Reeds+Motor Engg. Knowledge Vol+12

PRADEEP@MSC SHIPPING
12
REEDS MARINE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
MOTOR ENGINEERING
KNOWLEDGE
FOR MARINE ENGINEERS
Revised by Paul A Russell

Thomas D Morton
Leslie Jackson
Anthony S Prince
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CONTENTS
PREFACE vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TO FOURTH EDITION ix
1 BASIC PRINCIPLES 1
Definitions and Formulae 1
Ideal Thermodynamic Cycles 9
Actual Cycles and Indicator Diagrams 14
Other Related Details 19
2 STRUCTURE AND TRANSMISSION 30

Bedplate 32
‘A’ Frames or Columns 39
Holding Down Arrangements 43
Crankshafts 49
Choice, Maintenance and Testing of Main Engine Lubricating Oil 68
Lubrication Systems 71
Cylinders and Pistons 77
Pistons and Rings 89
3 FUEL INJECTION 109

Definitions and Principles 109
Fuel Pumps 119
Fuel Systems 137
4 SCAVENGING AND SUPERCHARGING 146

Two-Stroke Cycle Engines 148
Pressure Charging 152
Air Cooling 158
Turbo-chargers 160
Turbo-charger Fouling and Cleaning 167
5 STARTING AND REVERSING 174

Starting Air Overlap 174
Practical Systems 182
6 CONTROL 190
Governing of Marine Diesel Engines 190
Bridge Control of Direct Drive Diesel Engine 199
Piston Cooling and Lubricating Oil Control 202
Electrical and Electronic Control Systems 206
Unmanned Machinery Spaces (UMS) 212
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vi • Contents
7 ANCILLARY SUPPLY SYSTEMS 215

Compressed Air 215
Air Vessels 230
Cooling Systems 231
8 MEDIUMSPEED DIESELS 237

Engine Couplings, Clutches and Gearing 238
Gearboxes, Thrust Blocks, Shafting and Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP) 244
Exhaust Valves 246
Engine Design 250
9 ELECTRIC PROPULSION SYSTEMS 259

Introduction 259
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) 263
Power Quality Measurement 264
10 WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS 269

General Details 269
Package Boilers 275
Hybrid and Power Take-Off and Take-In Systems 278
Turbo-Generators 281
Silencers 282
Gas Analysis 282
Gas/Water Heat Exchangers 285
Exhaust Gas Heat Recovery Circuits 289
Water/Water Heat Exchangers 293
Combined Heat Recovery Circuits 294
Exhaust Gas Power Turbine 295
Gas Turbines 296
Energy in a Power Turbine 296
11 SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL 299

Seafarer Safety in the Engineroom (crankcase explosions) 299
The Environmental Agenda of Shipping 305
The Professionalism of Marine Engineers 320
TEST QUESTIONS 329

SPECIMEN QUESTIONS 344
INDEX 353
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PREFACE
The objective of this book is to prepare students for the Motor Engineering Knowledge
part of the Certificates of Competency for marine engineering officers, issued by
the Maritime Coastguard Agency (MCA) in the United Kingdom. The engineering
certificates issued by the MCA also satisfy the International Maritime Organisation’s
(IMO) requirements for engineers which are detailed in chapter III of the Standards
of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW). The latest edition of
STCW includes the 2010 Manila amendments that are also included in this edition of
Motor Engineering Knowledge as it is the most up-to-date information relating to the
requirements of IMO’s MARine POLution regulation MARPOL Annex VI which sets out
the agenda for reducing the emissions from ship’s engine exhaust gasses.
The text is intended to cover the ground work required for the examinations at the
different levels of engineering officer of the watch, second engineering officer and
chief engineering officer. The syllabus and engineering principles involved can be
similar for both examinations but questions set for the chief engineering officer
examination require a more detailed answer that those set at second engineering
officer level. It is extremely important for the student preparing for the officer of the
watch examination to concentrate on the safety procedures and practices of marine
engineering. While it is not acceptable for the OOW to keep answering a question
with ‘I will ask the second or Chief’, it should be remembered that responsibility does
lie with the Chief and she/he is available to consult if all other options fail. The Chief
on the other hand has no one to fall back upon although she/he can consult technical
manuals.
The book can now also be considered as more than a specific examination guide and
will be useful to superintendent engineers wishing to have a general guide to the latest
trends from which they can seek more detail. Engineering knowledge is delivered via
several different academic pathways from the Scottish Curriculum Authority’s (SQA)
Maritime Studies Qualification (MSQ) through Higher National Diploma’s (HND) to
Foundation Degrees and full Honours Degrees. The drawings are still intended to have
direct relevance to the examination requirements but it is left to the student to practice
his/her own versions.
The best method of study is to read carefully through each chapter, practicing the
drawings, and when the principles have been mastered attempting the few examples
at the end of the chapter. Finally, the miscellaneous questions at the end of the book
should be worked through methodically. The best preparation for any examination
is to work on the examples; however, this is difficult in the subject of engineering
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viii • Preface
knowledge as no model answer is available, nor indeed any one text book to cover
all the possible questions. As a guide it is suggested that the student finds his/her
information first and then attempts each question in the book in turn, basing their
answer on either a good descriptive sketch and writing or a description covering about
a page and a half of A4 paper. Try and complete this exercise in half an hour. I have
found it particularly useful to use an artist’s sketch pad, fill it with relevant drawings
and practice them so that they can be reproduced as required in the examination.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TO FOURTH EDITION
I wish to acknowledge the invaluable assistance given, by the following bodies, in the
revision of this book:
ABB Turbo Systems Ltd.

