ENG 201: ENGINEERING DRAWING II LECTURE MATERIAL

PREPARED & DELIVERED BY PASCHAL A. U.; paschalubi@unical.edu.ng

JULY, 2018.

PRE-CLASS DISCUSSION: LECTURE OUTLINE

Review of drawing ethics, Ellipse, Cycloid, epicycloid and hypocycloids. Involute.
drawing instruments, Archimedes spiral. Loci: the helix (cylindrical and
lettering and geometrical conical) single and multi-start threads. Coiling of
construction techniques. compression and tension springs. Loci – Paths of
Review of conic sections. points on moving link work.

The figure here shows the five sections that can be obtained from a cone when a cross section
of it is taken into consideration. The ellipse, the parabola and the hyperbola are very important
curves and sometimes referred to as special curves. The ellipse can vary in shape from almost
a circle to almost a straight line.
Circles or holes in 3-Dimensional
models or constructions usually
appear as an ellipse. The parabola
can be seen in the shape of electric
fire reflectors, radar dishes and the
main cable of suspension bridges.
Both the parabola and the hyperbola
are much used in civil engineering.
The immense strength of structures
that are parabolic or hyperbolic in
shape has led to their use in
structures made of pre-cast
concrete and where large
unsupported ceilings are needed. The height of the cone and the base diameter, with the angle
of the section relative to the side of the cone, are factors that affects the shape of any ellipse,
parabola or hyperbola. There are an infinite number of these curves and,given eternity and the
inclination to do so, you could construct them all by taking sections from cones. There are other
ways of constructing these curves.
Ellipse
An ellipse is the locus of a point that moves so that its distance from a fixed point (called the
focus) bears a constant ratio, always less than 1, to its perpendicular distance from a straight
line (called the directrix). An ellipse has two foci and two directrices. Methods of construction of
ellipse could include:
Concentric circle method
Intersecting arc method
Trammel method
Rectangular method
Parallelogram/rhombus method for iso-circles
Common terminologies used in the construction of an ellipse include:
 Focus (A fixed point)
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JULY, 2018.

 Directrix (A fixed line)

 Eccentricity (e) – this is the measure of
deviation of curves from a perfect circle;
when e<1 the curve is an ellipse, when e=1
the curve is a parabola, when e>1 the curve
is a hyperbola and when e=0 the curve is a
circle.
 Major/Minor Axis
 Loci (also called Locus in its singular form) –
is the path traced by a moving point under
determined conditions.
CONCENTRIC CIRCLE METHOD:
Step 1 - Draw two concentric circles, radii equal to half the major
and half the minor axes, or with a specified internal and
external diameters.
Step 2 - Divide the circle into a twelve equal parts.
Geometrical method of dividing the circles or using set-
squares may be employed. It’s preferable and better to
label all divisions accordingly.
Step 3 - Where the sector lines cross the smaller
circle, draw horizontal lines towards the larger circle.
Where the sector lines cross the larger circle, draw
vertical lines to meet the horizontal lines.
Step 4 - Draw a neat curve through the intersections using a
French curve or a flexible curve.
INTERSECTING ARC/ARC OF CIRCLE METHOD
STEP 1 -Draw major axis and minor axis AB and CD respectively, bisecting each other at O.
STEP 2 - With center C and radius equal
to half AB (i.e. OA) draw arcs cutting AB
at F1 and F2, the foci of the ellipse.
STEP 3 - Take any points 1, 2, 3 etc. on
AB.
STEP 4 - With centers F1 and F2 and
radius equal to A1, draw arcs on both
sides of AB.
STEP 5 - With same centers and radius
equal to B1, draw arcs intersecting the
previous arcs at four points marked P1.
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STEP 6 - Similarly, with radii A2 and B2, A3 and B3 etc., obtain more points.
STEP 7 - Draw smooth curve through these points. This curve is the required ellipse.
RECTANGULAR METHOD
Step 1 - Draw a rectangle, length and breadth equal to the major and minor axes.
Step 2 - Divide the two shorter
sides of the rectangle into the same
even number of equal parts.
Divide the major axis into the
same number of equal parts.
Step 3 - From the points where
the minor axis crosses the edge of
the rectangle, draw intersecting
lines as shown in the figure.
Step 4 - Draw a neat curve through
the intersections.
PARALLELOGRAM/RHOMBUS METHOD
Step 1 – locate the centre of the circle and use its diameter to form a rhombus or parallelogram
ABCD as the case maybe.
Step 2 – draw the longer diagonal AC.
Step 3 – draw a line from D to midpoint AB, also from B to idpoint CD to give
points E and F respectively.
Step 4 – With a pair of compass positioned at point G, use radius
GE to construct an arc touching line AD.
Step 5 - With a pair of compass positioned at point H,
use radius HF to construct an arc touching line
BC.
Step 6 - With a pair of compass positioned at
point D, use radius DE to construct an arc
touching line BC.
Step 7 - With a pair of compass positioned at
point B, use radius BF to construct an arc
touching line AD.
PARABOLA
A parabola is the locus of a point that moves so that its distance from a fixed point (called the
focus) bears a constant ratio of 1 to its perpendicular distance from a straight line (called the

