Taylor Series in Finite Form

Taylor Series in Finite Form: If 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥), … … … … , 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) are

continuous in [𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ] and 𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝑥) exist in (𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ) then,

ℎ2 ℎ𝑛
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) + … … … … + 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) + 𝑅𝑛+1
2! 𝑛!

………………(1)

Where 𝑅𝑛+1 is called the remainder after (𝑛 + 1) terms.

𝑅𝑛+1 has various forms Lagranges’s form of 𝑅𝑛+1 is given by 𝑎 < 𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ < 𝑎 + ℎ

0 < 𝜃ℎ < ℎ
ℎ𝑛+1
𝑅𝑛+1 = 𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ), 0<𝜃<1 0<𝜃<1
(𝑛 + 1)!

Maclaurin’s Series in finite form:

Putting 𝑎 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 𝑥 in Taylor’s Series (1) we get

′ (0)
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 + 𝑓 (0) + … … … … . . + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑅𝑛+1
2! 𝑛!

Where the Lagrange form of 𝑅𝑛+1 is given by,

𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑅𝑛+1 = 𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝜃𝑥), 0 < 𝜃 < 1
(𝑛 + 1)!

Example 01: Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝑥) at 𝑎 = 0
in ascending power of 𝑥 with remainder after (𝑛 + 1) terms.

Solution: We have, 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(1 + 𝑥)

1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
1+𝑥
 −1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = (1+𝑥)2

2!
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = (−1)2 (1+𝑥)3

…………………………….
(𝑛−1)!
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = (−1)𝑛−1 (1+𝑥)𝑛

Now, 𝑓(0) = 0, 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1, 𝑓 ′′ (0) = −1, 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = (−1)2 2!

………………………………………………………………….

𝑓 𝑛 (0) = (−1)𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1)!

𝑥 𝑛+1
Now, 𝑅𝑛+1 = (𝑛+1)! 𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝜃𝑥), 0 < 𝜃 < 1

𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑛!
= (𝑛+1)! (−1)𝑛 (1+𝜃𝑥)𝑛+1

1 𝑛!𝑥 𝑛+1
= (−1)𝑛 (𝑛+1)𝑛! (1+𝜃𝑥)𝑛+1

1 𝑥 𝑛+1
= (−1)𝑛 ( ) , 0<𝜃<1
(𝑛 + 1) 1 + 𝜃𝑥

Putting these values in

𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + … … … … . . + 𝑛! 𝑓 𝑛 (0) + 𝑅𝑛+1
2!

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛 1 𝑥 𝑛+1
⇒ ln (1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − … … … … . . + (−1)𝑛−1 + (−1)𝑛 (𝑛+1) (1+𝜃𝑥) ,
2 3 𝑛

0<𝜃<1

Problem 02: Expand 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 in powers of 𝒙 with Lagrange’s form

of remainder after n terms.

Solution: We have, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥

 𝑛
𝑛𝜋
∴ 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = 22 𝑒 𝑥 cos (𝑥 + )
4

Therefore we have,

1
𝑓(0) = 1, 𝑓 ′ (0) = √2 ∙ = 1, 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 0, 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = −2
√2

……………………………………………………………….
𝑛
𝑛𝜋
𝑓 𝑛 (𝜃𝑥) = 22 𝑒 𝜃𝑥 cos (𝜃𝑥 + )
4

Hence,

𝒏−𝟏
𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟔 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 (𝑛−1)𝜋
𝒆𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 = 𝟏 + 𝒙 − − + … … + (𝒏−𝟏)! 𝟐 𝟐 𝑒 𝑥 cos (𝑥 + )+
𝟑 𝟔 4
𝑛
𝑥𝑛 𝑛𝜋
22 𝑒 𝜃𝑥 cos (𝜃𝑥 + )
𝑛! 4

Alternative form of Taylor Series:

Substitute 𝑥 − 𝑎 in place of ℎ then we get,

(𝑥−𝑎)2 (𝑥−𝑎)3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑎) + ………+
2! 3!
(𝑥−𝑎)𝑛
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) + … … … … … ..
𝑛!

Home work:

1. Expand 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥 in power of 𝑥 with Lagrange’s form of remainder

after n-term.
2. Expand 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0 in power of 𝑥 with Lagrange’s form of
remainder after n-term.
 𝜋
Problem 03: Expand sin 𝑥 in ascending power of (𝑥 − ) with Lagrange’s
2

form of remainder after n-terms.

Solution:
Let, 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
𝑛𝜋
Then, 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = sin ( + 𝑥)
2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
∴ 𝑓 ′ ( ) = sin ( + ) = 0
2 2 2
𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑓′′ ( ) = sin ( + ) = 1
2 2 2
𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ′′′ ( ) = sin ( + ) = 0
2 2 2
𝜋 4𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 𝑖𝑣 ( ) = sin ( + ) = 1
2 2 2

………………………………………
𝜋 (𝑛−1)𝜋 𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑓 (𝑛−1) ( ) = sin { + } = sin ( )
2 2 2 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 𝑛 { + 𝜃 (𝑥 − )} = sin { + + 𝜃 (𝑥 − )} = cos { + 𝜃 (𝑥 − )},
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

