Chemistry Project
Chemistry Project
Chemistry Project
INTRODUCTION
Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies the structure, properties
and reactions of organic compounds, which contain carbon–carbon covalent
bonds. Organic compounds form the basis of all earthly life and constitute the
majority of known chemicals. The bonding patterns of carbon, with its valence
of four—formal single, double, and triple bonds, plus structures with
delocalized electrons—make the array of organic compounds structurally
diverse, and their range of applications enormous. They form the basis of, or are
constituents of, many commercial products including pharmaceuticals;
petrochemicals and agrichemicals, and products made from them including
lubricants, solvents; plastics; fuels and explosives. The study of organic
chemistry overlaps organometallic chemistry and biochemistry, but also with
medicinal chemistry, polymer chemistry, and materials science.
The organic nutrients are the necessary building blocks of various cell
components that certain organisms cannot synthesize and therefore must obtain
preformed. These compounds include carbohydrates, protein, and lipids. Other
organic nutrients include the vitamins, which are required in small amounts,
because of either the catalytic role or the regulatory role they play in
metabolism.
CARBOHYDRATES
A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and
oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in
water) and thus with the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m may or may
not be different from n). However, not all carbohydrates conform to this precise
stoichiometric definition (e.g., uronic acids, deoxy-sugars such as fucose), nor
are all chemicals that do conform to this definition automatically classified as
carbohydrates (e.g. formaldehyde and acetic acid).
The Institute of Medicine recommends that American and Canadian adults get
between 45 and 65% of dietary energy from whole-grain carbohydrates. The
Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization jointly
recommend that national dietary guidelines set a goal of 55–75% of total energy
from carbohydrates, but only 10% directly from sugars (their term for simple
carbohydrates). A 2017 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that there was
insufficient evidence to support the claim that whole grain diets can affect
cardiovascular disease.
Low-carbohydrate diets may miss the health advantages – such as increased
intake of dietary fiber – afforded by high-quality carbohydrates found in
legumes and pulses, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. A “meta-analysis, of
moderate quality,” included as adverse effects of the diet halitosis, headache and
constipation.
Carbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective as low-fat diets in helping
achieve weight loss over the short term when overall calorie intake is reduced.
An Endocrine Society scientific statement said that “when calorie intake is held
constant body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very
pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet.” In the
long term, effective weight loss or maintenance depends on calorie restriction,
not the ratio of macronutrients in a diet. The reasoning of diet advocates that
carbohydrates cause undue fat accumulation by increasing blood insulin levels,
and that low-carbohydrate diets have a “metabolic advantage”, is not supported
by clinical evidence. Further, it is not clear how low-carbohydrate dieting
affects cardiovascular health, although two reviews showed that carbohydrate
restriction may improve lipid markers of cardiovascular disease risk.
PROTEINS
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more
long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions
within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication,
responding to stimuli, providing structure to cells and organisms, and
transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ from one
another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the
nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which usually results in protein folding
into a specific 3D structure that determines its activity.
Proteins are made up of building blocks called amino acids. There are about 20
different amino acids that link together in different combinations. Your body
uses them to make new proteins, such as muscle and bone, and other
compounds such as enzymes and hormones. It can also use them as an energy
source.
Some amino acids can be made by your body – there are 11 of these and they’re
known as non-essential amino acids. There are 9 amino acids that your body
cannot make, and they are known as essential amino acids. You need to include
enough of these in your diet so that your body can function.
The nutritional value of a protein is measured by the quantity of essential amino
acids it contains.
Different foods contain different amounts of essential amino acids.
Generally:
• Animal products (such as chicken, beef or fish and dairy products) have
all of the essential amino acids and are known as ‘complete’ protein (or ideal or
high-quality protein).
• Soy products, quinoa and the seed of a leafy green called amaranth
(consumed in Asia and the Mediterranean) also have all of the essential amino
acids.