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JULY, 2018.

directrix). Procedures on how to draw a

parabola given the relative positions of the
focus and the directrix is presented in this
section. Let’s take the focus and directrix to be
20 mm apart in this case.
The first point to plot is the one that lies
between the focus and the directrix. By
definition it is the same distance, 10 mm, from
both. The condition for the locus is that it is
always the same distance from the focus as it
is from the directrix. The parabola is therefore found by plotting the intersections of radii 15 mm,
20 mm, 30 mm, etc., centre on the focus, with lines drawn parallel to the directrix at distances
15 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm, etc.
Using the rectangular method to construct a parabola:
Step 1- Draw the given rectangle.
Step 2 – From the midpoint of the rectangle, draw a
perpendicular line.
Step 3 – Divide the vertical and horizontal line of the
rectangle into equal number of part and number accordinly
as shown.
Step 4 – Draw lines from the horizontal division parallel with
the vertical axis. Radiate lines from the midpoint of the
rectangle’s apex to the vertical divisions.
Step 5 – Th intersection of corresponding parallel and radiating lines give the points for the
required parabola. Join the points smoothly to produce the required curve.
HYPERBOLA
A hyperbola is the locus of a
point that moves so that its
distance from a fixed point
(called the focus) bears a
constant ratio, always greater
than 1, to its perpendicular
distance from a straight line
(called the directrix). The
following sentences will show
how to draw a hyperbola given
the relative positions of the
focus and the directrix (in this
case 20 mm) and the
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JULY, 2018.

eccentricity (3/2). The first point to plot is the one that lies between the focus and the directrix.
This is done by dividing the distance between them in the same ratio as the eccentricity, 3:2.
The condition for the locus is that it is always 2/3 as far from the directrix as it is from the focus.
Thus, if the point is 15 mm from the focus, it is 2/3 X 15 mm from the directrix; if it is 20 mm from
the focus, it is 2/3 X 20 mm from the directrix. This is continued for as many points as may be
required.
Using the rectangular method to construct a parabola:
Step 1 – draw the given rectangle ABCD and bisect as shown.
Step 2 – Draw perpendicular FP, OP is fixed point of intersection
Step 3 – Divide AO, OD, DC and AB into the same number of
equal parts.
Step 4 – Join the points on BC to F and the points on AB,
DC to O.
Step 5 – The intersection of the lines gives the points
of the hyperbola. Neatly trace out and outline the
curve.