0<𝜃<1
𝜋 2 𝜋 3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 (𝑥− ) 𝜋 (𝑥− ) 𝜋
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 ( ) + (𝑥 − ) 𝑓′ ( ) + 2
𝑓 ′′ ( ) + 3
𝑓 ′′′ ( ) +
2 2 2 2! 2 3! 2
𝜋 𝑛−1 𝜋 𝑛
(𝑥− ) 𝜋 (𝑥− ) 𝜋 𝜋
……+ 2
(𝑛−1)!
𝑓 𝑛−1 ( ) + 2
𝑓 𝑛 ( + 𝜃 (𝑥 − )), 0<𝜃<1
2 𝑛! 2 2
𝜋 2 𝜋 4 𝜋 𝑛−1 𝜋 𝑛
(𝑥− ) (𝑥− ) (𝑥− ) 𝑛𝜋 (𝑥− ) 𝑛𝜋
2 2 2 2
⇒ sin 𝑥 = 1 − + + (𝑛−1)!
sin ( ) + cos { +
2! 4! 2 𝑛! 2
𝜋
𝜃 (𝑥 − )} , 0<𝜃<1
2

𝜋
Problem 04: Expand 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 x in power of (𝑥 − ) with lagrange’s form of
2

remainder after n-terms.

 𝑛𝜋
Ans: 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = 2𝑛−1 cos ( + 2𝑥)
2

1
Problem 05: Expand in power of 𝑥 with Lagrange’s form of remainder after n
1−𝑥

terms and find the value of 𝜃 in 𝑅𝑛 .

1
Solution: Let, 𝑓(𝑥) =
1−𝑥

1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (1−𝑥)2

2!
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = (1−𝑥)3

𝑛!
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = (1−𝑥)𝑛+1

𝑛!
Now, 𝑓(0) = 1, 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1, 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 2!, 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 3! … … … … , 𝑓 𝑛 (𝜃𝑥) = (1−𝜃𝑥)𝑛+1

Taylor series with Lagrange’s form of remainder,

𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + … … … + 𝑓 𝑛 (𝜃𝑥)
2! 𝑛!

1 𝑥𝑛
⇒ = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + … … . . +𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑓 𝑛 (𝜃𝑥)
1−𝑥 𝑛!

1 1−𝑥 𝑛 𝑥𝑛 𝑛!
⇒ = +
1−𝑥 1−𝑥 𝑛! (1−𝜃𝑥)𝑛+1

1−1+𝑥 𝑛 𝑥𝑛
⇒ = (1−𝜃𝑥)𝑛+1
1−𝑥

⇒ (1 − 𝜃𝑥)𝑛+1 = 1 − 𝑥
 1
⇒ 1 − 𝜃𝑥 = (1 − 𝑥)𝑛+1
1
1−(1−𝑥)𝑛+1
⇒𝜃=
𝑥

Cauchy’s form of Remainder:

ℎ2 ℎ𝑛−1
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) + … … … . + (𝑛−1)! 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (𝑎) +
2!

ℎ𝑛 (1−𝜃)𝑛−1
(𝑛−1)!
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ), 0<𝜃<1

Problem 06: Find cos(𝑎 + ℎ) for finite Taylor series in power of ℎ with cauchy’s
form of remainder.

Solution: We know the expansion of 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) for finite Taylor series in power of
ℎ with Cauchy’s form of remainder is,

ℎ2 ℎ𝑛−1
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) + … … … . + (𝑛−1)! 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (𝑎) +
2!

ℎ𝑛 (1−𝜃)𝑛−1
(𝑛−1)!
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ), 0<𝜃<1

Here, 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = cos(𝑎 + ℎ)

∴ 𝑓(𝑎) = cos 𝑎

𝜋
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = cos ( + 𝑎)
2

2𝜋
𝑓 ′ ′(𝑎) = cos ( + 𝑎)
2

3𝜋
𝑓 ′ ′′(𝑎) = cos ( + 𝑎)
2

.
.

(𝑛−1)𝜋
𝑓 𝑛−1 (𝑎) = cos { + 𝑎}
2

𝑛𝜋
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) = cos ( + 𝑎)
2

𝑛𝜋
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ) = cos ( + 𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ)
2

𝜋 ℎ2 2𝜋
So, 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = cos 𝑎 + ℎ cos ( + 𝑎) + cos ( + 𝑎) + … … +
2 2! 2
ℎ𝑛−1 (𝑛−1)𝜋 ℎ𝑛 (1−𝜃)𝑛−1 𝑛𝜋
(𝑛−1)!
cos { + 𝑎} + (𝑛−1)!
cos ( + 𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 , 0 < 𝜃 < 1
2 2

𝑥2 𝑥3 cos 𝜃𝑥
Problem: 07 Prove that ln(1 + sin 𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2! + 3! (1 − 𝜃)2 (1+sin 𝜃𝑥)2 , 0 < 𝜃 < 1

Solution: We know from Maclaurin series for cauchy’s form of remainder,

′ (0)
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥 3 (1 − 𝜃)2 cos 𝜃𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 + 𝑓 (0) + 0<𝜃<1
2! 21 (1 + sin 𝜃𝑥)2

Here, 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(1 + sin 𝑥)

cos 𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
1+sin 𝑥

−1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) =
1+sin 𝑥

cos 𝑥
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = (1+sin
𝑥)2

cos 𝜃𝑥
So, 𝑓(0) = 0, 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1, 𝑓 ′′ (0) = −1, 𝑓 ′′′ (𝜃𝑥) = (1+sin
𝜃𝑥)2

𝑥2 𝑥3 cos 𝜃𝑥
∴ ln(1 + sin 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + (1 − 𝜃)2 , 0<𝜃<1
2! 2! (1+sin 𝜃𝑥)2