Unit – I

Differential Calculus

Functions and Their Graphs – Shifting and Scaling Graphs – Limit and Continuity of a Function – Limits
Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs – The Derivative of a Function – Differentiation Rules –
L’Hôpital’s Rule – Derivatives of some standard functions – Linearization and Differentials – Extreme
Values of Functions

Functions and Their Graphs

Functions are a tool for describing the real world in mathematical terms. A function can be represented
by an equation, a graph, a numerical table, or a verbal description;

 The temperature at which water boils depends on the elevation above sea level (the boiling point
drops as you ascend).
 The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length of time the investment is held.
 The area of a circle depends on the radius of the circle.
 The distance an object travels at constant speed along a straight-line path depends on the elapsed
time.
In each case, the value of one variable quantity, say y, depends on the value of another variable quantity,
which we might call x. We say that “y is a function of x” and write this symbolically as y  f ( x) (“y
equals f of x”).

In this notation, the symbol f represents the function, the letter x is the independent variable
representing the input value of f and y is the dependent variable or output value of f at x.

Def: A function f from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns a unique (single) element f ( x)  Y to each

element x  D

Let f : D  Y be a function, then the set D of all possible input values is called the domain of the function
and the set Y is called codomain of f. The set of all output values of f(x) as x varies throughout D is called the
range of the function.

Note: The range may not include every element in the set Y.
 Example:

Mathematically, a function f from a set of elements D to a set of elements Y is a rule that assigns to each
element x in D exactly one element y in Y.

The above definition can be verified by the following arrow diagram:

Natural domains and associated ranges of some simple functions:

S.No. Functions Domain Range

1 yx (, ) (, )

2 y  x2 (, ) [0, )

1
3 y (,0)  (0, ) (,0)  (0, )
x
4 y x (, ) [0, )

x
5 y (,0)  (0, ) {-1, 1}
x
1
6 y (,0)  (0, ) (0, )
x2
The vertical line test for a function:

Every curve in the coordinate plane cannot be the graph of a function. A function f can have only one value
of f(x) for each x in its domain, so no vertical line can intersect the graph of a function more than once. If a is
in the domain of the function the vertical line x = a will intersect the graph of f at the single point (a, f(a)).

The Vertical line test states that if a vertical line drawn through a graph cuts the graph at only one
point, then the graph is a function.

Also, a circle cannot be the graph of a function, since some vertical lines intersect the circle twice. But, a
semicircle can be a graph of a function as shown below:
Shifting and scaling of graphs:

Shifting a graph of a function:

We can modify or shift the given graph to up/down or right/left by adding some constants to each
output of the existing function or to its input variable respectively.

Example:

Now, shifts the graph up 1 unit,

and shifts the graph down 2 units.

Also, y  ( x  3) shifts the graph 3 units to

2

the left,

And, y  ( x  2) shifts the graph 2 units to

2

the right.
Scaling (and reflecting) a graph of a function:

Similar to the shifting, we can modify the graphs by stretching or compressing it, vertically or
horizontally, known as scaling of graphs. This is done by multiplying the function f, or the independent
variable x, by a constant c.

For a particular case of c, i.e., for c = - 1, the graph becomes the reflection about its axes, known as
reflecting of graphs.

Example:

Vertical: stretching the graph by a factor of 3.

compressing the graph by a factor of 3.

Horizontal: compressing the graph by a factor of 3.

stretching the graph by a factor of 3.

Reflection: reflection of the graph about x - axis.

reflection of the graph about y - axis.

Example: For the given function , find the formula

(i) to compress the graph vertically by a factor of 3 followed by a reflection across the y-axis.

(ii) to compress the graph horizontally by a factor of 2 followed by a reflection across the x-axis.

Solution: (i) The formula is

(ii) The formula is

Limit of a function:

The idea behind limits is to analyze what the function is "approaching" when x "approaches" a
specific value. To start getting used to this idea, let's turn to this graph:

When x approaches the value "a" on the x-axis, the

function f(x) approaches "L" on the y axis.

