CMT - MIDTERM

Introduction to Construction Materials and and maintaining roads, parking areas,

Testing railway tracks, ports, airport runways,
What are construction materials? bicycle lanes, sidewalks and also play-
➔ It is defined as the materials, supplies, and sport areas.
fixtures, or equipment, any combination 7. Hollow Blocks/Masonry
of such items, and any other leased or ➔ Masonry construction uses individual
purchased articles when the materials, units (such as bricks or hollow blocks) to
supplies, fixtures, equipment or articles build structures that are usually bound
are to be utilized or consumed during together by some kind of mortar. The
construction or are to be incorporated into strongest and most commonly used
construction work pursuant to a bonafide masonry unit now is a concrete block,
written construction contract. which may be reinforced with steel.
Samples of Common Construction Materials 8. Lumber
1. Aggregates ➔ Lumber is a wood product, sawn and
➔ Construction aggregate is a broad shaped from timbers of harvested trees.
category of particulate material used in Lumber is assigned a grade which
construction, including sand, gravel, establishes a measure of consistency in
crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete the final products produced by mills.
and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates 9. Glass
are the most mined materials in the ➔ A durable but brittle material that is
world. They are divided into two valued for its optical properties such as
categories—fine aggregates and coarse its ability to refract, reflect and transmit
aggregates. lights.
2. Steel Rod/Steel 10. Ceramics
➔ Steel is a metal alloy of iron and carbon ➔ Ceramics are a broad category of hard
and often other alloying materials in its inorganic material manufactured using
composition to make it stronger and more minerals. Modern ceramics are usually
fracture-resistant than iron. used in countertops, sinks, tubs,
3. Cement bathrooms and kitchen tiles.
➔ Cement, in general, adhesive substances 11. Rocks/Stones
of all kinds, but, in a narrower sense, the ➔ Rocks are solid cumulative of minerals
binding materials used in building and located in the Earth’s lithosphere. Rocks
civil engineering construction. Cements of are used for various purposes in
this kind are finely ground powders that, construction sites such as dams ,railway
when mixed with water, set to a hard ballast , building, skyscraper building etc.
mass. What is materials testing?
4. Bitumen ➔ Materials testing is a respected and
➔ A black viscous mixture of hydrocarbons established technique which is used to
obtained naturally or as a residue from ascertain both the physical and
petroleum distillation. It is used for road mechanical properties of raw materials
surfacing and roofing. and components. It can be used to
5. Concrete examine almost anything from human
➔ Concrete is a composite material made of hair to steel, ceramics or composite
fine and coarse aggregate (think gravel, materials.
crushed stone, recycled concrete, and Five major categories of materials testing
geosynthetic aggregates) bound together Mechanical Testing
by a liquid binder such as cement that ➔ Also known as destructive testing,
hardens or cures over time. reveals the properties of a material under
6. Asphalt dynamic or static force. Designed to
➔ Asphalt is a mixture of aggregates, ensure that materials are suitable for their
binder and filler, used for constructing intended applications.
Testing for Thermal Properties Fresh Hardened Steel
➔ Testing for thermal properties is used to Concrete Concrete Reinforcement
measure materials’ ability to transfer heat
since it differs with each substance and - Slump Test - Compression - Tensile
may depend on structure, density, - Compacting Strength Test Strength Test
humidity, pressure and temperature. Factor Test - Flexural - Bend Test
Testing for Electrical Properties - VeBe Test Strength Test - Re-bend
➔ Materials are subjected to electrical - K-Slump - Rebound Test
stresses under a variety of controlled Test Hammer Test - Shear Test
conditions, including liquid contaminants, - Ultrasonic - Brinell
dust and fog, dry air electrical arc, or high Pulse velocity Hardness
voltage dielectric breakdown conditions. Test Test
Testing for resistance to corrosion, radiation - Impact Test
and biological deterioration - Torsion Test
➔ Testing for breakdown or deterioration of
materials under exposure to a particular Why is CMT important?
type of environment has greatly Because it is critical for the viability and safety of
increased in recent years. a construction project. CMT can reveal any
Non-destructive testing number of issues related to construction quality.