Rolls-Royce
MAN Diesel & Turbo.
Krupp MaK Maschinenbau GmbH.
Dr. -Ing Geislinger & Co.
Wärtsilä Corporation
The Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology (IMarEST)
Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA)
Merchant Navy Training Board
I also wish to extend my thanks to colleagues in Maritime Education in the United

Kingdom and a special thank you to Rolls-Royce.
Paul A. Russell
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BASIC PRINCIPLES
1
Definitions and Formulae
Isothermal operation (PV = constant)
This is an ideal, reversible process carried out at constant temperature. It follows Boyle’s
law, requiring heat addition during expansion and heat extraction during compression.
It is however impractical due to the requirement of very slow piston speeds.
Adiabatic operation (PV γ = constant) (where γ = gamma = the adiabatic

index Cp/Cv)
This is also an ideal and reversible process but with no heat addition or extraction
and therefore the work done is equivalent to the change of internal energy. It is again
impracticable due to the requirement of very high piston speeds.
Polytropic operation (PV n = constant)
This is close to a practical process where the value of the index n usually lies between
unity and gamma.
Volumetric efficiency
This is a comparison between the mass of air induced per cycle and the mass of air
contained in the stroke volume at standard conditions. This term is usually used to
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2 • Motor Engineering Knowledge
describe four-stroke engine and air compressor operation. Due to the restrictions of
practical engine design typical values range between 86% and 92%.
Scavenge efficiency (‘scavenging’ is the term used to describe

the air exchange process)
This is similar to volumetric efficiency but is used to describe two-stroke engines

where some exhaust gas from the previous stroke may be included with the induction
air at the start of compression. Both efficiency values are reduced by high revolutions
(less time for the exchange process), and high ambient air temperature (less weight
of incoming air). The introduction of exhaust gas recycling will change the values
recorded on modern engines.
Mechanical efficiency
Mechanical efficiency is a measure of the mechanical perfection of an engine. It is

