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com/science/article/pii/S1350630719302316
Manuscript_f0135f7d1c08899d06c76d5104230c11

Investigation on the influence of heat on the

dynamic characteristics of a gear transmission
system
Biao Luoa,b, Wei Li b*

a. School of Mechanical Engineering，University of South China，Hengyang 421001，China；

b. School of Mechanical Engineering，University of Science and Technology Beijing，Beijing
100083，China
Tel:+86-13691255573
Fax:+86-010-62329145
Email:liwei@me.ustb.edu.cn
Abstract: In order to study the influence of heat on dynamic characteristics of gear transmission
system, the meshing thermal stiffness of gear was proposed, and it was introduced into the system
dynamics equation. Meanwhile, the equivalent viscous damping of the system was studied by
using the Coulomb friction damping model. Thus, the thermal dynamics model of system was
established. In this article, the thermal dynamics model of gear system was established and solved.
The comparative analysis of the thermal dynamic response and elastic dynamic response of the
system was also provided. The results show that the maximum peak value, vibration velocity, and
equilibrium position of thermal dynamic response are all bigger than those of the elastic dynamic
response. The maximum dynamic load is found at the alternating point of double teeth region to
single tooth region, and the maximum thermal dynamic load and thermal dynamic load coefficient
are smaller than those of the elastic system because of the increases of the equivalent viscous
damping. Additionally, the theoretical model is verified by finite element method and
experimental method, respectively.
Keywords: gear transmission system; heat; time-varying meshing stiffness; equivalent viscous
damping; dynamic characteristics

Introduction
As the most important basic component of mechanical industry, gears have been widely used in
many fields, such as machinery industry, nuclear industry and defense industry. The dynamic
characteristics of gear transmission system is also the focus of many scholars all over the world
[1]. Most of them adopt analytical method or finite element method to research the inherent
characteristics [2-4] dynamic response [5-10] and vibration reduction method [11-13] of the gear
transmission system. At the same time, many scholars have also studied the impact factors on the
gear system dynamic characteristics, such as backlash [14-15], tooth profile modification [16-19],
tooth crack [20-26], unbalance [27-29], pitch deviation or indexing errors [30-31] and so on. For
instance, in article [15], the effects of the friction and dynamic backlash on the multi-degree of
freedom nonlinear dynamic gear transmission system were investigated. In article [19], the tooth
profile modification was employed in models by means of genetic algorithm in order to extract the
best amount and length of modifications. Then the influence of tooth profile modification on the
dynamic characteristics of the system was studied. Mohammed et al. [26] studied the effect of gear
tooth crack on system dynamic responses by investigating the natural frequencies and by
performing time-frequency analysis of a 6 DOF dynamic gear model. The relationship between the
different crack sizes and the mesh-stiffness-dependent eigenfrequencies was studied in order to
detect the tooth crack and to estimate its size. Cao et al. [27] considered the influence of the gear
eccentricities on the mesh stiffness. Then the influence of gear eccentricities on the dynamic
performance of a 4-planet planetary gear train was studied. Inalpolat et al. [31] established a
transverse-torsional dynamic model of a spur gear pair with the indexing errors. The model
predicted frequency-domain dynamic mesh force and dynamic transmission error spectra with
quasi-static transmission error time traces as the primary excitation. However, in the present
studies, the influence of heat on the dynamic responses of gear system has not been considered,
and the related literature has not been found. In this article, the concept of meshing thermal
stiffness of gear was proposed. The thermo-elastic coupling deformation of gear meshing point
was studied under the condition of thermo-elastic coupling. Then the meshing thermal stiffness of

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gear pair was defined, and it was introduced into the system dynamics equation. Thus, the
relationship between heat and dynamics was established, and the influence of heat on the dynamic
performance of the system was revealed. With the development of gear transmission towards to
high-speed and heavy-load, the dynamic characteristics of the system is particularly important.
The research in this paper will provide a technical guidance for the thermal dynamic design of the
gear transmission system, such as the transmission system of high-speed railway locomotive,
helicopter and so on, which have an important theoretical significance and practical value.
The rest of paper is organized as follows. In Sect. 1, a torsional vibration model of a spur gear
system is formulated. Then the thermal dynamics model of system is established by introducing
the time-varying meshing thermal stiffness and time-varying thermal damping. In Sect. 2, the
method of calculating the time-varying meshing thermal stiffness of a gear pair is derived. In Sect.
3, the equivalent viscous damping model of the system is established based on Coulomb damping
model. In Sect. 4, the thermal dynamic responses of the system is obtained. The comparative
analysis of the thermal dynamic response and elastic dynamic response of the system is also
provided. In Sect. 5, the meshing thermal stiffness model of gear pair is verified by finite element
method and experimental method, respectively. Finally, Sect. 6 presents some brief conclusions.

1. The thermal dynamics model of the gear system

In the process of gear transmission, the vibration forms of the system are very complex,
including transverse vibration, torsional vibration and pendulum vibration [32]. In this paper, the
thermal dynamic characteristics of the gear system under the thermo-elastic coupling condition
were studied. The heat originates from the relative friction between the two meshing surfaces. It
mainly affects the involute tooth profile of the meshing surface, brings the additional thermal load,
and then has an influence on the dynamic characteristics of the system, such as the dynamic load
and dynamic transmission error (DTE). Therefore, the torsional vibration of the system was only
considered in this paper. The torsional vibration model with two degrees of freedom of the system
was established by using the lumped mass model. Finally the model can be transformed into a
single-freedom forced vibration system through the transmission error (TE).
1.1 The torsional vibration model of the system
The transmission gear pair is simplified into two rotary discs, and the torsional vibration model
of two degrees of freedom as shown in Figure 1. According to Newton's second law, the motion
equilibrium equation of the gear pair can be given in Eqs.(1)-(2).

