HGE Formula

Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C.
Timbal
Review Notes CELE April 2024
Chapter 1: Properties of Fluids
Concept Formula Notes

W
Unit Weight γ = = ρg
V
M
ρ= J
Mass Density V R air = 287
p kg − °K
ρgas =
RT
1
Specific Volume Vs =
ρ
ρliquid γliquid ρwater = 1000 kg/m3
sliquid = =
ρwater γwater γwater = 9810 N/m3
Specific Gravity ρgas γgas ρair = 1.225 kg/m3
sgas = = γair = 12 N/m3
ρair γair
Dynamic τ F/A
μ= = 0.1 Pa − s = 1 poise
Viscosity dV/dy U/y
Kinematic μ
ν= 0.0001 m2 /s = 1 stoke
Viscosity ρ
4σ
Droplet Pressure p=
d
4σcos (θ)
Capillarity h=
dγ
ΔV
Compressibility β=− V
Δp
Bulk Modulus of 1
EB =
Elasticity β
EB
Celerity c=√
ρ
p1 V1 p2 V2
Gas Law = T = °K = °C + 273
T1 T2
Gas Law p1 V1 = p2 V2k
k
k−1
(Adiabatic, T2 p2 k k = adiabatic exponent
Isentropic) =( )
T1 p1
Page 1 of 13
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Chapter 2: Principles of Hydrostatics

F
Pressure p= Acts normal to the area
A
Pressure on a fluid is equal in all

Pascal’s Law directions and in all parts of the
container
Pressures above or below the atmosphere and

Gage Pressure can be measured by pressure gauges or
manometer
Atmospheric
patm = 101.325 kPa = 14.7 psi
Pressure
Absolute
pabs = patm + pgage
Pressure
Any change in pressure at point A

would cause an equal change at
another point B
If a point lies on the free liquid surface,

Fluid Pressure p = γh then the gage pressure at that point is
zero
If two points lie on the same elevation,

then their pressure is also the same
Pressure Below
p = ∑ γn hn
Layers of Fluids
Page 2 of 13
Chapter 3: Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

Force due to
F = pA Acts normal to the area
Pressure
F = γh̅A
Hydrostatic Force or
F = pcg A
on Inclined
Surfaces Icg
e=
Ay̅
Hydrostatic Force
FH = γh̅A or FH = pcg A
on Curved
FV = γV
Surfaces
“Any body immersed in a fluid is acted

Archimedes’ upon by an upward force (buoyant
Principle force) equal to the weight of the
displaced fluid”
BF = γVD
Buoyant Force Buoyant Force only happens when

liquid is also present under a body
MG = MB ± GB
+MG = stable, −MG = unstable
I
Stability of MB =
VD
Floating Bodies B2 tan2 θ
MB ′ = (1 + )
12D 2
RM or OM = Wx = W(MGsinθ)
Page 3 of 13
Chapter 4: Relative Equilibrium of Liquids
Horizontal
a
Rectilinear tan θ =
g
Translation
Inclined
ax
Rectilinear tan θ =
g ± ay
Motion
Vertical
a
Rectilinear p = γh (1 ± )
g
Motion
ω2 x
tan θ =
g
ω2 x 2
y=
2g
For Closed Cylindrical Vessel:

H2
when y > 2D
Rotating Motion
D H2
yib = (y − )
H 2D
Depth of Water in the Tank when

Rotation Stop:
H2
hf =
2y
Page 4 of 13
Chapter 5: Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

Q = Av Q = volume flow rate
Discharge or
M = ρQ M = mass flow rate
Flow Rate W = weight flow rate
W = γQ
Incompressible Fluids:
Q = A1 v1 = A2 v2 = constant
Continuity
Equation Compressible Fluids:
Q = ρ1 A1 v1 = ρ2 A2 v2 = constant
Q = γ1 A1 v1 = γ2 A2 v2 = constant
v2
E1 = E2 2g
= kinetic head
Bernoulli’s 2
v1 p1 v22 p2 p
= pressure head
Energy Theorem + + z1 = + + z2 γ
2g γ 2g γ
z = elevation head
P = γQE
Power and
Output E = energy head
Efficiency Eff =
Input
HP = pump head gain
Energy Head
E1 + HP − HF − HT = E2 HF = friction head loss
Gains and Losses HT = turbine head loss
Page 5 of 13
Chapter 6: Fluid Flow Measurement