numerically expressed as the ratio between the indicated power (power available from
burning the fuel) and the brake power (power measured at the flywheel).
Uniflow scavenge
With uniflow scavenging the two-stroke engine is designed to have the exhaust at
one end of the cylinder (top) and scavenge air entry at the other end of the cylinder
(bottom) so that there is a clear flow traversing the full length of the cylinder (see
figure 1.1) This design means that the scavenge air does not have to travel up the
cylinder and down again, as with the other designs, to purge the exhaust gas from the
previous cycle, hence the name UNI-flow. Due to the increased efficiency all modern
engine designs are now based on this arrangement.
Loop scavenge and cross scavenge
This is the traditional two-stroke design where the exhaust gas exit and scavenge
air entry are at one end of the cylinder (bottom); examples are the older Sulzer (now
Wärtsiliä) RD RND and RL engines. This general classification simplifies and embraces
variations of the sketch (figure 1.1) in cases where air and exhaust are at different
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Basic Principles • 3
PV n = C
PV γ = C
P P
PV = C
PV = C
PV n = C
PV γ = C
Compression Expansion
V V
Uniflow Loop
scavenge scavenge
▲ Figure 1.1 Compression, expansion
sides of the cylinder with and without crossed flow loop (cross and transverse
scavenge).
Brake thermal efficiency
This is the ratio between the energy developed at the flywheel, or the output shaft
of the engine, and the energy supplied from burning the fuel. Traditionally this was
measured by placing a ‘load’ or ‘brake’ on the output shaft, hence the term brake
thermal efficiency.
Specific fuel oil consumption (SFOC)
SFOC is the fuel consumption per unit of energy at the cylinder or output shaft,
kg/kWh (or kg/kWs), 0.38 kg/kWh would be normal for measurement at the shaft for
a modern engine. However, the current general practice is for the manufacturers to
quote a consumption figure measured at the cylinder and expressed in g/kWh and not
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kg/kWh. Therefore, a typical fuel consumption figure for a modern two-stroke diesel
main engine would be quoted as being between 160 and 185 g/kWh.
Compression ratio (CR)
CR is a measurement of the ratio of the volume of air at the start of the compression
stroke to the volume of air at the end of this stroke (measured between top dead
centre (TDC) and bottom dead centre (BDC)). Usual value for a compression ignition
(CI) oil engine is about 14:5 to 20:1, that is, clearance volume is 7.5% to 5% of stoke
volume.
Fuel–air ratio
Depending upon the type and quality of fuel the amount of air required to give enough
oxygen to completely burn all the fuel is about 14.5 kg for each kg of fuel. However,
engines supply excess air to the combustion process and therefore the actual air
supplied varies from about 29 to 44 kg/kg fuel. The percentage of excess air is about
150 (36.5 kg for each kg of fuel).
Performance curves for fuel consumption and efficiency
The initial design considerations for main engines powering merchant ships will
be for optimised thermal efficiency (and minimum specific fuel consumption) to
occur at the power conditions required to maintain the chosen service speed of the
vessel. Marine practice is to quote the minimum specific fuel consumption at a given
percentage of engine service load but maximum speeds are occasionally required
when the specific fuel consumption will be much higher. Modern tonnage is often
required to operate at speeds other than the design service speed. The practice of
‘slow steaming’ is now common and this means that the main engine will be required
to operate at loads well below its service maximum continuous rating (SMCR). Engine
manufacturers have responded and produced modern engines which have a much
improved efficiency when running continuously at part load.
The design of internal combustion (IC) engines driving electrical generators are
arranged so that the peak thermal efficiency is at approximately 70% maximum load
because this is the engine unit’s average load during normal ship operation.
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Manufacturers published performance curves (figure 1.2) that are useful in establishing
principles, such as:
1. The fuel consumption (kg/s) increases steadily with load. However, the fuel
consumption is not reduced by 50% if the load is reduced by 50% as certain
essentials consume fuel at no load (e.g. heat for cooling water warming through,
etc.).
2. Mechanical efficiency steadily increases with load as friction losses are almost
constant and therefore become a smaller percentage of the total losses.
3. Thermal efficiency (brake for example) is designed to be at maximum at full load.
4. Specific fuel consumption is therefore a minimum at 100% power. Fuel consumption
on a brake basis increases more rapidly than indicated specific fuel consumption as
load decreases due to the friction losses being almost constant.
Heat balance
A simple heat balance is shown in figure 1.2. There are some factors not considered
in drawing up this balance but as a first analysis this serves to give a useful indication
of the heat distribution for the IC engine. The high thermal efficiency and low fuel
consumption obtained by modern diesel engines is superior to any other form of
engine in use at present.
1. The development of waste heat recovery systems gives the marine plant an
efficiency gain as this is heat that would otherwise be lost to the environment.
2. The recent efficiency increases of exhaust gas-driven turbo-chargers not only
contribute to high mechanical efficiency, by taking no mechanical power from
the engine, but they also take a smaller percentage of the exhaust gas output
to drive the charge air compressor. This means that more gas is left over to
drive turbo generators, exhaust gas boilers and other waste heat recovery
systems.
3. Cooling loss includes an element of heat energy due to generated friction.
4. Propellers do not usually have propulsive efficiencies exceeding 70% which reduces
brake power according to the output power.
5. In the previous remarks no account has been taken of the increasing common
practice of utilising a recovery system for heat normally lost in coolant
systems.
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Total power output 54.2%