Fig.1 Torsional vibration model of gear drive system

J1θ&&1 + c(τ )(rb1θ&1 − rb 2θ&2 )rb1 + k (τ )(rb1θ1 − rb 2θ 2 )rb1 = T1 = rb1w (1)
J 2θ&&2 + c(τ )(rb 2θ&2 − rb1θ&1 )rb 2 + k (τ )(rb 2θ 2 − rb1θ1 )rb 2 = −T2 = rb 2 w (2)
where:J1 and J2 are the moments of inertia of gear pair, c(τ) is the time-varying damping of system,
k(τ) is the time-varying meshing stiffness, T1 and T2 are the torques of the gear pair, w is the
normal load of the meshing point, rb1 and rb2 are the base radii of gear pair, θ1 and θ2 are the
turning angles of the gear pair, θ&1 and θ&2 are the angular velocities of the gear pair, θ&&1 and
θ&&2are the angular accelerations of the gear pair.
Then the Eqs.(1)-(2) can be deformed and simplified as Eq.(3),
 rb21 rb22 r2 r2
(rb1θ&&1 − rb 2θ&&2 ) + c(τ )(rb1θ&1 − rb 2θ&2 )( + ) + k (τ )(rb1θ1 − rb 2θ 2 )( b1 + b 2 )
J1 J 2 J1 J 2
(3)
rb21 rb22
= ( + )w
J1 J 2
rb1θ1 − rb 2θ 2 is the deformation amount of the meshing point K. It is also the transmission error of
the system when the base pitch error and backlash are not considered. As a consequence, TE can
be expressed as x = rb1θ1 − rb 2θ 2 , then the first and second derivative of transmission error can
be expressed as x& = rb1θ&1 − rb 2θ&2 , &x& = rb1θ&&1 − rb 2θ&&2 , and Eq.(3) can be simplified as Eq.(4).
rb21 rb22 r2 r2 r2 r2
&x& + c(τ ) x& (
+ ) + k (τ ) x( b1 + b 2 ) = ( b1 + b 2 ) w (4)
J1 J 2 J1 J 2 J1 J 2
J1 J 2
The equivalent mass of gear can be expressed as me = , and then the Eq.(4) can be
J1rb1 + J 2 rb22
2

simplified as Eq.(5).
me &x& + c(τ ) x& + k (τ ) x = w (5)
The Eq.(5) is the torsional vibration differential equation of a single-freedom forced vibration
system of gear pair.
1.2 The thermal dynamics model of gear system
As can be seen from the Eq.(5), the main parameters that influence the dynamic characteristics
are the equivalent mass (me), time-varying damping (c(τ)), time-varying meshing stiffness (k(τ))
and the normal load (w). me is determined by the quality and size of the system, and the influence
of heat on equivalent mass can be ignored. Therefore, k(τ) and c(τ) are the most important
parameters that influence the dynamic characteristics of the gear system. In this article, the concept
of time-varying meshing thermal stiffness kT(τ) and time-varying thermal damping cT(τ) are
proposed, which were used to replace k(τ) and c(τ) in the Eq.(5), which can reveal the relationship
between heat and dynamic characteristics of the system was established. Then the thermal
dynamics model of the gear torsional vibration system is given in Eq.(6).
me &x& + cT (τ ) x& + kT (τ ) x = w (6)
The gear vibration system is a forced vibration system excited by time-varying meshing
stiffness. In addition, due to the periodical change of stiffness and damping, this system belongs to
the periodical nonautonomous system.

2. Calculation of time-varying meshing thermal stiffness

of gear
For the vibration differential equation of the system, the time-varying meshing stiffness of the
system is the key to solve the dynamic response of system. Meanwhile, system stiffness excitation
is the main interior factor of vibration. Therefore, the time-varying meshing stiffness calculation is
very important.
2.1 The meshing thermal stiffness of gear
In this paper, the definition of stiffness was generalized, leading to the concept of thermal
stiffness of gear was proposed. The definition is as follows: the thermal stiffness of the gear is the
magnitude of the external load that can lead to unit amount of thermo-elastic coupling deformation.
Its calculation formula can be expressed as Eq.(7).
1 Fn
sT = = (7)
δT ∆ te
where sT is the thermal stiffness of gear, δT is the thermal compliance of gear, Fn is the normal
external load of the meshing point, Δte is the normal thermo-elastic coupling deformation of the
meshing point. By the above definition, the key to calculate the thermal stiffness of gear is to find
the method to calculate the thermo-elastic coupling deformation of the meshing point.
2.1.1 Thermal expansion of tooth surface
As shown in Fig.2, point K on the tooth profile moves to the position of point K' after the
thermal expansion. In the cylindrical coordinate system, the radius of point K' is rk' (rk'=rk+Δrk).
The angle between the radius rk' and y axis is φk' (φk'=φk+Δφk). Where φk and Δφk can be calculated
from the formulas (8)-(9) respectively.
sk
ϕk = − (invα k − invα ) (8)
2R
∆s
∆ϕ k = k (9)
rk′
The thermal expansion amount Δrk of the meshing point can be further divided into the two part,
Δrb and Δrbk. Where Δrb is thermal expansion amount of the base circle, Δrbk is the thermal
expansion of the difference between radius of point K and radius of base circle. The calculation
formula of Δrbk can be expressed as: ∆rbk = ∆t k λ (rk − rb ) . The calculation formula of thermal
expansion amount Δrb of gear base circle along the radial direction is given by literature[33],
λrb3 (t b − t n ) λrb (t b − t n )
∆rb = rb λt n + − . Finally, the calculation formula of the thermal
r −r
b
2
n
2
2(ln rb − ln rn )
expansion in the radial direction of the meshing point can be expressed as:
λrb3 (t b − t n ) λrb (tb − tn )
∆rk = rb λt n + − + ∆t k λ (rk − rb ) (10)
r −r
b
2
n
2
2(ln rb − ln rn )
where φk is the angle between the radius rk and y axis, sk is the tooth thickness at point K, λ is the
thermal expansion coefficient, Δtk is the temperature rise at point K, tn is the temperature of the
inner hole surface of the gear, tb is the temperature of the base circle, R is the radius of the pitch
circle, rb is the radius of the base circle, rn is the radius of the inner hole, αk is the pressure angle at
point K, α is the pressure angle of the pitch circle, and Δsk is the circumferential expansion at point
K, Δsk=Δtkλsk/2.