➔ A testing and analysis technique to It can highlight future risks, help classify a
evaluate the properties of a material, building site, and assist with engineering
component, structure or system for decisions. Without CMT, engineers and builders
characteristic differences or welding may not know if the quality of the construction
defects and discontinuities without meets the requirements.
causing damage to the original part.
Tests carried out on different construction
materials
Aggregates Bitumen Cement

- Specific - Determining - Fineness

Weight and bitumen Test
Density content - Soundness
- Sieve - Determining Test
flash and fire
Analysis - Consistency
point of
- Water bitumen
Test
Absorption - Determining - Setting Time
- Uniformity penetration of Test
- Aggregate bitumen
Impact Value - Determining
Test softening point
- Aggregate of bitumen
Abrasion - Determining
Value Test specific gravity
- Aggregates of bitumen
- Determining
Crushing
ductility of
Value Test bitumen
- Determining
marshal
stability of
bitumen
Familiarization with the Apparatus and Le Chatelier Mold
Equipment Used in Materials Testing ➔ Used for
Equipment Used in Cement Testing determining the
Here are some of the apparatus and equipment expansion of
used in cement. cement. The mold
Vicat Needle Apparatus consists of a
➔ Vicat apparatus is a spring tensioned
penetration device used split cylinder 30
in testing of hydraulic mm internal
cements and similar diameter, 30 mm
materials to determine high with two indicator stems which
their normal or standard measure 165 mm from the points of the
consistency. It is also centre line of the cylinder and O ring. Two
used to determine the or three molds are required for each test.
initial setting time and To perform the test, a water bath is also
final setting time of required.
hydraulic cements and Le Chatelier Flask
similar materials. ➔ Used to determine the
Flow Cone Apparatus specific gravity of
➔ It is used for viscosity and hydraulic cement and
fluidity determination of lime. Glass flask 250 ml
mortars, muds, capacity, with graduated
grouts, fluid neck from 0 to 1 ml and
materials, etc. from 18 to 24 ml in 0.1 ml
Flame Photometer graduation with accuracy
➔ It is used to of 0.05 ml.
determine the ➔ Weight approx.: 500 g
alkali content of Le Chatelier Water Bath
cement. ➔ Le Chatelier
Water Bath,
Automatic Mortar Mixer used for the
➔ It is expressly determination of
designed for the setting time and
efficient mixing of expansion of
cement pastes and cement samples.
mortar, with two ➔ Constructed with
automatic stainless steel
sequences of mixing inside the chamber and exterior case in a
cycle. painted steel sheet, it can hold up to 12
Bulk Density of Cement Le Chatelier molds (to be ordered
Set separately) in the removable rack,
➔ This apparatus is supplied with the bath. The bath reaches
used for the the boiling point in approx. 30 minutes.
measurement of Cement Mortar Permeability Apparatus
the apparent ➔ Permeability
density (bulk apparatus is used
density) of powder to determine
and non-cohesive permeability to
materials. It water of cement
consists of a sieve mortar specimens
funnel with tripod, unit weight measuring with or without
1 liter capacity with hopper, spatula, water proofing
straight edge, large spoon. compound.
 It comprises three brass/ gun metal cells Flexural Testing Machine
mounted on a stand and a pressure ➔ Flexural Testing
chamber with a pressure regulator. The Machines has a
cell can accommodate 100 mm dia x range of 100 kN and
50mm high specimens. Each cell 200 kN capacity
assembly consists of one base plate. The flexure testing
base plate has one outlet for water and is machines have been
recessed to hold the specimen in place designed to meet the
with a ring washer in between. The top need for reliable and
plate has an inlet for water and a suitable consistent testing of
connector for the application of flexural test on standard concrete beams,
pressurized water in the cell. The mold transverse test on kerbs and flagstones,
and collar are clamped between the base indirect tensile tests on concrete and
plate and the top plate with the help of interlocking pavers.
four tension rods and nuts. The cells are Mortar Mixer
mounted on a stand. ➔ It is used for
mixing cement
Equipment Used in Concrete Testing pastes, mortars
Here are some of the apparatus and equipment and pozzolana.
used in concrete.