Shaft power output
49.3% 12K98 ME/MC standard engine Shaft power output
SMCR:68,640 kW at 94 rpm 49.3% 12K98 ME/MC standard engine
SMCR:68,640 kW at 94 rpm
Electrical power production 4.9%
Lubrication oil
cooler 2.9% Lubrication oil
cooler 2.9%
Jacket water
cooler 5.2% Jacket water
cooler 5.2%
Exhaust gas
25.5% Exhaust gas
22.9%
Air cooler
16.5% Air cooler
16.5%
Heat radiation
0.6% Heat radiation
0.6%
Fuel 100%
(171 g/kWh) Fuel 100%
(171 g/kWh)
▲ Figure 1.2 Heat balance including waste heat recovery
Analysis of the simplified heat balance shown in figure 1.2 reveals two important
observations.
1. The difference between the indicated power and brake power is not only the
power absorbed by the friction losses as some power is required to drive engine
components such as camshafts, pumps, etc., which means a reduced potential for
brake power.
2. Friction also results in heat generation which is dissipated by the various fluid
cooling media, that is, oil and water, and hence the cooling analysis in a heat
balance equation will include the frictional heat effect as an estimation.
Engine load diagram showing different combinations
Figure 1.3 shows a typical load diagram for a slow-speed two-stroke engine. It is a graph
of brake power and shaft speed. Line 1 represents the power developed by the engine
on the test bed and runs through the maximum continuous rating (MCR) point. The
lines running parallel to line 2 represent constant values of mean effective pressure
(PMEP). Line 3 shows the maximum shaft speed which should not be exceeded. Line 4
is important since it represents the maximum continuous power and MEP; at a given
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110%
105%
100%
95%
Brake power
2
% 90%
110
%
105 6
85%
4
%
100 80%
95% 1 3
P 75%
P ME 90% 5
5a
85% 70%
90%
80% 85% 90% 95% 100% 105%
Speed (r/min)
▲ Figure 1.3 Standard engine load diagram
speed, this will depend upon an adequate supply of charge air for combustion. Line
5 represents the power absorbed by the propeller when the ship is fully loaded and
has a clean hull. The effect of a fouled hull is to move this line to the left as indicated
by line 5a. In general a loaded vessel will operate between lines 4 and 5, while a vessel
in ballast will operate in the region to the right of line 5. The area to the left of line 4
represents overload operation.
It can be seen that the fouling of the hull, by moving line 5 to the left, decreases the
margin of operation and the combination of hull fouling and heavy weather can cause
the engine to become overloaded, even though engine revolutions are reduced.
Following on from this diagram the engine manufacturer will calculate the most
efficient operating point for the engine. The operational requirements of the owner
will determine the design speed and power for the normal running point of the engine
(see layout information next).
Engine layout points
In designing engines for different types of duty the specific consumption minima may
be at a different load point. As quoted earlier this could be about 70% for engines driving
electrical generators. The effective output power of a diesel engine is proportional
to the MEP and engine speed measured in revolutions per minute. When a vessel is
running with a fixed pitch propeller the relationship between the power required to
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operate the ship at a given speed and the efficiency of the propeller can also be plotted
on a graph. If the two functions are combined in the layout and load diagrams for diesel
engines, then when logarithmic scales are used, the result is a simple diagram with
straight lines (see figure 1.4).
Engine layout diagram
An engine’s layout diagram is limited by two constant MEP lines L1 to L3 and L2 to L4,
and by two constant engine speed lines L1 to L2 and L3 to L4 (see figure 2.1). The L1
point refers to the engine’s nominal MCR. However, within the layout area the vessel
designer has the freedom to select the engine’s actual specified MCR point which would
be designated as point M and relevant optimising point designated as point O, which is
the optimum combination for the ship and the operating profile. However, the lowest
SFOC for a given optimising point O will be obtained at 70% and 80% of the power at
point O for both electronically and mechanically controlled engines, respectively.
Based on the best propulsion and engine running points, drawn up by the designer, the
layout diagram of a relevant main engine may be drawn up. The specified MCR point M
must be inside the limitation lines of the layout diagram. The optimised layout point of
the engine is the rating at which the engine, timing and CR are adjusted to work most
efficiently with the scavenge air pressure of the turbo-charger.
However, engines without variable injection timing (VIT) fuel pumps cannot be
optimised at part-load. Therefore, these engines are always optimised at point L1.
Other information might also be included in these graphs by the engine manufacturers.
Information such as:
Propeller curve through an optimised point
Layout curve for engine line
Heavy propeller curve due to fouled hull and/or heavy seas
Speed limit line
Torque/speed limit
MEP limit
Light propeller curve clean hull and calm weather layout curve for propeller
Limit for continuous running
Overload limit
Sea trial speed limit
Constant MEP.
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Power
L1
O&M
L3
S
L2
L4
Speed
▲ Figure 1.4 Engine layout points L1–L4
Ideal Thermodynamic Cycles
Thermodynamic cycles are a series of operations carried out by a machine