Discharge: Contraction: Velocity: Actual
Device a v Coefficient =
Q Theoretical
Coefficients C= Cc = Cv = C = Cc Cv
QT A vT
When A1 is significantly
Head Loss
1 A2 2 v 2 greater than A2 make
through Device HL = ( 2 − 1) [1 − ( ) ] A2 2
Cv A1 2g [1 − ( ) ] = 1
Coefficient A1
H = total head producing flow
Orifice Velocity v = √2gH vA 2 pA pB
H=h+ +( − )
2g γ γ
D Section at which the contraction of the
Vena Contrata Occurs at 2 from the upstream face jet ceases
From: Q = CAv
dQ = CdAv → dQ = CdA√2gH
Orifices under 2 where:
Q = C√2gL[H1 3/2 − H2 3/2 ] dA = LdH → dQ = C(LdH)√2gH
Low Heads 3
H1
Q = CL√2g ∫ √H dH
H2
From: V = Qt
dV = dQdt → dt = dV/dQ
Unsteady Flow 2As where:
t= (√H1 − √H2 )
Discharge Time CAo √2g dV = As dH → dQ = CAo √2gH
H1
As dH As 1
dt = → t= ∫
CAo √2gH CAo √2g H2 √H
Unsteady Flow
Two Connected 2AHS As1 As2
t= (√H1 − √H2 ) AHS =
Tanks Discharge CAo √2g As1 + As2
Time
Discharge General Formula: From:
H1 Q = CAv → Q = CA√2gH
Weirs
dQ = CdA√2gH → Q = ∫ CA(H)√2gHdH
H2 Express area A as a function of head H
2
Discharge: Cw = C√2g
3
2 For Contracted Weirs:
Q= C√2g ∙ LH 3/2 = Cw LH 3/2
Rectangular 3 Le = L − 0.1H → Singly Contracted
Le = L − 0.2H → Doubly Contracted
Weirs
Francis Formula: Considering Velocity of Approach:
3/2 3/2
Q = 1.84LH 3/2 va2 va2
use [(H + ) −( ) ] as H 3/2
2g 2g
Discharge:
4
Q= C√2g ∙ LH 3/2 = Cw tan(θ/2) H 5/2 L = 2 Htan(θ/2)
Triangular Weirs 15 8
Cw = C√2g
For 90° Weirs: 15
Q = 1.40H 5/2
Trapezoidal Cipolletti Discharge:
Cipolletti Weirs have 1H:4V slopes
Weirs Q = 1.86LH 3/2
From:
H1 V V
Unsteady Flow in As dH Q= →t=
t=∫ t Q
Weirs H2 Q Express area V and Q as a function of
head H
Page 6 of 13
Chapter 7: Fluid Flow in Pipes

v = mean velocity
μ
ν = = kinematic viscosity
ρ
Reynold’s v
Re = D μ = dynamic viscosity
Number ν D = pipe diameter
For non-circular pipes: D = 4R

R e < 2000 → Laminar From other sources:
Flow Type R e > 2000 → Turbulent Transition to Turbulence is at
R e = 2000 → Critical Velocity Re = 2300
For Laminar Flow:

64
f=
Friction Factor Re
Values For Turbulent Flow:
−2
ε = absolute roughness
ε/D 5.74 ε
f = 0.25 [log ( + )] = relative roughness
D
3.7 R e 0.9
For Laminar Flow:
Le = 0.06DR e
Entrance Length
For Turbulent Flow:
Le = 4.4DR e1/6
For Laminar Flow:
1
v = vc
2
γh r2
u = vc − 4μLL r u = vc (1 − R2 )
Velocity v = average velocity
Distributions in For Turbulent Flow: vc = max velocity
Pipes τ u = velocity at distance r
v = vc − 3.75√ po vc = v(1 + 1.33√f)
τo R
u = vc − 5.75√ log
p R−r
γhL
τs = r
2L
Shearing Stress Max shearing stress is at pipe walls:
in Pipes τo f r=R
vs = √ = v√
p 8
General: For circular pipes:
Major Head Loss:
fL v 2 0.0826fLQ2
Darcy-Wiesbach hf = hf =
D 2g D5
Derived from:
1 2 1
For circular pipes: v = R3 S 2
General: n
Major Head Loss: 6.35n2 Lv 2 10.29n2 LQ2
Manning hf = 4 hf = 16
Area
R=
D3 D3 Wetted Perimeter
hf
S=
L
General: For circular pipes:
Major Head Loss: Derived from:
1.354LQ1.85 10.67LQ1.85
Hazen Williams hf = 1.85 1.167 1.85 hf = 1.85 4.87 v = 0.849C1 R0.63 S 0.54
C1 R A C1 D
2
Minor Head v
hf = k m k m = minor hf coefficient
Losses 2g
Page 7 of 13
Q = Q1 = Q 2 = Q 3
Pipe in Series
hf = hf1 + hf2 + hf3
Q = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3
Pipe in Parallel
hf = hf1 = hf2 = hf3
Page 8 of 13
Chapter 8: Open Channel