Fig.2 The sketch map of thermal expansion of tooth profile

According to Eq.(10), the temperature rise is the key to calculate the thermal expansion
amount of gears. In this paper, the steady-state thermal analysis model of gear is established
by finite element method [34], and the bulk temperature field of gear is obtained. Then the
steady-state temperature of the meshing tooth surface and the temperature at the inner hole
and the base circle of the gear are obtained, and it can be used to calculate the thermal expansion
of the gear. The temperature obtained by the finite element method is only some discrete values. In
this paper, the distribution curve of temperature along the meshing line is obtained by suing the
curve fitting method for the discrete values of temperature. Therefore, the approximate
temperature of any point on the meshing line can be obtained.
According to the above analysis, in the Cartesian coordinate system, the components (Δx, Δy) of
thermal expansion along the axes at the meshing point were determined by the formula (11). The
thermal expansion (Δt) along the meshing line was determined by the formula (12).
∆ x = rk′ sin(ϕ k′ ) − rk sin(ϕ k )
 (11)
∆ y = rk′ cos(ϕ k′ ) − rk cos(ϕ k )
∆ t = ∆ x cos(ωk ) + ∆ y sin(ωk ) (12)
where ωk is the load angle at the meshing point.
2.1.2 Thermal stress and thermo-elastic coupling stress of gear
When the thermal expansion is under fully restrained state, the thermal stress will generate, and
the equivalent thermal load is equal to the product of stiffness and thermal expansion. For the
meshing gear pair without backlash, the equivalent thermal load (pt) at the meshing point can be
calculated from the formula (13).
pt = k (∆ t1 + ∆ t2 ) (13)
where k is the meshing stiffness, Δt1 and Δt2 are the thermal expansions of the driving and driven
gear.
However, in the meshing process, the thermal stress and elastic stress are coupled to each other,
and the thermo-elastic coupling stress comes out. The calculation of thermo-elastic coupling load
is very complicated. The thermal load after correction was the thermo-elastic coupling load (pte).
The thermal load correction coefficient (Xte) was proposed in this paper. Then the thermo-elastic
coupling load can be expressed as formula (14).
pte = X te × pt (14)
The determination of Xte is relatively complicated, and the calculation method and ideas are
given as follow. The finite element method is used to analyze the elastic deformation and the
thermo-elastic coupling deformation of the meshing gear pair separately. The elastic deformation
and thermo-elastic coupling deformation of gear pair are obtained, and the above two are
compared and analyzed. It is found that the thermo-elastic coupling deformation is larger than the
elastic deformation, and the relationship between the two is basically proportional. At the same
time, the strain and stress is also proportional, so the ratio of deformation can be considered as the
ratio of stress. Therefore, Xte can be obtained by the difference between the above two
deformations divided by elastic deformation. In the meshing process, Xte will change over time.
However, because of the relationship between the two deformations is basically proportional, Xte
has little change with time. Therefore, Xte can be replaced by an average value.
2.1.3 Thermo-elastic coupling deformation of gear
In the meshing process, the meshing point will be effected by the external load, thermal load
and thermo-elastic coupling load. The elastic deformation (Δe) will generate, as well as the thermal
expansion (Δt) due to the rise of the bulk temperature. Because of the opposite direction of the
thermal expansion and the elastic deformation, the thermo-elastic coupling deformation (Δte) is the
difference between the elastic deformation (Δe) and the thermal expansion (Δt), i.e. Δtei=Δei－Δti.
Where the elastic deformation (Δe) can be calculated from the formula (15), the index i=1,2
indicates the driving gear or driven gear.
Fn + pt + pte Fn + (1 + X te ) pt
∆ ei = = (15)
kei k ei
where kei is the single tooth elastic stiffness, and the index i=1,2 indicates the driving gear or
driven gear.
2.1.4 Meshing thermal stiffness of gear
According to the definition of the thermal stiffness, the single tooth thermal stiffness (kTi) can be
expressed as Eq.(16). The meshing thermal stiffness of the gear pair (kT) is a series of the two
single tooth thermal stiffness, and it can be expressed as Eq.(17)
Fn kei
k Ti = (16)
Fn + (1 + X te )k e (∆ t1 + ∆ t 2 ) − kei ∆ ti
k k Fn ke
kT = T1 T 2 = (17)
kT1 + kT 2 Fn + X te ke (∆ t1 + ∆ t 2 )
When the thermal load correction coefficient Xte=0, then kT=ke. But in actual working
conditions, the thermo-elastic coupling stress is indeed present, so Xte﹥0, thus then, the meshing
thermal stiffness of gear pair is less than the meshing elastic stiffness.
It can be seen from Eq.(16), when (1+Xte)ke(Δt1+Δt2)-keiΔti =0, the single tooth thermal stiffness
is equal to the single tooth elastic stiffness. Where ke is the meshing elastic stiffness of gear pair,
kei is the single tooth elastic stiffness. Due to the characteristics of the series of stiffness，ke is
always less than kei, especially in the root, and kei is much greater than ke. Therefore, the equation
has a solution when the meshing point locates in the root area. Because of the monotone of the
single tooth stiffness, the equation has only one solution. So there is only one intersection point on
 the two single tooth stiffness distribution curves, and the intersection point is located near to the
root area. The single tooth thermal stiffness is greater than the elastic stiffness in the root side of
the intersection point, and less than the elastic stiffness in the tip side of the intersection point.
The proportional relationship between the meshing thermal stiffness and the meshing elastic
stiffness of gear pair can be expressed as formula (18).
kT Fn
= (18)
ke Fn + X te ke (∆ t1 + ∆ t 2 )
where Fn and Xte are constent, Δt1, Δt2 and ke are the nonlinear distribution along the meshing line,
therefore, the relationship between the thermal stiffness and the elastic stiffness is also in nonlinear
relationship. The elastic stiffness reaches the minimal value at the meshing-in and meshing-out
points, and reaches the maximum value at the pitch point. Therefore, compared with the elastic
stiffness, the thermal stiffness reduces less at the meshing-in and -out points, and the largest
decline emerged at the pitch point. The distribution of meshing thermal stiffness along the
meshing line is more gentle.
According to the relationship between stiffness and compliance, the total thermal compliance
(δT) at the meshing point of the meshing gear pair is obtained. The difference between the total
thermal compliance and the total elastic compliance (δ) can be expressed as formula (19).
Fn + X te ke (∆ t1 + ∆ t 2 ) 1 X te (∆ t1 + ∆ t 2 )
δT − δ = − = (19)
Fn ke ke Fn
From Eq.(19), the difference of the compliance relates to the external load (Fn), the thermal load
correction coefficient (Xte) and the sum of the thermal expansion of the gear (Δt1+Δt2). According
to the definition of compliance, the formula (19) can be simplified as Eq.(20).
δ T − δ = X teδ Tp (20)
where δTp is the compliance of the thermal expansion, and its calculation formula can be expressed
as δTp=(Δt1+Δt2)/ Fn. Then Eq.(20) can be transformed to Eq.(21), and the total thermal compliance
is obtained. With the relationship of the stiffness and the compliance, the meshing thermal
stiffness of the gear pair can be expressed as Eq.(22).
δ T = δ + X teδ Tp (21)
1 1
kT = = (22)
δT δ + X teδ Tp
From Eqs.(21)-(22), the thermal compliance is the sum of the elastic compliance and the
modified thermal expansion compliance. The meshing thermal stiffness of gear pair is a series of
elastic stiffness and modified thermal expansion stiffness, and then the calculation formula of the
single tooth thermal stiffness can be expressed as
1 1
k Ti = = (23)
δ Ti δ
δ i + i (1 + X te )δ Tp−δ Tpi
δ
where δi is the single tooth elastic compliance, δTpi is the single tooth thermal expansion
compliance, and the index i=1,2 indicates the driving gear or driven gear.
2.1.5 Calculation example
The parameters of the gear pair are shown in Table 1. The steady-state thermal analysis of
gear system is carried out by using finite element software ANSYS, and more detials can be
found in article [34]. The single tooth model of gear is established as shown in Fig.3(a) and
the bulk temperature field of driving gear is shown in Fig.3(b). Extracting temperature data of
meshing surface of driving gear, and fitted with a high degree polynomial to obtain the
distribution curve of the bulk temperature in the middle of the tooth width shown in Fig.3(c).
Table 1 The parameters of the gear transmission system
Tooth number Normal Pressure Face width Shift coefficient Standard centre
Geometric
z1,z2 module m/mm angle α/° b/mm x1,x2 distance a/mm
parameters
27,35 3 20 25 0,0 93
Rotation rate
Working Power P/kW Elastic Modulus E/GPa Poisson's ratio υ Density ρ/kg·m-3
n1/r·min-1
condition & 80 2000 206 0.3 7850
material
parameters Thermal capacity c/J·(kg·K)-1 Thermal conductivity λ/W·(m·K)-1
465 46
 Lubricant model Density ρo /kg·m-3 Kinematic viscosity υo / cst
Lubricant SCH632 870 320(40℃)/ 38.5(100℃)
oil Thermal capacity Thermal conductivity Oil operating Temperature
parameters co/ J·(kg·K)-1 λo / W·(m·K)-1 toot /℃
2000 0.14 60