manipulating a substance. During the process heat and work are transferred by varying
temperatures and pressures and eventually returning the system to its original state.
The ideal thermodynamic cycles form the benchmark for reference against the actual
performance of IC engines. In the cycles considered in detail all curves are regarded as
frictionless adiabatic, that is, isentropic. The usual assumptions that are made are that
constant specific heats and mass of charge are unaffected by any injected fuel, etc. and
hence the expression air standard cycle may be used. There are two main classifications
for reciprocating IC engines: (a) spark ignition (SI) such as petrol engines and, (b) CI such
as diesel and oil engines. Liquid natural gas (LNG) is beginning to find favour with the
main engine manufacturers due to its potential for producing less harmful emissions
from the exhaust. Most engines designed to run on gas are currently using the Otto (SI)
process, however, MAN Diesel & Turbo have recently conducted trials of a two-stroke
engine operating on the Diesel process.
Older forms of reference used terms such as light and heavy oil engines but this is not
very explicit or satisfactory. Four main air standard cycles are first considered followed
by a brief consideration of other such cycles less often considered. The cycles have been
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drawn using the usual method of P–V diagrams. Research into reducing the exhaust
emissions from marine diesel engines has let the manufacturers to develop engines
operating by using the ‘Miller’ cycle. The primary reason for this is that the highest
temperatures of combustion are avoided and therefore the harmful nitrous oxides
(NOx) are not produced to then be released into the atmosphere through the exhaust.
Otto (constant volume) cycle
Otto cycle was named after Nickolaus Otto, the inventor of the first efficient working
IC engine working on the four-stroke cycle. The Otto cycle now forms the basis of all
SI and high-speed CI engines. The four non-flow operations combined into a cycle are
shown in figure 1.5.
Air standard efficiency = work done/heat supplied

(heat supplied − heat rejected)
= ,
heat supplied
referring to figure 1.5.
2
P P
4
V V
Constant volume Constant pressure
(Otto) (Joule)
P P
V V
Modified constant Dual combustion
pressure (Diesel)
▲ Figure 1.5 Theoretical (ideal) cycles
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Air standard efficiency = 1 − heat rejected/heat supplied

= 1 − MC(T4 − T1)/MC(T3 − T2), where M is the mass and
C is the specific heat capacity of the substance
= 1 −1/(rγ−1)
−1
[using T2/T1 = T3/T4 = rγ , where r is the CR].
Note: Efficiency of the cycle increases with an increase in the CR. This is also true for the
other four cycles.
Diesel (modified constant pressure) cycle
This cycle is more applicable to older CI engines utilising long periods of constant
pressure fuel injection in conjunction with blast injection. Modern engines do not in
fact aim to follow this cycle, which in its pure form requires very high CRs. The term
semi-diesel was used for hot bulb engines using a CR between that of the Otto and the
Diesel ideal cycles. Some very early Doxford engines utilised a form of this principle
with low compression pressures and ‘hot spot’ pistons. The Diesel cycle is also sketched
in figure 1.5 and it should be noted that heat is received at constant pressure and
rejected at constant volume.
Dual (mixed) cycle
This cycle is applicable to most modern CI reciprocating IC engines. Such engines

employ solid injection with short fuel injection periods fairly symmetrical about the
firing dead centre. The term semi-diesel was often used to describe engines working
close to this cycle. In modern turbo-charged marine engines the approach is from this
cycle almost to the point of the Otto cycle, that is, the constant pressure period is very
short. This produces very heavy firing loads but gives the necessary good combustion.
Joule (constant pressure) cycle
This is the simple gas turbine flow cycle. Designs at present are mainly of the open
cycle type although nuclear systems may well utilise closed cycles. The ideal cycle P–V
diagram is shown in figure 1.5 and again as a circuit cycle diagram in figure 1.6 in which
intercoolers, heat exchangers and reheaters have been omitted for simplicity.
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Fuel
Combustion
Heater chamber
COMPR Turbine COMPR Turbine
Cooler
Closed cycle Open cycle
▲ Figure 1.6 Gas turbine circuit cycles
Other cycles
The efficiency of a thermodynamic cycle is a maximum when the cycle is made up