v2 Energy per unit weight relative to the
Specific Energy H= +d bottom of the channel
2g
A = area
A
v = CR1/2 S1/2 R = hydraulic radius =
Pw
Chézy Formula
Q = ACR1/2 S1/2 S = slope =
hL
L
C = Ché zy coefficient
Kutter and Ganguillet Formula:
1 0.00155
+ 23 +
C= n S
n 0.00155
1+ (23 + )
√R S
Manning Formula: n = roughness coefficient
1 m = Bazin coefficient
Chézy C = R1/6 R = hydraulic radius
n
Coefficients ε = roughness
Bazin Formula: R e = Reynolds number
87 S = slope of energy grade line
C= m
1+
√R
Powell Formula:
C ε
C = −42 log ( + )
Re R
The velocity, depth of flow, and cross-
Uniform Flow S = So (slope of channel bed) sectional area of flow at any point of the
stream is constant.
Boundary Shear
τo = γRS
Stress
Normal Depth dn occurs when S = So
Note that A, n, and S are constant,
Using Chézy-Manning Formula: therefore, to maximize Q, R must be
Most Efficient
1 1 maximized. R can be maximized when
Cross Sections v = R2/3 S1/2 Q = A R2/3 S1/2 Pw is minimum for a given A.
n n
Q ∝ R → Q ∝ A/Pw
Rectangular Section:
T = top width
T = 2d d = depth
R = d/2
Triangular Section:
Proportions for T = top width
T = 2d
d = depth
Most Efficient θ = 90° R = d/2√2
Sections
Trapezoidal Section:
(Top Width = T = top width
Sum of Sides) T = 2s s = sides
R = d/2
Circular Section:
d = depth of flow
Qmax = occurs when d = 0.938D D = diameter
vmax = occurs when d = 0.820D
y = depth of water in channel
u = velocity at distance y ′ from bed
Velocity K = Ká rmá n constant
1 y′
Distribution in u=v+ √gyS (1 + 2.3 log ) 0.40 for clear water
K y 0.20 sediment laden water
Open Channel
v = mean velocity of flow
S = slope of EGL
Page 9 of 13
v = √2g(H − d) From:
v2
H = 2g + d
Q = A√2g(H − d)
Alternate Stages
of Flow
Alternate Stages:
When plotting a d-Q diagram it can be observed that when d =
Upper Stage (Tranquil/Subcritical)
0, Q = 0 and when d = H, Q = 0. Notice that there are two
FN < 1
depths at which any given discharge will flow with the same
Lower Stage (Rapid/Supercritical)
energy content. These are called alternate stages.
FN > 1
v v Ratio of inertia force to gravity force
Froude Number FN = = v = mean velocity of flow
√gD √g(A/T)
D = hydraulic depth = A/T
Depth at which Q max and Emax occurs
Rectangular Section:
2 3 q2 From:
dc = H or dc = √ Q = A√2g(H − d) → divide by 1 unit b
3 g
Q
q = Unit flow → → d√2g(H − d)
gn2 b
Sc = dq
dc1/3 =0
Critical Depth dd
General: Q = discharge = Avc
Q2 A3c g = acceleration due to gravity
=
g Tc Ac = critical cross − sectional area
Tc = critical top width
Ac
vc = √g
Tc Express A and T in terms of d
The velocity, depth of flow, and cross-

Non-Uniform or
S ≠ So (slope of channel bed) sectional area of flow at any point of the
Varied Flow stream is not the same.
v1 2 n2 v12
At 1: H1 = + d1 S1 =
2g R1 4/3
v2 2
n2 v22
At 2: H2 = + d2 S2 =
2g R 2 4/3
S1 + S2
Length of Reach S̅ = mean slope =
2
So = slope of channel bed
Note that the Slope formula is derived

H2 − H1 from Chézy Formula using Manning’s C
L=
So − S̅
Page 10 of 13
The abrupt increase in depth of rapidly

flowing water, flow at the jump changes
from a supercritical to a subcritical
stage with an accompanying loss of
kinetic energy.
Height of Jump = d2 − d1
Unbalanced Force = Momentum Rate of Change
Hydraulic Jump Δv F = γAh̅ = total hydrostatic force
ΔF = m Q
v = = velocity of flow
Δt A
F2 − F1 = ρQ(v1 − v2 )
For Rectangular Sections:
q2 d1 + d2 Q
= d1 d2 ( ) q= = unit flow
g 2 b
(d2 − d1 )3 d = water depth
HL =
4d1 d2
θ = angle that the waterline
v2 makes with the horizontal
tan θ = v = velocity of flow
Flow Around gr
2
r = radius of curvature
Channel Bends v T y = height of water rise
y=
gr due to banking
T = waterline width
Page 11 of 13
Chapter 9: Hydrodynamics
From:
v2 − v1
F = ma = (ρV) ( ) = ρQv
t
ρ = density of fluid
Q = discharge
Reaction Against
For Fixed Plates: v = velocity of liquid
Flat Plates v′ = velocity of plate
R = ρQv
u = relative velocity = v − v′
Q′ = relative discharge = Au
For Moving Plates: Work Done:

R = ρQ′u P = ρAu2 (1 − cos θ)v′
Force Against For Fixed Vanes: ρ = density of fluid

Vanes Fx = ρQ(v1x − v2x ) Q = discharge
v = velocity of liquid
Fy = ρQ(v1y − v2y ) v′ = velocity of plate
Fy u = relative velocity = v − v′
F = √Fx 2 + Fy 2 ϕ = tan−1 ( ) Q′ = relative discharge = Au
Fx
For Moving Vanes: For Fixed Vanes:
Fx = ρQ′(v1x − v2x ) θ
F = 2ρAv 2 sin ( )
Fy = ρQ′(v1y − v2y ) 2
For Moving Vanes:
Fy Fy = ρAu2 (1 − cos θ)
F = √Fx 2 + Fy 2 ϕ = tan−1 ( )
Fx Fy = −ρAu2 sin θ
Forces Developed
in Pipes
∑ Fx = ρQ(v2x − v1x )
∑ Fy = ρQ(v2y − v1y ) F = pA
Ry
R = √R x 2 + R y 2 ϕ = tan−1 ( )
Rx
Page 12 of 13
For Rigid Pipes: Δp

