or long
2. Decreased Nutritional Value – GMOs have
threadlike structures made up of
lower nutritional value by making nutrients
deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)
unavailable or indigestible.
3. Additives – are substances that are
Information Transfer normally consumed as food themselves but are
added to food for the purpose of preservation.
Genes also store instructions for cells to follow
so they can carry out protein synthesis, or the 4. Long-term effects – GMO technology is still
process by which cells produce the proteins in its early stage, and only a few research
that an organism needs in order to live and studies have been conducted regarding this
grow. technology’s long-term effects on health.
Proteins – are made up of amino acids, or International Journal of Biological Sciences
special organic molecules that consist of – has published a study in 2009 which reported
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. hepatorenal toxicity (a type of progressive
kidney failure where the kidney stops
Enzyme – is a kind of protein needed for body
functioning and toxins begin to build up in the
processes to proceed
body).and other effects which were mostly
Protein Synthesis associated with the kidney, liver, heart, adrenal
glands, spleen and haematopoietic system.
Takes place in a cell in two major stages:
transcription and translation. During
transcription, a segment of the DNA is copied.
This copy, or transcript, is known as ribonucleic
acid (RNA)
Perpetuation through Genetic Engineering
In the seventies, scientists began developing a
process through which they could manipulate
or change the genetic makeup of a plant or an
animal even outside of reproduction. This
process is called Genetic Engineering.
The aim is to get a desired trait or
characteristic of the source organism. The
resulting organism is them referred to as a
genetically modified organism (GMO)
Benefits of Genetic Engineering