of reversible operations. The Carnot cycle of isothermals and adiabatics satisfies this
condition and this maximum efficiency is, referring to figure 1.7, given by (T3 − T1)/T3
where the Kelvin temperatures are maximum and minimum for the cycle. The cycle
is practically not approachable as the MEP is so small and CR would be excessive.
All the four ideal cycles have efficiencies less than the Carnot. The Stirling cycle and
the Ericsson cycle have equal efficiency to the Carnot. Further research work is being
carried out on Stirling cycle engines in an effort to utilise the high thermal efficiency
potential. The Carnot cycle is sketched on both P–Y and T–S axes (figure 1.7). However,
as with all these theoretical cycles the reality of producing a practical working engine
running on one is very difficult. Therefore, actual engines are always a compromise.
Miller cycle
Modern engines are expected to become much more fuel efficient in the near future.
Explanations surrounding the circumstances about why and when this will happen
appear elsewhere in this volume. However, it is generally accepted that diesel engines
will not reach the reduced values for NOx emissions unless the Miller cycle is used.
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3 T Isothermal
2 3
P
PV = Constant
Adiabatic Adiabatic
PV γ = Constant
4
PV γ = Constant
Isothermal
2 1 4
PV = Constant 1
V S
▲ Figure 1.7 Theoretical (ideal) cycles
This engine cycle cannot be used unless an engine has full electronic control of both the
fuel injection process and the ability to vary the valve operating timing. The temperature
peaks during combustion are responsible for over 90% of NOx formation. Therefore,
manufacturers use ‘primary’ combustion measures to eliminate the peak temperatures
in the combustion chamber without incurring fuel consumption penalties or, if possible,
at improved fuel efficiency. To achieve this, a range of engine modifications have been
used, including:
further cooling of the charge air

improved re-entrant piston bowls
low swirl inlet ports
higher CRs
higher fuel injection pressures and improved injector nozzle spray patterns
revised fuel injection timing
a combination of revised ‘Miller cycle’ valve timing and high efficiency, high pressure
turbo-charging.
The Miller cycle involves the early closure of the inlet valve, causing the air entering the
cylinder to expand and cool. This cooling action reduces the temperature peaks during
combustion which is the major cause of NOx production during combustion. However,
the shorter inlet valve opening period would mean a lower mass of combustion air
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entering the cylinder and hence reduced engine power and torque. To counter this
effect, higher pressure turbocharging ensures that an equal – or in the case of MAN
Diesel’s new technology package – or greater amount of air can enter the cylinder
in the shorter time available. During trials using an intensive Miller cycle under full
load conditions and turbocharger pressure ratios of 6.5–7, MAN Diesel has recorded
reductions in NOx of over 30%, reductions in fuel consumption as great as 8% and a
15% increase in specific power output.
Actual Cycles and Indicator Diagrams
There is a correlation between the real IC engine cycle and the equivalent air standard
cycle as is shown by the similarities in the P–V diagrams but how does this help the
marine engineer working in remote places away from any substantial support.
For many years engineers recorded the pressure in each cylinder by the use of a
mechanical cylinder pressure indicator apparatus (fig 1.14). These were small hand-
held units made up of a piston which was able to move up and down in a cylinder. The
machine was connected to the engine via a cock on the engine called the indicator
cock. Opening the cock allowed the full force of combustion through to the indicator
equipment’s cylinder. The pressure from the combustion acts upon the piston
operating within the cylinder. Movement of the piston is restricted by a spring which
can be changed to match the different combustion pressures of different engines. The
vertical movement of the piston drives an arm, at the end of which is a pointer, that is
used to draw the vertical line on a ‘card’ corresponding to the pressure in the cylinder.
The horizontal movement of the card is achieved by rotating the drum that the card is
attached to, in time with the movement of the piston. The movement was achieved by
using a chord attached to a roller on the camshaft of the engine. Using the equipment
shown in figure 1.14, an actual diagram was produced as shown in the lower drawing of
figure 1.8. This allowed the engineer to assess the efficiency of the combustion process.
Only one cylinder could be reviewed at a time but the different cards could then be
compared alongside each other.
The differences between the cycles can now be considered and for illustration purposes
the drawings given are of the Otto cycle. The principles are generally the same for most
IC engine cycles.
1. The actual compression curve (shown as full line in figure 1.8) shows a lower final
pressure and temperature than the ideal adiabatic compression curve (shown as
dotted). This is caused by the time lag in the heat transfer taking place, variable
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specific heats, a reduction in γ due to gas-air mixing, etc. The resulting compression
is not adiabatic and the difference in vertical height is shown as x.
2. The actual combustion gives a lower temperature and pressure than the ideal due
to dissociation of molecules caused by high temperatures. These twofold effects
y
x
P x
3
Stroke (swept) volume
Clearance volume
6
1
2
▲ Figure 1.8 Actual cycles (Otto basis)
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can be regarded as a loss of peak height of x + y and a lowered expansion line

below the ideal adiabatic expansion line. The loss can be regarded as clearly shown
between the ideal adiabatic curve from maximum height (shown as chain dotted)
and the curve with initial point x + y lower (shown as dotted).
3. In fact the expansion is also not adiabatic. There is some heat recovery as molecule
re-combination occurs but this is much less than the dissociation combustion heat
loss in practical effect. The expansion is also much removed from adiabatic because
of heat transfer taking place and variation of specific heats for the hot gas products
of combustion. The actual expansion line is shown as a full line on figure 1.8.
In general the assumptions made at the beginning of the section on ideal cycles are
worth repeating, that is, isentropic, negligible fuel charge mass, constant specific heats,
etc. plus the comments above such as for example on dissociation. Consideration of
these factors plus practical details such as rounding of corners due to non-instantaneous
valve operation, etc. mean that the actual diagram appears as shown in the lower
sketch of figure 1.8.
Typical indicator diagrams
The power and draw cards are shown in figure 1.9 and should be studied closely. These
examples are for two- and four-stroke CI engines and the typical temperatures and
pressures are shown on the drawings where appropriate.
The draw card is an extended scale picture of the combustion process. They have been
given the name ‘draw cards’ because in early marine practice the indicator card was
drawn by hand. The later practice was for an ‘out-of-phase’ (90°) cam to be provided
adjacent to the general indicator cam. Incorrect combustion details are highlighted
by taking the draw card. There is no real marked difference between the diagrams for
two-stroke or four-stroke. In general the compression point on the draw card is more
difficult to detect on the two-stroke as the line is fairly continuous. There is no induction
– exhaust loop for the four-stroke as the spring used in the indicator is too strong to
discriminate on a pressure difference of say 1/3 bar only.
Compression diagrams are also given in figure 1.10; with the fuel shut off expansion
and compression appearing as one line. Errors would be due to a time lag in the drive
or a faulty indicator cam setting or relative phase difference between camshaft and
crankshaft. Normally such diagrams would only be necessary on initial engine trials
unless loss of compression or cam shift on the engine was suspected.
Reeds_02_Ch01.indd 16 9/6/2012 10:56:33 PM
160 bar MAX 2400 K
100 bar 750 K Draw card
bar
Power card
8 bar MIP = 18 bar
660 K
35 bar
A
V m3
2-Stroke cycle (Cl)
220 bar MAX 2400 K
120 bar 800 K
bar
MIP = 25 bar
700 K
A 4.5 bar
Vm3
4-Stroke cycle (Cl)
▲ Figure 1.9 Typical indicator (power and draw) diagrams
Figure 1.11 shows the light spring diagrams for CI engines of the two- and four-stroke
types. These diagrams are particularly useful in modern practice to give information
about the exhaust – scavenge (induction) processes as all main engines are now turbo-
charged. The turbo-charge effect is shown in each case and it will be observed that
there is a general lifting up of the diagram due to the higher pressures.
Reeds_02_Ch01.indd 17 9/6/2012 10:56:33 PM
Expansion line
P Compression line } Incorrect
bar
Correct
A 6
V m3
Retard indicator cam
Compression line
P
Expansion line } Incorrect
bar
Correct
A 6
V m3
Advance indicator cam
P Compression line
bar
Expansion line } Incorrect
Correct
A 6
V m3
Adjust indicator cam
▲ Figure 1.10 Compression diagrams
Reeds_02_Ch01.indd 18 9/6/2012 10:56:33 PM
2.0
EXH Turbo-charge
effect
COMP
P
1.0 (ATMOS: LINE) Exhablature
bar
pressure
SCALE
45 mm = 1 bar
V m3
2-Stroke engine (Cl)
3.0
Turbo-charge
EXH effect
COMP
P
bar 0.2 bar
1.0
(ATMOS: LINE) SCALE 0.1 bar
15 mm = 1 bar
V m3
4-Stroke engine (Cl)
▲ Figure 1.11 Typical indicator (light spring) diagrams
Other Related Details

Fuel valve lift cards are useful to obtain characteristics of injectors when the engine is
running. A diagram given in figure 1.12 shows the outcome of such a card. Electronic
system can easily be set up to obtain such a result even on high-speed engines. This is
an example of the advantage of the electronic system over the older mechanical ones
and is a common question asked by the flag state examiner.
Typical diagram faults are normally best considered in the particular area of study
where they are likely to occur. However as an introduction, two typical combustion
faults are illustrated on the draw card of figure 1.12. Turbo-charge effects are also
shown in figure 1.11 and compression card defects are shown in figure 1.10. It should
Reeds_02_Ch01.indd 19 9/6/2012 10:56:34 PM
REEDS MARINE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SERIES
Vol. 1 Mathematics for Marine Engineers
Vol. 2 Applied Mechanics for Marine Engineers
Vol. 3 Applied Thermodynamics for Marine Engineers
Vol. 4 Naval Architecture
Vol. 5 Ship Construction
Vol. 6 Basic Electrotechnology for Marine Engineers
Vol. 7 Advanced Electrotechnology for Marine Engineers
Vol. 8 General Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers
Vol. 9 Steam Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers
Vol. 10 Instrumentation and Control Systems
Vol. 11 Engineering Drawings for Marine Engineers
Vol. 12 Motor Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers
Vol. 13 Ship Stability, Resistance and Powering
Vol. 14 Stealth Warship Technology
Vol. 15 Electronics, Navigational Aids and Radio Theory for