EB =
ΔV
EB V
c=√ For water at 30°C:
ρ EB = 2.25 MPa
1 1 d
Celerity = +
EC EB Et
For Non-rigid Pipes:
1 d −1
EC = ( + )
EC EB Et
c=√ For steel:
ρ
E = 200 GPa
t = thickness of pipe
Time required from valve to reservoir and back
to the valve:
2L
T=
c From:
Distance where pressure rise cannot extend all d
t=
the way to the reservoir: v
ct c
xo = L = valve to reservoir distance
Water Hammer 2 c = celerity
Rapid Closure Pressure Increase: (t c < T) ρ = density
ph = ρcv v = velocity of flow
Slow Closure Pressure Increase: (t c > T) t c = time for closure
2L
ph = ρ ( ) v
tc
Instantaneous Partial Closure:
ph = pcΔv
Page 13 of 13
Geotechnical Engineering Arexcin Ray C. Timbal
Chapter 1: Properties of Soil
VT = Vv + Vs
Phase Diagram Vv = Va + Vw
MT = Mw + Ms
Vv
Void Ratio e= 0<e<∞
Vs
Vv
Porosity n= 0<n<1
VT
Relationship
e
Between n=
1+e
n and e
Vw The degree of saturation tells us what
Degree of
S= percentage of the total void space
Saturation Vv contains water
Percentage of Va
A= = 1−S
Air in Voids Vv
Va
Air Void Ratio Avr = = nA
VT
Mw Ww The moisture content tells us how much
Moisture
w= = water is present in the voids relative to
Content Ms Ws the amount of solids in the soil
γ ρ kg kN
Specific Gravity G= = ρw = 1000 γw = 9.81
γw ρw m3 m3
Relationship
Between Gw = eS
G, w, e, and S
M
Density ρ=
V
W
Unit Weight γ= = ρg
V
WT
γm =
VT
Bulk
γm = γd (1 + w) 0<S<1
Unit Weight
G + Se
γm = γ
1+e w
Dry G
γd = γ S=0
Unit Weight 1+e w
Saturated G+e
γsat = γ S=1
Unit Weight 1+e w
Submerged G−1 Also called the effective unit weight or the
γ′ = γsat − γw = γ
Unit Weight 1+e w submerged unit weight
Critical
γ′ G−1 The hydraulic gradient that brings a soil
Hydraulic icr = = mass to static liquefaction
γw 1 + e
Gradient
Page 1 of 22
emax − e
Dr = × 100%
emax − emin
1 1 1
e= emax = emin =
γd γmin γmax
Designation Dr (%)
Relative Expresses the state of compactness of a
Very Loose 0 - 15
Density natural granular soil
Loose 15 - 35
Medium Dense 35 - 70
Dense 70 - 85
Very Dense 85 - 100
Relative γd
Rc =
Compaction γdmax
Borrow Volume Wborrow = Wembankment
Relationship γd(borrow) Vborrow = γd(embankment) Vembankment
Consistency Describes the degree of firmness of a soil
Index Formula
PI = LL − PL
0 = Nonplastic
1 − 5 = Slightly plastic
Plasticity 5 − 10 = Low plasticity
10 − 20 = Medium plasticity
20 − 40 = High plasticity
> 40 = Very high plasticity
w − PL
LI = Soil index properties refer to the properties
PI of the soil that help to classify and identify
Soil Indices Liquidity the properties of soil for purposes of
LI < 0 = Semisolid state
0 < LI < 1 = Plastic state engineering
LI > 1 = Liquid State
SI = PL − SL
Shrinkage
Shrinkage potential
PI
Ac =
μ
Activity of Clay Ac < 0.75 = Inactive
0.75 < Ac < 1.25 = Normal
Ac > 1.25 = Active
Page 2 of 22
Consistency LL − w
CI =
Index LL − PI
LL PL Classification
< 50 < 25 Low
Potential Swell
50 − 60 25 − 35 Medium
> 60 > 35 High
LL = w at 20 mm penetration
Fall Cone
Method 2Δw
PL = LL −
log w2 − logw1
LL = w at 25 blows
Cup Method w2 − w1
Slope = FI = −
log N2 − log N1
Toughness PI
TI =
Index FI
Water content at which the soil
m − md V − Vd
Shrinkage Limit SL = − ρ changes from a semisolid to a
md md w
solid state
md
V ρd Ratio between the dry density of
Shrinkage Ratio SR = d =
ρw ρw soil and density of water
Specific Gravity 1 Specific Gravity using Shrinkage

G=
1
of Solids Limit and Shrinkage Ratio
SR − SL
Page 3 of 22
Chapter 2: Classification of Soil
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Textural Classification
Particle Size:
Sand = 2.0 mm to 0.05 mm diameter
Silt = 0.05 mm to 0.002 mm diameter
Clay = less than 0.002 mm diameter
Sieve Analysis - Particle Size Distribution Curve
Sieve Analysis
Cumulative mass
Diameter Mass Retained Percent passing
Sieve No. retained above
(mm) (grams) (%finer)
each sieve
4 4.76 5 5 99.37%
8 2.38 45 50 93.71%
10 2.00 65 115 85.53%
20 0.84 92 207 73.96%
40 0.42 152 359 54.84%
60 0.25 115 474 40.38%
80 0.180 212 686 13.71%
100 0.149 63 749 5.79%
200 0.075 32 781 1.76%
Pan 14 795 0.00%
TOTAL 795
Cumulative mass retained = CMR = running total of mass retained
TOTAL − CMR
Percent passing (%finer) = × 100%
TOTAL
Page 4 of 22
Particle Distribution Curve