• Plant proteins (beans, lentils, nuts and whole grains) usually lack at least
one of the essential amino acids and are considered ‘incomplete’ proteins.
People following a strict vegetarian or vegan diet need to choose a variety of
protein sources from a combination of plant foods every day to make sure they
get an adequate mix of essential amino acids.
If you follow a vegetarian or vegan diet, as long as you eat a wide variety of
foods, you can usually get the protein you need. For example, a meal containing
cereals and legumes, such as baked beans on toast, provides all the essential
amino acids found in a typical meat dish.
Some food sources of dietary protein include:
• lean meats – beef, lamb, veal, pork, kangaroo
• poultry – chicken, turkey, duck, emu, goose, bush birds
• fish and seafood – fish, prawns, crab, lobster, mussels, oysters, scallops,
clams
• eggs
• dairy products – milk, yoghurt (especially Greek yoghurt), cheese
(especially cottage cheese)
• nuts (including nut pastes) and seeds – almonds, pine nuts, walnuts,
macadamias, hazelnuts, cashews, pumpkin seeds, sesame seeds, sunflower
seeds
• legumes and beans – all beans, lentils, chickpeas, split peas, tofu.
Some grain and cereal-based products are also sources of protein, but are
generally not as high in protein as meat and meat-alternative products.
Your daily protein needs can easily be met by following the Australian Dietary
Guidelines. The Guidelines group foods into 5 different food groups, each of
which provide key nutrients.
The 2 main food groups that contribute to protein are the:
• ‘lean meat and poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and seeds and
legumes/beans’ group
• ‘milk, yoghurt, cheese and/or alternatives (mostly reduced fat)’ group.
As part of a healthy diet, the Guidelines recommend particular serves per day
from each of the 5 food groups.
The human body can’t store protein and will excrete any excess, so the most
effective way of meeting your daily protein requirement is to eat small amounts
at every meal.
Daily recommended serves of ‘lean meat and poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and
seeds and legumes/beans’ and ‘milk, yoghurt, cheese and/or alternatives (mostly
reduced fat)’ for adults.
Men aged
3 2 1/2
19–50 years
Men aged
2 1/2 2 1/2
51–70 years
Men aged
2 1/2 3 1/2
70+ years
Women
aged 19–50 2 1/2 2 1/2
years
Women
aged 51–70 2 4
years
Women
aged 70+ 2 4
years
Pregnant
3 1/2 2 1/2
women
Lactating
2 1/2 2 1/2
women
So, what is a serve? A standard serving size of ‘lean meat and poultry, fish,
eggs, nuts and seeds, and legumes/beans’ is one of:
• 65 g cooked lean meats such as beef, lamb, veal, pork, goat or kangaroo
(about 90 to 100 g raw)
• 80 g cooked lean poultry such as chicken or turkey (100 g raw)
• 100 g cooked fish fillet (about 115 g raw weight) or one small can of fish
• 2 large eggs
• 1 cup (150 g) cooked dried beans, lentils, chickpeas, split peas or canned
beans (preferably with no added salt)
• 170 g tofu
• 30 g nuts, seeds, peanut or almond butter or tahini or other nut or seed
paste (no added salt).
A serve of ‘milk, yoghurt, cheese and/or alternatives (mostly reduced fat)’ could
include:
• 250 ml (1 cup) fresh, UHT long life, reconstituted powdered milk or
buttermilk
• 120 ml (1/2 cup) evaporated milk
• 200 g (3/4 cup or 1 small carton) yoghurt
• 40 g (2 slices) hard cheese such as cheddar
• 120 g (1/2 cup) ricotta cheese.
Protein requirements for children and teenagers change as they grow. Read
about the recommended number of serves for children, adolescents and toddlers
for all 5 food groups.
The best way for you to get the protein you need is to eat a wide variety of
protein-rich foods as outlined in the Australian Dietary Guidelines, as part of a
balanced diet. But if you are still interested in using protein shakes, powders
and supplements, talk to your doctor.
