Biology – study of life involuntary functions in the nervous system,

through the spinal cord.

Cell – basic unit of life
2. Interneurons – translate the information between
Nucleus – center of the cell sensory neurons and motor neurons.
Interneurons integrate the sensory neurons and
Oxytocin – relaxes them and sparks maternal joy in motor neurons within the spinal cord.
the mother. 3. Motor Neurons – pick up information from the
Homeostasis – state of balance central nervous system and transmit them
through nerves in the rest of the body. These
Nervous System – a network of nerves that connect neurons mobilize a person and enable physical
the spinal cord and the brain to the rest of the body changes in the body. As electrical signals pass
and allow a stimulus-response reaction to occur through a neuron, the axon terminals transmit the
among different organs. signals to the motor neurons in tissues and
Two major sections of the nervous system: the central organs, such as the muscle tissues allowing them
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. to perform their functions.

Nerve cells called neurons carry out the main Afferent neurons communicate the information to
functions of the nervous system the central nervous system (CNS) through electrical
signals called nerve impulses.
Neurons – the fundamental units of nervous system.
In the peripheral nervous system, the motor neurons
The nervous system contains billions of neurons that carry the information forward through nerve impulses
are made up of three main sections: soma, dendrite, toward an effector cell called efferent neuron.
and axon.
The network of nerves links together the different
1. Cell body or Soma – main part of the neuron parts of human body. It is divided into two main
where the nucleus is located. sections that function co-dependently: the central
2. Axon – thick branch that trails behind the soma. nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
Axon terminal – allows communication among Central Nervous System
various neurons.
The human central nervous system consists of two
Myelin sheath – a protective covering that insulates main parts: the brain and the spinal cord.
the axon and lets electrical impulses travel more
quickly along the unmyelinated axon. The main function of the central nervous system is to
receive, process, interpret, and send information
These electrical impulses are transmitted through a through the electrical signals or nerve impulses that
process known as action potential. neurons carry toward the peripheral nervous system.
3. Dendrites – smaller branch-like extensions Brain – the major organ of the nervous system; it
attached to the ends of the soma. reads information and controls all the functions of the
human body with the help of nerves and neurons.
Excitatory – fires up neurons
About 100 billion neurons are found in the brain
Inhibitory – represses the neuron’s tendency to fire
alone; each cell processes countless information every
up.
second.
Neurons have three main classification which serve
The brain's exterior structure is made up of a
individual functions for each section of the nervous
protective layer called meninges, which wraps the
system.
folds and indentations called gyri and sulci,
1. Sensory Neurons – react to both external and respectively.
internal stimuli. They pick up the information
The brain consists of two hemispheres subdivided into
from outside your body and deliver it to your
three main parts during the embryonic development
central nervous system, allowing you to perceive
of humans: the forebrain, the midbrain, and the
your surroundings through sight, hearing, smell,
hindbrain.
taste, and touch. The sensory functions of these
neurons are controlled by a reflex arc that enables
A. The forebrain makes up the brain's frontal area. The midbrain has three main parts: the tectum or
Some major parts of the brain that are colliculi, the tegmentum, and the cerebral peduncles.
responsible for sensory perception, thinking,
1. Colliculi – consists of two sections of neuron
processing information, understanding and
bundles known as the superior and inferior
speaking languages, and motor functions can be
colliculi. The superior colliculi analyze visual
found in the forebrain.
signals from the surroundings and send them to
the occipital lobe. On the other hand, the inferior
It contains the largest section called the cerebrum, colliculi process auditory signals from the ears
which comprises about 85% of the entire human brain and transmit them to the thalamus, a structure
structure. Most of the information processing takes above the brainstem that carries signals to the
place within the cerebral cortex, the outer part of the cerebrum.
cerebrum. 2. Tegmentum – is a portion that extends along the
length of the brainstem.
The cerebral cortex is generally categorized into four
cortex lobes: Frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal The tegmentum is divided into three sections
lobes: identified by their colors.

1. Frontal lobe – is located at the forefront of the Iron-rich pinkish section – controls a person's
cerebral structure. It is divided into the motor coordination.
cortex, the topmost portion that controls the
Gray section – known as periaqueductal gray controls
motor functions and voluntary actions of an
the ability to suppress pain.
individual, and the prefrontal cortex, which
governs the personality traits, cognitive functions, Substrate sigma, a dark pigmented neuron cluster –
memory, decision-making process, reasoning, and controls the synthesis of the dopamine hormone and
judgement. the mediation of body movements and motor
2. Parietal lobe – is located behind the frontal lobe. functions.
It contains the somatosensory cortex, which
processes the sensory information and controls, in 3. Cerebral peduncles – are bundles of nerve fibers
particular, the sense of touch. The parietal lobe positioned at the back of the midbrain, just
also influences the ability of a person to behind the thalamus. The cerebral peduncles
understand spatial orientations and to maintain function as passageways for signals that are
body coordination. travelling from the cerebral cortex to other parts
3. Occipital lobe – is located at the posterior part of of the central nervous system. They govern
the cerebrum. The main function of the occipital particularly the coordination of body movements.
lobe is to control visual perception; it allows a
person to recognize the physical characteristics of C. The hindbrain is positioned at the lower back area
objects that he or she sees. Aside from this, the of the brain and includes parts that are necessary
occipital lobe also controls the ability to for breathing and the beating of the heart.
determine the position and the distance of The three primary parts of the hindbrain are the pons,
objects. medulla oblongata, and cerebellum.
4. Temporal lobe – occupies a position beneath the
frontal and parietal lobes. Its main functions 1. Pons – is a bulbous area situated beneath the
include auditory perception, speech, and memory. midbrain, bridging the cerebral cortex and the
It also influences partly other sensory perceptions, brainstem. Its main function is to process
language comprehension, and emotional control. communication signals between the two major
brain hemispheres and the spinal cord.
B. The midbrain is situated deeper within the brain. The pons contains four of the twelve cranial nerves,
It lies underneath the forebrain and is one of the primary nerves located in the brain and brain stem.
subdivisions of the brainstem, a short tubular The four nerves include (a) the abducens nerve, which
structure that connects the brain to the spinal is responsible for eye movement, (b) the trigeminal
cord. The main function of the midbrain is to nerve, which controls the chewing and transports
control eyesight and hearing. sensory information between the head and the faces;
(c) the vestibulocochlear nerve, which controls the
sense of hearing and balance, and (d) the facial nerve, 2. Thoracic region – controls the chest area and the
which manages the coordination of body movements mid-back, protecting and supporting the heart
and sensation in the face. and lungs.
3. Lumbar region – controls the abdominal area and
2. Medulla oblongata – is a nerve tract located
the lower back area, supporting the weight of the
beneath the pons. It is a short link between the
upper body.
hindbrain and the spinal cord, controlling many
4. Sacral section – controls the pelvic area, where
autonomic or involuntary functions in the body,
the spine meets the hip bone.
including breathing, heartbeat, swallowing, and
5. Coccygeal region – controls the tailbone, the bone
sneezing.
that supports ligaments and tendons around the
Four other cranial nerves are located in the medulla pelvic region.
oblongata. These include (a) the vagus nerve, which is
Peripheral Nervous System
necessary for the movement of the mouth, the voice,
and the gag reflex, (b) the accessory nerve, which The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of a
controls the coordination of head and neck network of nerve extensions and ganglia - clusters of
movements, (c) the glossopharyngeal nerve, which nerve cells in the autonomic nervous system and
controls the coordination between the mouth and the sensory nerves — connected to different visceral
sensation of tastes; and (d) the hypoglossal nerve, organs and tissues within the body.
which influences the movement of the tongue and
Sensory neurons in the PNS pick up information from
muscles in the mouth.
outside and inside the body and send electrical signals
3. Cerebellum – looks like a tinier version of the through the peripheral nerves towards the central
cerebrum. It also contains a wrinkled surface nervous system. The CNS processes this information
divided into two hemispheres. The cerebellum has and instructs motor neurons to transmit signals to the
a dense region of grey matter that envelopes nerves in a target organ or tissue. Once the organ or
another region consisting of white matter. The tissue receives the signals, the body reacts or
Purkinje cells, a special kind of neuron, enables responds appropriately.
the cerebellum to process numerous information
Tissue – group of cell
in a second with the help of their extensive
dendrites. The cerebellum controls the Organ – group of tissue
coordination of voluntary movements, maintains
balance through nerve impulses in the inner ear, Chime – food inside the stomach
and influences posture.
The PNS has two major divisions: the somatic nervous
Spinal Cord system and the autonomic nervous system.
Information that has been processed in the brain
The somatic nervous system is also known as the
travels down the spinal cord, a columnar set of nerves
motor system. It is composed of effector nerves that
that stretches from the end of the brainstem to the
control motor neurons for voluntary functions. The
bottom of the spine. The spinal cord is responsible for
somatic nervous system permits actions that are
transmitting the electrical signals from the brain to
consciously controlled by an individual, such as
the nerves that extend to different parts of the body.
movements of the head, arms, and legs.
This action permits responsiveness and leg mobility,
and governs involuntary functions of the nervous
On the other hand, the autonomic nervous system
system.
consists of peripheral nerves that function
involuntarily. One major autonomic function occurs
The cord is divided into several sections, each
when sensory neurons within the body carry impulses
controlling the various areas along the body's length.
from internal organs to the central nervous system. In
The main sections of the spinal cord include the
turn, the motor neurons in the CNS transmit electrical
following:
signals to the target organs' nerves to make it
1. Cervical region – controls the neck area, which function. The autonomic nervous system controls the
contains nerves that extend from the bottom of beating of the heart, the digestion of food, and the
the brainstem to the top of the chest. secretion of hormones.
The autonomic nervous system has three divisions of
its own, namely, sympathetic nervous system,
parasympathetic nervous system, and enteric
nervous system.

Sympathetic nervous system – is responsible for the

"fight or flight" response of the body. It controls the
body's ability to respond accordingly to stressful or
dangerous situations protecting an individual from
possible threats or injury. In the sympathetic system,
the motor neurons of the central nervous system
specifically target the heart and the muscles,
accelerating the heartbeat and causing muscle
tensions in times of physical, mental or emotional
pressure.

Parasympathetic nervous system – opposes the

function of the sympathetic nervous system. In other
words, it allows a person to relax. This occurs when
the motor neurons from the central nervous system
send signals that regulate the heartbeat and loosen
tight muscles in the body.

Enteric nervous system – includes particularly the

autonomic functions in the digestive system. The
enteric nervous system is made up of nerves that
control the churning of food, the secretion of gastric
juices, and the movement of digestive organs during
the process of digestion.