120
100
80
PERCENT PASSING, %
60
40
20
0
0.01 0.1 𝐷10 1 10
PARTICLE DIAMETER, MM
Parameters
Can be obtained by plotting in
the particle distribution curve or
Diameter D[%finer]
by interpolating values from the
sieve analysis data
Diameter of the curve
Effective Size (D10 ) D10
corresponding to 10% finer
D60
Uniformity Coefficient (Cu ) Cu =
D10
Coefficient of Gradation or D30 2
Cc =
Curvature (Cc ) D60 × D10
D
Sorting Coefficient (So ) So = √D75
25
0 – 10 = Excellent
10 – 20 = Good
3 1 1
Suitability Number (Sn ) Sn = 1.7√ 2 + 2 + 20 – 30 = Fair
D50 D20 D10 2
30 – 50 = Poor
>50 = Unsuitable
Gravel (greater than 4.75 mm #4 sieve)

Sand (4.75 mm to 0.075 mm) = [%finer than 4.75 mm ⌀] – [%finer than 0.075 mm ⌀]
Silt and clay (less than 0.075 mm #200 sieve)
Page 5 of 22
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Grain Size (mm) Classification

0 to 0.075 Fines
0.075 to 4.75 Sand
4.75 to 75 Gravel
75 to 300 Cobbles
300 to 1000 Boulders
Major Symbols Modifiers

G = Gravel W = Well graded (for G-S)
S = Sand P = Poorly graded (for G-S)
M = Silt H = High plasticity (for M-C-O)
C = Clay L = Low plasticity (for M-C-O)
O = Organic
Pt = Peat
Page 6 of 22
Page 7 of 22
Flow chart for classification of coarse-grained soils (<50% passing No. 200 sieve)
Page 8 of 22
Flow chart for classification of organic fine-grained soils (>50% passing No. 200 sieve)
Page 9 of 22
American Association of Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Classification System
Grain Size (mm) Classification

0 to 0.001 Colloids
0.001 to 0.005 Clay
0.005 to 0.075 Silt
0.075 to 2.00 Sand
2.00 to 75 Gravel
75 to 1000 Boulders
Designation:
(Group Classification)(GI)
GI = (F200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL − 40)] + 0.01(F200 − 15)(PI − 10)
F200 = % passing no. 200 sieve, LL = Liquid Limit, PI = Plasticity Index
Group Classification
Page 10 of 22
Chapter 3: Flow of Water through Soils

v = ki k = coefficient of permeability
H H = ∆h = hA − hB
Darcy’s Law i= ̅̅̅̅ (Along flow direction)
L = AB
L
q = vA = kiA
v
Seepage Velocity vs =
n
Transmissivity T = kb
k Using Constant V L L
k= ∙ =Q∙
Head Test t Ah Ah
Derived from:
k Using Falling aL h1 h1
k= ln ( ) t=∫
a ∙ dh
Head Test At h2 Q
h2
Temperature k T1 μT1 k T2 μT2

=
Effects on k γT1 γT2
Parallel q = q1 + q 2 + q 3
Flow k eq H = kh1 + kh2 + kh3
q = q1 = q 2 = q 3
Perpendicular H h1 h2 h3
= + +
Flow k eq k1 k 2 k 3
q = qA = qB = qC
L l1 l2
= +
Combined k A k1 k 3
Flow L l1 l2
= +
k B k1 k 4
kC = k2
r
Q ln (r2 )
1
k=
Gravity Wells π(h2 2 − h1 2 )
(unconfined) r
Q ln (r2 ) r = radial distance from well
1
T= = kb h = height of water from datum
2π(h2 − h1 )
z = drawdown from surface
r
Q ln (r2 )
1 H=h+z
k=
Artesian 2tπ(h2 − h1 )
(confined) r
Q ln (r2 )
1
T=
2π(h2 − h1 )
q = unit flow
For Isotropic Soil: For Anisotropic Soil: k = coefficient of permeability
Nf Nf H = hydraulic head
q = kH q = √k x k y H Nf = number of flow channels
Flow Net Nd Nd
Nd = number of drop channels
H
P = γw (H − nd ) nd = number of drop channels passed
Nd
Page 11 of 22
Chapter 4: Stresses in Soil

Effective Intergranular Stress
pE = pT − pw For Loss of Stability pE = 0
Stress
Neutral
pw = γw hw Pore Water Pressure
Stress
Total
pT = pE + pw
Stress
H = ∆h = hA − hB
Hydraulic H h′ ̅̅̅̅ (Along flow direction)
L = AB
i= = Hydraulic Gradient (i) is Constant at
Gradient L l′
any Depth of Soil
Seepage Force
per Unit Volume Fseepage = iγw
of Soil
Approximate
C
Height of h=
eD10
Capillary Rise
Capillary Rise
Pore Water pw = −Sγw h Measured from water table
Pressure
Page 12 of 22
Chapter 5: Stress Distribution in Soil