Compression Testing Machine
➔ This Compression
Testing Machine is Gauging Trowel
a hydraulic, ➔ It is a round-nose
electrically trowel used for mixing
operated unit, mortar and applying
designed for small amounts in
conducting confined areas; it is
compression tests also used to replace
on concrete crumbled mortar and
specimens up to to patch concrete.
20 cm. Diameter VeBe Consistometer
(or width and depth) and 30 cm, in height ➔ It is used for
and also rocks and various other workability as well
materials. as consistency for
fresh concrete. A
Flow Table slump cone and a
➔ This equipment graduated rod
is used to supplied with the
determine the instrument helps
flow of concrete. the operator to find
The apparatus out slump values
consists of a flow and Vibration Table
table, stainless with container and
steel flow mold, acrylic disc is used to find out workability
tamping bar. of concrete expressed in Vee Bee
➔ The steel cone, degrees.
part of the apparatus, has a top dia. of ➔ Vee Bee Degrees is defined as the time
130 mm, a base dia. of 200 mm and is in seconds to complete required vibrating
200 mm high. All metal parts are at which the fresh concrete flows out
protected against corrosion. sufficiently to come in contact with the
entire face of the acrylic disc.
Slump Test Apparatus Apparatus consists of 30 lb. (14kg)
➔ It is used for the cylinder with hemispherically shaped
determination of the bottom and handle. The stirrup (frame)
consistency of guides the handle and acts as a
freshly mixed reference for measuring depth of
concrete, where the penetration. Handle is graduated in 1/4"
maximum size of the (6.4mm) increments on one side and
aggregate does not half-centimeter increments on the other
exceed 38mm. side. Concrete may be tested as placed
➔ It consists of one slump cone with in the forms prior to any manipulation or
handles and foot pieces. The slump cone in a suitable container. The 20lb version
has internal dimensions 20cm. dia at can be used with lightweight concrete.
base 10cm. top dia. and 30cm height. Cube Mold
Foot pieces can be fixed to the clamps on ➔ The standard size of
the base plate. The base plate has a the cube is 150 mm.
lifting handle for easy transportation. One Cubes of 100 mm
graduated steel rod 16mm dia x 600mm size are not suitable
long, rounded at one end and graduated for concrete having
in mms. a nominal maximum
Compaction Factor Apparatus aggregate size
➔ Designed to undertake a exceeding 20 mm. Cubes of 150 mm size
more precise and are not suitable for concrete having a
sensitive test procedure nominal maximum aggregate size
than the simple slump exceeding 40 mm.
test. The apparatus ➔ It allows accurate determination of
consists of two conical compression and flexural strength of
hoppers mounted on a concrete and it provides superior
cylinder. Each hopper alignment accuracy.
has a hinged flange with Cylindrical Mold
quick release mechanism ➔ Hard plastic and
and everything is steel cylinder molds
mounted on a rigid steel stand. are manufactured in
The compacting factor is the ratio accordance with
between the weight of the partially dimensions and
compacted concrete and the weight of tolerances stated in
the fully compacted concrete. the related
➔ Dimensions: 500x400x1510 mm standards. Two part and clamp attached
➔ Weight: 55 kg base plate cast iron, plastic and steel
Kelley Ball Penetration Apparatus molds are designed to be durable,
➔ A test for the corrosion resistant and easy to clean.
consistency of Beam Mold
concrete using ➔ For casting
the penetration concrete
of a half sphere; a specimens for
1-inch flexure tests.
(2.5-centimeter) ➔ Specification:
penetration by Made of cast
the Kelly ball iron. The molds are made of 4 plates
corresponds to assembled together. Each mold is
about 2 inches (5 centimeters) of slump. supplied complete with a base plate.
Determines depth of penetration of metal Faces are machined flat to +/-0.2mm and
weight into plastic concrete. finished in size to 0.2mm.
Curing Tank Three-Meter Straight Edge
➔ Specimens must be ➔ It is a metal device
cured at a stable normally 3.0 meters
temperature under long and of straight
water to ensure section. It measures
consistent test results. surface irregularity of
completed concrete
Vibrating Table and asphalt
➔ Vibrating tables have been used for the pavements. These
following are widely used for checking straightness
applications: and marking purposes.