We now move to an interesting set of curves: the cycloidal curves, the involute, the Archimedean
spiral and the helix.
CYCLOID
The cycloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a circle as the circle rolls, without
slipping, along a straight line. The approach to constructing a cycloid, is to break down the total
movement into a convenient number of parts and consider the conditions at each particular part.
We have found, when considering the circle, that 12 is the most convenient number of divisions.
The total distance that the circle will travel in 1 revolution is πD, the circumference, and this
distance is also divided into 12 equal parts. When the circle rolls along the line, the locus of the
centre will be a line parallel to the base line and the exact position of the centre will, in turn, be
directly above each of the divisions marked off. If a point P, on the circumference, is now
considered, then after the circle has rotated 1/12 of a revolution point P is somewhere along the
line P1P11 . The distance from P to the centre of the circle is still the radius and thus, if the
intersection of the line P1P11 and the radius of the circle, marked off from the new position of the
centre O1, is plotted, then this must be the position of the point P after 1/12 of a revolution. After

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1/6 of a revolution the position of P is the intersection of the line P2P10 and the radius, marked
off from O2. This is repeated for the 12 divisions. The figure also shows the beginning of a second
cycloid and it can be seen that the change from one cycloid to another is sudden. If any locus is
plotted and has an instantaneous change of shape it indicates that there is a cessation of
movement. Anything that has mass cannot change direction suddenly without first ceasing to
move. The point of the circle actually in contact with the line is stationary. This raises the
interesting point that,
theoretically, a motor car
tyre is not moving at all
when it is in contact with
the road. This is not true in
practice, sinc e the contact
between the road and tyre
is not a point contact, but it
does explain why tyres
last much longer than
would be expected. At the
top of the cycloid, between
points 5 and 7, the point P
is travelling nearly twice
the distance that the centre moves in 1/12 of a revolution. Thus, a jet car travelling at 800 km/h
has points on the rim of the tyre moving up to 1600 km/h – faster than the speed of sound.

 To construct the cycloid, draw the given circle and divide it into twelve equal parts.
 Draw the circumference of the circle PAB and divide it into twelve equal parts same as the
circle. Project perpendiculars and mark O to 12 as shown in the figure.
 From the numbered divisions around the circle, project lines parallel to P AB. The projected
centre line is the locus of the centre of the circle as it rolls along P AB.
 With the intersection of the perpendiculars 1,2,3,4 to 12 and the horizontal circle centre line
as centres, draw circles with same radius as the first circle.

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 Circle with centre perpendicular 1 cuts horizontal line 1 and circles with perpendicular 2, 3, 4
to 12 cut horizontal lines 2, 3, 4 to 12 respectively.
 A smooth curve drawn through these points gives the required cycloid.
EPICYCLOID AND HYPOCYCLOID
The epi-cycloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a circle when it rolls, without
slipping, along the outside of a circular arc. A hypo-cycloid is the locus of a point on the
circumference of a circle when the circle rolls, without slipping, along the inside of a circular arc.
The constructions for plotting these curves are very similar to those used for plotting the cycloid.
The circumference of the rolling circle must be plotted along the arc of the base circle. It is
possible to calculate
this circumference
and to plot it along
the arc, but this is
fairly complicated
and it is sufficiently
accurate to measure
1/12 of the
circumference of the
rolling circle and step
this out 12 times, with
dividers, along the
base arc. The
remaining
construction is
similar to that used
for the cycloid. The
technique is still to
plot the intersection
of the line drawn
parallel to the base, in this case another arc with centre C, and the radius of the rolling circle
from its position after 1/12, 1/6, 1/4, revolutions, etc.
The main point to watch is that the locus of the centre is no longer coincident with the line P3P9
as it was for the cycloid. The epi-cycloid and the hypo-cycloid form the basis for the shape of
some gear teeth, although cycloidal gear teeth have now generally been superseded by gear
teeth based on the involute.

