Flir C2

User’s manual
FLIR Cx series
User’s manual
FLIR Cx series
#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US iii

Table of contents
1 Disclaimers ........................................................................................1
1.1 Legal disclaimer ......................................................................... 1
1.2 Usage statistics .......................................................................... 1
1.3 Changes to registry ..................................................................... 1
1.4 U.S. Government Regulations........................................................ 1
1.5 Copyright .................................................................................. 1
1.6 Quality assurance ....................................................................... 1
1.7 Patents ..................................................................................... 1
1.8 EULA Terms .............................................................................. 1
1.9 EULA Terms .............................................................................. 2
2 Safety information ...............................................................................3
3 Notice to user .....................................................................................6
3.1 User-to-user forums .................................................................... 6
3.2 Calibration................................................................................. 6
3.3 Accuracy .................................................................................. 6
3.4 Disposal of electronic waste .......................................................... 6
3.5 Training .................................................................................... 6
3.6 Documentation updates ............................................................... 6
3.7 Important note about this manual.................................................... 6
3.8 Note about authoritative versions.................................................... 7
4 Customer help ....................................................................................8
4.1 General .................................................................................... 8
4.2 Submitting a question .................................................................. 9
4.3 Downloads ................................................................................ 9
5 Quick Start Guide .............................................................................. 10
5.1 Procedure ............................................................................... 10
6 Description ....................................................................................... 11
6.1 View from the front .................................................................... 11
6.2 View from the rear..................................................................... 11
6.3 Connector ............................................................................... 12
6.4 Screen elements ...................................................................... 12
6.5 Auto-orientation........................................................................ 12
6.6 Navigating the menu system ....................................................... 13
7 Operation ......................................................................................... 14
7.1 Charging the battery .................................................................. 14
7.2 Turning on and turning off the camera............................................ 14
7.3 Saving an image ....................................................................... 14
7.3.1 General........................................................................ 14
7.3.2 Image capacity .............................................................. 14
7.3.3 Naming convention......................................................... 14
7.3.4 Procedure .................................................................... 14
7.4 Recalling an image.................................................................... 14
7.4.1 General........................................................................ 14
7.4.2 Procedure .................................................................... 14
7.5 Deleting an image ..................................................................... 15
7.5.1 General........................................................................ 15
7.5.2 Procedure .................................................................... 15
7.6 Deleting all images.................................................................... 15
7.6.1 General........................................................................ 15
7.6.2 Procedure .................................................................... 15
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Table of contents
7.7 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter ................................... 16

7.7.1 General........................................................................ 16
7.8 Hiding measurement tools .......................................................... 16
7.8.1 Procedure .................................................................... 16
7.9 Changing the color palette .......................................................... 16
7.9.1 General........................................................................ 16
7.9.2 Procedure .................................................................... 16
7.10 Changing the image mode .......................................................... 16
7.10.1 General........................................................................ 16
7.10.2 Procedure .................................................................... 17
7.11 Changing the temperature scale mode .......................................... 18
7.11.1 General........................................................................ 18
7.11.2 When to use Lock mode .................................................. 18
7.11.3 Procedure .................................................................... 18
7.12 Setting the emissivity ................................................................. 18
7.12.1 General........................................................................ 18
7.12.2 Procedure .................................................................... 18
7.13 Changing the reflected apparent temperature ................................. 19
7.13.1 General........................................................................ 19
7.13.2 Procedure .................................................................... 19
7.14 Changing the distance ............................................................... 19
7.14.1 General........................................................................ 19
7.14.2 Procedure .................................................................... 19
7.15 Performing a non-uniformity correction .......................................... 20
7.15.1 What is a non-uniformity correction?................................... 20
7.15.2 When to perform a non-uniformity correction ........................ 20
7.15.3 Procedure .................................................................... 20
7.16 Using the camera lamp .............................................................. 20
7.16.1 General........................................................................ 20
7.16.2 Procedure .................................................................... 20
7.17 Changing the settings ................................................................ 20
7.17.1 General........................................................................ 20
7.17.2 Procedure .................................................................... 21
7.18 Updating the camera ................................................................. 21
7.18.1 General........................................................................ 21
7.18.2 Procedure .................................................................... 21
8 Technical data ................................................................................... 23
8.1 Online field-of-view calculator ...................................................... 23
8.2 Note about technical data ........................................................... 23
8.3 Note about authoritative versions.................................................. 23
8.4 FLIR C2 .................................................................................. 24
9 Mechanical drawings ......................................................................... 27
10 CE Declaration of conformity .............................................................. 28
11 Cleaning the camera .......................................................................... 29
11.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items....................................... 29
11.1.1 Liquids......................................................................... 29
11.1.2 Equipment .................................................................... 29
11.1.3 Procedure .................................................................... 29
11.2 Infrared lens ............................................................................ 29
11.2.1 Liquids......................................................................... 29
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Table of contents
11.2.2 Equipment .................................................................... 29

11.2.3 Procedure .................................................................... 29
12 Application examples......................................................................... 30
12.1 Moisture & water damage ........................................................... 30
12.1.1 General........................................................................ 30
12.1.2 Figure.......................................................................... 30
12.2 Faulty contact in socket .............................................................. 30
12.2.1 General........................................................................ 30
12.2.2 Figure.......................................................................... 31
12.3 Oxidized socket........................................................................ 31
12.3.1 General........................................................................ 31
12.3.2 Figure.......................................................................... 31
12.4 Insulation deficiencies................................................................ 32
12.4.1 General........................................................................ 32
12.4.2 Figure.......................................................................... 32
12.5 Draft ...................................................................................... 33
12.5.1 General........................................................................ 33
12.5.2 Figure.......................................................................... 33
13 About FLIR Systems .......................................................................... 35
13.1 More than just an infrared camera ................................................ 36
13.2 Sharing our knowledge .............................................................. 36
13.3 Supporting our customers........................................................... 37
13.4 A few images from our facilities .................................................... 37
14 Glossary .......................................................................................... 38
15 Thermographic measurement techniques ............................................ 41
15.1 Introduction ............................................................................ 41
15.2 Emissivity................................................................................ 41
15.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample ...................................... 41
15.3 Reflected apparent temperature................................................... 45
15.4 Distance ................................................................................. 45
15.5 Relative humidity ...................................................................... 45
15.6 Other parameters...................................................................... 45
16 History of infrared technology............................................................. 46
17 Theory of thermography..................................................................... 49
17.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 49
17.2 The electromagnetic spectrum..................................................... 49
17.3 Blackbody radiation................................................................... 49
17.3.1 Planck’s law .................................................................. 50
17.3.2 Wien’s displacement law.................................................. 51
17.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's law ................................................... 53
17.3.4 Non-blackbody emitters................................................... 53
17.4 Infrared semi-transparent materials............................................... 55
18 The measurement formula.................................................................. 57
19 Emissivity tables ............................................................................... 61
19.1 References.............................................................................. 61
19.2 Tables .................................................................................... 61
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1 Disclaimers
1.1 Legal disclaimer FLIR Systems is committed to a policy of continuous development; therefore
we reserve the right to make changes and improvements on any of the prod-
All products manufactured by FLIR Systems are warranted against defective ucts without prior notice.
materials and workmanship for a period of one (1) year from the delivery date
of the original purchase, provided such products have been under normal stor-
age, use and service, and in accordance with FLIR Systems instruction. 1.7 Patents
Uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufactured by FLIR Systems are war-
One or several of the following patents and/or design patents may apply to the
ranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period of two (2)
products and/or features. Additional pending patents and/or pending design
years from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such products
patents may also apply.
have been under normal storage, use and service, and in accordance with
FLIR Systems instruction, and provided that the camera has been registered 000279476-0001; 000439161; 000499579-0001; 000653423; 000726344;
within 60 days of original purchase. 000859020; 001106306-0001; 001707738; 001707746; 001707787;
001776519; 001954074; 002021543; 002058180; 002249953; 002531178;
Detectors for uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufactured by FLIR Sys-
0600574-8; 1144833; 1182246; 1182620; 1285345; 1299699; 1325808;
tems are warranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period
1336775; 1391114; 1402918; 1404291; 1411581; 1415075; 1421497;
of ten (10) years from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such
1458284; 1678485; 1732314; 2106017; 2107799; 2381417; 3006596;
products have been under normal storage, use and service, and in accordance
3006597; 466540; 483782; 484155; 4889913; 5177595; 60122153.2;
with FLIR Systems instruction, and provided that the camera has been regis-
602004011681.5-08; 6707044; 68657; 7034300; 7110035; 7154093;
tered within 60 days of original purchase.
7157705; 7237946; 7312822; 7332716; 7336823; 7544944; 7667198;
Products which are not manufactured by FLIR Systems but included in sys- 7809258 B2; 7826736; 8,153,971; 8,823,803; 8,853,631; 8018649 B2;
tems delivered by FLIR Systems to the original purchaser, carry the warranty, if 8212210 B2; 8289372; 8354639 B2; 8384783; 8520970; 8565547; 8595689;
any, of the particular supplier only. FLIR Systems has no responsibility whatso- 8599262; 8654239; 8680468; 8803093; D540838; D549758; D579475;
ever for such products. D584755; D599,392; D615,113; D664,580; D664,581; D665,004; D665,440;
D677298; D710,424 S; D718801; DI6702302-9; DI6903617-9; DI7002221-6;
The warranty extends only to the original purchaser and is not transferable. It
DI7002891-5; DI7002892-3; DI7005799-0; DM/057692; DM/061609; EP
is not applicable to any product which has been subjected to misuse, neglect,
2115696 B1; EP2315433; SE 0700240-5; US 8340414 B2; ZL
accident or abnormal conditions of operation. Expendable parts are excluded
201330267619.5; ZL01823221.3; ZL01823226.4; ZL02331553.9;
from the warranty.
ZL02331554.7; ZL200480034894.0; ZL200530120994.2; ZL200610088759.5;
In the case of a defect in a product covered by this warranty the product must ZL200630130114.4; ZL200730151141.4; ZL200730339504.7;
not be further used in order to prevent additional damage. The purchaser shall ZL200820105768.8; ZL200830128581.2; ZL200880105236.4;
promptly report any defect to FLIR Systems or this warranty will not apply. ZL200880105769.2; ZL200930190061.9; ZL201030176127.1;
ZL201030176130.3; ZL201030176157.2; ZL201030595931.3;
FLIR Systems will, at its option, repair or replace any such defective product
ZL201130442354.9; ZL201230471744.3; ZL201230620731.8.
free of charge if, upon inspection, it proves to be defective in material or work-
manship and provided that it is returned to FLIR Systems within the said one-
year period.
1.8 EULA Terms
FLIR Systems has no other obligation or liability for defects than those set forth
above. • You have acquired a device (“INFRARED CAMERA”) that includes soft-
ware licensed by FLIR Systems AB from Microsoft Licensing, GP or its af-
No other warranty is expressed or implied. FLIR Systems specifically disclaims filiates (“MS”). Those installed software products of MS origin, as well as
the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. associated media, printed materials, and “online” or electronic documen-
FLIR Systems shall not be liable for any direct, indirect, special, incidental or tation (“SOFTWARE”) are protected by international intellectual property
consequential loss or damage, whether based on contract, tort or any other le- laws and treaties. The SOFTWARE is licensed, not sold. All rights
gal theory. reserved.
• IF YOU DO NOT AGREE TO THIS END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
This warranty shall be governed by Swedish law. (“EULA”), DO NOT USE THE DEVICE OR COPY THE SOFTWARE. IN-
Any dispute, controversy or claim arising out of or in connection with this war- STEAD, PROMPTLY CONTACT FLIR Systems AB FOR INSTRUCTIONS
ranty, shall be finally settled by arbitration in accordance with the Rules of the ON RETURN OF THE UNUSED DEVICE(S) FOR A REFUND. ANY USE
Arbitration Institute of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce. The place of ar- OF THE SOFTWARE, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO USE ON
bitration shall be Stockholm. The language to be used in the arbitral proceed- THE DEVICE, WILL CONSTITUTE YOUR AGREEMENT TO THIS EU-
ings shall be English. LA (OR RATIFICATION OF ANY PREVIOUS CONSENT).
• GRANT OF SOFTWARE LICENSE. This EULA grants you the following
license:
1.2 Usage statistics • You may use the SOFTWARE only on the DEVICE.
• NOT FAULT TOLERANT. THE SOFTWARE IS NOT FAULT TOLER-
FLIR Systems reserves the right to gather anonymous usage statistics to help
ANT. FLIR Systems AB HAS INDEPENDENTLY DETERMINED
maintain and improve the quality of our software and services.
HOW TO USE THE SOFTWARE IN THE DEVICE, AND MS HAS
RELIED UPON FLIR Systems AB TO CONDUCT SUFFICIENT
TESTING TO DETERMINE THAT THE SOFTWARE IS SUITABLE
1.3 Changes to registry FOR SUCH USE.
The registry entry HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet • NO WARRANTIES FOR THE SOFTWARE. THE SOFTWARE is
\Control\Lsa\LmCompatibilityLevel will be automatically changed to level 2 if provided “AS IS” and with all faults. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO SAT-
the FLIR Camera Monitor service detects a FLIR camera connected to the ISFACTORY QUALITY, PERFORMANCE, ACCURACY, AND EF-
computer with a USB cable. The modification will only be executed if the cam- FORT (INCLUDING LACK OF NEGLIGENCE) IS WITH YOU.
era device implements a remote network service that supports network logons. ALSO, THERE IS NO WARRANTY AGAINST INTERFERENCE
WITH YOUR ENJOYMENT OF THE SOFTWARE OR AGAINST IN-
FRINGEMENT. IF YOU HAVE RECEIVED ANY WARRANTIES RE-
1.4 U.S. Government Regulations GARDING THE DEVICE OR THE SOFTWARE, THOSE
WARRANTIES DO NOT ORIGINATE FROM, AND ARE NOT
This product may be subject to U.S. Export Regulations. Please send any in- BINDING ON, MS.
quiries to exportquestions@flir.com. • No Liability for Certain Damages. EXCEPT AS PROHIBITED BY
LAW, MS SHALL HAVE NO LIABILITY FOR ANY INDIRECT, SPE-
CIAL, CONSEQUENTIAL OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES ARISING
1.5 Copyright FROM OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORM-
ANCE OF THE SOFTWARE. THIS LIMITATION SHALL APPLY
© 2015, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. No parts of the soft- EVEN IF ANY REMEDY FAILS OF ITS ESSENTIAL PURPOSE. IN
ware including source code may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed or NO EVENT SHALL MS BE LIABLE FOR ANY AMOUNT IN EX-
translated into any language or computer language in any form or by any CESS OF U.S. TWO HUNDRED FIFTY DOLLARS (U.S.$250.00).
means, electronic, magnetic, optical, manual or otherwise, without the prior • Limitations on Reverse Engineering, Decompilation, and Dis-
written permission of FLIR Systems. assembly. You may not reverse engineer, decompile, or disassem-
The documentation must not, in whole or part, be copied, photocopied, repro- ble the SOFTWARE, except and only to the extent that such activity
duced, translated or transmitted to any electronic medium or machine read- is expressly permitted by applicable law notwithstanding this
able form without prior consent, in writing, from FLIR Systems. limitation.
• SOFTWARE TRANSFER ALLOWED BUT WITH RESTRICTIONS.
Names and marks appearing on the products herein are either registered You may permanently transfer rights under this EULA only as part of
trademarks or trademarks of FLIR Systems and/or its subsidiaries. All other a permanent sale or transfer of the Device, and only if the recipient
trademarks, trade names or company names referenced herein are used for agrees to this EULA. If the SOFTWARE is an upgrade, any transfer
identification only and are the property of their respective owners. must also include all prior versions of the SOFTWARE.
• EXPORT RESTRICTIONS. You acknowledge that SOFTWARE is
subject to U.S. export jurisdiction. You agree to comply with all appli-
1.6 Quality assurance cable international and national laws that apply to the SOFTWARE,
including the U.S. Export Administration Regulations, as well as
The Quality Management System under which these products are developed
end-user, end-use and destination restrictions issued by U.S. and
and manufactured has been certified in accordance with the ISO 9001
other governments. For additional information see http://www.micro-
standard.
soft.com/exporting/.
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1 Disclaimers
1.9 EULA Terms useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
Qt4 Core and Qt4 GUI, Copyright ©2013 Nokia Corporation and FLIR Sys- GNU Lesser General Public License, http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl-2.1.html.
tems AB. This Qt library is a free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify The source code for the libraries Qt4 Core and Qt4 GUI may be requested
it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by from FLIR Systems AB.
the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or (at your op-
tion) any later version. This library is distributed in the hope that it will be
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2 Safety information
WARNING
Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not disassemble or do a modification to the battery. The battery contains safety and protection devices
which, if damage occurs, can cause the battery to become hot, or cause an explosion or an ignition.
WARNING