Single tooth model The convective heat transfer coefficient Friction heat of meshing surface
(a) The single tooth thermal analysis model

81

80

79 FEA curve
Fitting curve
78

77

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4

Normalized coordinate Γ
(b) The distribution of the bulk temperature in the middle
(b) The bulk temperature of whole tooth
of the tooth width
Fig.3 The thermal analysis model and results of gear
From Fig. 3, the distribution of tooth surface temperature along the meshing line is nonlinear.
The temperature is relatively low at the pitch circle. The temperature is low at the tip and root of
the tooth because of the better heat dissipation condition, but the highest temperature still occurs
near the tip and root of the tooth. The fitted curve basically coincides with the finite element curve,
and the error between the two is small. Therefore, the fitting data can be used to calculate the
thermo-elastic coupling deformation.
Based on the above analysis, the calculation program of the thermal stiffness of gear is compiled
by using the MATLAB software. Then the distribution curves of stiffness and compliance along
the meshing line are obtained, which is show in Fig.4.

Fig.4 The distribution of gear thermal stiffness along the meshing line
In Fig.4, the blue dotted line (ke) is the distribution curve of the meshing elastic stiffness of gear
pair. The red dotted line (kT) is the distribution curve of the meshing thermal stiffness of gear pair.
The blue solid line (δe) is the distribution curve of the elastic compliance of gear pair. The red
solid line (δT) is the distribution curve of the thermal compliance of gear pair. The blue dot dash
line (δe1) is the distribution curve of the elastic compliance of driving gear. The red dot dash line
(δT1) is the distribution curve of the thermal compliance of driving gear. The blue dash line (δe2) is
the distribution curve of the elastic compliance of driven gear. The red dash line (δe2) is the
distribution curve of the thermal compliance of driven gear.
As shown in Fig.4, the meshing thermal stiffness of gear pair decreases compared with the
meshing elastic stiffness in the whole meshing area. There is only one intersection point of the two
single tooth stiffness distribution curves. The intersection point locates near to the root area. The
thermal stiffness is greater than the elastic stiffness over the root side of the intersection point, and
less than the elastic stiffness over the tip side of the intersection point. For the example of this
article, compared with the meshing elastic stiffness, the meshing thermal stiffness decreased by
8.53 % at the meshing-in and meshing-out point, and decreased by 14.52% at the pitch point. For
the single tooth compliance, the thermal compliance of the driving gear increased by 20.02% at the
tip, and decreased by 42.2% at the root; the compliance of the driven gear increased by 16.29% at
the tip, and decreased by 92% at the root.
2.2 Relationship between normalized coordinates and time
Through the above analysis, the distribution curve of meshing thermal stiffness of gear along the
meshing line is obtained. It is the spatial domain distribution. But the differential equation of the
system vibration is solved in the time domain. Therefore, the distribution of the meshing thermal
stiffness in the spatial domain must be converted into the time domain. The relationship between
normalized coordinates (Γ) and time (τ) must be found.