Let's turn to the graph of a function whose expression we know:

This is the function f(x)=x2. Let's focus on the

point (1, 1). We can see from the graph that
when x approaches 1, the function f(x)
approaches 1. When this happens, we say that:

Notation: If we let the arrow symbol represent the word approach, then the symbolism

x → a– indicates that x approaches to a number a from the left, i.e., through numbers that are less than a,
and x → a+ indicates that x approaches to a number a from the right, i.e., through numbers that are greater
than a.
Finally, the symbol signifies that x approaches a from both sides, i.e., from the left and right sides of
a on a number line.

Note: If both the left-hand limit and right-hand limit exists and have a common
value L,

and

Then, we say that L is the limit of f(x) as x approaches a and write

Example: The graph of a function is shown in the figure.

As seen from the graph,

and

And consequently .
Example: The graph of a piecewise-defined function

is shown below:

From the graph, it appears that x approaches 5 through numbers less than 5 that Then as x
approaches 5 through numbers greater than 5, it appears that . But since,
We conclude that does not exist.

Continuity: A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x=a if

(i) f(a) is defined (ii) lim f ( x ) exists and (iii) lim f ( x)  f (a)
xa xa

Note: A function f is continuous

(i) on an open interval (a, b) if it is continuous at every number in the interval and
(ii) on a closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous on (a, b) and in addition lim f ( x)  f (a)
x a

and lim f ( x)  f (b)

x b 
Note: A function which is not continuous is called a discontinuous function
Limits involving infinity: Asymptotes of Graphs
Example 1: Graph of the function f(x)=1/x.

Here, and .

In writing this, we are not saying that the limit exist and equals the number -∞ (+∞). We are saying
that the limit of the function does not exist because its values becomes arbitrarily large and negative
(positive) as x→0- (x→0+).

Example 2: Graph of the function f(x)=1/(x-1).

Here, and .
Vertical Asymptotes:

In Example 1: x=0 is the asymptote and in Example 2: x=1 is the asymptote.

Horizontal Asymptotes:

A line y = L is said to be a horizontal asymptote for the graph of a function f(x) if at least one of the
two statements (given in the definition of limits at infinity) is true.

5x2  8x  3
Example: The graph of the function f ( x)  :
3x 2  2

Therefore, the line y = 5/3 is the horizontal asymptote.

 Functions and Their Graphs

Short Answer Questions:

1. Find the domain and range of g ( x)  x 2  3x .

2
2. Identify the domain and range of g (t )  .
t  16
2

3. Obtain the domain and range of f ( x)  1  x 2 .

4. Give the resulting equation, if y  1  x stretched horizontally by a factor of 2.

3

5. If the equation y  2 x  7 is shifted up by 7 units, find the resulting equation.

6. Write the equations if f ( x)  2  x , (i) Reflected about the x-axis (ii) Reflected about the y-axis.

t 2  3t  2
7. Find lim
t 1 t 2  t  2

1  x  sin x
8. Find lim
x 0 3cos x
1  cos
9. Find lim
  0 sin 2

10. If f ( x)  x  1  sin x , find at which points, f(x) fail to be continuous?

3x 7  5 x 2  1
11. Find lim
x  6 x 3  7 x  3

2 x  x 1
12. Find lim
x  3x  7

Long Answer Questions:

1. Given the function f ( x)  x  4 x  10 , find formulas to

4 3

(i) Compress the graph horizontally by a factor 2 followed by a reflection across the y-axis.
(ii) Compress the graph vertically by a factor of 2 followed by reflection across the x-axis.
2. Find the equation of the graph, if the graph of given equation is shifted in the mentioned direction
and by the given units.
1
(i) y  x 2/3 ; Right 2, Down 3 (ii) y   x  1  5 ; Down 5, Right 4
2
3. Give an equation for the stretched or compressed graph.
(i) y  x  1 , stretched vertically by a factor of 3
2