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To draw an epicycloid of r = 20mm, RB =80mm, RA=100mm

The method of construction of the curve is
similar with that of the cycloid. In this case,
the generating circle of radius 20 is divided
into equal part as in the construction of the
cycloid; therefore the path of the curve of the
generating circle will be the arc o1 O2 of radius
RA + r20 and will subtend an angle found from
the ratio thus:
𝜃 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒
=
360 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑟
𝜃= × 360
𝑅𝐵
20
𝜃= × 360
80
= 90o

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To draw a hypocycloid. Take r =

20mm, RB=80mm; RA = RB - r
therefore RA = 60mm,
The construction will follow the same
steps as done for the epicycloid,
however in this case, the path of the
centre of the generating circle will be
an arc of radius RA = RB – r.
𝑟
𝐴𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝜃 = 𝐵 × 360 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
𝑅

INVOLUTES: The involute is the locus of a point on a straight line when the straight line rolls round the circumference of a
circle without slipping. The involute is best visualized as the path traced out by the end of a piece of cotton when the cotton is
unrolled from its reel. Method of construction of involutes are basically the same.
To construct the involute of a circle:
 Draw the given circle and divide the circumference into 12 equal parts.
 At point P, draw a line PC tangential to the circle and equal in length to the circumference.
 Divide the line into 12 equal parts each of which will equal the divisions on the circumference.
 At the points 1, 2, 3, 4 etc., draw tangents.

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 With 1 on the circle as centre, radius P11 on PC, draw an arc to intersect
the tangent from 1. With 2 on the circle as centre, radius P22 on PC, draw
an arc to intersect the tangent from 2. Continue until the tangents on the
circle are completed.
 A smooth curve drawn through these points is the required involute.
Other involutes could be traced from plane shapes such as triangle, square,
hexagon etc. using similar construction technique as shown in the figures.
The involutes of this common shapes can be easily produce using a pair of
compass at their corresponding points as shown.
Involute of a
circle

Involute of a
triangle

Involute of a
square

Involute of a
hexagon

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THE ARCHIMEDEAN SPIRAL

The Archimedean spiral is the locus of a point that moves away from another fixed point at
uniform linear velocity and uniform angular velocity. It may also be considered to be the locus of
a point moving at constant speed along a line when the line rotates about a fixed point at constant
speed. Since both the linear and angular
speeds are constant, the only rule for
plotting an Archimedean spiral is that the
linear and angular distances moved through
must both be divided into the same number
of equal parts. The most convenient number
of equal parts is 12 and if one convolution
(when dealing with spirals a movement
through 360 ° is called a convolution as
distinct from a revolution) is to be plotted,
then the linear distance moved through is
divided into 12 equal parts and the 360 ° into
30 ° intervals. The linear divisions may then
be swung round to intersect with the
respective angular divisions.
HELIX
The helix is the locus of a point that moves round a cylinder at constant velocity while advancing
along the cylinder at constant velocity. It is the curve obtained when a piece of string is wound
round a cylinder. It is also the curve generated when turning on a lathe. Normally, the rate of
advance along the piece of work is so small that it is indistinguishable as a helix, but it is quite
easily seen when cutting a screw
thread.
The distance that the point moves
along the cylinder in one complete
revolution is called ‘the pitch’.
The construction of the helix is
simple, the movement round and
along the cylinder is constant and so,
for a fixed period, say one complete
revolution, the two movements are
divided into the same number of
equal parts. Thus, 1/12 of a revolution
will coincide with 1/12 pitch, 1/6 of a
revolution will coincide with 1/6 pitch,
etc.

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COILED SPRINGS
Most coiled springs are formed on a cylinder and are, therefore, helical. They are, in fact, more
often called helical springs than coiled springs. If the spring is to be used in tension, the coils will
be close together to allow the spring to stretch. This is the spring that you will see on spring
balances in the science lab. If the spring is to be in compression, the coils will be further apart.
These springs can be seen on the suspension of many modern cars, particularly on the front
suspension. Drawing a helical spring actually consists of drawing two helices, one within
another. Although the diameters of the helices differ, their pitch must be the same. Once the
points are plotted it is just a question of sorting out which parts of the helices can be seen and
which parts are hidden by the thickness of the wire. For clarity, the thickness of the wire in the
figure shown is 1/4 the pitch of the helix, but if it was not a convenient fraction, it would be
necessary to set out the pitch twice. The distance between the two pitches would be the
thickness of the wire.