If there is a leak from the battery and you get the fluid in your eyes, do not rub your eyes. Flush well with
water and immediately get medical care. The battery fluid can cause injury to your eyes if you do not do
this.
WARNING

Do not continue to charge the battery if it does not become charged in the specified charging time. If you
continue to charge the battery, it can become hot and cause an explosion or ignition. Injury to persons
can occur.
WARNING

Only use the correct equipment to remove the electrical power from the battery. If you do not use the cor-
rect equipment, you can decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery. If you do not use the
correct equipment, an incorrect flow of current to the battery can occur. This can cause the battery to be-
come hot, or cause an explosion. Injury to persons can occur.
WARNING
Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on con-
tainers before you use a liquid. The liquids can be dangerous. Injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Do not point the infrared camera (with or without the lens cover) at strong energy sources, for example,
devices that cause laser radiation, or the sun. This can have an unwanted effect on the accuracy of the
camera. It can also cause damage to the detector in the camera.
CAUTION
Do not use the camera in temperatures more than +50°C (+122°F), unless other information is specified
in the user documentation or technical data. High temperatures can cause damage to the camera.
CAUTION

Do not attach the batteries directly to a car’s cigarette lighter socket, unless FLIR Systems supplies a spe-
cific adapter to connect the batteries to a cigarette lighter socket. Damage to the batteries can occur.
CAUTION

Do not connect the positive terminal and the negative terminal of the battery to each other with a metal
object (such as wire). Damage to the batteries can occur.
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CAUTION

Do not get water or salt water on the battery, or permit the battery to become wet. Damage to the batteries
can occur.
CAUTION

Do not make holes in the battery with objects. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION

Do not hit the battery with a hammer. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION

Do not put your foot on the battery, hit it or cause shocks to it. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION

Do not put the batteries in or near a fire, or into direct sunlight. When the battery becomes hot, the built-in
safety equipment becomes energized and can stop the battery charging procedure. If the battery be-
comes hot, damage can occur to the safety equipment and this can cause more heat, damage or ignition
of the battery.
CAUTION

Do not put the battery on a fire or increase the temperature of the battery with heat. Damage to the battery
and injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION

Do not put the battery on or near fires, stoves, or other high-temperature locations. Damage to the battery
and injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION

Do not solder directly onto the battery. Damage to the battery can occur.
CAUTION

Do not use the battery if, when you use, charge, or put the battery in storage, there is an unusual smell
from the battery, the battery feels hot, changes color, changes shape, or is in an unusual condition. Speak
with your sales office if one or more of these problems occurs. Damage to the battery and injury to per-
sons can occur.
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CAUTION

Only use a specified battery charger when you charge the battery. Damage to the battery can occur if you
do not do this.
CAUTION

The temperature range through which you can charge the battery is ±0°C to +45°C (+32°F to +113°F),
unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical data. If you charge the battery
at temperatures out of this range, it can cause the battery to become hot or to break. It can also decrease
the performance or the life cycle of the battery.
CAUTION

The temperature range through which you can remove the electrical power from the battery is -15°C to
+50°C (+5°F to +122°F), unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical data.
If you operate the battery out of this temperature range, it can decrease the performance or the life cycle
of the battery.
CAUTION

When the battery is worn, apply insulation to the terminals with adhesive tape or equivalent materials be-
fore you discard it. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur if you do not do this.
CAUTION

Remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install it. Damage to the battery can occur if you
do not do this.
CAUTION
Do not apply solvents or equivalent liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. Damage to the bat-
tery and injury to persons can occur.
CAUTION
Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has an anti-reflective coating which is easily dam-
aged. Damage to the infrared lens can occur.
CAUTION
Do not use too much force to clean the infrared lens. This can cause damage to the anti-reflective
coating.
NOTE
The encapsulation rating is only applicable when all the openings on the camera are sealed with their cor-
rect covers, hatches, or caps. This includes the compartments for data storage, batteries, and
connectors.
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3 Notice to user
3.1 User-to-user forums

Exchange ideas, problems, and infrared solutions with fellow thermographers around the
world in our user-to-user forums. To go to the forums, visit:
http://www.infraredtraining.com/community/boards/
3.2 Calibration
We recommend that you send in the camera for calibration once a year. Contact your local
sales office for instructions on where to send the camera.
3.3 Accuracy
For very accurate results, we recommend that you wait 5 minutes after you have started
the camera before measuring a temperature.
3.4 Disposal of electronic waste
As with most electronic products, this equipment must be disposed of in an environmen-

tally friendly way, and in accordance with existing regulations for electronic waste.
Please contact your FLIR Systems representative for more details.
3.5 Training
To read about infrared training, visit:
• http://www.infraredtraining.com
• http://www.irtraining.com
• http://www.irtraining.eu
3.6 Documentation updates

Our manuals are updated several times per year, and we also issue product-critical notifi-
cations of changes on a regular basis.
To access the latest manuals and notifications, go to the Download tab at:
http://support.flir.com
It only takes a few minutes to register online. In the download area you will also find the lat-
est releases of manuals for our other products, as well as manuals for our historical and
obsolete products.
3.7 Important note about this manual

FLIR Systems issues generic manuals that cover several cameras within a model line.
This means that this manual may contain descriptions and explanations that do not apply
to your particular camera model.
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3 Notice to user
3.8 Note about authoritative versions

The authoritative version of this publication is English. In the event of divergences due to
translation errors, the English text has precedence.
Any late changes are first implemented in English.
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4 Customer help
4.1 General
For customer help, visit:
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4 Customer help
4.2 Submitting a question

To submit a question to the customer help team, you must be a registered user. It only
takes a few minutes to register online. If you only want to search the knowledgebase for
existing questions and answers, you do not need to be a registered user.
When you want to submit a question, make sure that you have the following information to
hand:
• The camera model
• The camera serial number
• The communication protocol, or method, between the camera and your device (for ex-
ample, HDMI, Ethernet, USB, or FireWire)
• Device type (PC/Mac/iPhone/iPad/Android device, etc.)
• Version of any programs from FLIR Systems
• Full name, publication number, and revision number of the manual
4.3 Downloads
On the customer help site you can also download the following:
• Firmware updates for your infrared camera.
• Program updates for your PC/Mac software.
• Freeware and evaluation versions of PC/Mac software.
• User documentation for current, obsolete, and historical products.
• Mechanical drawings (in *.dxf and *.pdf format).
• Cad data models (in *.stp format).
• Application stories.
• Technical datasheets.
• Product catalogs.
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5 Quick Start Guide
5.1 Procedure
Follow this procedure:
1. Charge the battery for approximately 1.5 hours, using the FLIR power supply.
2. Push the On/off button to turn on the camera.
3. Aim the camera toward your target of interest.
4. Push the Save button to save an image.
(Optional steps)
5. Install FLIR Tools on your computer.
6. Start FLIR Tools.
7. Connect the camera to your computer, using the USB cable.
8. Import the images into FLIR Tools.
9. Create a PDF report in FLIR Tools.
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6 Description
6.1 View from the front
1. Camera lamp.
2. Digital camera lens.
3. Infrared lens.
4. Attachment point.
6.2 View from the rear
1. On/off button.
2. Save button.
3. Camera screen.
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6 Description
6.3 Connector
The purpose of this USB Micro-B connector is the following:

• Charging the battery using the FLIR power supply.
• Moving images from the camera to a computer for further analysis in FLIR Tools.
NOTE
Install FLIR Tools on your computer before you move the images.
6.4 Screen elements
1. Main menu toolbar.

2. Submenu toolbar.
3. Result table.
4. Status icons.
5. Temperature scale.
6. Spotmeter.
6.5 Auto-orientation
The camera has an auto-orientation feature, which means that the camera automatically
adjusts the measurement information on the display to the vertical or horizontal position of
the camera.
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6 Description
NOTE
The auto-orientation feature is enabled by a setting. Select Settings > Device settings > Auto orientation
> On.
6.6 Navigating the menu system
The camera has a touch screen. You can use your index finger or a stylus pen specially
designed for capacitive touch usage to navigate the menu system.
Tap the camera screen to bring up the menu system.
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7 Operation
7.1 Charging the battery

1. Connect the FLIR power supply to a wall outlet.
2. Connect the power supply cable to the USB connector on the camera.
7.2 Turning on and turning off the camera

• Push the On/off button to turn on the camera.
• Push and hold the On/off button until the screen goes off (for less than 5 sec-
onds) to put the camera in standby mode. The camera then automatically turns off after
2 hours.
• Push and hold the On/off button for more than 5 seconds to turn off the camera.
7.3 Saving an image
7.3.1 General
You can save images to the internal camera memory.
The camera saves both a thermal image and a visual image at the same time.
7.3.2 Image capacity

Approximately 500 images can be saved to the internal camera memory.
7.3.3 Naming convention

The naming convention for images is FLIRxxxx.jpg, where xxxx is a unique counter.
7.3.4 Procedure
1. To save an image, push the Save button.
7.4 Recalling an image
7.4.1 General
When you save an image, it is stored in the internal camera memory. To display the image
again, you can recall it from the internal camera memory.
7.4.2 Procedure
1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.
2. Select Images . This displays an image in the image archive.
3. To view the previous or next image, do one of the following:
• Swipe left or right.
• Tap the left arrow or the right arrow .