(ii) y  x  1 , compressed horizontally by a factor of 2

2
4. Give an equation for the stretched or compressed graph.
1
(i) y  1  , compressed vertically by a factor of 2
x2

1
(ii) y  1  , stretched horizontally by a factor of 3
x2

5. Express the area and perimeter of an equilateral triangle as a function of the triangle’s side length x.
6. Express the side length of a square as a function of the length d of the square’s diagonal. Then
express the area as a function of the diagonal length.
y2 x 1
7. Calculate (i) lim (ii) lim
y 2 y  5y  6
2 x 1 x32

t 2  3t  2 2  x2  5
8. Find (i) lim (ii) lim
t 1 t 2  t  2 x 3 x3
x2 x2
9. Find (i) lim ( x  3) (ii) lim ( x  3)
x 2 x2 x 2 x2
1  cos  sin 
10. Calculate lim (Hint: lim  1)
  0 sin 2  0 
sin 3 y cot 5 y sin 
11. Find lim (Hint: lim  1)
y 0 y cot 4 y  0 
12. At what points do the following functions fail to be continuous?
x2 x tan x
(i) y  (ii) y 
cos x x2  1

 x2  x  6
 , x3
13. Find whether continuous or not, g ( x)   x  3
5, , x3

 x3  8
 2 , x  2, x  2
 x  4
14. Find whether continuous or not, g ( x)  3, , x2

4, , x  2

 x 2  1, x  3
15. For what value of a is f ( x)   continuous at every x?
 2 ax , x  3

ax  2b, x0


 2
16. For what values of a and b is g ( x)   x  3a  b, 0  x  2 continuous at every x?

3x  5, x2
 5 x8  2 x 3  9 3
x5 x
17. Find (i) lim (ii) lim
x  3  x  4 x 5 x  3 x5x
2 x5/3  x1/3  7 4  3x3
18. Find (i) lim (ii) lim
x  x8/5  3x  x x 
x6  9
x2  x  2
19. Find the asymptotes to graph of f ( x) 
x2  2 x  1
x  sin x  2 x
20. Find the asymptotes to graph of f ( x) 
x  sin x
x2  4
21. Find the asymptotes to graph of g ( x) 
x
x2  4
22. Find the asymptotes to graph of y 
x3
 DERIVATIVES AND APPLICATIONS
The Derivative of a Function – Differentiation Rules – L’Hôpital’s Rule – Derivatives of some standard
functions – Linearization and Differentials – Extreme Values of Functions

Finding a Tangent to the Graph of a Function

Caution: The converse of Theorem 1 is false.

A function need not have a derivative at a point where it is continuous.

Example: The absolute value function 𝑦 = |𝑥|.

Differentiation Rules
The values of constant functions never change and that the slope of a horizontal line is zero at every point.

The line through the origin is tangent to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 when a = 1

 : Does the curve y = x4 – 2x2 + 2 have any horizontal tangents? If so, where?

Find an equation for a line that is tangent to the graph of y = exandgoes

through the origin.
:

:
EXAMPLE A weight hanging from a spring is stretched down 5 units beyond its rest position and released at
time t = 0 to bob up and down. Its position at any later time t is s = 5 cos t.