◆ powder
compaction in Equipment Used in Aggregate Testing
boxes Here are some of the apparatus and equipment
◆ removing air used in aggregates.
from concrete Laboratory Oven
molds ➔ It is designed for
◆ settle and drying, baking,
compact products in bulk bags and conditioning and
bulk boxes moisture
◆ to settle and compact 30 to 55 determination.
gallon drums of powdered
chemicals Muffle Furnace
◆ vibrating ash shakeout system ➔ Aside from the
◆ to settle and compact metal laboratory oven, this
powders in molds one is designed for
◆ light duty applications for labs and higher temperature
factories heating.
◆ to settle and density activated Flakiness Gauge
carbon inside filter cartridges and ➔ For determining
canisters flakiness index.
◆ remove bubbles in sealed Particle is flaky
containers filled with water when its thickness
Air Entrainment Meter (smallest dimension) is less than 0.6 of
➔ An air the mid-size of the sieve fraction. Gauge
entrainment meter has seven labeled slots for rapid hand
is used to trying of particles from each of the seven
measure the sieve cuts. The mass of all flaky particles
amount of air that (passing appropriate slots) as percent of
is trapped within the sample is the flakiness index.
the mix. The Void Content Apparatus (Fine Aggregates)
water column type ➔ Used to determine the uncompacted void
consists content of a fine aggregate
essentially of a stainless steel flanged sample. Indicates the
cylindrical vessel with cover assembly, angularity, sphericality, and
incorporating the measuring cylinder, workability of fine
pressure gauge and valves. Supplied aggregate in a mixture.
complete with hand pump and calibration Includes 100 ml brass
cylinder apparatus which is essential for cylindrical measure, funnel
adjustment to site barometric pressure. assembly, funnel stand, and
glass plate for calibration.
Void Content Apparatus (Coarse Aggregates) Riffle Sample Divider
➔ Used to determine the ➔ It allows dividing
void content of samples into two
compacted coarse representative
aggregates. In subsamples with a good
operation, the aggregate accuracy. It is precisely
is allowed to free-fall designed to reduce the
115mm from the funnel bulk of material to a
bottom into a 154 mm convenient
diameter by 160mm high representative size for
cylindrical measure. laboratory analysis. When used properly,
The excess heaped aggregate is struck it provides an accuracy that is recognized
by using the included bar, the mass is throughout the industry.
measured, and the void content is Proportional Caliper Device
computed. The apparatus consists of a ➔ Used to determine the percentage of flat
stainless steel hopper, stand, measure particles, elongated particles, or both flat
and strike-off bar and a 170mm square & elongated particles in coarse
glass plate for calibration of the measure. aggregates. Steel construction for
Sieves strength & durability, plated for corrosion
➔ A sieve, or sifter, is a resistance. 6" x 16" (152.4 x 406.4mm)
device for separating base plate with four rubber feet for
wanted elements from stability, and for convenience in tabletop
unwanted material or testing. Ratio
for characterizing the desired is
particle size obtained by
distribution of a sample, typically using a selecting one
woven screen such as a mesh or net or of four
metal. adjustable
Sieve Shaker positions: 2 =
➔ Sieve Shakers save time l:2; 3 = 1:3; 4 =
and effort and improve 1:4; or 5 = 1:5.
accuracy for particle Aggregate Impact Value Test Apparatus
sizing operations. It is used for
Shakers agitate a determining the
stacked series of test aggregate impact
sieves to efficiently value. The Sturdy
separate materials of all Construction
different types. consists of a base
➔ Range: 20 µm to 125 mm and support
➔ Drive / sieving motion: electromagnetic columns to form a
3D rigid framework
➔ Amplitude: 0 - 3 mm digital setting in 0.1 around the quick
mm steps release trigger mechanism to ensure an
"Closed Loop" amplitude control effective free fall of the hammer during
➔ Sieve diameter: 100 / 200 mm test. The free fall can be adjusted through
8'' 380±5mm. The hammer is provided with
a locking arrangement. Aggregate impact
value test apparatus is supplied complete
with a cylindrical measure of 75mm dia x
50mm depth, an automatic blow counter
and a tamping rod.