4. To switch between a thermal image and a visual image, swipe up or down.
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7 Operation
5. Tap the camera screen. This displays a toolbar.
• Select Full screen or Exit full screen to switch between the full screen and
normal views.
• Select Thumbnails to display the thumbnail overview. To scroll between the

thumbnails, swipe up/down. To display an image, tap its thumbnail.
• Select Delete to delete the image.
• Select Information to display information about the image.
• Select Camera to return to live mode.
7.5 Deleting an image
7.5.1 General
You can delete an image from the internal camera memory.
7.5.2 Procedure
2. Select Images . This displays an image in the image archive.
3. To display the previous or next image, do one of the following:
• Swipe left or right.
• Tap the left arrow or the right arrow .

4. When the image you want to delete is displayed, tap the camera screen. This displays
a toolbar.
5. On the toolbar, select Delete . This displays a dialog box.
6. In the dialog box, select Delete.
7. To return to live mode, tap the camera screen and select Camera .
7.6 Deleting all images
7.6.1 General
You can delete all images from the internal camera memory.
7.6.2 Procedure
2. Select Settings . This displays a dialog box.
3. In the dialog box, select Device settings. This displays a dialog box.
4. In the dialog box, select Reset options. This displays a dialog box.
5. In the dialog box, select Delete all saved images. This displays a dialog box.
6. In the dialog box, select Delete.
7. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow repeatedly. You can also push the
Save button once.
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7 Operation
7.7 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter
7.7.1 General
You can measure a temperature using a spotmeter. This will display the temperature at the
position of the spotmeter on the screen.
7.7.1.1 Procedure
2. Select Measurement . This displays a submenu toolbar.
3. On the submenu toolbar, select Center spot .
The temperature at the position of the spotmeter will now be displayed in the top left
corner of the screen.
7.8 Hiding measurement tools
7.8.1 Procedure
2. Select Measurement . This displays a submenu toolbar.
3. On the submenu toolbar, select No measurements .
7.9 Changing the color palette
7.9.1 General
You can change the color palette that the camera uses to display different temperatures. A
different palette can make it easier to analyze an image.
7.9.2 Procedure
2. Select Color . This displays a submenu toolbar.
3. On the submenu toolbar, select the type of color palette:
• Iron.
• Rainbow.
• Rainbow HC.
• Gray.
7.10 Changing the image mode
7.10.1 General
The camera captures both thermal and visual images at the same time. By your choice of
image mode, you select which type of image to display on the screen.
The camera supports the following image modes:
• Thermal MSX (Multi Spectral Dynamic Imaging): The camera displays an infrared im-
age where the edges of the objects are enhanced with visual image details.
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7 Operation
• Thermal: The camera displays a fully infrared image.
• Digital camera: The camera displays only the visual image captured by the digital
camera.
To display a good fusion image (Thermal MSX mode), the camera must make adjustments
to compensate for the small difference in position between the digital camera lens and the
infrared lens. To adjust the image accurately, the camera requires the alignment distance
(i.e., the distance to the object).
7.10.2 Procedure
2. Select Image mode . This displays a submenu toolbar.
3. On the submenu toolbar, select one of the following:
• Thermal MSX .
• Thermal .
• Digital camera .
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7 Operation
4. If you have selected the Thermal MSX mode, also set the distance to the object by
doing the following:
• On the submenu toolbar, select Alignment distance . This displays a dialog box.
• In the dialog box, select the distance to the object.
7.11 Changing the temperature scale mode
7.11.1 General
The camera can operate in two different temperature scale modes:
• Auto mode: In this mode, the camera is continuously auto-adjusted for the best image
brightness and contrast.
• Lock mode: In this mode, the camera locks the temperature span and the temperature
level.
7.11.2 When to use Lock mode

A typical situation where you would use Lock mode is when looking for temperature
anomalies in two items with a similar design or construction.
For example, you have two cables, and you suspect that one is overheated. With the cam-
era in Auto mode, direct the camera toward the cable that has a normal temperature, and
then activate Lock mode. When you then direct the camera, in Lock mode, toward the sus-
pected overheated cable, that cable will appear in a lighter color in the thermal image if its
temperature is higher than the first cable.
If you instead use Auto mode, the color for the two items might appear the same despite
their temperature being different.
7.11.3 Procedure
To go between Auto mode and Lock mode, tap the top or bottom temperature value in the
temperature scale.
A gray padlock icon indicates that Lock mode is active.
7.12 Setting the emissivity
7.12.1 General
To measure temperatures accurately, the camera must be aware of the type of surface you
are measuring. You can choose between the following surface properties:
• Matt.
• Semi-matt.
• Semi-glossy.
As an alternative, you can set a custom emissivity value.
For more information about emissivity, see section 15 Thermographic measurement tech-
niques, page 41.
7.12.2 Procedure
3. In the dialog box, select Measurement parameters. This displays a dialog box.
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7 Operation
4. In the dialog box, select Emissivity. This displays a dialog box.

5. In the dialog box, select one of the following:
• Matt.
• Semi-matt.
• Semi-glossy.
• Custom value. This displays a dialog box where you can set a value.
Save button once.
7.13 Changing the reflected apparent temperature
7.13.1 General
This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected by the object. If the emis-
sivity is low and the object temperature significantly different from that of the reflected tem-
perature, it will be important to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature
correctly.
For more information about the reflected apparent temperature, see section 15 Thermo-
graphic measurement techniques, page 41.
7.13.2 Procedure
4. In the dialog box, select Reflected temperature. This displays a dialog box where you
can set a value.
Save button once.
7.14 Changing the distance
7.14.1 General
The distance is the distance between the object and the front lens of the camera. This pa-
rameter is used to compensate for the following two facts:
• That radiation from the target is absorbed by the atmosphere between the object and
the camera.
• That radiation from the atmosphere itself is detected by the camera.
For more information, see section 15 Thermographic measurement techniques, page 41.
7.14.2 Procedure
4. In the dialog box, select Distance. This displays a dialog box where you can set a
value.
Save button once.
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7 Operation
7.15 Performing a non-uniformity correction
7.15.1 What is a non-uniformity correction?

A non-uniformity correction (or NUC) is an image correction carried out by the camera
software to compensate for different sensitivities of detector elements and other optical
and geometrical disturbances1.
7.15.2 When to perform a non-uniformity correction

The non-uniformity correction process should be carried out whenever the output image
becomes spatially noisy. The output can become spatially noisy when the ambient temper-
ature changes (such as from indoors to outdoors operation, and vice versa).
7.15.3 Procedure
To perform a non-uniformity correction, tap and hold the icon. The text Calibrating...
appears on the screen.
7.16 Using the camera lamp
7.16.1 General
You can use the camera lamp as a flashlight, or as a flash when taking an image.
7.16.2 Procedure
2. Select Lamp .
3. Tap one of the following:
• Flash (to use the lamp as a flash when taking an image).
• On (to turn on the lamp and use it as a flashlight).
• Off (to turn off the lamp).
7.17 Changing the settings
7.17.1 General
You can change a variety of settings for the camera.
The Settings menu includes the following:
• Measurement parameters.
• Save options.
• Device settings.
7.17.1.1 Measurement parameters

• Emissivity.
• Reflected temperature.
• Distance.
1. Definition from the imminent international adoption of DIN 54190-3 (Non-destructive testing – Thermographic
testing – Part 3: Terms and definitions).
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7 Operation
7.17.1.2 Save options

• Photo as separate JPEG: When this menu command is selected, the digital photograph
from the visual camera is saved at its full field of view as a separate JPEG image. It
may be necessary to activate this option if you are not using the FLIR Tools software.
7.17.1.3 Device settings

• Language, time & units:
• Language.
• Temperature unit.
• Distance unit.
• Date & time.
• Date & time format.
• Reset options:
• Reset default camera mode.
• Reset device settings to factory default.
• Delete all saved images.
• Auto power off.
• Auto orientation.
• Display intensity.
• Camera information: This menu command displays various items of information about
the camera, such as the model, serial number, and software version.
7.17.2 Procedure
3. In the dialog box, tap the setting that you want to change.
Save button once.
7.18 Updating the camera
7.18.1 General
To take advantage of our latest camera firmware, it is important that you keep your camera
updated. You update your camera using FLIR Tools.
7.18.2 Procedure
1. Start FLIR Tools.
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7 Operation
2. Start the camera.

3. Connect the camera to the computer using the USB cable.
4. FLIR Tools displays a welcome screen when the camera is identified. On the welcome
screen, click Check for updates.
You can also click Check for updates on the Help menu in FLIR Tools.
5. Follow the on-screen instructions.
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8 Technical data
8.1 Online field-of-view calculator

Please visit http://support.flir.com and click the photo of the camera series for field-of-view
tables for all lens–camera combinations.
8.2 Note about technical data

FLIR Systems reserves the right to change specifications at any time without prior notice.
Please check http://support.flir.com for latest changes.
8.3 Note about authoritative versions

The authoritative version of this publication is English. In the event of divergences due to
translation errors, the English text has precedence.
Any late changes are first implemented in English.
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8 Technical data
8.4 FLIR C2
P/N: 72001-0101
Rev.: 22841
Imaging and optical data
NETD 100 mK
Field of view 41° × 31°
Minimum focus distance
• Thermal: 0.15 m (0.49 ft.)
• MSX: 1.0 m (3.3 ft.)
Focal length 1.54 mm (0.061 in.)
Spatial resolution (IFOV) 11 mrad

F-number 1.1
Image frequency 9 Hz
Focus Focus free
Detector data
Focal Plane Array Uncooled microbolometer
Spectral range 7.5–14 µm
Detector pitch 17 µm
IR sensor size 80 × 60
Image presentation
Display (color)
• 3.0 in.
• 320 × 240 pixels
Display, aspect ratio 4:3
Auto orientation Yes
Touch screen Yes, capacitive
Image adjustment (alignment calibration) Yes
Image presentation modes
Infrared image Yes
Visual image Yes
MSX Yes
Gallery Yes
Measurement
Object temperature range –10°C to +150°C (14 to 302°F)
Accuracy ±2°C (±3.6°F) or 2%, whichever is greater, at 25°C

(77°F) nominal.
Measurement analysis
Spotmeter On/off
Emissivity correction Yes; matt/semi-matt/semi-glossy + custom value
Measurements correction
• Emissivity
• Reflected apparent temperature
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8 Technical data
Set-up
Color palettes
• Iron
• Rainbow
• Rainbow HC
• Gray
Set-up commands Local adaptation of units, language, date and time

formats
Languages Arabic, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish,
French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japa-
nese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese,
Russian, Simpl. Chinese, Spanish, Swedish, Trad.
Chinese, Turkish.
Lamp
Output power 0.85 W
Field of view 60°
Service functions
Camera software update Using FLIR Tools
Storage of images
Storage media Internal memory store at least 500 sets of images
Image file format

• Standard JPEG
• 14-bit measurement data included
Video streaming
Non-radiometric IR video streaming Yes
Visual video streaming Yes
Digital camera
Digital camera 640 × 480 pixels
Digital camera, focus Fixed focus
Data communication interfaces

USB, connector type USB Micro-B: Data transfer to and from PC
USB, standard USB 2.0
Power system
Battery type Rechargeable Li-ion polymer battery
Battery voltage 3.7 V
Battery operating time 2h
Charging system Charged inside the camera
Charging time 1.5 h
External power operation

• AC adapter, 90–260 VAC input
• 5 V output to camera
Power management Automatic shut-down
Environmental data
Operating temperature range –10°C to +50°C (14 to 122°F)
Storage temperature range –40°C to +70°C (–40 to 158°F)
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8 Technical data
Environmental data
Humidity (operating and storage) IEC 60068-2-30/24 h 95% relative humidity +25°C
to +40°C (+77°F to +104°F) / 2 cycles
Relative humidity 95% relative humidity +25°C to +40°C (+77°F to
+104°F) non condensing
EMC
• WEEE 2012/19/EC
• RoHs 2011/65/EC
• C-Tick
• EN 61000-6-3
• EN 61000-6-2
• FCC 47 CFR Part 15 Class B
Magnetic fields EN 61000-4-8
Battery regulations UL 1642
Encapsulation Camera housing and lens: IP 40 (IEC 60529)
Shock 25 g (IEC 60068-2-27)
Vibration 2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)
Physical data
Weight (incl. Battery) 0.13 kg (0.29 lb.)
Size (L × W × H) 125 × 80 × 24 mm (4.9 × 3.1 × 0.94 in.)