Fig.5 The sketch map of gear meshing

As shown in Figure 5, the actual meshing line of the gear pair is the AE segment in the figure.
From point A to point K, the turning angle of the driving gear can be expressed as θk=βk+Δφk.
Where βk is the angle that the length of AE segment corresponding, and can be expressed as βk=αk-
αA; Δφk is the angle difference between the two vectorial angles of point K and point A, and can be
expressed as Δφk=(tan(αk)-αk)-(tan(αA)-αA), αk and αA are the pressure angles of point K and point
A. Finally, the calculation formula of θk can be expressed as θk=tan(αk)-tan(αA). At the same time,
θk is product of the angular velocity (ω1) and time (τ). Therefore, the relationship between the
pressure angle (αk) and time (τ) is obtained. Further more, the relationship between the normalized
coordinates (Γ) and pressure angle (αk) can be expressed as Eq.(24). Therefore, the relationship
between the normalized coordinates (Γ) and time (τ) is determined by Eq.(25).
tan α k
Γk = −1 (24)
tan α
ω τ + tan α A
Γk = 1 −1 (25)
tan α
2.3 Time-varying meshing thermal stiffness
Through the above analysis, the relationship between the normalized coordinates (Γ) and time is
obtained. The spatial domain normalized coordinates between the meshing-in point (A) and
meshing-out point (E) are converted in the time domain coordinates by using formula (25). Then
the time domain distribution of meshing thermal stiffness of a gear pair in a whole meshing cycle
is obtained.
For a gear transmission system that the gear coincidence belongs to interval (1,2), the whole
meshing cycle can be divided into single tooth meshing region and double tooth meshing region.
The time-varying meshing stiffness (k(τ)) of the system in the single tooth meshing region is the
stiffness of single tooth pair. In the double tooth meshing region, the external load is shared by two
pairs of tooth, and the system time-varying meshing stiffness is the stiffness of the two tooth pairs
in parallel. Since the distribution of loads among meshing tooth pairs has been taken into account
in the thermal analysis of gears, this parallel stiffness relationship is still applicable to the time-
varying meshing thermal stiffness (kT(τ)) of the system.
10 10
10 10
3.5 3.5
First Pair First Pair
3 Second Pair 3 Second Pair
Total Total
2.5 2.5
2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5

0 0
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0 1 2
3 4 5
Γ τ (s) 10-3
(a) Time-varying meshing thermal stiffness in a (b) Time-varying meshing thermal stiffness of the
whole meshing cycle system
Fig.6 Time-varying equivalent damping of gear system
For the example of this paper, in a whole meshing cycle, the time-varying meshing thermal
stiffness of gear system is shown in Fig.6 (a). In the transmission process, the single tooth meshing
region and double tooth meshing region is continuously alternated. Therefore, the time-varying
meshing thermal stiffness of gear system is shown in Fig.6 (b).

3. Determination of system damping

In the process of gear transmission, the damping of system vibration mainly comes from the
non-viscous damping caused by the relative sliding friction between meshing tooth surfaces. In
this paper, the equivalent viscous damping model of the system is established by using Coulomb
damping. Thus the equivalent viscous damping ce of the system is obtained, and its calculation
formula can be expressed as Eq.(26).
4F
ce = (26)
πωB
where F is the friction force between the meshing tooth surfaces, and ω is the exciting frequency
of the system, B is the amplitude of the forced vibration of system.
The friction force F is the product of normal load w and friction coefficient f of meshing point
[34], and F is expressed as follows:
0.25
 wR 
F = wf = 0.12 w t a  (27)
 η MuΣ R 
where wt is the tangential unit load of pitch circle, and the load distribution based on time varying
meshing stiffness, Ra is the comprehensive surface roughness value of two meshing tooth surfaces,
Ra=6.3 μm, R is the equivalent radius of curvature at the meshing point, ηM is the dynamic
viscosity of lubricant, uΣ is the sum of tangential velocity at the meshing point.
When the ratio λ of the exciting frequency to the natural frequency of the system is far less than
1, i.e., λ << 1 (in this paper λ=0.153 ), the amplitude B can be approximately replaced by the
static deformation B0 caused by the amplitude of the exciting force, i.e., B≈B0=w/k. Therefore, the
equivalent viscous damping ce of system is determined by formula (28).
0.25
1.459k  wt Ra 
ce =   (28)
z1n1  η M uΣ R 
The lubricating oil parameters are shown in Table 1. The curve of equivalent viscous damping
ce along the meshing line in a meshing cycle is shown in Fig.7(a), the time-varying equivalent
viscous damping ce(τ) of the system is shown in Fig.7(b), and the lubricating oil temperature is
30℃.
 (a) Equivalent viscous damping in a whole (b) Time-varying equivalent viscous damping of the
meshing cycle system
Fig.7 Equivalent viscous damping of gear system
As shown in Fig.7, the equivalent viscous damping ce of system also consist of two distinct
regions, i.e., the single tooth pair meshing region and double tooth pairs meshing region. The
system equivalent viscous damping of double tooth pairs meshing region is smaller than that of
single tooth pair meshing region, that is contrary to the distribution of stiffness. The average
equivalent viscous damping of a single tooth pair meshing region is 3.41×103N·s/m, and that of
double tooth pairs meshing region is 2.40×103N·s/m.
From Eq.(28), ce is inversely proportional to the dynamic viscosity ηM of lubricating oil, and the
dynamic viscosity of the lubricating oil varies with the temperature. Therefore, the influence of the
system temperature on the equivalent viscous damping should be considered when studying the
effect of heat on the dynamic characteristics of the system. The temperature distribution of the
meshing tooth surface has been obtained in the thermal analysis of the gear, as shown in Fig.3. The
temperature of the lubricating oil is equal to the tooth surface temperature of the meshing point in
the meshing processing. The dynamic viscosity ηM of lubricating oil at meshing point can be
obtained by using the viscosity and temperature characteristics of lubricating oil. Then the thermal
equivalent viscous damping cr is obtained by using the formula (28).
After considered effect of heat, the time-varying thermal equivalent viscous damping cr(τ) of
system is shown in Fig.8.