Aggregate Crushing Value Test Apparatus Equipment Used for Other Testing
➔ Aggregate crushing value Here are some of the apparatus and equipment
test apparatus is used for used in testing as a general.
measuring resistance of Beaker
an aggregate to crushing. ➔ A beaker is a simple
This is made of Mild Steel container for stirring,
comprising of: mixing and heating
◆ Cylindrical Cell, liquids commonly used
150mm internal dia in many laboratories.
x 130 to 140mm Beakers are generally
height. cylindrical in shape,
◆ Plunger, 148mm dia x 100 to with a flat bottom. Most also have a small
115mm height. spout (or "beak") to aid pouring as shown
◆ Base Plate, 200 to 230mm square in the picture. Beakers are available in a
x 6mm thickness. wide range of sizes, from one milliliter up
◆ Tamping Rod, 16mm dia x 450 to to several liters.
600mm length. Graduated Cylinder
◆ Metal Measure, 110mm internal ➔ It is a measuring
dia x 180mm height. instrument for
measuring fluid volume;
Equipment Used in Wood Testing a glass container whose
Here are some of the apparatus and equipment sides are marked or
used in wood. divided into amounts.
Moisture Meter Thermometer
➔ This is used to measure ➔ The design
the percentage of water in essentially consists
a given substance. The of a lens to focus
information can be used to the infrared
determine if the material is thermal radiation
ready for use, on to a detector,
unexpectedly wet or dry, or otherwise in which converts the
need of further inspection. Wood and radiant power to an electrical signal that
paper products are very sensitive to their can be displayed in units of temperature
moisture content. after being compensated for ambient
Universal Wood Tester temperature. This permits temperature
➔ It is a screw type motor driven measurement from a distance without
and its suitable for contact with the object to be measured. A
determination of shear non-contact infrared thermometer is
strength, hardness (Janka useful for measuring temperature under
Ball Test), Cleavage, Static circumstances where thermocouples or
bend Plywood other probe-type sensors cannot be used
GripsNail/Screw withdrawal or do not produce accurate data for a
test, compression variety of reasons.
(parallel-to-grain) and many other tests Mechanical Balance
on wood plywood. ➔ It is a
measuring
instrument
used where the
most accurate
weighing is
required.
Hydrometer GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
➔ An instrument used to PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
measure the specific ➔ The characteristics of the building
gravity (or relative materials that can be observed and
density) of liquids. It is measured without changing its chemical
usually made of glass properties.
and consists of a ➔ These are the properties required to
cylindrical stem and a estimate the quality and condition of the
bulb weighted with material without any external force.
mercury or lead. DENSITY
Concrete Mixer ➔ Density is the ratio of mass of the
➔ A device that homogeneously combines material to its volume in a homogeneous
cement, aggregate such as sand or state. Almost all the physical properties of
gravel, and water to form concrete. materials are influenced by its density
➔ Mobile Concrete values. Density values of some building
Mixer - it is ideal if materials are given below.
you need to use SPECIFIC GRAVITY
concrete in more than ➔ It is the weight of unit volume of
one place in the homogenous material. Specific gravity is
same area. the ratio of mass of a given substance to
➔ Stationary Concrete the mass of water at 4oC for the equal
Mixer - cannot be volumes. Specific gravity of some
moved because they materials is listed below.
are fixed in only one
place.
Bucket
➔ It delivers concrete by
means of a tower
crane. It has a bottom WEATHERING RESISTANCE
opening to allow ➔ The property of a material to withstand all
concrete to flow out atmospheric actions without losing its
when in-place. strength and shape. Weathering affects
Scoop the durability of material. For example,
➔ A deep bowl for corrosion occurs in iron due to
taking something from a weathering. To resist this paint layer is
container. provided.
Hammer POROSITY
➔ A deep bowl for taking ➔ Porosity gives the volume of the material
something from a occupied by pores. It is the ratio of
container. volume of pores to the volume of
Mallet material. Porosity influences many
➔ A tool used to pound properties like thermal conductivity,
on something. strength, bulk density, durability etc.
Trowel WATER ABSORPTION
➔ Used to spread building ➔ The capacity of a material to absorb and
materials such as retain water in it is known as water
plaster or cement. absorption. It is expressed in % of weight
of dry material. It depends on the size,
Wheelbarrow shape and number of pores of material.