Tripod mounting No
Housing material
• PC and ABS, partially covered with TPE
• Aluminum
Color Black and gray
Shipping information
Packaging, type Cardboard box

List of contents
• Infrared camera
• Lanyard
• Power supply/charger with EU, UK, US, CN
and Australian plugs
• Printed getting started guide
• USB memory stick with documentation
• USB cable
Packaging, weight 0.53 kg (1.17 lb.)
Packaging, size 175 × 115 × 75 mm (6.9 × 4.5 × 3.0 in.)
EAN-13 4743254001961
UPC-12 845188010614
Country of origin Estonia
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© 2012, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. No part of this drawing may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without written permission from FLIR Systems, Inc. Specifications subject to change without further notice. Dimensional data is based on nominal values. Products may be subject to regional market considerations. License procedures may apply.
Product may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to exportquestions@flir.com with any questions. Diversion contrary to US law is prohibited.
B
A
H
E
F
D
G
1
1
2
2
3
3
Camera with build-in IR lens f=1,54mm
1,31
33,4 mm
1,78 0,43
45,3 mm 11 mm
4
4
IR Optical axis
Visual Optical axis
0,91
23,1 mm
5
5
0,58
14,8 mm
6
6
7
7
4,9
124,5mm
8
-
Optical axis
Modified
1,02
Denomination
25,9 mm
2014-12-18
Check
MABR
3,1
78,7 mm
9
Drawn by
Basic Dimensions Flir Cx

R&D Thermography
Size
Scale
1:1
A2
Drawing No.
10
T128439
Size
Sheet
B
1(1)
D
F
B
A
E
C
G
11 Cleaning the camera
11.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items
11.1.1 Liquids
Use one of these liquids:
• Warm water
• A weak detergent solution
11.1.2 Equipment
A soft cloth
11.1.3 Procedure
1. Soak the cloth in the liquid.
2. Twist the cloth to remove excess liquid.
3. Clean the part with the cloth.
CAUTION
Do not apply solvents or similar liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. This can cause damage.
11.2 Infrared lens
11.2.1 Liquids
Use one of these liquids:
• A commercial lens cleaning liquid with more than 30% isopropyl alcohol.
• 96% ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH).
11.2.2 Equipment
Cotton wool
11.2.3 Procedure
1. Soak the cotton wool in the liquid.
2. Twist the cotton wool to remove excess liquid.
3. Clean the lens one time only and discard the cotton wool.
WARNING
Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on con-
tainers before you use a liquid: the liquids can be dangerous.
CAUTION
• Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has a delicate anti-reflective coating.
• Do not clean the infrared lens too vigorously. This can damage the anti-reflective coating.
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12 Application examples
12.1 Moisture & water damage
12.1.1 General
It is often possible to detect moisture and water damage in a house by using an infrared
camera. This is partly because the damaged area has a different heat conduction property
and partly because it has a different thermal capacity to store heat than the surrounding
material.
NOTE
Many factors can come into play as to how moisture or water damage will appear in an infrared image.
For example, heating and cooling of these parts takes place at different rates depending on the material
and the time of day. For this reason, it is important that other methods are used as well to check for mois-
ture or water damage.
12.1.2 Figure
The image below shows extensive water damage on an external wall where the water has
penetrated the outer facing because of an incorrectly installed window ledge.
12.2 Faulty contact in socket
12.2.1 General
Depending on the type of connection a socket has, an improperly connected wire can re-
sult in local temperature increase. This temperature increase is caused by the reduced
contact area between the connection point of the incoming wire and the socket , and can
result in an electrical fire.
NOTE
A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For this reason, differ-
ent faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image.
Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between wire and socket, or from differ-
ence in load.
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12.2.2 Figure
The image below shows a connection of a cable to a socket where improper contact in the
connection has resulted in local temperature increase.
12.3 Oxidized socket
12.3.1 General
Depending on the type of socket and the environment in which the socket is installed, ox-
ides may occur on the socket's contact surfaces. These oxides can lead to locally in-
creased resistance when the socket is loaded, which can be seen in an infrared image as
local temperature increase.
NOTE
A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For this reason, differ-
ent faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image.
Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between a wire and socket, or from dif-
ference in load.
12.3.2 Figure
The image below shows a series of fuses where one fuse has a raised temperature on the
contact surfaces against the fuse holder. Because of the fuse holder’s blank metal, the
temperature increase is not visible there, while it is visible on the fuse’s ceramic material.
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12.4 Insulation deficiencies
12.4.1 General
Insulation deficiencies may result from insulation losing volume over the course of time
and thereby not entirely filling the cavity in a frame wall.
An infrared camera allows you to see these insulation deficiencies because they either
have a different heat conduction property than sections with correctly installed insulation,
and/or show the area where air is penetrating the frame of the building.
NOTE
When you are inspecting a building, the temperature difference between the inside and outside should be
at least 10°C (18°F). Studs, water pipes, concrete columns, and similar components may resemble an in-
sulation deficiency in an infrared image. Minor differences may also occur naturally.
12.4.2 Figure
In the image below, insulation in the roof framing is lacking. Due to the absence of insula-
tion, air has forced its way into the roof structure, which thus takes on a different character-
istic appearance in the infrared image.
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12.5 Draft
12.5.1 General
Draft can be found under baseboards, around door and window casings, and above ceil-
ing trim. This type of draft is often possible to see with an infrared camera, as a cooler air-
stream cools down the surrounding surface.
NOTE
When you are investigating draft in a house, there should be sub-atmospheric pressure in the house.
Close all doors, windows, and ventilation ducts, and allow the kitchen fan to run for a while before you
take the infrared images.
An infrared image of draft often shows a typical stream pattern. You can see this stream pattern clearly in
the picture below.
Also keep in mind that drafts can be concealed by heat from floor heating circuits.
12.5.2 Figure
The image below shows a ceiling hatch where faulty installation has resulted in a strong
draft.
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13 About FLIR Systems
FLIR Systems was established in 1978 to pioneer the development of high-performance

infrared imaging systems, and is the world leader in the design, manufacture, and market-
ing of thermal imaging systems for a wide variety of commercial, industrial, and govern-
ment applications. Today, FLIR Systems embraces five major companies with outstanding
achievements in infrared technology since 1958—the Swedish AGEMA Infrared Systems
(formerly AGA Infrared Systems), the three United States companies Indigo Systems, FSI,
and Inframetrics, and the French company Cedip.
Since 2007, FLIR Systems has acquired several companies with world-leading expertise
in sensor technologies:
• Extech Instruments (2007)
• Ifara Tecnologías (2008)
• Salvador Imaging (2009)
• OmniTech Partners (2009)
• Directed Perception (2009)
• Raymarine (2010)
• ICx Technologies (2010)
• TackTick Marine Digital Instruments (2011)
• Aerius Photonics (2011)
• Lorex Technology (2012)
• Traficon (2012)
• MARSS (2013)
• DigitalOptics micro-optics business (2013)
Figure 13.1 Patent documents from the early 1960s
The company has sold more than 350,000 infrared cameras worldwide for applications
such as predictive maintenance, R & D, non-destructive testing, process control and auto-
mation, and machine vision, among many others.
FLIR Systems has three manufacturing plants in the United States (Portland, OR, Boston,
MA, Santa Barbara, CA) and one in Sweden (Stockholm). Since 2007 there is also a
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manufacturing plant in Tallinn, Estonia. Direct sales offices in Belgium, Brazil, China,
France, Germany, Great Britain, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Korea, Sweden, and the USA—
together with a worldwide network of agents and distributors—support our international
customer base.
FLIR Systems is at the forefront of innovation in the infrared camera industry. We antici-
pate market demand by constantly improving our existing cameras and developing new
ones. The company has set milestones in product design and development such as the in-
troduction of the first battery-operated portable camera for industrial inspections, and the
first uncooled infrared camera, to mention just two innovations.
Figure 13.2 LEFT: Thermovision Model 661 from 1969. The camera weighed approximately 25 kg (55 lb.),
the oscilloscope 20 kg (44 lb.), and the tripod 15 kg (33 lb.). The operator also needed a 220 VAC generator
set, and a 10 L (2.6 US gallon) jar with liquid nitrogen. To the left of the oscilloscope the Polaroid attachment
(6 kg/13 lb.) can be seen. RIGHT: FLIR One, which was launched in January 2014, is a slide-on attachment
that gives iPhones thermal imaging capabilities. Weight: 90 g (3.2 oz.).
FLIR Systems manufactures all vital mechanical and electronic components of the camera
systems itself. From detector design and manufacturing, to lenses and system electronics,
to final testing and calibration, all production steps are carried out and supervised by our
own engineers. The in-depth expertise of these infrared specialists ensures the accuracy
and reliability of all vital components that are assembled into your infrared camera.
13.1 More than just an infrared camera

At FLIR Systems we recognize that our job is to go beyond just producing the best infrared
camera systems. We are committed to enabling all users of our infrared camera systems
to work more productively by providing them with the most powerful camera–software
combination. Especially tailored software for predictive maintenance, R & D, and process
monitoring is developed in-house. Most software is available in a wide variety of
languages.
We support all our infrared cameras with a wide variety of accessories to adapt your equip-
ment to the most demanding infrared applications.
13.2 Sharing our knowledge

Although our cameras are designed to be very user-friendly, there is a lot more to thermog-
raphy than just knowing how to handle a camera. Therefore, FLIR Systems has founded
the Infrared Training Center (ITC), a separate business unit, that provides certified training
courses. Attending one of the ITC courses will give you a truly hands-on learning
experience.
The staff of the ITC are also there to provide you with any application support you may
need in putting infrared theory into practice.
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13.3 Supporting our customers

FLIR Systems operates a worldwide service network to keep your camera running at all
times. If you discover a problem with your camera, local service centers have all the equip-
ment and expertise to solve it within the shortest possible time. Therefore, there is no need
to send your camera to the other side of the world or to talk to someone who does not
speak your language.
13.4 A few images from our facilities
Figure 13.3 LEFT: Development of system electronics; RIGHT: Testing of an FPA detector
Figure 13.4 LEFT: Diamond turning machine; RIGHT: Lens polishing
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14 Glossary
absorption (ab- The amount of radiation absorbed by an object relative to the re-
sorption factor) ceived radiation. A number between 0 and 1.
atmosphere The gases between the object being measured and the camera, nor-
mally air.
autoadjust A function making a camera perform an internal image correction.
autopalette The IR image is shown with an uneven spread of colors, displaying
cold objects as well as hot ones at the same time.
blackbody Totally non-reflective object. All its radiation is due to its own
temperature.
blackbody An IR radiating equipment with blackbody properties used to calibrate
radiator IR cameras.
calculated at- A transmission value computed from the temperature, the relative hu-
mospheric midity of air and the distance to the object.
transmission
cavity radiator A bottle shaped radiator with an absorbing inside, viewed through the
bottleneck.
color The temperature for which the color of a blackbody matches a specif-
temperature ic color.
conduction The process that makes heat diffuse into a material.
continuous A function that adjusts the image. The function works all the time,
adjust continuously adjusting brightness and contrast according to the im-
age content.
convection Convection is a heat transfer mode where a fluid is brought into mo-
tion, either by gravity or another force, thereby transferring heat from
one place to another.
dual isotherm An isotherm with two color bands, instead of one.
emissivity The amount of radiation coming from an object, compared to that of a
(emissivity blackbody. A number between 0 and 1.
factor)
emittance Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time and area
(W/m2)
environment Objects and gases that emit radiation towards the object being
measured.
estimated at- A transmission value, supplied by a user, replacing a calculated one
mospheric
transmission
external optics Extra lenses, filters, heat shields etc. that can be put between the
camera and the object being measured.
filter A material transparent only to some of the infrared wavelengths.
FOV Field of view: The horizontal angle that can be viewed through an IR
lens.
FPA Focal plane array: A type of IR detector.
graybody An object that emits a fixed fraction of the amount of energy of a
blackbody for each wavelength.
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14 Glossary
IFOV Instantaneous field of view: A measure of the geometrical resolution