What are its velocity, acceleration and the jerk associated with the simple harmonic motion at time t?
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE

Find the derivative of g(t) = tan (5 – sin 2t)

 Practice Problems
𝒅𝒚
1. Find 𝒅𝒙
cot 𝑥
(i) 𝑦 = 1+cot 𝑥 (vi) 𝑦 = sin 𝑢 , 𝑢 = 3𝑥 + 1
4 1 (vii) 𝑦 = tan 𝑢 , 𝑢 = 𝜋𝑥 2
(ii) 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 + tan 𝑥
1 1
(viii) 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑢 , 𝑢 = (𝑥−1)
(iii) 𝑦 = (sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥)(sec 𝑥 − tan 𝑥)
1
(iv) 𝑦 = (2 − 𝑥 )𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 (ix) 𝑦=
𝑥(𝑥+1)(𝑥+2)
1
(v) 𝑦 = 6𝑢 − 9, 𝑢 = 2 𝑥 4 𝑥√𝑥 2 +1
(x) 𝑦= 2
(𝑥+1)3

𝒅𝒓
2. Find 𝒅𝜽

i. 𝑟 = sec 𝜃 csc 𝜃 1+sin 3𝜃 −1

iii. 𝑟 = ( )
3−2𝜃
ii. 𝑟 = 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + cos 𝜃
𝒅𝒑
3. Find 𝒅𝒒
𝑞 sin 𝑞 3
i. 𝑝= 𝑞2
𝑞2 −1 iii. 𝑝 = (𝑞3 −4𝑞 )
3𝑞+tan 𝑞
ii. 𝑝= 𝑞𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑞

𝒅𝟐 𝒚
4. Find 𝒅𝒙𝟐

i. 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑦 ii. 2√𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑦
5. Find the slope of the curve at the given points.
i. (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )2 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)2 , at (−2,1)
ii. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑦 4 − 2𝑥, at (1,0)
6. Find the value of (𝒇𝒐𝒈)′at the given value of 𝒙.
1 1
i. 𝑓(𝑢) = 1 − 𝑢 , 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 1−𝑥 , 𝑥 = −1
1 1
ii. 𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑢 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑢 , 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝜋𝑥, 𝑥 = 4
𝜋 𝑑𝑟
7. If 𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑓(𝑡)), 𝑓 (0) = 3, and 𝑓 ′ (0) = 4, then what is at 𝑡 = 0 ?
𝑑𝑡

8. Assume that 𝑓 ′ (3) = −1, 𝑔′ (2) = 5, 𝑔(2) = 3, and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )). What is 𝑦 ′at 𝑥 = 2?
9. Let s = ƒ(t) be the position of a body moving on a coordinate line (s in meters, t in seconds).
𝜋
Find the body’s velocity, speed, acceleration, and jerk at time 𝑝 = sec.
4

i. 𝑠 = 2 − 2 sin 𝑡
ii. 𝑠 = sin 𝑡 − cos 𝑡
10. Assume that a particle’s position on the 𝑥 -axis is given by 𝑥 = 3 cos 𝑡 + 4 sin 𝑡, where 𝑥 is
measured in feet and 𝑡is measured in seconds. Find the particle’s position and velocity when
𝜋
𝑡 = 0, 𝑡 = 2 , and 𝑡 = 𝜋.

11. The position of a particle moving along a coordinate line is 𝑠 = √1 + 4𝑡with s in meters and 𝑡in
seconds. Find the particle’s velocity and acceleration at 𝑡 = 6 sec.
12. Suppose that the velocity of a falling body is 𝑣 = 𝑘√𝑠m/sec (𝑘a constant) at the instant the body
has fallen 𝑠m from its starting point. Show that the body’s acceleration is constant.
13. Give the velocity and initial position of an object moving along a coordinate line. Find the
object’s position attime t.
2 2𝑡
i. 𝑣 = 9.8𝑡 + 5 , 𝑠(0) = 10 iii. 𝑣 = 𝜋cos , 𝑠 (𝜋 2 ) = 1
𝜋
ii. 𝑣 = 32𝑡 − 2 , 𝑠(0.5) = 4
14. Give the acceleration, initial velocity, and initial position of an object moving on a coordinate
line. Find the object’s position at time t.
i. 𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑡 , 𝑣 (0) = 20 , 𝑠(0) = 5 ii. 𝑎 = −4 sin 2𝑡, 𝑣 (0) = 2, 𝑠(0) = −3

15. Is there a value of 𝑏 that will make

𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑥 < 0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { continuous at 𝑥 = 0 ? Differentiable at 𝑥 = 0?
cos 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 0
Give reasons for your answers.
16. Is there a value of 𝑐that will make
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 3x
, 𝑥 < 0 continuous at 𝑥 = 0? Give reasons for your answers.
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { 𝑥2
cos 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑥−1 2
17. Find the tangent to 𝑦 = (𝑥+1) at 𝑥 = 0.

18. Find the tangent to 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 7at 𝑥 = 2.

𝜋𝑥
19. Find the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 4 ) at 𝑥 = 1.
𝑥
20. Find equations for the tangents to the curves 𝑦 = sin 2𝑥and 𝑦 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 at the origin. Is there

anything special about how the tangents are related? Give reasons for your answer.
𝑥
21. Can anything be said about the tangents to the curves 𝑦 = sin 𝑚𝑥and 𝑦 = − sin (𝑚) at the

origin (𝑚 a constant ≠ 0)? Give reasons for your answer.

22. Verify that the given point is on the curve and find the lines that are (a) tangent and (b) normal
to the curve at the given point.
i. 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑦, (2,3) iii. 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑦 − sin 𝑦 = 0, (0, 𝜋)
ii. 𝑥 2 − √3𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 = 5, (√3, 2)
𝑑𝑓 −1
23. Let 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 1, 𝑥 ≥ 2. Find the value of at the point 𝑥 = −1 = 𝑓(3).
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑓 −1
24. Let 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5, 𝑥 > 2. Find the value of at the point 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑓(5).
𝑑𝑥

25. Find the linearization 𝐿(𝑥) of 𝑓(𝑥) at given point.

i. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 3, 𝑥=2 ii. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 2 + 9, 𝑥 = −4
26. The radius of a circle is increased from 2.00 to 2.02 m. Estimate the resulting change in area.
27. Determine all critical points for each function.
i. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 7 𝑥2
iii. 𝑦 = 𝑥−2
ii. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 32√𝑥
28. Find the extreme values of the function over its natural domain
i. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 9 iii. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 4 √𝑥
ii. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 7
29. Discuss the extreme values
i. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 2 + 16 𝑥3
iii. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2+1
ii. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 6√𝑥 − 1
30. Determine the values of constants 𝑎and 𝑏so that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 has an maximum at the point (1, 2).
31. Determine the values of constants a, b, c and 𝑑so that 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 has a local
maximum at the point (0, 0) and a local minimum at the point (1, -1).

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑟
32. Use implicit differentiation to find 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑑𝜃

1. 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 = 6 6. 𝑥 + tan(𝑥𝑦) = 0
2. 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 18𝑥𝑦 7. 𝑥 4 + sin 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑦 2
2𝑦
3. 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 8. 𝑒 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦
𝑥−1
4. 𝑦 2 = 9. 𝜃1/2 + 𝑟1/2 = 1
𝑥+1

5. 𝑥𝑦 = cot(𝑥𝑦) 10. cos 𝑟 + cot 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑟𝜃

33. Verify that the given point is on the curve and find the lines that are a) tangent and b) normal to the
curve at the given point.
1. 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 1 ; (2,3) 6. 𝑥 2 − √3𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 = 5 ; (√3, 2)
2. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25 ; (3, −4) 7. 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝜋 sin 𝑦 = 2𝜋 ; (1, 2 )
𝜋

3. 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = 9 ; (−1,3) 𝜋 𝜋
8. 𝑥 sin 2𝑦 = 𝑦 cos 2𝑥 ; ( 4 , 2 )
2
4. 𝑦 − 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 1 = 0 ; (−2, 1)
9. 𝑦 = 2 sin(𝜋𝑥 − 𝑦) ; (1,0)
5. 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 + 17𝑦 − 6 = 0 ; (−1,0)
10. 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑦 − sin 𝑦 = 0 ; (0, 𝜋)