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THREADS
Threads are helical grooves which can be likened to a string uniformly
wrapped around a cylindrical bar in the case of an external thread.
Threads can be cut internally or externally depending on the designer
and the purpose.
Screw threads generally provides the holding power for bolts, studs, screws and
nuts. Screw threads are used for fastening and transmitting power in engineering
manufacture/products. A knowledge and understanding of
screw threads and their uses is very essential to the engineer.
Thread Terminology
Crest: This is the peak of the thread and may be round or
flat.
Pitch: This is the linear distance along the thread from crest
to crest. Thread pitch is usually referred
to in terms of a unit such as 20 threads
per inch or 1.5 threads per millimeter.
Lead: is the axial movement with respect
to a fixed mating part in one complete
revolution. As an illustration, the axial
movement or advance of a bolt into a nut
or thread housing for one rotation or a
complete revolution is a measure of the threads lead.
Single-Start thread: the pitch and lead are the same for the single
start thread.
Multiple thread: this consists of two
or more ridges, thereby producing a
lead greater than the pitch. E.g.
double thread produces twice the lead
of a single thread. Multiple threads are
used where fast movement is desired with minimum number of rotation.
Root: this is the bottom groove between flank lines forming the thread.
Thread depth: this is half the difference between the major diameter and the minor diameter.
Major diameter: this is the distance across the thread from crest to crest (full outside
diameter).
Minor diameter: this is the distance across the thread rom root to root (the diameter of the
core the root).
Pitch diameter: often called the effective diameter of a parallel thread is the diameter of the
imaginary co-axial cylinder which intersects the surface of the thread in such a manner that
the intercept on a generator of the cylinder, between the points where it meets the opposite
flanks of a thread groove, is equal to half the nominal pitch of the thread.
Thread angle: the angle contained by the flank lines of the thread.

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Right-Hand thread: when the slope of the thread is towards the right hand (clockwise
rotation) i.e. this thread assembles component(s) when turned clockwise

Left-Hand thread: when the thread advances towards the left hand (anticlockwise rotation).
i.e. this thread assembles component(s) when turned anticlockwise.

TYPES OF THREADS AND THEIR PROFILE

1. Whitworth thread: made to standard specification by a Briton, Sir Joseph Whitworth who
put in great efforts towards the production of the British Standard Whitworth (BSW) thread.

2. Isometric thread: this is the most common type of thread used in engineering work. It is
generally preferred because of the grip it produces at right angles to the mating face. The
isometric thread is produced in two forms: fine and coarse forms. The coarse form is used
for general works while the fine threads are used for special purposes. Metric threads are
designated by a standard annotation of identification such as M10 X 1.5; The M identifies
the thread as an isometric thread. The number ‘10’ represents the major diameter in mm,
and the 1.5 indicates the thread pitch in mm. in some cases, the expression may include the
thread length e.g. M10 X 1.25 X 30; where the number 1.5 represents the thread pitch in mm
and the number 30 represents the thread length.

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3. British Association Thread (B.A.):

 The unified threads: Unified National Fine (UNF) and Unified National Coarse (UNC) have
the same profiles as the isometric thread but based on British units. The British
Association uses the metric sizes and it is utilized majorly for instrumentation works in the
electrical and aircraft industry. The sizes of the B.A. threads are indicated by the numbers
in the range of 0 to 25. The ‘0’ B.A. thread has a diameter of only 6mm while the 25 B.A.
thread has a diameter of 0.25mm.