of an IR camera.
image correc- A way of compensating for sensitivity differences in various parts of
tion (internal or live images and also of stabilizing the camera.
external)
infrared Non-visible radiation, having a wavelength from about 2–13 μm.
IR infrared
isotherm A function highlighting those parts of an image that fall above, below
or between one or more temperature intervals.
isothermal A bottle-shaped radiator with a uniform temperature viewed through
cavity the bottleneck.
Laser LocatIR An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser ra-
diation in a thin, concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the ob-
ject in front of the camera.
laser pointer An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser ra-
diation in a thin, concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the ob-
ject in front of the camera.
level The center value of the temperature scale, usually expressed as a
signal value.
manual adjust A way to adjust the image by manually changing certain parameters.
NETD Noise equivalent temperature difference. A measure of the image
noise level of an IR camera.
noise Undesired small disturbance in the infrared image
object A set of values describing the circumstances under which the meas-
parameters urement of an object was made, and the object itself (such as emis-
sivity, reflected apparent temperature, distance etc.)
object signal A non-calibrated value related to the amount of radiation received by
the camera from the object.
palette The set of colors used to display an IR image.
pixel Stands for picture element. One single spot in an image.
radiance Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and
angle (W/m2/sr)
radiant power Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time (W)
radiation The process by which electromagnetic energy, is emitted by an object
or a gas.
radiator A piece of IR radiating equipment.
range The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR cam-
era. Cameras can have several ranges. Expressed as two blackbody
temperatures that limit the current calibration.
reference A temperature which the ordinary measured values can be compared
temperature with.
reflection The amount of radiation reflected by an object relative to the received
radiation. A number between 0 and 1.
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14 Glossary
relative Relative humidity represents the ratio between the current water va-
humidity pour mass in the air and the maximum it may contain in saturation
conditions.
saturation The areas that contain temperatures outside the present level/span
color settings are colored with the saturation colors. The saturation colors
contain an ‘overflow’ color and an ‘underflow’ color. There is also a
third red saturation color that marks everything saturated by the de-
tector indicating that the range should probably be changed.
span The interval of the temperature scale, usually expressed as a signal
value.
spectral (radi- Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and
ant) emittance wavelength (W/m2/μm)
temperature A value which is the result of a subtraction between two temperature
difference, or values.
difference of
temperature.
temperature The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR cam-
range era. Cameras can have several ranges. Expressed as two blackbody
temperatures that limit the current calibration.
temperature The way in which an IR image currently is displayed. Expressed as
scale two temperature values limiting the colors.
thermogram infrared image
transmission Gases and materials can be more or less transparent. Transmission
(or transmit- is the amount of IR radiation passing through them. A number be-
tance) factor tween 0 and 1.
transparent An isotherm showing a linear spread of colors, instead of covering the
isotherm highlighted parts of the image.
visual Refers to the video mode of a IR camera, as opposed to the normal,
thermographic mode. When a camera is in video mode it captures or-
dinary video images, while thermographic images are captured when
the camera is in IR mode.
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15 Thermographic measurement
techniques
15.1 Introduction
An infrared camera measures and images the emitted infrared radiation from an object.
The fact that radiation is a function of object surface temperature makes it possible for the
camera to calculate and display this temperature.
However, the radiation measured by the camera does not only depend on the temperature
of the object but is also a function of the emissivity. Radiation also originates from the sur-
roundings and is reflected in the object. The radiation from the object and the reflected ra-
diation will also be influenced by the absorption of the atmosphere.
To measure temperature accurately, it is therefore necessary to compensate for the effects
of a number of different radiation sources. This is done on-line automatically by the cam-
era. The following object parameters must, however, be supplied for the camera:
• The emissivity of the object
• The reflected apparent temperature
• The distance between the object and the camera
• The relative humidity
• Temperature of the atmosphere
15.2 Emissivity
The most important object parameter to set correctly is the emissivity which, in short, is a
measure of how much radiation is emitted from the object, compared to that from a perfect
blackbody of the same temperature.
Normally, object materials and surface treatments exhibit emissivity ranging from approxi-
mately 0.1 to 0.95. A highly polished (mirror) surface falls below 0.1, while an oxidized or
painted surface has a higher emissivity. Oil-based paint, regardless of color in the visible
spectrum, has an emissivity over 0.9 in the infrared. Human skin exhibits an emissivity
0.97 to 0.98.
Non-oxidized metals represent an extreme case of perfect opacity and high reflexivity,
which does not vary greatly with wavelength. Consequently, the emissivity of metals is low
– only increasing with temperature. For non-metals, emissivity tends to be high, and de-
creases with temperature.
15.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample
15.2.1.1 Step 1: Determining reflected apparent temperature

Use one of the following two methods to determine reflected apparent temperature:
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15 Thermographic measurement techniques
15.2.1.1.1 Method 1: Direct method

1. Look for possible reflection sources, considering that the incident angle = reflection an-
gle (a = b).
Figure 15.1 1 = Reflection source
2. If the reflection source is a spot source, modify the source by obstructing it using a
piece if cardboard.
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3. Measure the radiation intensity (= apparent temperature) from the reflecting source us-
ing the following settings:
• Emissivity: 1.0
• Dobj: 0
You can measure the radiation intensity using one of the following two methods:
NOTE
Using a thermocouple to measure reflected apparent temperature is not recommended for two important
reasons:
• A thermocouple does not measure radiation intensity
• A thermocouple requires a very good thermal contact to the surface, usually by gluing and covering
the sensor by a thermal isolator.
15.2.1.1.2 Method 2: Reflector method

1. Crumble up a large piece of aluminum foil.
2. Uncrumble the aluminum foil and attach it to a piece of cardboard of the same size.
3. Put the piece of cardboard in front of the object you want to measure. Make sure that
the side with aluminum foil points to the camera.
4. Set the emissivity to 1.0.
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5. Measure the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil and write it down.
Figure 15.4 Measuring the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil.
15.2.1.2 Step 2: Determining the emissivity

1. Select a place to put the sample.
2. Determine and set reflected apparent temperature according to the previous
procedure.
3. Put a piece of electrical tape with known high emissivity on the sample.
4. Heat the sample at least 20 K above room temperature. Heating must be reasonably
even.
5. Focus and auto-adjust the camera, and freeze the image.
6. Adjust Level and Span for best image brightness and contrast.
7. Set emissivity to that of the tape (usually 0.97).
8. Measure the temperature of the tape using one of the following measurement
functions:
• Isotherm (helps you to determine both the temperature and how evenly you have
heated the sample)
• Spot (simpler)
• Box Avg (good for surfaces with varying emissivity).
9. Write down the temperature.
10. Move your measurement function to the sample surface.
11. Change the emissivity setting until you read the same temperature as your previous
measurement.
12. Write down the emissivity.
NOTE
• Avoid forced convection

• Look for a thermally stable surrounding that will not generate spot reflections
• Use high quality tape that you know is not transparent, and has a high emissivity you are certain of
• This method assumes that the temperature of your tape and the sample surface are the same. If they
are not, your emissivity measurement will be wrong.
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15.3 Reflected apparent temperature

This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected in the object. If the emis-
sivity is low and the object temperature relatively far from that of the reflected it will be im-
portant to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature correctly.
15.4 Distance
The distance is the distance between the object and the front lens of the camera. This pa-
rameter is used to compensate for the following two facts:
• That radiation from the target is absorbed by the atmosphere between the object and
the camera.
• That radiation from the atmosphere itself is detected by the camera.
15.5 Relative humidity

The camera can also compensate for the fact that the transmittance is also dependent on
the relative humidity of the atmosphere. To do this set the relative humidity to the correct
value. For short distances and normal humidity the relative humidity can normally be left at
a default value of 50%.
15.6 Other parameters

In addition, some cameras and analysis programs from FLIR Systems allow you to com-
pensate for the following parameters:
• Atmospheric temperature – i.e. the temperature of the atmosphere between the camera
and the target
• External optics temperature – i.e. the temperature of any external lenses or windows
used in front of the camera
• External optics transmittance – i.e. the transmission of any external lenses or windows
used in front of the camera
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16 History of infrared technology
Before the year 1800, the existence of the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
wasn't even suspected. The original significance of the infrared spectrum, or simply ‘the in-
frared’ as it is often called, as a form of heat radiation is perhaps less obvious today than it
was at the time of its discovery by Herschel in 1800.
Figure 16.1 Sir William Herschel (1738–1822)
The discovery was made accidentally during the search for a new optical material. Sir Wil-
liam Herschel – Royal Astronomer to King George III of England, and already famous for
his discovery of the planet Uranus – was searching for an optical filter material to reduce
the brightness of the sun’s image in telescopes during solar observations. While testing
different samples of colored glass which gave similar reductions in brightness he was in-
trigued to find that some of the samples passed very little of the sun’s heat, while others
passed so much heat that he risked eye damage after only a few seconds’ observation.
Herschel was soon convinced of the necessity of setting up a systematic experiment, with
the objective of finding a single material that would give the desired reduction in brightness
as well as the maximum reduction in heat. He began the experiment by actually repeating
Newton’s prism experiment, but looking for the heating effect rather than the visual distri-
bution of intensity in the spectrum. He first blackened the bulb of a sensitive mercury-in-
glass thermometer with ink, and with this as his radiation detector he proceeded to test
the heating effect of the various colors of the spectrum formed on the top of a table by
passing sunlight through a glass prism. Other thermometers, placed outside the sun’s
rays, served as controls.
As the blackened thermometer was moved slowly along the colors of the spectrum, the
temperature readings showed a steady increase from the violet end to the red end. This
was not entirely unexpected, since the Italian researcher, Landriani, in a similar experiment
in 1777 had observed much the same effect. It was Herschel, however, who was the first
to recognize that there must be a point where the heating effect reaches a maximum, and
that measurements confined to the visible portion of the spectrum failed to locate this
point.
Figure 16.2 Marsilio Landriani (1746–1815)
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Moving the thermometer into the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum, Her-
schel confirmed that the heating continued to increase. The maximum point, when he
found it, lay well beyond the red end – in what is known today as the ‘infrared wavelengths’.
When Herschel revealed his discovery, he referred to this new portion of the electromag-
netic spectrum as the ‘thermometrical spectrum’. The radiation itself he sometimes re-
ferred to as ‘dark heat’, or simply ‘the invisible rays’. Ironically, and contrary to popular
opinion, it wasn't Herschel who originated the term ‘infrared’. The word only began to ap-
pear in print around 75 years later, and it is still unclear who should receive credit as the
originator.
Herschel’s use of glass in the prism of his original experiment led to some early controver-
sies with his contemporaries about the actual existence of the infrared wavelengths. Differ-
ent investigators, in attempting to confirm his work, used various types of glass
indiscriminately, having different transparencies in the infrared. Through his later experi-
ments, Herschel was aware of the limited transparency of glass to the newly-discovered
thermal radiation, and he was forced to conclude that optics for the infrared would prob-
ably be doomed to the use of reflective elements exclusively (i.e. plane and curved mir-
rors). Fortunately, this proved to be true only until 1830, when the Italian investigator,
Melloni, made his great discovery that naturally occurring rock salt (NaCl) – which was
available in large enough natural crystals to be made into lenses and prisms – is remark-
ably transparent to the infrared. The result was that rock salt became the principal infrared
optical material, and remained so for the next hundred years, until the art of synthetic crys-
tal growing was mastered in the 1930’s.
Figure 16.3 Macedonio Melloni (1798–1854)
Thermometers, as radiation detectors, remained unchallenged until 1829, the year Nobili
invented the thermocouple. (Herschel’s own thermometer could be read to 0.2 °C (0.036 °
F), and later models were able to be read to 0.05 °C (0.09 °F)). Then a breakthrough oc-
curred; Melloni connected a number of thermocouples in series to form the first thermopile.
The new device was at least 40 times as sensitive as the best thermometer of the day for
detecting heat radiation – capable of detecting the heat from a person standing three me-
ters away.
The first so-called ‘heat-picture’ became possible in 1840, the result of work by Sir John
Herschel, son of the discoverer of the infrared and a famous astronomer in his own right.
Based upon the differential evaporation of a thin film of oil when exposed to a heat pattern
focused upon it, the thermal image could be seen by reflected light where the interference
effects of the oil film made the image visible to the eye. Sir John also managed to obtain a
primitive record of the thermal image on paper, which he called a ‘thermograph’.
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Figure 16.4 Samuel P. Langley (1834–1906)
The improvement of infrared-detector sensitivity progressed slowly. Another major break-

through, made by Langley in 1880, was the invention of the bolometer. This consisted of a
thin blackened strip of platinum connected in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit upon
which the infrared radiation was focused and to which a sensitive galvanometer re-
sponded. This instrument is said to have been able to detect the heat from a cow at a dis-
tance of 400 meters.
An English scientist, Sir James Dewar, first introduced the use of liquefied gases as cool-
ing agents (such as liquid nitrogen with a temperature of -196 °C (-320.8 °F)) in low tem-
perature research. In 1892 he invented a unique vacuum insulating container in which it is
possible to store liquefied gases for entire days. The common ‘thermos bottle’, used for
storing hot and cold drinks, is based upon his invention.
Between the years 1900 and 1920, the inventors of the world ‘discovered’ the infrared.
Many patents were issued for devices to detect personnel, artillery, aircraft, ships – and
even icebergs. The first operating systems, in the modern sense, began to be developed
during the 1914–18 war, when both sides had research programs devoted to the military
exploitation of the infrared. These programs included experimental systems for enemy in-
trusion/detection, remote temperature sensing, secure communications, and ‘flying torpe-
do’ guidance. An infrared search system tested during this period was able to detect an
approaching airplane at a distance of 1.5 km (0.94 miles), or a person more than 300 me-
ters (984 ft.) away.
The most sensitive systems up to this time were all based upon variations of the bolometer
idea, but the period between the two wars saw the development of two revolutionary new
infrared detectors: the image converter and the photon detector. At first, the image con-
verter received the greatest attention by the military, because it enabled an observer for
the first time in history to literally ‘see in the dark’. However, the sensitivity of the image
converter was limited to the near infrared wavelengths, and the most interesting military
targets (i.e. enemy soldiers) had to be illuminated by infrared search beams. Since this in-
volved the risk of giving away the observer’s position to a similarly-equipped enemy ob-
server, it is understandable that military interest in the image converter eventually faded.
The tactical military disadvantages of so-called 'active’ (i.e. search beam-equipped) ther-
mal imaging systems provided impetus following the 1939–45 war for extensive secret
military infrared-research programs into the possibilities of developing ‘passive’ (no search
beam) systems around the extremely sensitive photon detector. During this period, military
secrecy regulations completely prevented disclosure of the status of infrared-imaging
technology. This secrecy only began to be lifted in the middle of the 1950’s, and from that
time adequate thermal-imaging devices finally began to be available to civilian science
and industry.
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17 Theory of thermography
17.1 Introduction
The subjects of infrared radiation and the related technique of thermography are still new
to many who will use an infrared camera. In this section the theory behind thermography
will be given.
17.2 The electromagnetic spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is divided arbitrarily into a number of wavelength regions,
called bands, distinguished by the methods used to produce and detect the radiation.
There is no fundamental difference between radiation in the different bands of the electro-
magnetic spectrum. They are all governed by the same laws and the only differences are
those due to differences in wavelength.
Figure 17.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. 1: X-ray; 2: UV; 3: Visible; 4: IR; 5: Microwaves; 6: Radiowaves.
Thermography makes use of the infrared spectral band. At the short-wavelength end the
boundary lies at the limit of visual perception, in the deep red. At the long-wavelength end
it merges with the microwave radio wavelengths, in the millimeter range.
The infrared band is often further subdivided into four smaller bands, the boundaries of
which are also arbitrarily chosen. They include: the near infrared (0.75–3 μm), the middle
infrared (3–6 μm), the far infrared (6–15 μm) and the extreme infrared (15–100 μm).
Although the wavelengths are given in μm (micrometers), other units are often still used to
measure wavelength in this spectral region, e.g. nanometer (nm) and Ångström (Å).
The relationships between the different wavelength measurements is:
17.3 Blackbody radiation