Protein and exercise
Soon after exercising, it’s recommended that you have a serve of high-quality
protein (such as a glass of milk or tub of yoghurt) with a carbohydrate meal to
help maintain your body’s protein balance. Studies have shown this is good for
you, even after low to moderate aerobic exercise (such as walking), particularly
for older adults.
People who exercise vigorously or are trying to put on muscle mass do not need
to consume extra protein. High-protein diets do not lead to increased muscle
mass. It’s the stimulation of muscle tissue through exercise, not extra dietary
protein, which leads to muscle growth.
Studies show that weight-trainers who do not eat extra protein (either in food or
protein powders) still gain muscle at the same rate as weight-trainers who
supplement their diets with protein.
Very high protein diets are dangerous
Some fad diets promote very high protein intakes of between 200 and 400 g per
day. This is more than 5 times the amount recommended in the Australian
Dietary Guidelines.
The protein recommendations in the Guidelines provide enough protein to build
and repair muscles, even for body builders and athletes.
A very high-protein diet can strain the kidneys and liver. It can also prompt
excessive loss of the mineral calcium, which can increase your risk of
osteoporosis.
LIPIDS
In biology and biochemistry, a lipid is a biomolecule that is soluble in nonpolar
solvents. Non-polar solvents are hydrocarbons used to dissolve other
hydrocarbon lipid molecules that do not dissolve in water, including fatty acids,
waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides,
diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids.
The functions of lipids include storing energy, signalling, and acting as
structural components of cell membranes. Lipids have applications in the
cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology.
Most of the fat found in food is in the form of triglycerides, cholesterol, and
phospholipids. Some dietary fat is necessary to facilitate absorption of fat-
soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and carotenoids. Humans and other
mammals have a dietary requirement for certain essential fatty acids, such as
linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) and alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty
acid) because they cannot be synthesized from simple precursors in the diet.
Both of these fatty acids are 18-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids differing in
the number and position of the double bonds. Most vegetable oils are rich in
linoleic acid (safflower, sunflower, and corn oils). Alpha-linolenic acid is found
in the green leaves of plants and in some seeds, nuts, and legumes (in particular
flax, rapeseed, walnut, and soy). Fish oils are particularly rich in the longer-
chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA). Many studies have shown positive health benefits associated with
consumption of omega-3 fatty acids on infant development, cancer,
cardiovascular diseases, and various mental illnesses (such as depression,
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and dementia).
In contrast, it is now well-established that consumption of trans fats, such as
those present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, are a risk factor for
cardiovascular disease. Fats that are good for one may be turned into trans fats
by improper cooking methods that result in overcooking the lipids.
A few studies have suggested that total dietary fat intake is linked to an
increased risk of obesity and diabetes; however, a number of very large studies,
including the Women’s Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial, an eight-
year study of 49,000 women, the Nurses’ Health Study, and the Health
Professionals Follow-up Study, revealed no such links. None of these studies
suggested any connection between percentage of calories from fat and risk of
cancer, heart disease, or weight gain. The Nutrition Source, a website
maintained by the department of nutrition at the T. H. Chan School of Public
Health at Harvard University, summarizes the current evidence on the effect of
dietary fat: “Detailed research—much of it done at Harvard—shows that the
total amount of fat in the diet isn’t really linked with weight or disease.”
number of carbons in
trivial name systematic name typical sources
chain
n-hexadecanoic
palmitic acid 16 olive oil, animal lipids
acid
number of carbons in
trivial name systematic name typical sources
chain
cis-15-tetracosenoic
nervonic acid 24 sharks, brain tissue
acid
STORAGE
After transport through the circulation, triglycerides are hydrolyzed yet again to
fatty acids in the adipose tissue. There they are transported into adipose cells,
where once again they are resynthesized into triglycerides and stored as
droplets. Fat or adipose tissue essentially consists of cells, whereby the interior
of each cell is largely occupied by a fat droplet. The triglyceride in these
droplets is available to the body on demand as communicated to adipose tissue
by hormone messengers.