 Other British threads used for fastening includes the British Standard Fine (BSF) which
has the same profile as the BSW but with a finer pitch, the British Standard Pipe (BSP)
which is also the same as the BSW but used for piping and tubing.
Threads which are used for transmission rather than for fastening includes: Square thread,
Acme thread and Buttress thread. The acme thread is an improved version of the square
thread and is used for precision works. The buttress
thread is designed to combine the square thread
and the vee threads to provide resistance to thrust in
one direction only. They are found in holding
devices such as vices and press.

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LOCI: LINK MECHANISM

Loci is also important in analyzing motions to determine
velocities, accelerations and forces etc. in systems with rotating
part(s). The figure here shows the loci of a simple slider-crank
mechanism.
The link mechanism is the path traced out by a moving point in
relation to some specified constraints. A reciprocating or roatating
part of a machine may be accident prone leading to the need for
the locus of such part to be traced so as to design a suitable
protector to house the parts. Such parts could range from blades
of standing fans to bicycle brake lever etc.
A link is a rigid body having two or more pairing parts which
connect it to other systems for the purpose of transmitting motion.
Connection of links is not called a mechanism rather it is called a
kinematic chain. A mechanism is an arrangement or assembly of moving parts in a machine
performing a complete functional motion, e.g. is a four bar chain with turning pairs and a
slider crank mechanism found in the engine of vehicles or even in electrical generators.

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Sample Problems to be solved in class in relation to links.

1. Draw the locus of a point O when the crank BC undergoes one complete revolution. The
point A is made to reciprocate horizontally.

 Draw the given crank (circle) and divide it into 12equal parts
 With the compass opened to 50 mm (length of link) and positioned at each of the 12
divisions, draw arcs across the horizontal centre line. Also draw line for each and
extend backward by 50 mm in order to determine the edge point O.
 The curve drawn round the points is the locus of point O.
2. Draw the locus of point O when the cranks AB and CD undergoes one complete
revolution.

 Draw the two cranks

(circles) and divide them into
12 parts.
 Join each of the division in
pairs and extend each line
outward by 30 mm in other
to determine the edge point
O.
 The curve drawn round the
points is the locus of the
point.

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3. Determine the locus of point P situated 100 mm from the rotating end of a connecting rod
240 mm long, crank OA is 90 mm. Draw half full size.

 Draw a circle equal to the crank length of 90 mm as radius and O as centre.

 Divide the circle into any number of convenient part.
 Extend the horizontal line which is the locus of the piston and from each crank pin
position, draw arcs equal in length to the length of the connecting rod which is 240
mm to intersect the centre line.
 Join crank pin positions and mark off points P1, P2, P3 etc. which are the required
points on the connecting rod 100 mm through which the elliptical curve may be drawn
as shown.

ASSESSMENT
1. In a rectangle of dimensions 105 mm X 75 mm, construct an ellipse.
2. Using the concentric circle method with radii 125 mm and 93 mm, construct an ellipse.
3. Using the dimensions in this lecture material (or where not given, any suitable
dimensions), construct a parabola, hyperbola, helix, involute of a circle and Archimedes
spiral using any of the methods.
4. A circle 50 mm diameter rolls once around (a) the outside (b) the inside of a circular arc
radius 100 mm. plot the complete epicycloid and hypocycloid traced by a point on the
circle. Increase the diameter of the rolling circle to 80 mm and plot half the hypocycloid.
5. Using the slider crank mechanism as illustrated in the figure below, draw the mechanism
to full size and plot the locus of point C.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 ENG 201: ENGINEERING DRAWING II LECTURE MATERIAL
PREPARED & DELIVERED BY PASCHAL A. U.; paschalubi@unical.edu.ng
JULY, 2018.

6. In the crank mechanism shown below, OA rotates about centre O while CB is pivoted at
C and oscillates as shown. Plot the locus of the point P for all possible positions of CB.

7. The crank mechanism shown below consists of a crank AB which rotates about centre A,
and an arm CD which oscillates about point D. The link BC connects the crank and the
arm. Plot the locus of the midpoint P of the link BC for one complete revolution

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING