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Plant Biodiversity

Article · January 2015

DOI: 10.1007/978-81-322-2286-6_6

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 Plant Biodiversity
6
T. Pullaiah, Bir Bahadur, and K.V. Krishnamurthy

Abstract
An overview of plant biodiversity is provided in this chapter. Details of
genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity are given.
Hotspots of biodiversity and their details have also been given. Threats to
biodiversity and methods of conservation are described.

Keywords
Plant biodiversity • Genetic diversity • Species diversity • Ecosystem
diversity • Hotspots of biodiversity • Biodiversity conservation

plants and animals is a unique feature of this

6.1 Introduction green planet.
The word biodiversity was coined by Walter
Planet Earth is endowed with a rich variety of G. Rosen in 1986, and it is highly popularised
life forms, and the teeming millions of these during the recent times. Biodiversity, as this
living organisms have been well knit by the assemblage of life forms is referred to, has now
laws of nature. The interdependence of the vari- been acknowledged as the foundation for sustain-
ous life forms starting from the unicellular pri- able livelihood and food security. Scientists have
mary producers to the complexly built higher estimated that more than 50 million species of

T. Pullaiah (*)
Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya
University, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India
e-mail: pullaiah.thammineni@gmail.com K.V. Krishnamurthy
Center for Pharmaceutics, Pharmacognosy
B. Bahadur and Pharmacology, School of Life Sciences,
Sri Biotech Laboratories India Limited, Hyderabad, Institute of Trans-Disciplinary Health Science
Telangana, India and Technology (IHST), Bangalore, Karnataka, India

B. Bahadur et al. (eds.), Plant Biology and Biotechnology: Volume I: Plant Diversity, 177
Organization, Function and Improvement, DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2286-6_6,
© Springer India 2015

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178 T. Pullaiah et al.

plants and animals, including invertebrates and pest resistance are used in rice improvement
microorganisms, occur on Earth and hardly two programmes.
million of them have been described by man so Besides food and other basic needs, human
far. Scientists are also aware of the immense health has gained priority in welfare programmes.
potentials of the various life forms especially in Once, all medicines used to come from plant and
the context of recent advances made in science animal resources. Worldwide medicines from
and technology. The incessant human assault on plants are now worth 40 billion dollars a year.
forests has left indelible scars on nature. One Even now 80 % of the people in the developing
result of the United Nations Conference on countries depend upon traditional medicines.
Environment and Development held in Rio de Indirect benefits include nutrient trapping,
Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992 was a Convention maintaining water cycles, soil production and
on Biological Diversity which was signed by 187 protection of soil, absorption and breakdown of
countries. pollutants, provision of recreational, aesthetic,
scientific, spiritual, etc.
It is estimated that more than 25 % of all med-
6.1.1 Definition icines available today are derived from tropical
plants. Over 40 % of all pharmaceuticals avail-
Biological diversity refers to the variety and vari- able in the USA depend on natural sources.
ability among living organisms and the ecologi- In 1960, a child contracting leukemia had
cal complexes in which they occur. Diversity can one chance in five of survival. Since then scien-
be defined as the number of different items and tists have developed a drug – vincristine – from
their relative frequency. For biological diversity, a plant of the tropical forests. Catharanthus
these items are organised at many levels ranging roseus (Syn. Vinca rosea), now allows a leuke-
from complete ecosystems to the chemical struc- mia sufferer four chances in five of survival. The
tures that are the molecular basis of heredity. National Cancer Institute near Washington DC
Thus, the term encompasses different ecosys- has screened 29,000 plant species for potential
tems, species, genes and their relative richness use against cancer. About 3,000 show prelimi-
and abundance. nary promise, and at least 5 may come to rival
vincristine. The institute believes that mass
extinctions of species could represent a serious
6.2 Why Biodiversity Is setback to the future of anticancer campaigns.
Significant? Among other medical products, the ‘pill’ that
is swallowed by 80 million women each day con-
Broadly speaking biological diversity satisfies tains sex hormone combinations derived from a
human needs in two different ways, direct and Mexican forest yam (Dioscorea mexicana).
indirect. Much of the world’s agricultural and Over-the-counter sales of the pill are now worth
pharmaceutical needs – from developing hybrid one million dollars a year.
seeds to herbal cures – come from prime forests.
Biodiversity will not only help in increasing
agricultural productivity but also in developing 6.3 Biodiversity in the World
disease-resistant varieties. It was evident in the
early 1970s that the epidemic called grassy stunt 6.3.1 Genetic Diversity
virus, which destroyed more than 1,60,000 ha of
rice in Asia, could be controlled from a single Genetic diversity refers to intraspecific diversity
sample of wild rice Oryza nivara from Central and is often measured in terms of total DNA
India, which was found to be the only known content, genome size in terms of base pair num-
genetic source of resistance to the grassy stunt. bers, number of genes and by some on the
Besides 20 major genes from wild for disease and chromosome number, size and morphology.

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6 Plant Biodiversity 179

Genetic diversity studies have been done not is widely recognised, sharing of economic benefits
only on wild taxa but also on taxa that are domes- accruing from genetic wealth is still a matter of
ticated/cultivated by humans. In fact more atten- debate and discussion.
tion has been paid to the latter groups of taxa, The advent of the era of molecular biology
particularly on agricultural and horticultural and recombinant DNA research has brought
plants. Agriculture today is characterised by a home the point that all forms of genetic diversity
sharp reduction in the diversity of cultivated have potential commercial value and therefore
plants. Out of an estimated total of 30,000 edible needs protection. The basic feedstock for bio-
plant species, only 30 ‘feed the world’, with the technology industry is biodiversity. This is why
three major crops being maize (Zea mays), wheat in the global biodiversity convention, the link-
(Triticum aestivum) and rice (Oryza sativa) ages between the two have been stressed.
(FAO 1996). Genetic resources can be defined as Worldwide 1,308 gene banks are registered in
all materials that are available for improvement the WIEWS (World Information and Early
of a cultivated plant species (Haussmann et al. Warning System on PGR) database (http://apps3.
2004). Plant genetic resources are the biological fao.org/wiews) and conserve a total of 6.1 million
basis of food security and, directly or indirectly, accessions, including major crops, minor or
support the livelihoods of every person on Earth. neglected crop species, as well as trees and wild
Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture plants. Of the 30 main crops, more than 3.6 mil-
(PGRFA) consist of diversity of seeds and plant- lion accessions are conserved ex situ.
ing material of traditional varieties and modern
cultivars, crop wild relatives and other wild plant
species. These resources are used as food, feed 6.3.2 Species Diversity
for domestic animals, fibre, clothing, shelter and
energy. The conservation and sustainable use of On this planet Earth there are about 30 million
PGRFA are necessary to ensure crop production insects; 15,210 mammals, reptiles and amphibi-
and meet growing environmental challenges and ans; 9,225 birds; 21,000 fishes; about 4,80,000
climate change. The erosion of these resources plants; and 3 million other invertebrates and
poses a severe threat to the world’s food security microorganisms. Many among them have not
in the long term. been identified. For example, out of 30 million
Countries are fundamentally interdependent insects only 7,51,000 have been identified.
with regard to plant genetic resources and in par- Figures for other organisms identified are (total
ticular for crop genetic resources which have number of species in brackets): mammals, rep-
been systematically developed, improved and tiles, and amphibians 14,484 (15,210); birds
exchanged without interruption over millennia. 9,040 (9,225); fish 19,056 (21,000); plants
Food and agriculture production are dependent 3,22,311 (4,80,000); and other invertebrates and
on genetic resources domesticated elsewhere and microorganisms 2,76,594 (3,000,000), making a
subsequently developed in other countries and total of 1,392,485 (33,525,435) (Table 6.1). The
regions. Continued access to plant genetic number of angiospermous species in different
resources and a fair and equitable sharing of the countries is given in Table 6.2.
benefits arising from their use are therefore Most of the 1,700 million hectares of tropical
essential for food security. forests, rich in biodiversity, are located in poor
Much of the spectacular success in plant vari- countries. While such forests covered barely 7 %
ety development of the rich industrialised coun- of the land surface, they harbour half of the spe-
tries in the north are attributed to the richness of cies of the world’s flora and fauna. For instance,
genetic diversity at the centres of origin and pri- in a 15-ha patch of rainforest in Brunei, 700-odd
mary diversity of economic species located in the species of trees have been identified, as many as
poorer developing countries of the south. While in all of North America.
the genetic indebtedness of the north to the south

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180 T. Pullaiah et al.

Table 6.1 Estimated number of species in the world

Percentage of the identified
Group Total number of species Number of identified species over the total species
Mammals, reptiles 15,210 14,484 95
and amphibians
Birds 9,225 9,040 98
Fish 21,000 19,056 90
Plants 4,80,000 3,22,311 67
Insects 300,00,000 7,51,000 3
Other invertebrates 30,00,000 276,594 9
and microorganisms
Total 335,25,435 1,392,485 4

Table 6.2 Number of angiospermous species in different

countries
Such data are also important for prioritising con-
servation strategies since they allow identifica-
Country Angiospermous species
tion of geographic regions of the world with
Brazil 55,000
exceptional or with very poor diversity.
Columbia 45,000
One of the major limitations with species
Ecuador 29,000
diversity measures is that they treat all species
China 27,000
Mexico 25,000
(even within a specific group of organisms)
Australia 23,000 equally, i.e. they take no account of differences
South Africa 21,000 between species in relation to their place in a
Indonesia 20,000 natural hierarchical system. A taxic diversity
Venezuela 20,000 approach, therefore, is based on the view that
Peru 20,000 ‘individual species vary enormously in the con-
India 17,000 tribution they make to diversity because of their
taxonomic position’. Taxonomically isolated
species or species of taxonomically isolated gen-
Species Richness Species richness has become era are of very great value (e.g. Ginkgo biloba) in
an important component of biodiversity assess- diversity assessment in an area. An area contain-
ment. Now it is very commonly used as a syn- ing taxonomically diverse species is considered
onym of species diversity. Similarly, global to have greater diversity than an area with closely
biodiversity is very often considered in terms of related species in equal numbers.
global number of species in each of the different
taxonomic groups. In other words, measures of Species Abundance As just mentioned, simple
biodiversity for particular areas, habitats or eco- species richness data may have very limited eco-
systems are often largely reduced to a straightfor- logical value. More meaningful are measures of
ward measure of species richness (Krishnamurthy species abundance, especially relative abundance
2003). Although species richness data may pro- of different species in an area. In general, as
vide relatively little ecologically significant remarked earlier, the more equally abundant the
information, in practice such data are the most various species in an area or ecosystem, the more
easily derived. Thus, they are perhaps the most diverse it is considered. Species abundance data
useful indices for comparisons of diversity on a will provide meaningful interpretation of popula-
larger geographical scale. Moreover, at present tion size of any species in any area. Population is
species richness data are the only type of infor- the basic unit of studying genetic diversity in a
mation available for most areas of the world. species taxon.

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6 Plant Biodiversity 181

6.3.3 Ecosystem Diversity have been proposed, but none has gained univer-
sal acceptance. UNEP-WCMC’s forest category
The wide variety in physical features and climate classification system is a simplification of other
situations have resulted in a diversity of ecologi- more complex systems (e.g. UNESCO’s forest
cal habitats like forests, grasslands, wetlands, and woodland ‘subformations’). This system
coastal and marine ecosystems and desert eco- divides the world’s forests into 26 major types,
systems, which harbour and sustain the immense which reflect climatic zones as well as the princi-
biodiversity. pal types of trees. These 26 major types can be
reclassified into 6 broader categories: temperate
6.3.3.1 Forest Ecosystem needle leaf, temperate broadleaf and mixed, trop-
A forest ecosystem is a natural woodland unit ical moist, tropical dry, sparse trees and parkland
consisting of all plants, animals and microorgan- and forest plantations. Each category is described
isms (biotic components) in that area functioning as a separate section below.
together with all the nonliving physical (abiotic)
factors of the environment. 6.3.3.1.1.1. Temperate Needle Leaf Forests
Temperate needle leaf forests mostly occupy the
6.3.3.1.1 Types of Forests higher latitude regions of the Northern Hemisphere,
Forests can be classified in different ways and to as well as high altitude zones and some warm tem-
different degrees of specificity. One such way is perate areas, especially on nutrient-poor or other-
in terms of the ‘biome’ in which they exist, com- wise unfavourable soils. These forests are
bined with leaf longevity of the dominant species composed entirely, or nearly so, of coniferous spe-
(whether they are evergreen or deciduous). cies (Coniferophyta). In the Northern Hemisphere
Another distinction is whether the forests are pines (Pinus), spruces (Picea), larches (Larix), firs
composed predominantly of broadleaf trees, (Abies), Douglasfir (Pseudotsuga) and hemlocks
coniferous (needle-leaved) trees or mixed. (Tsuga) make up the canopy, but other taxa are
Boreal forests occupy the subarctic zone and also important. In the Southern Hemisphere, most
are generally evergreen and coniferous. coniferous trees (members of the Araucariaceae
Temperate zones support both broadleaf and Podocarpaceae) occur in mixtures with broad-
deciduous forests (e.g. temperate deciduous for- leaf species and are classed as broadleaf and mixed
est) and evergreen coniferous forests (e.g. tem- forests.
perate coniferous forests and temperate
rainforests). Warm temperate zones support 6.3.3.1.1.2. Temperate Broad Leaf and Mixed
broadleaf evergreen forests, including laurel Forests
forests. Temperate broad leaf and mixed forests include a
Tropical and subtropical forests include tropi- substantial component of trees in the Anthophyta.
cal and subtropical moist forests, tropical and They are generally characteristic of the warmer
subtropical dry forests and tropical and subtropi- temperate latitudes but extend to cool temperate
cal coniferous forests. ones, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere.
Physiognomy classifies forests based on their They include such forest types as the mixed
overall physical structure or developmental stage deciduous forests of the USA and their counter-
(e.g. old growth vs. second growth). parts in China and Japan; the broadleaf evergreen
Forests can also be classified more specifically rainforests of Japan, Chile and Tasmania; the
based on the climate and the dominant tree spe- sclerophyllous forests of Australia, central Chile,
cies present, resulting in numerous different for- the Mediterranean and California; and the south-
est types (e.g. ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forest). ern beech Nothofagus forests of Chile and New
A number of global forest classification systems Zealand.

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182 T. Pullaiah et al.

6.3.3.1.1.3. Tropical Moist Forests 6.3.3.1.1.6. Forest Plantations

There are many different types of tropical moist Forest plantations, generally intended for the pro-
forests, although most extensive are the lowland duction of timber and pulpwood, increase the
evergreen broad leaf rainforests, for example, total area of forest worldwide. Commonly mono-
várzea and igapó forests and the terra firma for- specific and/or composed of introduced tree spe-
ests of the Amazon basin; the peat swamp forests cies, these ecosystems are not generally important
and dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia; and as habitat for native biodiversity. However, they
the high forests of the Congo Basin. Forests can be managed in ways that enhance their biodi-
located on mountains are also included in this versity protection functions and they are impor-
category, divided largely into upper and lower tant providers of ecosystem services such as
montane formations on the basis of the variation maintaining nutrient capital, protecting water-
of physiognomy corresponding to changes in sheds and soil structure as well as storing carbon.
altitude. They may also play an important role in alleviat-
ing pressure on natural forests for timber and fuel
6.3.3.1.1.4. Tropical Dry Forests wood production.
Tropical dry forests are characteristic of areas in
the tropics affected by seasonal drought. The sea- 6.3.3.2 Grasslands
sonality of rainfall is usually reflected in the Grasslands, which are also known at steppes,
deciduousness of the forest canopy, with most prairies, pampas and savannas in various parts of
trees being leafless for several months of the year. the world, are vegetation types with predomi-
However, under some conditions, e.g. less fertile nance of grass and grass-like species.
soils or less predictable drought regimes, the pro- Grasslands are an important part of the Earth’s
portion of evergreen species increases and the many ecological communities, originally cover-
forests are characterised as ‘sclerophyllous’. ing as much as 25 % of the Earth’s surface. They
Thorn forest, a dense forest of low stature with a have provided expansive grazing land for both
high frequency of thorny or spiny species, is wild and domesticated animals and offered flat
found where drought is prolonged and especially areas that have been ploughed to grow crops.
where grazing animals are plentiful. On very Grasslands occur in areas with hot summer tem-
poor soils, and especially where fire is a recurrent peratures and low precipitation. Areas with less
phenomenon, woody savannas develop (see rainfall are deserts and areas with more rainfall
Sect. 6.3.3.1.1.5). tend to be forested. There are two broad types of
grasslands in the world: tropical savannah and
6.3.3.1.1.5. Sparse Trees and Parklands temperate grassland.
Sparse trees and parkland are forests with open
canopies of 10–30 % crown cover. They occur 6.3.3.2.1 Tropical Savannah
principally in areas of transition from forested to Tropical savannah occurs in Africa, Australia,
non-forested landscapes. The two major zones in South America and Indonesia. Rainfall of
which these ecosystems occur are in the boreal 50–130 cm a year is concentrated in 6–8 months
region and in the seasonally dry tropics. At high with drought the rest of the year. Soils are usually
latitudes, north of the main zone of boreal forest very thin, supporting only grasses and forbs
or taiga, growing conditions are not adequate to (flowering plants), with only scattered trees and
maintain a continuous closed forest cover, so tree shrubs. Differences in climate and soils create
cover is both sparse and discontinuous. This veg- many variations in the plant communities and
etation is variously called open taiga, open lichen animal species throughout the savannah. In many
woodland and forest tundra. It is species poor, areas, the grasslands have been burned to main-
has high bryophyte cover and is frequently tain a healthy grass crop for grazing animals. In
affected by fire. some areas the savannah has been expanded by

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6 Plant Biodiversity 183

cutting the forest and burning the area each year Many of the wetland areas have been drained
to prevent the return of trees. and reclaimed for agricultural and urban expan-
sion. Siltation problems particularly in shallow
6.3.3.2.2 Temperate Grasslands wetlands are also subjected to the stresses such as
Temperate grasslands have less rainfall (25– agricultural run-offs, pesticides and construction
90 cm) than tropical grasslands and a much of dams and barrages.
greater range of temperatures from winter to Wetlands are found throughout the world
summer than savannah. There are two broad except in Antarctica. The world has 7–9 million
types of grasslands in temperate latitudes: prairie km2 of wetland which is 4 to 6 % of the land sur-
and steppe. face. 56 % of the 4–6 % of land surface is found
in the tropical and subtropical regions. In 1987
6.3.3.2.3 Prairie Grasslands Matthews and Fung estimated the extent of wet-
Prairie grasslands are found across the globe. lands in the world by climatic zones they found:
They have a variety of names in other parts of the polar/boreal 2.7 million km2, temperate 0.7 mil-
world: pampas in South America, veldt in South lion km2, subtropical/tropical 1.9 million km2,
Africa and puszta in Hungary. These areas have rice paddies 1.5 million km2 and total wetland
deep, rich soils and are dominated by tall grasses; area 6.8 million km2.
trees and shrubs are restricted to river valleys,
wetlands and other areas with more moisture. 6.3.3.3.1 Major Wetland Regions
Over the years the native grass species on the of the World
extensive areas of level ground have been South America – The Orinoco River Delta of
ploughed and fields seeded. Many of these grass- Venezuela covers 36,000 km2 and is dominated
lands have been lost to cereal crops. by brackish shoreline by mangrove forests. It
enters the Caribbean.
6.3.3.2.4 Steppe Grasslands The Llanos: Located on the western part of the
Steppe grasslands receive only 25–50 cm of rain- Orinoco River found in western Venezuela and
fall each year and the grasses are much shorter northern Colombia covers 450,000 km2. It is one
than those on prairie grasslands. They are also of the largest inland wetland areas of South
not as widespread, occurring only in Central and America. Winter wet season with a summer dry
Eastern Europe, Northern Eurasia and Western season gives rise to yearly flooding. Dominated
North America. by savannah grasslands and scattered palms.
The Amazon River: Covers 300,000 km2,
6.3.3.3 Wetland Ecosystem 3,000 km long and the river floods 5–15 m high
Wetlands are transitional zones that occupy inter- yearly. It is considered as the world’s single larg-
mediate position between dryland and open water. est river, with a flow that results in about one-sixth
These ecosystems are dominated by the influence to one-fifth of all the fresh water in the world.
of water; they encompass diverse and heterogenous The Pantanal: One of the largest wetlands in
habitats ranging from rivers, flood plains and rain- world located in southwestern Brazil. Covers
fed lakes to swamps, estuaries and salt marshes. 140,000 km2 four times the size of the Florida
Wetlands are productive ecosystems which Everglades, with about 131,000 km2 of that area
serve as habitat for a variety of plants and ani- flooded annually. It is a haven to 650–700 species
mals. Wetlands perform essential functions of birds.
including flood control, natural sewage treat-
ment, stabilisation of shorelines against wave 6.3.3.3.1.1. Europe
erosion, recharging of aquifiers and supporting 1. Mediterranean Sea Deltas: The Rhone River
rich biodiversity. Many wetlands serve as the Delta created France’s most important wet-
winter habitats for migratory birds. land, the Camargue. Covers about 9,000 km2.
Highly affected by a hot, dry summer and

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184 T. Pullaiah et al.

cool, wet winters. Home to one of the world’s the biggest wetlands. Some of the major rivers
25 major flamingo nesting sites. are the Indus, Ganges, Chao Phraya, Mekong and
2. Coastal marshes of Northern Europe: Extensive Red. The Mekong begins at the Tibet Plateau and
salt marshes and mud flats are found along the runs through China, Laos, Cambodia and
Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea coastlines of Vietnam draining 625,000 km2. It is estimated
Europe. Mostly grass-type marshes. that 20 million people receive their protein from
3. Rhine River Delta: It is a major transportation fishing in these areas.
artery in Europe. Much of the Netherlands is China: Approximately 650,000 km2 of wet-
on the Rhine River Delta. lands and Pearl and Yangtze River Deltas. Of
4. Peatlands: About 3.46 million km2 of northern that, 250,000 km2 have been reserved.
boreal and subarctic peatland exist, more than
half of the world wetlands. Predominately 6.3.3.4 Coastal and Marine Ecosystem
found in the Old World, Ireland, Scandinavia, The coastal-marine ecosystem refers to the
Finland and Russia. Mostly made up of marine region extending from the ‘upper tidal
decomposed sphagnum moss. limits out across the continental shelf, slope and
rise’; it thus includes rocky shores, sandy
6.3.3.3.1.2. Africa beaches, kelp forests, subtidal benthos and the
An abundance of wetlands is found in sub- water column over the shelf, slope and rise.
Saharan Africa such as the Congo River swamps, Marine ecosystems cover approximately 71 % of
Inner Niger Delta, Sudd of the Upper Nile and the Earth’s surface and contain approximately
the Okavango Delta. 97 % of the planet’s water. They generate 32 % of
Sudd of the Upper Nile: Rainforest where the world’s net primary production. The coastal-
the Blue and White Nile meet in the southern marine system generally encompasses the exclu-
Sudan. sive economic zones of nations and is
Nile Delta: It used to be a huge delta; the land approximately 200 nautical miles wide with a
has been converted to farm land. It no longer 440,000 km long continental profile. The coastal-
floods due to the Aswan Dam. marine system remains largely neglected despite
Okavango Delta: A vast number of rivers, its very huge productivity. Hayden et al. (1984)
channels, island and lagoons are diverted to the described 21 types of oceanic and coastal-marine
Okavango Delta. Along the coast, there are many realms and 45 coastal provinces.
mangrove forests.
6.3.3.4.1 Mangroves
6.3.3.3.1.3. Australia Mangroves are salt-tolerant ecosystems in tropi-
Wetlands are distinctive due to seasonal dryness cal and subtropical regions. These ecosystems
from high evaporation rates and low rainfall. are largely characterised by assemblage of unre-
Saline wetlands and lakes are common as a result lated tree genera that share the common ability to
of the high evaporation rates. grow in saline tidal zones. The evergreen broad-
leaved trees of mangrove forests are highly
6.3.3.3.1.4. New Zealand adapted to the stresses of flooding and salinity.
It is one location in North Island which has all Mangroves are various types of trees up to
seven types of wetlands. It has lost 90 % of its medium height and shrubs that grow in saline
wetlands. South Island receives 2–10 m annually coastal sediment habitats in the tropics and sub-
of rain and has several types of wetlands. tropics. The remaining mangrove forest areas of
the world in 2,000 were 137,760 km2. The man-
6.3.3.3.1.5. Asia grove biome is a distinct saline woodland or
Most of its wetlands have been converted for shrub land habitat characterised by depositional
agriculture. South Asia and Southeast Asia have coastal environments, where fine sediments

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6 Plant Biodiversity 185

(often with high organic content) collect in areas (2,20,000 sq mi in Botswana, South Africa,
protected from high-energy wave action. Namibia), Australian deserts (Gibson – 1,20,000
Mangroves dominate three-quarters of tropical sq mi; Great Sandy – 1,50,000 sq mi; Simpson
coastlines. The saline conditions tolerated by and Sturt Stony – 56,000 sq mi), Mojave (54,000
various mangrove species range from brackish sq mi, USA), Sonoran (1,20,000 USA Mexico),
water, to pure seawater, to water concentrated by Chihuahuan (1,75,000 sq mi in Mexico, USA)
evaporation, to over twice the salinity of ocean and Thar desert (over 1,75,000 sq mi in India and
seawater. Healthy mangrove forests provide a Pakistan). Cool coastal deserts include Namib
vast array of important co-benefits to coastal (13,000 sq mi in Angola, Namibia, South Africa)
communities around the world. These benefits and Atacama (54,000 sq mi in Chile). Cold win-
include ecosystem services such as a rich cultural ter deserts include the Great Basin and Colorado
heritage, the protection of shorelines from storms, Plateau in USA; Patagonian in Argentina;
erosion or sea-level rise, food from fisheries, Karakum in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan;
maintenance of water quality and landscape Kyzyl kum in Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and
beauty for recreation and ecotourism. In a ‘Blue Kazakhstan; and Iranian desert and Gobi desert
Carbon’ context, these ecosystems also store and in China and Mongolia, while Polar deserts
sequester potentially vast amounts of carbon in include Arctic and Antarctic.
sediments and biomass.

6.3.3.5 Desert Ecosystems 6.4 Hotspots of Biodiversity

Deserts are arid regions, generally receiving less
than 10 in. of precipitation a year, or regions Biodiversity hotspots are a method to identify
where the potential evaporation rate is twice as those regions of the world where attention is
great as the precipitation. Desert ecosystem is needed to address biodiversity loss and to guide
characterised by low precipitation, arid lands, investments in conservation. They are first devel-
with expanse of sands, rock or salt, which are oped by Norman Myers in 1988 to identify tropi-
largely barren except for sparse or seasonal veg- cal forest ‘hotspots’ characterised both by
etal cover. exceptional levels of plant endemism and by seri-
The world’s deserts are divided into four cat- ous levels of habitat loss. Myers subsequently
egories. Subtropical deserts are the hottest, with updated the concept in 1990, adding eight
parched terrain and rapid evaporation. Although hotspots, including four in Mediterranean
cool coastal deserts are located within the same regions. Conservation International adopted
latitudes as subtropical deserts, the average tem- Myers’ hotspots as its institutional blueprint in
perature is much cooler because of frigid offshore 1989, and in 1996, the organisation made the
ocean currents. Cold winter deserts are marked decision to undertake a reassessment of the
by stark temperature differences from season to hotspots concept, including an examination of
season, ranging from 100 °F (38 °C) in the sum- whether key areas had been overlooked. Three
mer to 10 °F (−12 °C) in the winter. Polar regions years later an extensive global review was under-
are also considered to be deserts because nearly taken, which introduced quantitative thresholds
all moisture in these areas is locked up in the for the designation of biodiversity hotspots.
form of ice. To qualify as a hotspot, a region must meet
Subtropical deserts include Sahara desert (3.5 two strict criteria: it must contain at least 1,500
million sq mi in Morocco, Western Sahara, species of vascular plants (>0.5 % of the world’s
Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, total) as endemics, and it has to have lost ≥ 70 %
Niger, Chad, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia), Arabian of its original native habitat.
desert (1 million sq mi in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Myers et al. (2000) gave the details of 25
Qatar, UAE, Oman, Yemen), Kalahari desert ‘hotspots’ of global biodiversity (Table 6.3).

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Table 6.3 Hotspots of biodiversity of the world

Hotspot Original extent Plant species Endemic plants
Tropical Andes 1,258,000 45,000 20,000
Mesoamerica 1,155,000 24,000 5,000
The Caribbean 263,500 12,000 7,000
Brazil’s Atlantic forest 1,227,600 20,000 8,000
Choco/Darien/Western Ecuador 260,000 9,000 2,250
Brazil’s Cerrado 1,783,200 10,000 4,400
Central Chile 300,000 3,429 1,605
California Floristic Province 324,000 4,426 2,125
Madagascar 494,150 12,000 9,704
Eastern arc and coastal forest of 30,000 4,000 1,500
Kenya/Tanzania
Guinean forests of West Africa 1,265,000 9,000 2,250
Cape floristic province 74,000 8,200 5,682
Succulent Karoo 112,000 4,849 1,940
Mediterranean Basin 2,362,000 25,000 13,000
Caucasus 500,000 6,300 1,600
Sundaland 1,600,000 25,000 13,000
Wallacea 347,000 10,000 1,500
Philippines 300,800 7,620 5,832
Indo-Burma 2,060,000 13,500 7,000
South Central China 800,000 12,000 3,500
Western Ghats/Sri Lanka 182,500 4,780 2,180
SW Australia 309,850 5,469 4,331
New Caledonia 18,600 3,332 2,551
New Zealand 270,500 2,300 1,865

Currently, 34 biodiversity hotspots have been 6.5 Species Extinction

identified, most of which occur in tropical for-
ests. Between them they contain around 50 % of During the next 20–30 years, the world could
the world’s endemic plant species and 42 % of all lose more than a million species of plants and
terrestrial vertebrates but have lost around 86 % animals – primarily because of environmental
of their original habitat. changes due to humans. At 100 species per day,
Hotspots are not formally recognised or gov- this extinction rate will be more than 1,000
erned areas. However, the identification of these times the estimated ‘normal’ rate of extinction.
areas as hotspots increases the likelihood of con- The list of lost, endangered and threatened spe-
servation investment. In addition, other designa- cies includes both plants and animals. About
tions for biodiversity conservation are likely to be 10 % of temperate region plant species and
present within these broad areas which may have 11 % of world’s 9,000 bird species are at some
more formal management structures. For exam- risk of extinction. In the tropics, the destruction
ple, the average protected area coverage of of forests threatens 1,30,000 species which live
hotspots, based on IUCN protected area catego- nowhere else. Harvard biologist E.O. Wilson
ries I–VI, is 10 % of their original extent. estimates that the chopping down of tropical

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6 Plant Biodiversity 187

forests leads to extinction of at least 50,000 spe- cover, through the natural expansion or refor-
cies every year – about 140 every day. estation efforts. However, deforestation in
In the west during the nineteenth-century some areas of the world continues apace,
industrial revolution, forest destruction for tim- impacting livelihoods and the global climate.
ber industry and hunting led to extinction of sev- The UN estimates that 18 % of global carbon
eral of its important wildlife species. Wolves dioxide emissions stem from deforestation and
from Scotland, bear and lynx from Switzerland, forest degradation in developing countries.
European bison from Poland, bottle-nosed dolphin Avoiding deforestation and degradation is
from Netherlands and northern bald ibis from therefore a priority in reducing greenhouse gas
Spain are a few of the several species Europe has emissions.
lost. These countries are now interested in spend- Forests cover 31 % of the world’s land sur-
ing heavily to bring back the species they have face, just over 4 billion hectares. (One hect-
lost. It is wise to learn from the hard lessons are = 2.47 acres.) This is down from the
learnt by these countries. pre-industrial area of 5.9 billion hectares.
Presently, approximately 80 % of the world According to data from the UN Food and
food supply is provided by fewer than two dozen Agriculture Organization, deforestation was at its
species of plants and animals. In the process of highest rate in the 1990s, when each year the
depending upon such a few number of species, world lost on average 16 million hectares of for-
we are also (1) narrowing the genetic diversity of est – roughly the size of the state of Michigan. At
crops that we depend upon, (2) changing diverse the same time, forest area expanded in some
natural areas in monocultures, (3) reducing the places, either through planting or natural pro-
numbers of actual and potential ancestors of cesses, bringing the global net loss of forest to
crops and domestic animals which may provide 8.3 million hectares per year. In the first decade
genetic material to develop new strains or races of this century, the rate of deforestation was
and (4) undermining the food security for a grow- slightly lower, but still, a disturbingly high 13
ing population. million hectares were destroyed annually. As for-
Most of the agricultural crops currently being est expansion remained stable, the global net for-
cultivated have been selected for a particular geo- est loss between 2000 and 2010 was 5.2 million
graphic area. These cultivars may not be as pro- hectares per year.
ductive or even viable if the climate changes and Mountain ecosystem takes the major nega-
if new pests or diseases evolve. This makes even tive impact of unplanned development, opening
more pronounced the need to preserve genetic of roads, degradation of catchment areas and
diversity needed to find food species, which can resultant landslides and erosion. The major
adopt to new conditions. threats faced by the forest ecosystem are com-
mercial clear felling and selective clear felling;
conversion for agriculture, settlements and
6.6 Threats to Ecosystem roads; inundation for development projects like
multipurpose river valley projects, shifting cul-
Over 1.6 billion people depend directly on for- tivation and conversion to monoculture; army
ests for their livelihoods across the world, and operations; grazing; mining; fire wood collec-
forests play a crucial role in the Earth’s life tion; introduction of exotics, fire and pollution,
support system – including the global carbon development projects, conversion for agricul-
and hydrological cycles. Some areas of the ture and tree plantations; and introduction and
world are experiencing net gains in forest spread of exotics.

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188 T. Pullaiah et al.

Prime woods felled in 1980's Table 6.4 Categories of fundamental human factors con-
tributing to the erosion of biological activity
12
Total Factor Example of impact on
0.4
Thailand conversion
0.7 Myanmar Population growth Demographic pressure
0.9 Indonesia Poverty Hunger, deforestation, trading
of species in danger of
1.5 India
extinction, lack of popular
8 Brazil support
Bad perception Desire of quick results and
0 5 10 15 negation of failures in the
long term
Million hecatares
Anthropocentrism Absence of support for
nonutilitarian causes
Cultural transitions Unsustained management of
Grasslands are one of the most threatened eco- resources during colonisation
systems. Apart from commercial pressures, they and quick social changes
come under pressure from grazing, fire and Economy Absence of planning as a
result of the
pollution, internationalisation of
The lakes, marshes, river systems and other markets and erratic price of
wetlands are threatened mainly by domestic pol- goods
lution from untreated sewage, industrial pollut- Implementation of Social crisis, wars, corruption,
ants and toxic effluents; agricultural run-offs policies non-fulfilment of law
containing residues of pesticides and chemical Source: Pullaiah (2012)
fertiliser; and excessive siltation from degraded
catchments. Excessive withdrawal of water from which in turn leads to landslides and soil erosion.
the water bodies for industry, irrigation or domes- Other threats are overgrazing and excessive col-
tic use; dredging and reclamation of water bod- lection of fuel wood. Desertification and land
ies; excessive fishing; and building of dams, degradation per se pose a potential threat to
jetties and canals are other factors adversely biodiversity.
affecting the wetlands. A number of wetlands are Factors contributing to the loss of biodiversity
reported to be seriously threatened. are given in Table 6.4.
Mangroves are subjected to serious threats due
to their reclamation for urban development, waste
disposals, oil spillage, etc. Coral reef ecosystems 6.7 Conservation of Biological
are threatened because of mining, blasting, dredg- Diversity
ing, collection of reef biota, coastal clearance for
development, sewage disposal, discharge of efflu- Biological diversity can be preserved for posterity
ents from industries and thermal power plants, in two ways – in situ and ex situ. Ex situ mainte-
chemical pollution and oil spillage. nance of species is provided by botanic gardens,
The world’s deserts with a high livestock pop- Zoos and aquaria and of gene pools by germplasm
ulation face heavy biotic pressure. Besides, banks (seed stores, in vitro collections and field
expansion of mining, urbanisation and industri- gene banks) and grass-root collections of plant
alisation also poses threat to this ecosystem. The cultivars and animal breeds. Botanic gardens
expanding salt extraction has resulted in wide- probably have a greater capacity with respect to
spread disturbance in salt deserts. In the cold des- plant species. But clearly it is possible to maintain
ert, a major destructive factor is road construction, ex situ only a tiny fraction of the world’s species.

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6 Plant Biodiversity 189

Approaches to Conservation

In situ Conservation Ex situ Conservation

a) Biosphere reserves
b) National Parks Whole organisms Part organisms
c) Wild life Sanctuaries i) Botanical gardens (Bio-banks)
d) Wet lands ii) Arboreta a) Seed pollen banks
e) Mangroves. iii) Zoological parks. b) Tissue/organ culture
f) Sacred groves. iv) Aquaria c) Cryo preservation.
g) Protected land scapes d) Sperm/egg/embryo.
h) Ethnobiological reserves e) Gene banks/Libra-
i) Reserve and Protected forests. ries.
j) Preservation plots and sample plots.

In situ conservation is done by protecting land surface. A further 40,000 smaller protected
areas rich in biodiversity. These include bio- areas cover another 5 % of the land area. The goal
sphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, etc. recommended by IUCN, however, is preservation
The concept of biosphere reserves is the brain- of a cross section of all major ecosystems to the
child of Man and Biosphere Programme of extent of 13 million km2 or about 10–12 % of the
UNESCO. The primary objective of this concept Earth’s surface.
is to save, for the present and future use, the
diversity and integrity of biotic communities of 6.7.1.1 Some Biosphere Reserves
plants and animals within natural ecosystems and of the World
to safeguard the genetic diversity of species on 1. Rainforest reserves – Albert National Park,
which their continuing evolution depends. Such Congo, and King George V Park, Malaysia
reserves are to comprise of terrestrial and marine 2. Grassland reserves – Savannah Steppe (Africa,
ecosystems and to coincide with national parks Georgia, USA), and Prairie (Oklahoma and
and sanctuaries. Montana, USA)
3. Desert reserves – Arizona Desert, South
African Desert and Nevada Desert
6.7.1 In Situ Conservation 4. Tundra reserves – Lapland Reserves, Finland
These reserves aim at conserving the biologi-
Areas of natural habitats/ecosystems protected cal diversity and genetic integrity of plants, ani-
under in situ conservation are called protected mals and microorganisms in their totality as part
areas. Today, there are over 9,832 protected areas of the natural ecosystems, so as to ensure their
including 1,508 national parks, of approximately self-perpetuation and unhindered evolution of
9.25 million km2 or about 8.2 % of the Earth’s living resources.

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6.7.2 In Situ Conservation of Plant Ex situ conservation of genetic resources

Genetic Resources entails conservation of biological diversity com-
ponents outside their natural habitats. The main
Plants are the basis of life on planet Earth. Plants storage infrastructures for such conservation tech-
are the only organisms capable of using the solar niques are gene banks; millions of accessions are
energy for transforming the carbon dioxide in the now stored in hundreds of gene banks around the
air into organic substances. Consequently, plants world for conservation and utilisation purposes.
produce food for all and reduce the global warm- In situ conservation of genetic resources
ing. Agriculture, with nurturing and utilising means the maintenance and recovery of viable
plant diversity, plays a key role in feeding mil- populations of species in their natural surround-
lions and protecting our natural resources and the ings and, in the case of domesticates or cultivated
environment. species, in the surroundings where they have
Plant diversity on Earth is represented by an developed their distinctive properties. Common
estimated 300,000 species of higher plants. approaches for in situ conservation are Genetic
However, only about 7,000 species have been reserve conservation and on-farm conservation.
domesticated and cultivated by humans over the
millennia for food and feed. Today, our nutrition
anywhere in the world is supplied by a mere 30 6.7.3 Ex Situ Conservation
plant species because they provide 95 % of
dietary energy and protein. To complement in situ conservation, attention
While the number of cultivated plant species has been paid to ex situ conservation measures.
is relatively small and seemingly insignificant, Some taxa ‘extinct in the wild’ but conserved in
nature has evolved an extraordinary intraspecific the botanic gardens is given in Table 6.5.
genetic diversity in crop plants and their wild
relatives. For example, the number of rice land
Table 6.5 Some taxa ‘extinct in the wild’ but conserved
races in India is estimated to be 50,000 and wild in the botanic gardens (data from IUCN/WCMC and
rice about 200. Add to that 20 new improved Maunder 1997)
varieties released each year. It is this diversity Taxon Native country
within species that allows for the cultivation of Anthurium leuconeura Mexico
crops across different regions and in different Arctostaphylos uva-ursi ssp. USA
situations such as weather and soil conditions. loebreweri
These invaluable and irreplaceable plant Bromus verticillatus UK
resources are called plant genetic resources Calandrinia feltonii Falkland Island
(PGR). They form the basis of all crop varieties Ceratozamia hildae Central America
that are bred to produce more, withstand stresses Commidendrum rotundifolium St. Helena
and yield quality output. Cosmos atrosanguineus Mexico
Plant genetic resources for food and agricul- Erica verticillata South Africa
Encephalartos woodii South Africa
ture (PGRFA) have been systematically collected
Franklinia alatamaha USA
and exchanged for some 500 years. Conservation
Graptopetalum bellus Mexico
focuses explicitly on maintaining the diversity of
Helichrysum selaginoides Tasmania
the full range of genetic variation within a par- Lysimachia minoricensis Minorea
ticular species or taxa. Plant genetic resources Opuntia lindheimeri USA (Texas)
can be conserved both in situ and ex situ. Paphiopedilum delenatii Vietnam
The main reasons for conserving PGRFA are Sophora toromiro Easter Island
to ensure the future adaptability of cultivars and Tecophilaea cyanocrocus Chile
wild populations, to preserve data and traits that Trochetiopsis erythroxylon St. Helena
ensure sustainable agriculture, to promote the use Tulipa sprengeri Turkey
of genetic resources in commerce and biotech- Dombeya acutangula Rodrigues
nology and to conserve genetic diversity for cul- D. mauritiana Mauritius
tural reasons. Vernonia shevaroyensis S. India

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6 Plant Biodiversity 191

the bay, has been moving steadily northward. Eel

6.8 Climate Change grass has a distinct upper temperature limit and
and Biodiversity as the bay has warmed the area in which it grows
has decreased by 25 % as a consequence. Range
Levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are shift of Edith’s checkerspot butterfly (Euphydryas
rapidly increasing, warming the Earth’s surface editha) moving northward and up in altitude and
and lower atmosphere. Higher temperatures lead as the bay has warmed the area in which it grows
to climate change that includes effects such as has decreased by 25 % as a consequence popula-
rising sea levels, changes in precipitation patterns tion present population extinct. Tropical ecosys-
that can produce floods and droughts and the tems are affected as well. Costa Rica’s legendary
spread of vector-borne diseases such as malaria. Monteverde Cloud Forest is experiencing more
Some areas may benefit from changes in the cli- frequent dry days as climate change raises the
mate. Others, including those in least developed altitude at which clouds (virtually the sole source
countries and small island developing states, may of moisture for cloud forests) form. It is believed
suffer greatly. that the golden toad (Bufo periglenes), which has
There is ample scientific evidence that climate not been seen in Monteverde for about 20 years,
change affects biodiversity. Climate change, is the first species to be driven to extinction by
according to the Millennium Ecosystem climate change.
Assessment, is likely to become the dominant
direct driver of biodiversity loss by the end of the
century. It is already forcing biodiversity to adapt 6.9 The Convention
either through changing habitat, life cycles or and Indigenous and Local
development of new physical traits. This, in turn, Communities
will affect vital ecosystem services for all
humans, such as air and water purification, polli- The international community has recognised the
nation and production of food, decomposition close and traditional dependence of many indig-
and nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, etc. enous and local communities on biological
Change in phenology leads to loss of synchrony resources, notably in the preamble to the
between species. Convention on Biological Diversity. There is also
Biodiversity can also help reduce the effects a broad recognition of the contribution that tradi-
of climate change. The conservation of habitats, tional knowledge can make to both the conserva-
for example, can reduce the amount of carbon tion and the sustainable use of biological
dioxide released into the atmosphere. Moreover, diversity, two fundamental objectives of the
conserving mangroves can reduce the disastrous convention.
impacts of climate change such as flooding and The Conference of the Parties has established
storm surges. If we act now to mitigate green- a working group specifically to address the
house gas emissions and identify systems-based implementation of Article 8 (j) and related provi-
adaptation priorities, we can reduce the risk of sions of the convention. This working group is
species extinctions and limit damage to ecosys- open to all parties, and indigenous and local com-
tems. We can preserve intact habitats, especially munities’ representatives play a full and active
those sensitive to climate change, improve our role in its work. Traditional knowledge is consid-
understanding of the climate change-biodiversity ered a ‘cross-cutting’ issue that affects many
relationship and view biodiversity as a solution to aspects of biological diversity, so it will continue
climate change. to be addressed by the Conference of the Parties
In marine environments, plankton species and by other working groups as well. In particu-
have been shifting geographically and so have lar, in decision VII/19D, the Conference of the
fish species. In America’s great estuary, the Parties requested the Ad Hoc Open-ended
Chesapeake Bay, the southern boundary of the Working Group on Access and Benefit-sharing
eel grass (Zostera marina) community, an impor- with the collaboration of the Ad Hoc Working
tant element in the ecology and productivity of Group on Article 8 (j) and related provisions to

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192 T. Pullaiah et al.

elaborate an international regime on access to ages field projects all over the world and brings
genetic resources and benefit sharing with the together players from different domains and sec-
aim of adopting an instrument/instruments to tors to develop and implement policy, laws and
effectively implement the provisions in Article best practice. The International Union for
15 and Article 8 (j) of the convention and the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources is
three objectives of the convention. This is an the most important world body of 74 sovereign
ongoing priority of the convention. states, 105 government agencies, 674 nongovern-
mental organisations and 32 affiliates that is con-
cerned with the conservation of nature worldwide.
6.10 Biodiversity Prospecting The headquarters of the IUCN is situated at
Gland, Switzerland. Anyone who is interested in
Bioprospecting is an umbrella term describing conservation should be aware of the activities of
the process of discovery and commercialisation the IUCN, its organs and publications. www.
of new products based on biological resources. iucn.org
Bioprospecting often draws on indigenous The Species Survival Commission (SSC) is
knowledge about uses and characteristics of one of the six volunteer commissions within the
plants and animals. In this way, bioprospecting IUCN, with the mission to conserve biological
includes biopiracy, the exploitative appropriation diversity by developing and executing pro-
of indigenous forms of knowledge by commer- grammes to study, save, restore and manage
cial actors, as well as the search for previously wisely the species and their habitats. SSC is the
unknown compounds in organisms that have source of information for IUCN on the conserva-
never been used in traditional medicine. tion of species. On behalf of the IUCN, the SSC
Natural organisms have evolved a staggering delivers and promotes its knowledge, advice and
variety of chemical compounds to escape preda- policies to those who can influence the imple-
tors, capture prey, enhance reproductive success mentation of conservation action. The SSC has
and fight infection. Some of these chemical com- its headquarters at the IUCN in Switzerland.
pounds have proved to be of great value when
adapted for industrial, agricultural and pharma-
ceutical uses. In the USA for instance, nearly 6.11.2 Conservation International
25 % of prescription medicines contain active
ingredients derived from plants, while many Global Conservation Fund finances the creation,
other drugs are synthesised to replicate or expansion and long-term management of priority
improve naturally produced molecules. Today we areas for conservation. Conservation International
treat leukemia with medicines derived from rosy aims to protect life on Earth and to demonstrate
periwinkle of Madagascar and the bark of the that human societies will thrive when in balance
pacific yew tree is the source of a promising treat- with nature. It works with governments, non-
ment for ovarian cancer. profit organisations, universities, businesses and
local communities in priority regions to
strengthen conservation efforts. www.conserva-
6.11 International Organisations tion.org
Involved in Biodiversity
Conservation
6.11.3 World Wildlife Fund
6.11.1 IUCN: International Union
for Conservation of Nature The largest multinational conservation organisa-
tion in the world, WWF works in 100 countries
IUCN – International Union for Conservation of and is supported by 1.2 million members in the
Nature helps develop conservation science, man- USA and close to 5 million globally. The World

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6 Plant Biodiversity 193

Wildlife Fund has derived a system called the covers all ecosystems, species and genetic
‘Global 200 Ecoregions’, the aim of which is to resources.
select priority ecoregions for conservation within The Convention on Biological Diversity
each of 14 terrestrial, 3 freshwater and 4 marine (CBD) was formed at a meeting in Rio de Janeiro
habitat types. They are chosen for their species in 1992 and came into force, with a membership
richness, endemism, taxonomic uniqueness, of 133 countries, in December 1993. CBD aims
unusual ecological or evolutionary phenomena to protect the world’s biological resources from
and global rarity. All biodiversity hotspots con- further erosion or at least to slow that rate of ero-
tain at least one of the global 200 ecoregions. sion down. Till CBD came into force, living
www.worldwildlife.org organisms were considered a common heritage
of the humankind, but CBD accepts them as a
sovereign property of the nation states. CBD is to
6.12 Biodiversity-Related promote conservation of biological diversity, a
Conventions sustainable use of its components and equitable
sharing of the resultant benefits. Thus, there is a
Six international conventions focus on biodiver- difference in the objectives of the IUCN and the
sity issues: the Convention on Biological CBD, though basically both strive to conserve the
Diversity (year of entry into force: 1993), the world’s biological resources.
Convention on Conservation of Migratory The Convention on Biological Diversity has
Species, the Convention on International Trade in three main goals:
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 1. Conservation of biological diversity (or
(1975), the International Treaty on Plant Genetic biodiversity)
Resources for Food and Agriculture (2004), the 2. Sustainable use of its components
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1971) and the 3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising
World Heritage Convention (1972). Each of the from genetic resources
biodiversity-related conventions works to imple- 2010 was the International Year of
ment actions at the national, regional and interna- Biodiversity. The Secretariat of the Convention
tional level in order to reach shared goals of on Biological Diversity is the focal point for the
conservation and sustainable use. In meeting International Year of Biodiversity. The 11th
their objectives, the conventions have developed Conference of Parties (COP) to the Convention
a number of complementary approaches (site, on Biological Diversity was held in Hyderabad.
species, genetic resources and/or ecosystem On 22 December 2010, the UN declared the
based) and operational tools (e.g. programmes of period from 2011 to 2020 as the UN Decade on
work, trade permits and certificates, multilateral Biodiversity. They, hence, followed a recommen-
system for access and benefit sharing, regional dation of the CBD signatories during COP10 at
agreements, site listings, funds). Nagoya in October 2010.
The six biodiversity-related conventions are as
follows.
6.12.2 Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species
6.12.1 Convention on Biological of Wild Fauna and Flora
Diversity (CITES)

The objectives of the CBD are the conservation The CITES aims to ensure that international trade in
of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its specimens of wild animals and plants does not
components and the fair and equitable sharing of threaten their survival. Through its three appendices,
the benefits arising from commercial and other the convention accords varying degrees of protection
utilisation of genetic resources. The agreement to more than 30,000 plant and animal species.

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194 T. Pullaiah et al.

CITES is an international agreement between throughout their range. Parties to the CMS work
governments. Its aim is to ensure that interna- together to conserve migratory species and their
tional trade in specimens of wild animals and habitats by providing strict protection for the
plants does not threaten their survival. CITES has most endangered migratory species, by conclud-
established the international legal framework for ing regional multilateral agreements for the con-
the prevention of trade in endangered species and servation and management of specific species or
for an effective regulation of trade in others. categories of species and by undertaking co-
Member states respect the recommendations of operative research and conservation activities.
CITES presented in CITES Appendices and
implement restriction on the trade of the listed
species. CITES Appendix I lists species that are 6.12.4 The International Treaty
threatened while Appendix II includes the spe- on Plant Genetic Resources
cies that may become threatened with extinction for Food and Agriculture
if trade is not regulated. Those in Appendix III
are species that require watching. Depending The objectives of the Treaty are the conservation
upon the need, species may be shifted from one and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for
to another Appendix. The CITES Appendices are food and agriculture and the fair and equitable
periodically reviewed, the latest being the out- sharing of the benefits arising out of their use, in
come of the Tenth Conference of the Parties (all harmony with the Convention on Biological
those concerned with trade, governments, NGOs Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food
and conservation experts) in June 1997 in Harare, security. The Treaty covers all plant genetic
Zimbabwe. resources for food and agriculture, while its mul-
Recently, CITES and TRAFFIC together tilateral system of access and benefit sharing cov-
resolved to work closely with traditional medi- ers a specific list of 64 crops and forages. The
cine communities to (a) eventually eliminate Treaty also includes provisions on Farmers’
illegal trade in endangered species of medicinal Rights
plants, (b) ensure that the appropriate national
legislation is in place to control trade in parts
and derivatives of CITES listed species, (c) 6.12.5 Convention on Wetlands
strengthen enforcement efforts, (d) promote (Popularly Known
forensic identification techniques and (e) investi- as the Ramsar Convention)
gate the use of substitutes and artificial propaga-
tion. www.cites.org. The Ramsar Convention provides the framework
Trade Records Analysis of Fauna and Flora in for national action and international cooperation
Commerce (TRAFFIC) is the body that monitors for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and
the volume of trade in endangered species and their resources. The convention covers all aspects
works in co-ordination with CITES and SSC, to of wetland conservation and wise use, recognis-
assess the impact of trade, the objective being to ing wetlands as ecosystems that are extremely
manage trade sustainably. important for biodiversity conservation in gen-
eral and for the well-being of human
communities.
6.12.3 Convention The Ramsar List of Wetlands of International
on the Conservation Importance now includes 2,122 sites (known as
of Migratory Species ‘Ramsar Sites’) covering 205,366,160 ha
of Wild Animals (507,470,800 acres) up from 1,021 sites in 2000.
The nation with the highest number of sites is the
CMS or the Bonn Convention aims to conserve UK at 169; the nation with the greatest area of
terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species listed wetlands is Canada, with over 130,000 km2

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6 Plant Biodiversity 195

(50,000 sq mi), including the Queen Maud Gulf in serial sites. The existing network of biodiver-
Migratory Bird Sanctuary at 62,800 km2 (24,200 sity World Heritage sites encompasses many out-
sq mi). The Ramsar definition of wetlands is standing protected areas that represent a wide
fairly wide, including ‘areas of marine water the range of global biodiversity conservation priori-
depth of which at low tide does not exceed six ties. Biodiversity World Heritage sites ‘represent’
meters’ as well as fish ponds, rice paddies and 31 (89 %) of the 35 biodiversity hotspots and all
salt pans. Presently there are 168 contracting par- five high-biodiversity wilderness areas, 97 (68 %)
ties, up from 119 in 1999 and from 21 initial sig- of the 142 Global 200 terrestrial priority ecore-
natory nations in 1971. The state parties meet gions, 72 (31 %) of the 234 Centres of Plant
every 3 years as the Conference of the Contracting Diversity and 83 (38 %) of 218 Endemic Bird
Parties (CCP), the first held in Cagliari, Italy, in Areas
1980. Amendments to the original convention
have been agreed to in Paris (in 1982) and Regina
(in 1987). References
FAO (1996) Report on the state of the world’s plant
genetic resources for food and agriculture. Prepared
6.12.6 World Heritage for the international technical conference on Plant
Convention (WHC) Genetic Resources, Leipzig, 17–23 June 1996, Rome
Hausmann BIG, Parzies HK, Presterl T, Sušić Z, Miedaner
The primary mission of the WHC is to identify T (2004) Plant genetic resources in crop improvement.
Plant Genet Res 2:3–21
and conserve the world’s cultural and natural
Hayden BP, Ray GC, Dolan R (1984) Classification of
heritage, by drawing up a list of sites whose out- coastal and marine environments. Environ Conserv
standing values should be preserved for all 11:199–207
humanity and to ensure their protection through a Krishnamurthy KV (2003) An advanced textbook on bio-
diversity: principles and practices. Oxford & IBH
closer cooperation among nations.
Publishing Co., New Delhi
The 156 biodiversity World Heritage sites Myers N (1988) Threatened biotas: ‘hotspots’ in tropical
cover a total land area of 1.1 million km2, i.e. forests. Environmentalist 8:187–208
nearly 0.8 % of the global land surface, or 6.6 % Myers N (1990) The biodiversity challenge: expanded
hotspots analysis. Environmentalist 10:243–256
of the total extent of the world’s terrestrial pro-
Myers N, Mittermeirs RA, Mittermier CG, da Fonseca
tected areas. Generally speaking, biodiversity GAB, Kent J (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for conser-
World Heritage sites are very large protected vation priorities. Nature 403(6772):853–858
areas, often involving multiple component parts Pullaiah T (2012) An overview on biodiversity and con-
servation perspectives. Bioherald 29:1–14

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