Fig.8 Time-varying equivalent viscous damping of gear system

Figure 8 shows that the equivalent viscous damping of the system increases after considering
the heat factors of the system, and in the single tooth pair meshing region the average equivalent
viscous damping increases from 3.41×103 N·s/m to 5.72×103 N·s/m and that of double tooth pairs
meshing region increases from 2.40×103 N·s/m to 4.03×103 N·s/m. The main reason is that the
dynamic viscosity of the lubricating oil decreases, then the friction coefficient between the
meshing tooth surfaces increases, and the friction force increases, with the increases of
temperature. The work done by friction force during a vibration cycle increases.

4. Thermal dynamic characteristics of the gear system

4.1 Thermal dynamic response of the gear system
Without considering the base pitch error, backlash and installation error, taking the initial
conditions x = 0 , x& = 0 , and the damping of system c(τ)=ce(τ), cT(τ)=cr(τ), the four order
“Runge-Kutta” program is used to solve the formula (6) by MATLAB software. Then the response
of the dynamic transmission error is obtained. The comparison chart of the thermal dynamic
transmission error (TDTE) and the elastic dynamic transmission error (EDTE) are shown in Fig.9.
 (a) TDTE and EDTE of the system (b) TDTE in a whole meshing cycle
Fig.9 Dynamic transmission error of the system
As shown in Figure 9(b), the vibration cycle of the system displacement response is exactly the
same as the meshing cycle of the gear. The equilibrium position is the static transmission error
(STE) of the system. Because of the difference of equilibrium positions, the displacement response
is obviously divided into two regions, namely, the single tooth meshing region and the double
tooth meshing region.
As shown in Fig.9(a), the change cycle of two errors is completely consistent. The peak value
and equilibrium position of thermal dynamic response is larger than that of elastic response.
Therefore, the heat will increase the dynamic response of the system, and lead to more serious
vibration and noise.
Without considering the base pitch error, backlash and installation error, the transmission error
(TE) of gear transmission system is the deformation of gear teeth under load. That means, the
thermal dynamic transmission error of the system is the dynamic thermo-elastic coupling
deformation of the gear system. From Fig.9(a), the curve of TDTE is obviously higher than that of
EDTE, that means, the dynamic thermo-elastic coupling deformation is larger than the dynamic
elastic deformation of the system. Moreover, the equilibrium position of the dynamic response of
the system is the static transmission error of the system, therefore, the static thermo-elastic
coupling deformation of the system is also larger than the static elastic deformation. For the
example of this article, in the single tooth meshing region, the equilibrium position of thermal
dynamic response is 20.82% higher than that of elastic response, and in the double teeth meshing
region, the equilibrium position of thermal dynamic response is 14.13% higher than that of elastic
response.
However, with the increase of temperature, the equivalent viscous damping of the system
increases rapidly, and the amplitude of the system response (the difference between the peak value
and the equilibrium position) decreases. For the example of this article, the amplitudes of single
tooth pair and double tooth pairs meshing region are 5.31μm and 7.21μm respectively under elastic
condition, and the amplitudes of single tooth pair and double tooth pairs meshing region are
4.13μm and 6.82μm respectively under thermo-elastic coupling condition, which decrease by
22.3% and 5.5%.
Fig.10 shows the displacement-velocity diagram of the two responses of system. As each
response has two convergence points, each response has two different equilibrium positions. But
for the different responses, the position of the convergence point is different. In displacement
direction, there is a displacement lag between the convergence point of two responses, and this
displacement lag is more serious in the single tooth meshing region than that in the double tooth
meshing region.

Fig.10 The displacement and velocity phase diagram Fig.11 The velocity response of system
The velocity response of system is shown in Fig.11. As shown in Fig.11, the maximum velocity
amplitude of thermal vibration is larger than that of the elastic vibration, but the speed of vibration
attenuation is accelerating, and there is a lag between the two velocity phase diagrams. According
to the above analysis, the thermo-elastic coupling deformation is bigger than the elastic
deformation. Therefore, the mutation of the equilibrium positions at the alternating point is larger
under the thermo-elastic coupling condition. That is the reason for the larger velocity amplitude of
the thermal vibration system. The main reason for the velocity phase lag and vibration attenuation
acceleration is that the system damping increases when the heat factor is introduced into the
dynamic equation.
4.2 Thermal dynamic load and dynamic load coefficient
After obtaining the thermal dynamic response of system, the thermal dynamic load can be
calculated from the formula wT (τ ) = k T (τ ) x (τ ) . For the example of this paper, in a meshing
cycle, the thermal dynamic loads of the single tooth pair and the system are shown in figure 12.

(a) The dynamic load of tooth pair in a meshing cycle (b) The dynamic load of system in a meshing cycle
Fig.12 The dynamic load of the system
In figure 12, the steady-state value of the dynamic load is the static load of the system. The
dynamic load mainly emerges in the alternating point of the two different meshing regions. Under
the condition of thermo-elastic coupling, the amplitude of system dynamic load is larger, but the
attenuation of dynamic load is accelerated, and the phase is lag. At the same time, the steady-state
value of the single tooth pair changes. In a whole meshing cycle, the steady-state values increase at
the meshing-in (A) and meshing-out (E) points, and decrease at the alternating points (B and D).
Thus the load mutation at the alternating points increases, and the dynamic load coefficient
increases. The maximum dynamic load of the system emerges at the alternating points (A and D)
from single tooth region to double teeth region. For the example of this paper, the maximum
thermal dynamic load of the system is 1.65 times of the system static load. However, considering
from the gear strength, the most dangerous point is the maximum dynamic load point of the single
tooth pair, but not the maximum dynamic load point of system. In Fig.12(a), the maximum
dynamic load of single tooth pair emerges at point B, and the dynamic load coefficient (Kv) can be
expressed as
K V = 1 + ∆w / w0 (29)
where Δw is the difference between the maximum dynamic load of single tooth and the system
static load w0.
For the example of this article, compared with the elastic dynamic load, the maximum thermal
dynamic load of the system is decreased from 4.85×105N to 4.56×105N, and the thermal dynamic
load coefficient is decreased from 1.21 to 1.13. The main reason is that the equivalent viscous
damping of the single tooth meshing region increases rapidly with the increase of temperature.

5. Simulation and experimental validation

5.1 Finite element simulation of thermal stiffness
In this paper, the finite element method is used to verify the thermal stiffness of gears. From
Eq.(7), the key to calculate the thermal stiffness of gear is to find the method to calculate the
thermoelastic coupling deformation of the meshing point. A number of discrete meshing points are
taken on the whole meshing line. The elastic and thermoelastic coupling deformations of each
discrete meshing point are calculated by using finite element analysis software ANSYS. Fig. 13(a)
shows the 3-D solid elastic analysis model of the tooth pair. As we can see, in the study of
deformation of the driving gear, all directional displacements of all nodes on the inner hole
surface of the driving gear, the circumferential displacement of the two side surfaces of the
driving gear, and the axial and radial displacements of all nodes on the inner hole surface of
the gear were restricted in order to eliminate the influence of rigid body displacement. The
equivalent external load was applied in the circumferential direction of nodes on the inner
hole surface of the driven gear. When the deformation of the driven gear is studied, the
constraint and loading mode are opposite. In the thermoelastic coupling analysis, the indirect
coupling mehod is used, and the bulk temperature is applied to the model as the external load,
as shown in Fig. 13(b). Fig. 13(c) and Fig. 13(d) show the deformations of the driving gear
under different conditions, and the elastic and thermoelastic coupling deformations of the
meshing surface are shown in Fig.13(e) and Fig.13(f).

(a) The elastic analysis model (b) The thermoelastic coupling analysis model

(c) The elastic deformation of driving gear (d) The thermoelastic copling deformation of
driving gear

25 25
20 20
15 15
10 Δe 10
5 5 Δ te
0 0
0.3 25 0.3 ΓK
ΓK 25
0 20 0 20
15 15
Γ -0.3 10 Γ -0.3 10
-0.6 5 b (mm) 5
0 -0.6 0 b (mm)

(e) The elastic deformation of meshing surface (f) The thermoelastic coupling deformation of
meshing surface
Fig.13 The FEA model and deformation result
As shown in Fig.13, due to the superposition of deformation, the amount of deformation
gradually increases from the root of the tip of the tooth. Therefore, the maximum deformation
point on the meshing surface is not necessarily the meshing point (as shown in Fig.13(c) and
Fig.13(d)). However, due to the action of contact stress, thermoelastic coupling stress and so on,
the deformation will have a peak value at the meshing point. This peak value is the deformation of
the meshing point. As shown in the red line in Fig.13(e) and Fig.13(f). In order to accurately
extract the deformation of the meshing point, the stress cloud map of the meshing tooth surface
should be used.
(a) The stress of meshing tooth surface under elastic (b) The stress of meshing tooth surface under
condition thermoelastic coupling condition
Fig.14 The stress of meshing tooth surface
Fig.14 shows the stress of the meshing tooth surface, the maximum stress point in the stress
cloud map is the meshing point. Therefore, the nodal coordinates of the meshing point can be
judged by the stress cloud map, then the deformation amount of the meshing point can be
accurately extracted in the deformation cloud map by using these nodal coordinates.
Based on above analysis, the thermal stiffness of a discrete point is calculated according to the
definition of the thermal stiffness of the gear. The distribution curve of gear thermal stiffness along
the meshing line can be obtained by using the curve fitting. The simulation data of each discrete
point and fitting curves are shown in Fig.15.

1-Fitting thermal compliance and stiffness curve

2-Fitting elastic compliance and stiffness curve
3-The elastic compliance data and the fitting curves of the single tooth
4-The thermal compliance data and the fitting curves of the single tooth
Fig.15 The distribution of gear thermal stiffness along the meshing line-finite element method
As shown in Fig.15, the meshing thermal stiffness of gear pair is less than that of the meshing
elastic stiffness in the whole meshing region. However, there is only one intersection point of the
two single tooth stiffness distribution curves. The intersection point locates near to the root area.
The thermal stiffness is greater than the elastic stiffness over the root side of the intersection point,
and less than the elastic stiffness over the tip side of the intersection point.
Compared Fig.4 and Fig.15, it can be see that the results of the two methods are completely
consistent in the variation trend of compliance and stiffness, but only slightly different in specific
values, which further proves the correctness of the calculation method of thermal stiffness.
5.2 Experimental validation of thermal dynamic characteristics
Based on the closed power flow gear testing machine (FZG), the thermal vibration experimental
platform of gear transmission system is designed and built, as shown in Fig.16. Since the heat in
this study comes from the friction heat of the system, there is no need to add other external heat
sources during the experiment. As the test is carried out, the temperature of the system will
continue to rise until the heat balance is reached, due to the friction heat between the meshing
tooth surfaces. Therefore, the dynamic responses of the system under different temperature
conditions can be obtained by recording the temperature and vibration signals of the system at
different times.
 Fig.16 Experimental platform for thermal vibration of gear transmission system
The gear and working condition parameters of the test are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 The parameters of working condition
Rotation rate n1 (r/min) 400/900/1400 Load level/Torque T (N·m) 6/138
In this paper, experiments under above three working conditions have been carried out. In each
case, 20 minutes of continuous experiments are carried out, and the temperature and vibration
acceleration of the system are obtained by using the temperature sensor and acceleration sensor.
Take the data of the 3rd, 5th and 10th minute for comparative analysis. The temperature and
vibration acceleration amplitudes of the system are shown in Table 3, and the dynamic response of
the system in the time domain is shown in Fig.17.