A blackbody is defined as an object which absorbs all radiation that impinges on it at any
wavelength. The apparent misnomer black relating to an object emitting radiation is ex-
plained by Kirchhoff’s Law (after Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, 1824–1887), which states that a
body capable of absorbing all radiation at any wavelength is equally capable in the emis-
sion of radiation.
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Figure 17.2 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887)
The construction of a blackbody source is, in principle, very simple. The radiation charac-
teristics of an aperture in an isotherm cavity made of an opaque absorbing material repre-
sents almost exactly the properties of a blackbody. A practical application of the principle
to the construction of a perfect absorber of radiation consists of a box that is light tight ex-
cept for an aperture in one of the sides. Any radiation which then enters the hole is scat-
tered and absorbed by repeated reflections so only an infinitesimal fraction can possibly
escape. The blackness which is obtained at the aperture is nearly equal to a blackbody
and almost perfect for all wavelengths.
By providing such an isothermal cavity with a suitable heater it becomes what is termed a
cavity radiator. An isothermal cavity heated to a uniform temperature generates blackbody
radiation, the characteristics of which are determined solely by the temperature of the cav-
ity. Such cavity radiators are commonly used as sources of radiation in temperature refer-
ence standards in the laboratory for calibrating thermographic instruments, such as a
FLIR Systems camera for example.
If the temperature of blackbody radiation increases to more than 525°C (977°F), the
source begins to be visible so that it appears to the eye no longer black. This is the incipi-
ent red heat temperature of the radiator, which then becomes orange or yellow as the tem-
perature increases further. In fact, the definition of the so-called color temperature of an
object is the temperature to which a blackbody would have to be heated to have the same
appearance.
Now consider three expressions that describe the radiation emitted from a blackbody.
17.3.1 Planck’s law
Figure 17.3 Max Planck (1858–1947)
Max Planck (1858–1947) was able to describe the spectral distribution of the radiation
from a blackbody by means of the following formula:
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where:
Wλb Blackbody spectral radiant emittance at wavelength λ.
c Velocity of light = 3 × 108 m/s
h Planck’s constant = 6.6 × 10-34 Joule sec.

k Boltzmann’s constant = 1.4 × 10-23 Joule/K.
T Absolute temperature (K) of a blackbody.
λ Wavelength (μm).
NOTE
The factor 10-6 is used since spectral emittance in the curves is expressed in Watt/m2, μm.
Planck’s formula, when plotted graphically for various temperatures, produces a family of
curves. Following any particular Planck curve, the spectral emittance is zero at λ = 0, then
increases rapidly to a maximum at a wavelength λmax and after passing it approaches zero
again at very long wavelengths. The higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength at
which maximum occurs.
Figure 17.4 Blackbody spectral radiant emittance according to Planck’s law, plotted for various absolute
temperatures. 1: Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm2 × 103(μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm)
17.3.2 Wien’s displacement law

By differentiating Planck’s formula with respect to λ, and finding the maximum, we have:
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This is Wien’s formula (after Wilhelm Wien, 1864–1928), which expresses mathematically
the common observation that colors vary from red to orange or yellow as the temperature
of a thermal radiator increases. The wavelength of the color is the same as the wavelength
calculated for λmax. A good approximation of the value of λmax for a given blackbody tem-
perature is obtained by applying the rule-of-thumb 3 000/T μm. Thus, a very hot star such
as Sirius (11 000 K), emitting bluish-white light, radiates with the peak of spectral radiant
emittance occurring within the invisible ultraviolet spectrum, at wavelength 0.27 μm.
Figure 17.5 Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928)
The sun (approx. 6 000 K) emits yellow light, peaking at about 0.5 μm in the middle of the
visible light spectrum.
At room temperature (300 K) the peak of radiant emittance lies at 9.7 μm, in the far infra-
red, while at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K) the maximum of the almost insignifi-
cant amount of radiant emittance occurs at 38 μm, in the extreme infrared wavelengths.
Figure 17.6 Planckian curves plotted on semi-log scales from 100 K to 1000 K. The dotted line represents
the locus of maximum radiant emittance at each temperature as described by Wien's displacement law. 1:
Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm2 (μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm).
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17.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's law

By integrating Planck’s formula from λ = 0 to λ = ∞, we obtain the total radiant emittance
(Wb) of a blackbody:
This is the Stefan-Boltzmann formula (after Josef Stefan, 1835–1893, and Ludwig Boltz-
mann, 1844–1906), which states that the total emissive power of a blackbody is propor-
tional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. Graphically, Wb represents the area
below the Planck curve for a particular temperature. It can be shown that the radiant emit-
tance in the interval λ = 0 to λmax is only 25% of the total, which represents about the
amount of the sun’s radiation which lies inside the visible light spectrum.
Figure 17.7 Josef Stefan (1835–1893), and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906)
Using the Stefan-Boltzmann formula to calculate the power radiated by the human body,
at a temperature of 300 K and an external surface area of approx. 2 m2, we obtain 1 kW.
This power loss could not be sustained if it were not for the compensating absorption of ra-
diation from surrounding surfaces, at room temperatures which do not vary too drastically
from the temperature of the body – or, of course, the addition of clothing.
17.3.4 Non-blackbody emitters

So far, only blackbody radiators and blackbody radiation have been discussed. However,
real objects almost never comply with these laws over an extended wavelength region –
although they may approach the blackbody behavior in certain spectral intervals. For ex-
ample, a certain type of white paint may appear perfectly white in the visible light spec-
trum, but becomes distinctly gray at about 2 μm, and beyond 3 μm it is almost black.
There are three processes which can occur that prevent a real object from acting like a
blackbody: a fraction of the incident radiation α may be absorbed, a fraction ρ may be re-
flected, and a fraction τ may be transmitted. Since all of these factors are more or less
wavelength dependent, the subscript λ is used to imply the spectral dependence of their
definitions. Thus:
• The spectral absorptance αλ= the ratio of the spectral radiant power absorbed by an ob-
ject to that incident upon it.
• The spectral reflectance ρλ = the ratio of the spectral radiant power reflected by an ob-
ject to that incident upon it.
• The spectral transmittance τλ = the ratio of the spectral radiant power transmitted
through an object to that incident upon it.
The sum of these three factors must always add up to the whole at any wavelength, so we
have the relation:
For opaque materials τλ = 0 and the relation simplifies to:
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Another factor, called the emissivity, is required to describe the fraction ε of the radiant
emittance of a blackbody produced by an object at a specific temperature. Thus, we have
the definition:
The spectral emissivity ελ= the ratio of the spectral radiant power from an object to that
from a blackbody at the same temperature and wavelength.
Expressed mathematically, this can be written as the ratio of the spectral emittance of the
object to that of a blackbody as follows:
Generally speaking, there are three types of radiation source, distinguished by the ways in
which the spectral emittance of each varies with wavelength.
• A blackbody, for which ελ = ε = 1
• A graybody, for which ελ = ε = constant less than 1
• A selective radiator, for which ε varies with wavelength
According to Kirchhoff’s law, for any material the spectral emissivity and spectral absorp-
tance of a body are equal at any specified temperature and wavelength. That is:
From this we obtain, for an opaque material (since αλ + ρλ = 1):
For highly polished materials ελ approaches zero, so that for a perfectly reflecting material
(i.e. a perfect mirror) we have:
For a graybody radiator, the Stefan-Boltzmann formula becomes:
This states that the total emissive power of a graybody is the same as a blackbody at the
same temperature reduced in proportion to the value of ε from the graybody.
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Figure 17.8 Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral radiant emittance; 2: Wave-
length; 3: Blackbody; 4: Selective radiator; 5: Graybody.
Figure 17.9 Spectral emissivity of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral emissivity; 2: Wavelength; 3: Black-
body; 4: Graybody; 5: Selective radiator.
17.4 Infrared semi-transparent materials

Consider now a non-metallic, semi-transparent body – let us say, in the form of a thick flat
plate of plastic material. When the plate is heated, radiation generated within its volume
must work its way toward the surfaces through the material in which it is partially absorbed.
Moreover, when it arrives at the surface, some of it is reflected back into the interior. The
back-reflected radiation is again partially absorbed, but some of it arrives at the other sur-
face, through which most of it escapes; part of it is reflected back again. Although the pro-
gressive reflections become weaker and weaker they must all be added up when the total
emittance of the plate is sought. When the resulting geometrical series is summed, the ef-
fective emissivity of a semi-transparent plate is obtained as:
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When the plate becomes opaque this formula is reduced to the single formula:
This last relation is a particularly convenient one, because it is often easier to measure re-
flectance than to measure emissivity directly.
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18 The measurement formula
As already mentioned, when viewing an object, the camera receives radiation not only
from the object itself. It also collects radiation from the surroundings reflected via the ob-
ject surface. Both these radiation contributions become attenuated to some extent by the
atmosphere in the measurement path. To this comes a third radiation contribution from the
atmosphere itself.
This description of the measurement situation, as illustrated in the figure below, is so far a
fairly true description of the real conditions. What has been neglected could for instance
be sun light scattering in the atmosphere or stray radiation from intense radiation sources
outside the field of view. Such disturbances are difficult to quantify, however, in most cases
they are fortunately small enough to be neglected. In case they are not negligible, the
measurement configuration is likely to be such that the risk for disturbance is obvious, at
least to a trained operator. It is then his responsibility to modify the measurement situation
to avoid the disturbance e.g. by changing the viewing direction, shielding off intense radia-
tion sources etc.
Accepting the description above, we can use the figure below to derive a formula for the
calculation of the object temperature from the calibrated camera output.
Figure 18.1 A schematic representation of the general thermographic measurement situation.1: Surround-
ings; 2: Object; 3: Atmosphere; 4: Camera
Assume that the received radiation power W from a blackbody source of temperature
Tsource on short distance generates a camera output signal Usource that is proportional to
the power input (power linear camera). We can then write (Equation 1):
or, with simplified notation:
where C is a constant.
Should the source be a graybody with emittance ε, the received radiation would conse-
quently be εWsource.
We are now ready to write the three collected radiation power terms:
1. Emission from the object = ετWobj, where ε is the emittance of the object and τ is the
transmittance of the atmosphere. The object temperature is Tobj.
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2. Reflected emission from ambient sources = (1 – ε)τWrefl, where (1 – ε) is the reflec-

tance of the object. The ambient sources have the temperature Trefl.
It has here been assumed that the temperature Trefl is the same for all emitting surfaces
within the halfsphere seen from a point on the object surface. This is of course some-
times a simplification of the true situation. It is, however, a necessary simplification in
order to derive a workable formula, and Trefl can – at least theoretically – be given a val-
ue that represents an efficient temperature of a complex surrounding.
Note also that we have assumed that the emittance for the surroundings = 1. This is
correct in accordance with Kirchhoff’s law: All radiation impinging on the surrounding
surfaces will eventually be absorbed by the same surfaces. Thus the emittance = 1.
(Note though that the latest discussion requires the complete sphere around the object
to be considered.)
3. Emission from the atmosphere = (1 – τ)τWatm, where (1 – τ) is the emittance of the at-
mosphere. The temperature of the atmosphere is Tatm.
The total received radiation power can now be written (Equation 2):
We multiply each term by the constant C of Equation 1 and replace the CW products by
the corresponding U according to the same equation, and get (Equation 3):
Solve Equation 3 for Uobj (Equation 4):
This is the general measurement formula used in all the FLIR Systems thermographic
equipment. The voltages of the formula are:
Table 18.1 Voltages
Uobj Calculated camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature Tobj

i.e. a voltage that can be directly converted into true requested object
temperature.
Utot Measured camera output voltage for the actual case.
Urefl Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature

Trefl according to the calibration.
Uatm Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature

Tatm according to the calibration.
The operator has to supply a number of parameter values for the calculation:
• the object emittance ε,
• the relative humidity,
• Tatm
• object distance (Dobj)
• the (effective) temperature of the object surroundings, or the reflected ambient temper-
ature Trefl, and
• the temperature of the atmosphere Tatm
This task could sometimes be a heavy burden for the operator since there are normally no
easy ways to find accurate values of emittance and atmospheric transmittance for the
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actual case. The two temperatures are normally less of a problem provided the surround-
ings do not contain large and intense radiation sources.
A natural question in this connection is: How important is it to know the right values of
these parameters? It could though be of interest to get a feeling for this problem already
here by looking into some different measurement cases and compare the relative magni-
tudes of the three radiation terms. This will give indications about when it is important to
use correct values of which parameters.
The figures below illustrates the relative magnitudes of the three radiation contributions for
three different object temperatures, two emittances, and two spectral ranges: SW and LW.
Remaining parameters have the following fixed values:
• τ = 0.88
• Trefl = +20°C (+68°F)
• Tatm = +20°C (+68°F)
It is obvious that measurement of low object temperatures are more critical than measur-
ing high temperatures since the ‘disturbing’ radiation sources are relatively much stronger
in the first case. Should also the object emittance be low, the situation would be still more
difficult.
We have finally to answer a question about the importance of being allowed to use the cal-
ibration curve above the highest calibration point, what we call extrapolation. Imagine that
we in a certain case measure Utot = 4.5 volts. The highest calibration point for the camera
was in the order of 4.1 volts, a value unknown to the operator. Thus, even if the object hap-
pened to be a blackbody, i.e. Uobj = Utot, we are actually performing extrapolation of the
calibration curve when converting 4.5 volts into temperature.
Let us now assume that the object is not black, it has an emittance of 0.75, and the trans-
mittance is 0.92. We also assume that the two second terms of Equation 4 amount to 0.5
volts together. Computation of Uobj by means of Equation 4 then results in Uobj = 4.5 / 0.75
/ 0.92 – 0.5 = 6.0. This is a rather extreme extrapolation, particularly when considering that
the video amplifier might limit the output to 5 volts! Note, though, that the application of the
calibration curve is a theoretical procedure where no electronic or other limitations exist.
We trust that if there had been no signal limitations in the camera, and if it had been cali-
brated far beyond 5 volts, the resulting curve would have been very much the same as our
real curve extrapolated beyond 4.1 volts, provided the calibration algorithm is based on ra-
diation physics, like the FLIR Systems algorithm. Of course there must be a limit to such
extrapolations.
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Figure 18.2 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (SW camera).
1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radia-
tion. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; Trefl = 20°C (+68°F); Tatm = 20°C (+68°F).
Figure 18.3 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (LW camera).
1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radia-
tion. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; Trefl = 20°C (+68°F); Tatm = 20°C (+68°F).
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19 Emissivity tables
This section presents a compilation of emissivity data from the infrared literature and
measurements made by FLIR Systems.
19.1 References
1. Mikaél A. Bramson: Infrared Radiation, A Handbook for Applications, Plenum press, N.
Y.
2. William L. Wolfe, George J. Zissis: The Infrared Handbook, Office of Naval Research,
Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.
3. Madding, R. P.: Thermographic Instruments and systems. Madison, Wisconsin: Univer-
sity of Wisconsin – Extension, Department of Engineering and Applied Science.
4. William L. Wolfe: Handbook of Military Infrared Technology, Office of Naval Research,
Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.
5. Jones, Smith, Probert: External thermography of buildings..., Proc. of the Society of
Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol.110, Industrial and Civil Applications of
Infrared Technology, June 1977 London.
6. Paljak, Pettersson: Thermography of Buildings, Swedish Building Research Institute,
Stockholm 1972.
7. Vlcek, J: Determination of emissivity with imaging radiometers and some emissivities
at λ = 5 µm. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing.
8. Kern: Evaluation of infrared emission of clouds and ground as measured by weather
satellites, Defence Documentation Center, AD 617 417.
9. Öhman, Claes: Emittansmätningar med AGEMA E-Box. Teknisk rapport, AGEMA
1999. (Emittance measurements using AGEMA E-Box. Technical report, AGEMA
1999.)
10. Matteï, S., Tang-Kwor, E: Emissivity measurements for Nextel Velvet coating 811-21
between –36°C AND 82°C.
11. Lohrengel & Todtenhaupt (1996)
12. ITC Technical publication 32.
13. ITC Technical publication 29.
NOTE
The emissivity values in the table below are recorded using a shortwave (SW) camera. The values should
be regarded as recommendations only and used with caution.
19.2 Tables
Table 19.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:
Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference
1 2 3 4 5 6
3M type 35 Vinyl electrical < 80 LW ≈ 0.96 13
tape (several
colors)
3M type 88 Black vinyl electri- < 105 LW ≈ 0.96 13
cal tape
3M type 88 Black vinyl electri- < 105 MW < 0.96 13
cal tape
3M type Super 33 Black vinyl electri- < 80 LW ≈ 0.96 13

+ cal tape
Aluminum anodized sheet 100 T 0.55 2
Aluminum anodized, black, 70 SW 0.67 9
dull
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Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Aluminum anodized, black, 70 LW 0.95 9
dull
Aluminum anodized, light 70 SW 0.61 9
gray, dull
Aluminum anodized, light 70 LW 0.97 9

gray, dull
Aluminum as received, plate 100 T 0.09 4

Aluminum as received, sheet 100 T 0.09 2
Aluminum cast, blast 70 SW 0.47 9
cleaned
Aluminum cast, blast 70 LW 0.46 9
cleaned
Aluminum dipped in HNO3, 100 T 0.05 4
plate
Aluminum foil 27 10 µm 0.04 3
Aluminum foil 27 3 µm 0.09 3
Aluminum oxidized, strongly 50–500 T 0.2–0.3 1
Aluminum polished 50–100 T 0.04–0.06 1

Aluminum polished plate 100 T 0.05 4
Aluminum polished, sheet 100 T 0.05 2
Aluminum rough surface 20–50 T 0.06–0.07 1
Aluminum roughened 27 10 µm 0.18 3
Aluminum roughened 27 3 µm 0.28 3
Aluminum sheet, 4 samples 70 SW 0.05–0.08 9

differently
scratched
Aluminum sheet, 4 samples 70 LW 0.03–0.06 9
differently
scratched
Aluminum vacuum deposited 20 T 0.04 2
Aluminum weathered, 17 SW 0.83–0.94 5
heavily
Aluminum bronze 20 T 0.60 1
Aluminum powder T 0.28 1
hydroxide
Aluminum oxide activated, powder T 0.46 1
Aluminum oxide pure, powder T 0.16 1
(alumina)
Asbestos board 20 T 0.96 1
Asbestos fabric T 0.78 1
Asbestos floor tile 35 SW 0.94 7
Asbestos paper 40–400 T 0.93–0.95 1
Asbestos powder T 0.40–0.60 1
Asbestos slate 20 T 0.96 1
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1 2 3 4 5 6
Asphalt paving 4 LLW 0.967 8
Brass dull, tarnished 20–350 T 0.22 1

Brass oxidized 100 T 0.61 2
Brass oxidized 70 SW 0.04–0.09 9
Brass oxidized 70 LW 0.03–0.07 9
Brass oxidized at 600°C 200–600 T 0.59–0.61 1
Brass polished 200 T 0.03 1
Brass polished, highly 100 T 0.03 2
Brass rubbed with 80- 20 T 0.20 2

grit emery
Brass sheet, rolled 20 T 0.06 1

Brass sheet, worked 20 T 0.2 1
with emery
Brick alumina 17 SW 0.68 5
Brick common 17 SW 0.86–0.81 5
Brick Dinas silica, 1100 T 0.85 1
glazed, rough
Brick Dinas silica, 1000 T 0.66 1

refractory
Brick Dinas silica, un- 1000 T 0.80 1
glazed, rough
Brick firebrick 17 SW 0.68 5

Brick fireclay 1000 T 0.75 1
Brick masonry 35 SW 0.94 7

Brick masonry, 20 T 0.94 1
plastered
Brick red, common 20 T 0.93 2
Brick red, rough 20 T 0.88–0.93 1
Brick refractory, 1000 T 0.46 1

corundum
Brick refractory, 1000–1300 T 0.38 1
magnesite
Brick refractory, strongly 500–1000 T 0.8–0.9 1

radiating
Brick refractory, weakly 500–1000 T 0.65–0.75 1

radiating
Brick silica, 95% SiO2 1230 T 0.66 1

Brick sillimanite, 33% 1500 T 0.29 1
SiO2, 64% Al2O3
Brick waterproof 17 SW 0.87 5
Bronze phosphor bronze 70 SW 0.08 9
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1 2 3 4 5 6
Bronze phosphor bronze 70 LW 0.06 9
Bronze polished 50 T 0.1 1
Bronze porous, rough 50–150 T 0.55 1
Bronze powder T 0.76–0.80 1
Carbon candle soot 20 T 0.95 2

Carbon charcoal powder T 0.96 1
Carbon graphite powder T 0.97 1
Carbon graphite, filed 20 T 0.98 2

surface
Carbon lampblack 20–400 T 0.95–0.97 1
Chipboard untreated 20 SW 0.90 6
Chromium polished 50 T 0.10 1
Chromium polished 500–1000 T 0.28–0.38 1

Clay fired 70 T 0.91 1
Cloth black 20 T 0.98 1

Concrete 20 T 0.92 2
Concrete dry 36 SW 0.95 7
Concrete rough 17 SW 0.97 5
Concrete walkway 5 LLW 0.974 8
Copper commercial, 20 T 0.07 1

burnished
Copper electrolytic, care- 80 T 0.018 1
fully polished
Copper electrolytic, –34 T 0.006 4

polished
Copper molten 1100–1300 T 0.13–0.15 1
Copper oxidized 50 T 0.6–0.7 1
Copper oxidized to T 0.88 1

blackness
Copper oxidized, black 27 T 0.78 4
Copper oxidized, heavily 20 T 0.78 2
Copper polished 50–100 T 0.02 1
Copper polished 100 T 0.03 2
Copper polished, 27 T 0.03 4

commercial
Copper polished, 22 T 0.015 4
mechanical
Copper pure, carefully 22 T 0.008 4
prepared surface
Copper scraped 27 T 0.07 4
Copper dioxide powder T 0.84 1
Copper oxide red, powder T 0.70 1
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1 2 3 4 5 6
Ebonite T 0.89 1
Emery coarse 80 T 0.85 1
Enamel 20 T 0.9 1
Enamel lacquer 20 T 0.85–0.95 1
Fiber board hard, untreated 20 SW 0.85 6
Fiber board masonite 70 SW 0.75 9
Fiber board masonite 70 LW 0.88 9
Fiber board particle board 70 SW 0.77 9
Fiber board particle board 70 LW 0.89 9

Fiber board porous, untreated 20 SW 0.85 6
Gold polished 130 T 0.018 1
Gold polished, carefully 200–600 T 0.02–0.03 1
Gold polished, highly 100 T 0.02 2
Granite polished 20 LLW 0.849 8

Granite rough 21 LLW 0.879 8
Granite rough, 4 different 70 SW 0.95–0.97 9

samples
Granite rough, 4 different 70 LW 0.77–0.87 9

samples
Gypsum 20 T 0.8–0.9 1
Ice: See Water

Iron and steel cold rolled 70 SW 0.20 9
Iron and steel cold rolled 70 LW 0.09 9
Iron and steel covered with red 20 T 0.61–0.85 1
rust
Iron and steel electrolytic 100 T 0.05 4

Iron and steel electrolytic, care- 175–225 T 0.05–0.06 1
fully polished
Iron and steel freshly worked 20 T 0.24 1

with emery
Iron and steel ground sheet 950–1100 T 0.55–0.61 1
Iron and steel heavily rusted 20 T 0.69 2

sheet
Iron and steel hot rolled 130 T 0.60 1
Iron and steel hot rolled 20 T 0.77 1
Iron and steel oxidized 100 T 0.74 4
Iron and steel oxidized 125–525 T 0.78–0.82 1
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1 2 3 4 5 6
Iron and steel oxidized 200–600 T 0.80 1
Iron and steel oxidized strongly 50 T 0.88 1
Iron and steel oxidized strongly 500 T 0.98 1
Iron and steel polished 100 T 0.07 2