Buossinesq’s Theory:
0.477QN
p=
z2
1
N= 2.5
r 2 Q = point load
Vertical Stress [1 + (z) ] r = horizontal distance of the point
due to from the line load
Westergaard Theory: z = depth of the point at which
Point Load
0.318QN stress is induced
p=
z2
1
N= 1.5
r 2
[1 + 2 (z) ]
Vertical Stress Buossinesq’s Theory: q = line load

due to q r = horizontal distance of the point
p = 0.637
Flexible Line N from the line load
Load r 2 2 z = depth of the point at which
N = z [1 + ( ) ] stress is induced
(Infinite Length) z
q = pressure at base of footing
Vertical Stress for Iz = f(m, n) based on table
L
Rectangular Area p = qIz m=
z
(Corner) B
n=
z
1 q = pressure at base of footing
Vertical Stress for p = q (1 − )
N r = radius of circular area
Circular Area
r 2 1.5 z = depth of point below the center
(Center) N = [1 + ( ) ] of the circular area
z
Rectangular:
Q Q = point load
Dispersion p=
(B + z)(L + z) z = depth of the point at which
Method stress is induced
Circular:
(Approximate)
Q Uses a 2V: 1H slope
p=π
(D 2
4 + z)
Designated values from table 304-1 are
for footings having a minimum width of
300 mm and minimum depth of 300
NSCP mm, an increase in 20% is allowed for
each additional 300 mm of width
Section 304.2
and/or depth to a maximum value of
Designated three times the designated value
q all = q des [1 + rNW ][1 + rND ] ≤ 3q des
Pressure
Allowable qdes = designated pressure
r = rate of increase
Increase W − 300
NW =
300
D − 300
ND =
300
Page 13 of 22
Chapter 6: Compressibility of Soil

eo − ef H = thickness of clay layer
Basic Settlement
Sp = H eo = initial void ratio
Formula 1 + eo ef = final void ratio
Primary Cc pf
Sp = H log ( ) H = thickness of clay layer
Consolidation 1 + eo po Cc = compression index
Settlement of eo = initial void ratio
Skempton′ s Cc for Undisturbed Clay: po = effective or average stress at
Normally mid − height of clay layer
Cc = 0.009(LL − 10)
Consolidated Given Void Ratio and Pressure Relationship: pf = po + Δp
Fine-Grained e1 − e2 Δp = stress increase at mid − height
Cc = p
Soils log (p2 ) of clay layer (use dispersion method)
1
Primary
When pf < pc :
Consolidation Cs = swell index
Cs pf
Settlement of Sp = H log ( ) 1 1
Ranges from 5 CC to 10 CC
1 + eo po
Over- 1
When pf > pc : Cs = CC (recommended)
consolidated 6
Cs pc Cc pf pc = preconsolidation pressure
Fine-Grained Sp = H log ( ) + H log ( )
1 + eo po 1 + eo pc
Soils
pc = preconsolidation stress
Over- pc po = overburden effective stress
Consolidation OCR =
po If OCR = 1,
Ratio
the soil is normally consolidated
Cα = secondary compresion index
t2
Settlement From Ss = Cα′ H log ( ) Δe = change in void ratio
t1 t1 = during primary settlement
Secondary Cα Δe t 2 = after primary settlement
Consolidation Cα′ = Cα = ep = primary void ratio
1 + ep log t 2 − log t1
H = thickness of clay layer
Consolidation ∆pt = top layer
1
Settlement Under ∆pave = (∆pt + 4∆pm + ∆pb ) ∆pm = middle layer
6 ∆pb = bottom layer
a Foundation
Tv = time factor
Time Rate of Tv Cv = consolidation coefficient
t = Hdr 2 H
Consolidation Cv Hdr = for 2 − way drainage
2
Hdr = H for 1 − way drainage
pwt = excess pore pressure at time t
Degree of pwt St pwo = initial excess pore pressure
U=1− or U=
Consolidation pwo Sp St = settlement of layer at time t
Sp = primary settlement of layer
When U < 0.60:
π
Tv = U 2
Time Factor 4 U = Degree of Consolidation
When U > 0.60:
Tv = 1.781 − 0.933 log(1 − U)
p = net pressure applied
2 B = width or diameter
Immediate 1−μ
Si = pB If μ = poisson′ s ratio
Settlement E E = modulus of elasticity
If = influence factor
Total Settlement
ST = Sp + Ss + Si
of Foundation
Page 14 of 22
Chapter 7: Shear Strength of Soil

τf = shear stress
c = cohesion
τf = σ tan ϕ + c σ = normal stress
ϕ = angle of internal friction
ϕ
θ = 45° +
Mohr-Coulomb 2
Failure Criteria A = shear failure will not

occur along that plane
B = shear failure will occur
along that plane
C = cannot exist since it plots
above failure plane
Triaxial Shear
Test
(Cohesionless
Soil)
Triaxial Shear
Test (Cohesive
Soil)
Page 15 of 22
Triaxial Shear
Test (Drained
and Undrained)
Triaxial Shear
Test (Series)
Ao
Uniaxial A=
1−ε
Compression P
Test qu =
A
(Unconfined) qu
Cu =
2
Normal Force
σ=
Cross − sectional Area Plot given data and approximate
Direct Shear Test
Shear Force the best fit line
τ=
Cross − sectional Area
Page 16 of 22
Chapter 8: Lateral Earth Pressure
Normally Consolidated Soil:

σh ϕ = angle of internal friction
Ko = = 1 − sin ϕ
σv
Earth Pressure
pc
at Rest OCR =
po
Over Consolidated Soil:
k o = (1 − sin ϕ)√OCR pc = preconsolidation stress
po = overburden effective stress
For Inclined Backfill:
cos i − √cos 2 i − cos 2 ϕ
Ka = cos i
Rankine Active cos i + √cos 2 i − cos 2 ϕ
Earth Pressure
For Horizontal Backfill: i = 0
1 − sin ϕ
Ka =
1 + sin ϕ
For Inclined Backfill:

cos i + √cos 2 i − cos 2 ϕ
Kp = cos i
Rankine Passive cos i − √cos 2 i − cos 2 ϕ
ϕ = angle of internal friction
Earth Pressure
For Horizontal Backfill: i = 0 i = backfill grade line slope
1 + sin ϕ
Ka =
1 − sin ϕ
cos 2(ϕ − β)
Ka = 2
Coulomb Active
sin(ϕ + δ) sin(ϕ − i)
Earth Pressure cos 2 β cos(β + δ) [1 + √ ] ϕ = angle of internal friction
cos(β + δ) cos(β − i)
i = backfill grade line slope
cos 2(ϕ + β) β = retaining wall vertical slope
Kp = 2 δ = angle of wall friction
Coulomb Passive
sin(ϕ + δ) sin(ϕ + i)
Earth Pressure cos 2 β cos(β − δ) [1 − √ ]
cos(β − δ) cos(β − i)
Surcharge
p = Kq
Pressure
Cohesion Acts away from the retaining wall for
p = 2c√K a active earth pressure
Pressure
Use effective unit weight if the
Soil
p = Kγh considered soil is under the water
Pressure table
Water
p = γw h
Pressure
z H−z Derived from superimposed pressure
Depth of Tension
= diagrams of soil and cohesion. Use
Crack 2c√K a Kγh − 2c√K a below z only when tension cracks.
Factor of Safety Resisting Forces For granular backfill, FSs ≥ 1.5

FSs = For cohesive backfill, FSs ≥ 2.0
Against Sliding Active Forces
Factor of Safety
Stabilizing Moments For granular backfill, FSs ≥ 1.5
Against FSo =
Overturning Moments For cohesive backfill, FSs ≥ 2.0
Overturning
Page 17 of 22
Chapter 9: Bearing Capacity of Soils

K c = cohesion constant
c = cohesion
Nc = cohesion factor
K q = effective pressure constant
q ult = K c cNc + K q qNq + K γ γc BNγ
q = effective pressure at footing′s base
Nq = effective pressure factor
Ultimate Bearing
Due to cohesion = K c cNc K γ = unit weight constant
Capacity γc = unit weight of soil
Due to overburden = K q qNq
B = footing width
Due to dimension = K γ γc BNγ
L = footing length
γc B = effective pressure at depth
B below footing ′ s base
Nγ = unit weight factor
For Strip Footings:
q ult = cNc + qNq + 0.5γc BNγ
For Square Footings:
q ult = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.4γc BNγ Terzaghi bearing capacity factors N can
General Shear
For Circular Footings: be obtained using a graph or a table as
Failure a function of ϕ
q ult = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.3γc BNγ
For Rectangular Footings:
B B
q ult = (1 + 0.3 ) cNc + qNq + 0.5 (1 − 0.2 ) γc BNγ
L L
For Strip Footings:
2
q ult = c̅N′c + qN′q + 0.5γc BN′γ c̅ = c
3
For Square Footings: 2
̅ = tan ϕ
tan ϕ
Local Shear q ult = 1.3c̅N′c + qN′q + 0.4γc BN′γ 3
Failure For Circular Footings: The modified bearing capacity factors