Fig.17 Dynamic response of system in time domain

Table 3 Amplitude of vibration acceleration at different temperature conditions
Rotating speed(r/min) 400 900 1400
Time(min) 3rd 5th 10th 3rd 5th 10th 3rd 5th 10th
Temperature(℃) 20.2 21.6 24.8 32.3 35.6 42.7 52.1 53.2 59.5
Load
level Mean amplitude(m/s2) 0.165 0.178 0.216 0.659 0.731 0.842 0.690 0.711 0.899
6 2
Maximum value(m/s ) 0.818 0.837 1.147 2.467 2.617 2.881 2.707 3.154 3.523
As presented in Fig.17 and Table 3, the amplitude of the vibration acceleration gradually
increases as the rotation rate of the system increases. Meanwhile, under the same rotation rate
condition, the amplitude of the vibration acceleration increases with increasing the temperature of
the system. Fig.17 shows that there is a beating phenomenon in the system under 900r/min
condition, that is the main reason for the vibration amplitude of the system under the 900r/min
condition is larger than that under the 1400r/min condition at the 5th minute.
In order to further study the effect of heat on the vibration characteristics of the system, the
vibration response in the time domain of the system is analyzed by the fast Fourier transform. The
amplitude-frequency characteristic curves of the vibration acceleration in the 3rd, 5th and 10th
minute of the system under 900r/min condition are shown in Fig. 18.
 Fig.18 Amplitude-frequency characteristic curves of system under different time
Fig.18 shows that the system has the lowest vibration acceleration in the 3rd minute, the second
in the 5th minute, and the maximum in the 10th minute. The maximum vibration acceleration in
the 3rd, 5th and 10th minutes are 0.502m/s2, 0.536m/s2, 0.689m/s2, respectively, and the
corresponding temperature values are 32.3℃, 35.6℃, 42.7℃. Therefore, the amplitude of
vibration acceleration increases with the increase of system temperature. Meanwhile, the
resonance frequency of the system is also changed. As shown in Fig.18, the system has the
maximum resonance frequency in the 3rd minute (349.25Hz), the second in the 5th minute
(348.00Hz), and the lowest in the 10th minute (347.25Hz). That means, the resonance frequency of
the system decreases gradually with the increase of the temperature of the system. The resonance
frequency of the system is the natural frequency of the system. From the calculation formula of
system natural frequency, it can be known that the natural frequency is related to the stiffness and
mass of the system, and the system mass is independent of temperature. Therefore, the heat
(temperature) will change the natural frequency of the system through the system stiffness. As the
natural frequency of the system is proportional to the stiffness of the system, therefore, the
stiffness of the system will gradually decrease with the increase of the system temperature.
Through the above experimental study, it is known that the vibration acceleration of the system
increases with the increase of the system temperature, that is, the vibration of the system becomes
more and more intense. Meanwhile, the resonance frequency of the system gradually decreases
with the increase of temperature. Therefore, the system stiffness will gradually decrease with the
increase of temperature. Therefore, the above experimental study verifies the correctness of the
theoretical analysis in this paper.

6. Conclusion
In this paper, the thermal dynamic characteristics of the gear system have been studied and the
findings are summarized below:
(1) Under the condition of thermo-elastic coupling, the thermal stiffness of gear is a series of
elastic stiffness and modified thermal expansion stiffness. In the whole meshing area, the meshing
thermal stiffness of gear pair decreased compared with the meshing elastic stiffness, the meshing
thermal stiffness decreased by 8.53 % at the meshing-in and meshing-out point, and decreased by
14.52 % at the pitch point, for the example of this article. But there is only one intersection point
of the two single tooth stiffness distribution curves. The intersection point located near to the root
area. The thermal stiffness is larger than the elastic stiffness over the root side of the
intersection point, and less than the elastic stiffness over the tip side of the intersection point.
(2) By using the Coulomb friction damping model, the calculation formula of the equivalent
viscous damping of the system is obtained, and the thermal equivalent viscous damping of the
system is also obtained by using the thermal analysis of the system and the visco-temperature
characteristics of the lubricating oil. After considering the effect of heat, the equivalent viscous
damping of the system increases as the temperature of the lubricating oil increases.
(3) For the dynamic transmission error of system, the change cycle of two dynamic errors is
completely consistent, the equilibrium position of dynamic error is the static error respectively,
and there are two regions, the single tooth pair meshing region and the double tooth pairs meshing
region. Considering the influence of heat, the maximum peak value of dynamic response and the
equilibrium position increase due to the decrease of system stiffness. However, due to the increase
of temperature, the equivalent viscous damping of the system increases rapidly, and the amplitude
of dynamic response decreases.
(4) The maximum dynamic load of single tooth pair is found at the alternating point of double
tooth pairs meshing region to single tooth pair meshing region, and the maximum thermal dynamic
load and thermal dynamic load coefficient are smaller than those of the elastic system because of
the increases of the equivalent viscous damping.
Acknowledgments
The study was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China.
[Grant numbers: 51775036], the Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province [Grant numbers:
2018JJ3440].National Natural Science Fundation of China, Hunan Provincial Education
Department Project [Grant number 19C1603], and the Opening Project of Cooperative Innovation
Center for Nuclear Fuel Cycle Technology and Equipment, University of South China [Grant
number 2019KFQ09]..

Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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