Electrotechnology Officers.
Reeds_01_Pre.indd ii 9/6/2012 8:31:09 PM
Includes the Latest Equipment, Practices and
Trends in Marine Engineering
www.adlardcoles.com
Published by Adlard Coles Nautical

an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
50 Bedford Square, London WC1B 3DP
www.adlardcoles.com
Copyright © Paul A. Russell and Adlard Coles Nautical 1975, 1978, 1994, 2013
First edition published by Thomas Reed Publications 1975

Second edition 1978
Reprinted 1982, 1986
Third edition 1994
Reprinted 1999, 2002
Reprinted by Adlard Coles Nautical 2003, 2006 twice, 2008, 2010
This fourth edition published by Adlard Coles Nautical in 2013
ISBN 978-1-4081-7599-6
ePDF 978-1-4081-7600-9
ePub 978-1-4081-7601-6
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means – graphic,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage and retrieval
systems – without the prior permission in writing of the publishers.
The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988.
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
This book is produced using paper that is made from wood grown in managed, sustainable forests.
It is natural, renewable and recyclable. The logging and manufacturing processes conform to the
environmental regulations of the country of origin. Of course if that’s Brazil, congratulations,
you’re holding a souvenir of the rainforest.
Typeset in Myriad Pro 10/14 by Newgen Imaging Systems Pvt Ltd, Chennai, India
Printed and bound in the UK by MPG Ltd
Note: while all reasonable care has been taken in the publication of this book, the publisher takes no
responsibility for the use of the methods or products described in the book.
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PRADEEP@MSC SHIPPING

Revised by Paul A Russell

2 STRUCTURE AND TRANSMISSION 30

3 FUEL INJECTION 109

4 SCAVENGING AND SUPERCHARGING 146

5 STARTING AND REVERSING 174

7 ANCILLARY SUPPLY SYSTEMS 215

8 MEDIUMSPEED DIESELS 237

9 ELECTRIC PROPULSION SYSTEMS 259

10 WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS 269

11 SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL 299

TEST QUESTIONS 329

ABB Turbo Systems Ltd.

I also wish to extend my thanks to colleagues in Maritime Education in the United

Isothermal operation (PV = constant)

Adiabatic operation (PV γ = constant) (where γ = gamma = the adiabatic

Polytropic operation (PV n = constant)

2 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Scavenge eﬃciency (‘scavenging’ is the term used to describe

This is similar to volumetric eﬃciency but is used to describe two-stroke engines

Mechanical eﬃciency is a measure of the mechanical perfection of an engine. It is

Loop scavenge and cross scavenge

▲ Figure 1.1 Compression, expansion

Brake thermal eﬃciency

Speciﬁc fuel oil consumption (SFOC)

4 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Compression ratio (CR)

Performance curves for fuel consumption and eﬃciency

6 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Total power output 54.2%

Electrical power production 4.9%

▲ Figure 1.2 Heat balance including waste heat recovery

Engine load diagram showing diﬀerent combinations

▲ Figure 1.3 Standard engine load diagram

Engine layout points

8 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Engine layout diagram

▲ Figure 1.4 Engine layout points L1–L4

Ideal Thermodynamic Cycles

Thermodynamic cycles are a series of operations carried out by a machine

10 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Otto (constant volume) cycle

Air standard eﬃciency = work done/heat supplied

referring to ﬁgure 1.5.

▲ Figure 1.5 Theoretical (ideal) cycles

Air standard eﬃciency = 1 − heat rejected/heat supplied

Diesel (modiﬁed constant pressure) cycle

Dual (mixed) cycle

This cycle is applicable to most modern CI reciprocating IC engines. Such engines

Joule (constant pressure) cycle

12 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

COMPR Turbine COMPR Turbine

Closed cycle Open cycle

▲ Figure 1.6 Gas turbine circuit cycles

The eﬃciency of a thermodynamic cycle is a maximum when the cycle is made up

▲ Figure 1.7 Theoretical (ideal) cycles

further cooling of the charge air

14 • Motor Engineering Knowledge

Actual Cycles and Indicator Diagrams

▲ Figure 1.8 Actual cycles (Otto basis)