Iron and steel polished 400–1000 T 0.14–0.38 1
Iron and steel polished sheet 750–1050 T 0.52–0.56 1
Iron and steel rolled sheet 50 T 0.56 1
Iron and steel rolled, freshly 20 T 0.24 1
Iron and steel rough, plane 50 T 0.95–0.98 1

surface
Iron and steel rusted red, sheet 22 T 0.69 4
Iron and steel rusted, heavily 17 SW 0.96 5
Iron and steel rusty, red 20 T 0.69 1

Iron and steel shiny oxide layer, 20 T 0.82 1
sheet,
Iron and steel shiny, etched 150 T 0.16 1
Iron and steel wrought, carefully 40–250 T 0.28 1
polished
Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70 SW 0.64 9
Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70 LW 0.85 9
Iron galvanized sheet 92 T 0.07 4
Iron galvanized sheet, burnished 30 T 0.23 1
Iron galvanized sheet, oxidized 20 T 0.28 1
Iron tinned sheet 24 T 0.064 4

Iron, cast casting 50 T 0.81 1
Iron, cast ingots 1000 T 0.95 1
Iron, cast liquid 1300 T 0.28 1

Iron, cast machined 800–1000 T 0.60–0.70 1
Iron, cast oxidized 100 T 0.64 2
Iron, cast oxidized at 600°C 200–600 T 0.64–0.78 1
Iron, cast polished 200 T 0.21 1
Iron, cast unworked 900–1100 T 0.87–0.95 1
Krylon Ultra-flat Flat black Room tempera- LW ≈ 0.96 12
black 1602 ture up to 175
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1 2 3 4 5 6
Krylon Ultra-flat Flat black Room tempera- MW ≈ 0.97 12
black 1602 ture up to 175
Lacquer 3 colors sprayed 70 SW 0.50–0.53 9
on Aluminum
Lacquer 3 colors sprayed 70 LW 0.92–0.94 9
on Aluminum
Lacquer Aluminum on 20 T 0.4 1
rough surface
Lacquer bakelite 80 T 0.83 1

Lacquer black, dull 40–100 T 0.96–0.98 1
Lacquer black, matte 100 T 0.97 2
Lacquer black, shiny, 20 T 0.87 1
sprayed on iron
Lacquer heat–resistant 100 T 0.92 1
Lacquer white 100 T 0.92 2
Lacquer white 40–100 T 0.8–0.95 1
Lead oxidized at 200°C 200 T 0.63 1
Lead oxidized, gray 20 T 0.28 1
Lead oxidized, gray 22 T 0.28 4
Lead shiny 250 T 0.08 1

Lead unoxidized, 100 T 0.05 4
polished
Lead red 100 T 0.93 4
Lead red, powder 100 T 0.93 1
Leather tanned T 0.75–0.80 1
Lime T 0.3–0.4 1
Magnesium 22 T 0.07 4
Magnesium polished 20 T 0.07 2
Magnesium T 0.86 1
powder
Molybdenum 1500–2200 T 0.19–0.26 1
Molybdenum 600–1000 T 0.08–0.13 1
Molybdenum filament 700–2500 T 0.1–0.3 1
Mortar 17 SW 0.87 5
Mortar dry 36 SW 0.94 7
Nextel Velvet 811- Flat black –60–150 LW > 0.97 10 and

21 Black 11
Nichrome rolled 700 T 0.25 1
Nichrome sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1
Nichrome wire, clean 50 T 0.65 1
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1 2 3 4 5 6
Nichrome wire, clean 500–1000 T 0.71–0.79 1
Nichrome wire, oxidized 50–500 T 0.95–0.98 1
Nickel bright matte 122 T 0.041 4
Nickel commercially 100 T 0.045 1

pure, polished
Nickel commercially 200–400 T 0.07–0.09 1
pure, polished
Nickel electrolytic 22 T 0.04 4

Nickel electroplated on 22 T 0.045 4
iron, polished
Nickel electroplated on 20 T 0.11–0.40 1
iron, unpolished
Nickel electroplated on 22 T 0.11 4
iron, unpolished
Nickel electroplated, 20 T 0.05 2
polished
Nickel oxidized 1227 T 0.85 4
Nickel oxidized at 600°C 200–600 T 0.37–0.48 1
Nickel polished 122 T 0.045 4
Nickel wire 200–1000 T 0.1–0.2 1
Nickel oxide 1000–1250 T 0.75–0.86 1
Nickel oxide 500–650 T 0.52–0.59 1
Oil, lubricating 0.025 mm film 20 T 0.27 2
Oil, lubricating film on Ni base: Ni 20 T 0.05 2

base only
Oil, lubricating thick coating 20 T 0.82 2
Paint 8 different colors 70 SW 0.88–0.96 9

and qualities
Paint 8 different colors 70 LW 0.92–0.94 9
and qualities
Paint Aluminum, various 50–100 T 0.27–0.67 1
ages
Paint cadmium yellow T 0.28–0.33 1
Paint chrome green T 0.65–0.70 1
Paint cobalt blue T 0.7–0.8 1

Paint oil 17 SW 0.87 5
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1 2 3 4 5 6
Paint oil based, average 100 T 0.94 2
of 16 colors
Paint oil, black flat 20 SW 0.94 6
Paint oil, black gloss 20 SW 0.92 6
Paint oil, gray flat 20 SW 0.97 6
Paint oil, gray gloss 20 SW 0.96 6
Paint oil, various colors 100 T 0.92–0.96 1

Paint plastic, black 20 SW 0.95 6
Paint plastic, white 20 SW 0.84 6
Paper 4 different colors 70 SW 0.68–0.74 9
Paper 4 different colors 70 LW 0.92–0.94 9
Paper black T 0.90 1

Paper black, dull T 0.94 1
Paper black, dull 70 SW 0.86 9
Paper black, dull 70 LW 0.89 9

Paper blue, dark T 0.84 1
Paper coated with black T 0.93 1
lacquer
Paper green T 0.85 1
Paper red T 0.76 1
Paper white 20 T 0.7–0.9 1
Paper white bond 20 T 0.93 2
Paper white, 3 different 70 SW 0.76–0.78 9
glosses
Paper white, 3 different 70 LW 0.88–0.90 9

glosses
Paper yellow T 0.72 1

Plaster 17 SW 0.86 5
Plaster plasterboard, 20 SW 0.90 6
untreated
Plaster rough coat 20 T 0.91 2
Plastic glass fibre lami- 70 SW 0.94 9

nate (printed circ.
board)
Plastic glass fibre lami- 70 LW 0.91 9
nate (printed circ.
board)
Plastic polyurethane iso- 70 LW 0.55 9
lation board
Plastic polyurethane iso- 70 SW 0.29 9
lation board
Plastic PVC, plastic floor, 70 SW 0.94 9
dull, structured
#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 69

1 2 3 4 5 6
Plastic PVC, plastic floor, 70 LW 0.93 9
dull, structured
Platinum 100 T 0.05 4
Platinum 1000–1500 T 0.14–0.18 1
Platinum pure, polished 200–600 T 0.05–0.10 1
Platinum ribbon 900–1100 T 0.12–0.17 1
Platinum wire 1400 T 0.18 1
Platinum wire 500–1000 T 0.10–0.16 1
Platinum wire 50–200 T 0.06–0.07 1
Porcelain glazed 20 T 0.92 1
Porcelain white, shiny T 0.70–0.75 1

Rubber hard 20 T 0.95 1
Rubber soft, gray, rough 20 T 0.95 1
Sand T 0.60 1
Sand 20 T 0.90 2
Sandstone polished 19 LLW 0.909 8
Sandstone rough 19 LLW 0.935 8
Silver polished 100 T 0.03 2

Silver pure, polished 200–600 T 0.02–0.03 1
Skin human 32 T 0.98 2

Slag boiler 0–100 T 0.97–0.93 1
Slag boiler 1400–1800 T 0.69–0.67 1
Slag boiler 200–500 T 0.89–0.78 1
Slag boiler 600–1200 T 0.76–0.70 1
Snow: See Water

Soil dry 20 T 0.92 2
Soil saturated with 20 T 0.95 2

water
Stainless steel alloy, 8% Ni, 18% 500 T 0.35 1
Cr
Stainless steel rolled 700 T 0.45 1
Stainless steel sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1
Stainless steel sheet, polished 70 SW 0.18 9
Stainless steel sheet, polished 70 LW 0.14 9
Stainless steel sheet, untreated, 70 SW 0.30 9

somewhat
scratched
#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 70

1 2 3 4 5 6
Stainless steel sheet, untreated, 70 LW 0.28 9
somewhat
scratched
Stainless steel type 18-8, buffed 20 T 0.16 2
Stainless steel type 18-8, oxi- 60 T 0.85 2

dized at 800°C
Stucco rough, lime 10–90 T 0.91 1
Styrofoam insulation 37 SW 0.60 7
Tar T 0.79–0.84 1
Tar paper 20 T 0.91–0.93 1
Tile glazed 17 SW 0.94 5
Tin burnished 20–50 T 0.04–0.06 1

Tin tin–plated sheet 100 T 0.07 2
iron
Titanium oxidized at 540°C 1000 T 0.60 1
Titanium polished 1000 T 0.36 1
Tungsten 1500–2200 T 0.24–0.31 1
Tungsten 200 T 0.05 1
Tungsten 600–1000 T 0.1–0.16 1
Tungsten filament 3300 T 0.39 1
Varnish flat 20 SW 0.93 6

Varnish on oak parquet 70 SW 0.90 9
floor
Varnish on oak parquet 70 LW 0.90–0.93 9
floor
Wallpaper slight pattern, light 20 SW 0.85 6
gray
Wallpaper slight pattern, red 20 SW 0.90 6
Water distilled 20 T 0.96 2

Water frost crystals –10 T 0.98 2
Water ice, covered with 0 T 0.98 1

heavy frost
Water ice, smooth 0 T 0.97 1
Water ice, smooth –10 T 0.96 2
Water layer >0.1 mm 0–100 T 0.95–0.98 1
thick
Water snow T 0.8 1
Water snow –10 T 0.85 2
Wood 17 SW 0.98 5
#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 71

1 2 3 4 5 6
Wood 19 LLW 0.962 8
Wood ground T 0.5–0.7 1
Wood pine, 4 different 70 SW 0.67–0.75 9

samples
Wood pine, 4 different 70 LW 0.81–0.89 9
samples
Wood planed 20 T 0.8–0.9 1
Wood planed oak 20 T 0.90 2
Wood planed oak 70 SW 0.77 9
Wood planed oak 70 LW 0.88 9

Wood plywood, smooth, 36 SW 0.82 7
dry
Wood plywood, 20 SW 0.83 6
untreated
Wood white, damp 20 T 0.7–0.8 1
Zinc oxidized at 400°C 400 T 0.11 1
Zinc oxidized surface 1000–1200 T 0.50–0.60 1
Zinc polished 200–300 T 0.04–0.05 1
Zinc sheet 50 T 0.20 1
#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 72

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T501109.xml; en-US; AE; 23547; 2015-02-27
T505552.xml; en-US; 9599; 2013-11-05
T505551.xml; en-US; 22782; 2015-01-27
T505469.xml; en-US; 23215; 2015-02-19
T505013.xml; en-US; 9229; 2013-10-03
T505799.xml; en-US; ; 23545; 2015-02-27
T505800.xml; en-US; ; 23541; 2015-02-26
T505801.xml; en-US; ; 23545; 2015-02-27
T505816.xml; en-US; -; -; -
T505470.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505012.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505007.xml; en-US; 21877; 2014-12-08
T505004.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505000.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505005.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505001.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505006.xml; en-US; 12154; 2014-03-06
T505002.xml; en-US; 18260; 2014-10-06
#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 74

last page Headquarters
Corporate
FLIR Systems, Inc.
27700 SW Parkway Ave.
Wilsonville, OR 97070
USA
Telephone: +1-503-498-3547
Website
http://www.flir.com
Customer support
Copyright
© 2015, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide.
Disclaimer
Specifications subject to change without further notice. Models and accessories subject to regional market considerations. License procedures may apply. Products
described herein may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to exportquestions@flir.com with any questions.
Publ. No.: T559918

Release: AE
Commit: 23547
Head: 23547
Language: en-US
Modified: 2015-02-27
Formatted: 2015-03-03

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User’s manual

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US iii

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US v

7.7 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter ................................... 16

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US vi

11.2.2 Equipment .................................................................... 29

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US vii

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 1

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 2

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 3

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 4

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 5

3.1 User-to-user forums

3.4 Disposal of electronic waste

As with most electronic products, this equipment must be disposed of in an environmen-

3.6 Documentation updates

3.7 Important note about this manual

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 6

3.8 Note about authoritative versions

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 7

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 8

4.2 Submitting a question

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 9

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 10

6.1 View from the front

6.2 View from the rear

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 11

The purpose of this USB Micro-B connector is the following:

6.4 Screen elements

1. Main menu toolbar.

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 12

6.6 Navigating the menu system

#T559918; r. AE/23547/23547; en-US 13

7.1 Charging the battery

7.2 Turning on and turning off the camera

7.3 Saving an image

7.3.2 Image capacity

7.3.3 Naming convention

7.4 Recalling an image