Various animals store triglycerides in different ways. In sharks, for example, fat
is stored in the liver, but in bony fish it is deposited in and around muscle fibres.
Insects store fat in a special organ called the fat body. The development of true
adipose tissue is found only in higher animals.
FOOD SCIENCE
Food science is the basic science and applied science of food; its scope starts at
overlap with agricultural science and nutritional science and leads through the
scientific aspects of food safety and food processing, informing the
development of food technology.
Most food materials are of biological origin. How they behave in harvesting,
processing, distribution, storage and preparation is a complex problem. Full
awareness of all important aspects of the problem requires broad-based training.
To be a Food Scientist and help handle the world’s food supply to maximum
advantage, you need some familiarity with
• Chemistry
• Microbiology
• Biochemistry
• Engineering
• Some specialized Statistics.
With this special training in the applied Food Science, many exciting and
productive careers with a wide range of employment opportunities exist for the
trained professional, such as
• Product Development Specialist
• Sensory Scientist
• Quality Control Specialist
• Technical Sales Representative
Why is Food Science Important?
Food science is a fast-growing field, and it comes as a response to the growing
social changes taking place across the world. At first, the food and agriculture
industry provided primary products like proteins and produce to be prepared at
home.
Product Development
Within product development, individuals work among a production team to
develop new recipes using new and existing ingredients. The recipes created
may need to meet specific criteria, such as low fat, low sugar, or low
carbohydrate recipes.
Purchasing Manager
This food science job is all about buying the proper materials, ingredients, or
supplies at the best possible price. You’ll work with a team of buyers to procure
items such as the freshest ingredients for a new recipe your business is offering.
Quality Assurance Manager
Those who work in quality assurance work to ensure food products meet safety
and nutritional standards based on governmental regulations. They collect and
analyse data on the current regulations and procedures and provide solutions on
how to improve them.
Toxicologist
If you choose to pursue a career in toxicology, you’ll conduct studies on food to
research how different substances and chemicals affect them.
In developing nations, the World Bank estimates that over one-half of the labor
force is employed in the agricultural sector. Higher crop yields can boost
incomes for poor farmers and feed more people in these countries. Biotech
seeds enable farmers to increase their agricultural productivity and provide a
higher quality crop, which, in turn, translates into higher incomes. This cycle
ultimately leads to a more consistent food supply which helps to stimulate local
economies. For example, biotech cotton that is resistant to the often-devastating
bollworm insect raised yields 29 percent in India, and contributed to a 78
percent increase in income for many of the country’s poorest farmers.
The ability to grow more biotech crops on less acreage also aids farmers in
being good stewards of the land. The reduction in plowing made possible
through biotechnology enables farmers to significantly reduce fuel use and
decrease greenhouse gas emissions. Studies show that biotech crops have saved
farmers 441 million gallons of fuel through reduced fuel operations – which in
turn resulted in eliminating nearly 10.2 million pounds of carbon dioxide
emissions since 1996. This is equivalent to removing four millions cars from the
road in one year.
REFERENCE
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistry
2. https://www.britannica.com/science/nutrition/Inorganic-nutrients
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate
4. https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/protein
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid
6. https://www.britannica.com/science/lipid/Digestion-of-dietary-fatty-acids
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_science
8. https://foodscience.ucdavis.edu/about/what-food-science#:~:text=Food
%20Science%20allows%20us%20to,problem%20requires%20broad%2Dbased
%20training.
9. https://www.innopharmaeducation.com/news/why-is-food-science-
important-the-ultimate-guide
10. https://foodinsight.org/fact-sheet-benefits-of-food-biotechnology/?
gclid=Cj0KCQjwyOuYBhCGARIsAIdGQRN5cuhBtJfweZapYuopSvxYr9vVp
k4UbXx9Rze_N9YmdSLvd1mttBIaAsjYEALw_wcB