q ult = 1.3c̅N′c + qN′q + 0.3γc BN′γ N’ are calculated using the same
For Rectangular Footings: general equations at that of N but by
̅ for ϕ
substituting ϕ
B B
qult = (1 + 0.3 ) c̅N′c + qN′q + 0.5 (1 − 0.2 ) γc BN′γ
L L
A = base area of footing
Q all = gross allowable load
Q allnet = net allowable load
qall = allowable bearing capacity
qallnet = net allowabale bearing capacity
Qall = q all A Qallnet = q allnet A qult = ultimate bearing capacity
Factors of Safey q ult q ultnet qultnet = ultimate net bearing capacity
q all = q allnet = FS = factor of safety
FS FS
Net foundation pressure is the gross
pressure intensity minus the overburden
pressure at the foundation's base level before
excavation.
Groundwater Above Base of Footing:
q = γ(Df − dw ) + γb dw
γc = γb
Groundwater at Base of Footing:
Effect of Water Df = depth of footing base from
q = γDf ground surface
Table on Bearing γc = γb dw = depth of water table from
Capacity Groundwater Below Base of Footing: footing base
q = γDf
γc = γ when dw ≥ B
1
γc = B [γdw + γb (B − dw )] when dw < B
Page 18 of 22
Page 19 of 22
Chapter 10: Deep Foundations (Cohesive Soil)
Nc = 9
Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Pile:
c = cohesion of soil
Qb = cNc Atip = 9cAtip Atip = cross − sectional area of pile
Ultimate Frictional Capacity of Pile: c = cohesion of soil
L = length of pile
(α method) α = adhesion factor (1 if not given)
Qf = cLαP P = perimeter of pile
P = perimeter of pile
Ultimate Capacity
L = length of pile
of a Single Pile β = frictional coefficient
Ultimate Frictional Capacity of Pile: For normally consolidated clay:
(β method) β = (1 − sin ϕ) tan ϕ
For over consolidated clay:
Qf = PLβσe
β = (1 − sin ϕ) tan ϕ √OCR
ϕ = angle of friction
OCR = over consolidation ratio
P = perimeter of pile
L = length of pile
λ = frictional coefficient
qu = unconfined compression
Ultimate Frictional Capacity of Pile: strength
(λ method) Cu
qu =
Qf = PLλ(σe + q u ) 2
Cu = unconfined shear strength
/cohesion
σe = effective/average stress
at mid − height of the clay
Ultimate Capacity of Pile: Q b = bearing capacity
Qult = Qb + Qf Q f = frictional capacity
Allowable Capacity of Pile:
Q ult = ultimate capacity
Qult FS = factor of safety
Qall =
FS
Individual Action:
Qult = (Qb + Qf ) × n
Block Action: Q b(block) = cNc Ablock
Qult = (Qb(block) + Qf(block) ) × n Q f(block) = cLαPblock
Ultimate Capacity
of Group Piles Group Action:
Qult = (Qb + Qf ) × n m = number of pile columns
n = number of pile rows
Qall = Qall(single) × Eff S = spacing of pile
2(m + n − 2)S + 4D D = diameter of pile
Eff =
πDmn
Page 20 of 22
2
H = measured from of piles
3
towards the bottom clay stratum
Cc = compression index
eo = initial void ratio
po = effective or average stress at
Settlement of Cc pf
Sp = H log ( ) mid − height of clay layer
Group Piles 1 + eo po pf = po + Δp
Δp = stress increase at mid − height
of clay layer (use dispersion method)
Skempton′ s Cc for Undisturbed Clay:

Cc = 0.009(LL − 10)
Page 21 of 22
Chapter 11: Slope Stability

FS = factor of safety
No Water Pressure: c = cohesion of soil
c tan ϕ H = height of soil
FS = 2
+
Infinite Slope γH cos β tan β tan β β = angle that the slope makes
with the horizontal
(Clay Soil) With Water Pressure: ϕ = angle of friction of soil
c γeff tan ϕ γ = unit weight of soil
FS = + γsat = saturated unit weight of soil
γsat H cos 2 β tan β γsat tan β γeff = γsat − γw
Without Seepage:
tan ϕ
FS =
tan β
With Partial Seepage: h = height of water seepage
Infinite Slope
γw h tan ϕ from bottom sand stratum
(Sandy Soil) FS = (1 − )
γsat H tan β
With Full Seepage:
γeff tan ϕ
FS = ( )
γsat tan β
Page 22 of 22

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Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Arexcin Ray C.

Chapter 1: Properties of Fluids

Concept Formula Notes

Chapter 2: Principles of Hydrostatics

Concept Formula Notes

Pressure on a fluid is equal in all

Pressures above or below the atmosphere and

Any change in pressure at point A

If a point lies on the free liquid surface,

If two points lie on the same elevation,

Chapter 3: Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

Concept Formula Notes

“Any body immersed in a fluid is acted

Buoyant Force Buoyant Force only happens when

Chapter 4: Relative Equilibrium of Liquids

Concept Formula Notes

For Closed Cylindrical Vessel:

Depth of Water in the Tank when

Chapter 5: Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

Concept Formula Notes

Chapter 6: Fluid Flow Measurement

Concept Formula Notes

Chapter 7: Fluid Flow in Pipes

Concept Formula Notes

For non-circular pipes: D = 4R

For Laminar Flow:

Chapter 8: Open Channel

Concept Formula Notes

The velocity, depth of flow, and cross-

Note that the Slope formula is derived

The abrupt increase in depth of rapidly

Concept Formula Notes

For Moving Plates: Work Done:

Force Against For Fixed Vanes: ρ = density of fluid

For Rigid Pipes: Δp

Chapter 1: Properties of Soil

Concept Formula Notes

Consistency Describes the degree of firmness of a soil

Specific Gravity 1 Specific Gravity using Shrinkage

Chapter 2: Classification of Soil

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Textural Classification

Sieve Analysis - Particle Size Distribution Curve

Particle Distribution Curve

Gravel (greater than 4.75 mm #4 sieve)

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Grain Size (mm) Classification

Major Symbols Modifiers

American Association of Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Classification System

Grain Size (mm) Classification

Chapter 3: Flow of Water through Soils

Concept Formula Notes

Temperature k T1 μT1 k T2 μT2

Chapter 4: Stresses in Soil

Concept Formula Notes

Chapter 5: Stress Distribution in Soil

Concept Formula Notes

Vertical Stress Buossinesq’s Theory: q = line load

Chapter 6: Compressibility of Soil

Concept Formula Notes

Chapter 7: Shear Strength of Soil