➔ A kind of vehicle that is
built to be pushed
around with a load
inside out.
COEFFICIENT OF SOFTENING DURABILITY
➔ Coefficient of softening of a material is ➔ The property of a material to withstand
the ratio of compressive strength of a the combined action of atmospheric and
saturated material to its compressive other factors is known as durability of
strength in dry state. It affects the material. If the material is more durable, it
strength of water absorbent materials like will be useful for longer life. Maintenance
soil. cost of material is dependent on
PERMEABILITY durability.
➔ Capacity of a material to allow water toSTRENGTH
pass through it. It indicates the quantity of
➔ It refers to the ability of a material to
water passing through the unit area at a resist the externally applied forces
constant pressure. It is expressed as “K” without breaking or yielding. The
with the unit of (cm/s). maximum stress is that any material
HYGROSCOPICITY withstands before being destructive is
➔ Hygroscopicity is the property of a called its ultimate strength.
material to absorb water vapor from theYOUNG’s MODULUS
air. It depends on the relative humidity, ➔ A measure of the ability of a material to
porosity, air temperature etc. withstand changes in length when under
FIRE RESISTANCE lengthwise tension or compression.
➔ The ability to withstand fire without STIFFNESS
changing its shape and other properties. ➔ The ability of a material to resist
Fire resistance of a material is tested by deformation under stress. Material that
the combined actions of water and fire. suffers slight deformation under load has
Fireproof materials should provide more a high degree of stiffness or rigidity. The
safety in case of fire. ability of a material to resist elastic
REFRACTORINESS deflection is known as stiffness.
➔ The property of a material which cannot ELASTICITY
melt or lose its shape at prolonged high ➔ The property of materials to regain its
temperatures (1580oC or more). original shape. After deformation when
Example: fire clay is high refractory the external forces are removed. An
material. example is the extension or compression
FROST RESISTANCE of a spring. Elasticity is a tensile property
➔ The ability of a material to resist freezing of the material. Proportional limit and
or thawing is called frost resistance. It elastic limit indicate elasticity.
depends upon the density and bulk PLASTICITY
density of material. Denser materials will➔ The ability of a material to undergo some
have more frost resistance. Moist degree of permanent deformation without
materials have low frost resistance and rupture or failure. the state of a material
they lose their strength in freezing and that has been loaded beyond its elastic
become brittle. state. Under a load beyond that required
to cause elastic deformation (the elastic
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS limit) a material possessing the property
➔ These properties are associated with the of plasticity deforms permanently. It takes
capability of the materials to resist a permanent set and will not recover
mechanical forces and load and they are when the load is removed.
measured in terms of the behavior of the
material when subjected to a force.
➔ Mechanical properties may be
determined to provide either design data
for the engineer or as a check on the
standard of raw materials.
DUCTILITY HARDNESS
➔ It is the term used when plastic ➔ The ability of a material to resist
deformation occurs as the result of permanent shape change due to external
applying a tensile load. It combines the stress. There are many hardness
properties of plasticity and tenacity measurement methods available namely,
(tensile strength) so that it can be moh‘s scale, vicker‘s hardness, rockwell
stretched or drawn to shape and will hardness, knoop test, and brinell
retain that shape when the deforming hardness. Hardness of materials can be
force is removed. meant like resistance to abrasion,
BRITTLENESS deformation, or indentation.
➔ It is the breaking of a material with little MACHINABILITY
permanent distortion. The brittleness of a ➔ Machinability is defined as the ease with
material indicates how easily it gets which a material can be machined such
fractured when it is subjected to a force as drill, lathe work, and cutting.
or load. Examples of brittle materials are Machinability of metal is indicated by
glass, bricks, and cast iron. percentage (%) that is known as
MALLEABILITY machinability index. Materials with good
➔ It is the ability of materials to be rolled, machinability may be cut with relatively
flattened, or hammered into thin sheets little power and low cost.
without cracking by hot or cold working. A WELDABILITY
malleable material combines the ➔ The capacity of a material to be welded
properties of plasticity and compressibility under the imposed fabrication condition
so that it can be squeezed to shape by into specific suitably designed joint. The
such processes as forging, rolling, and process of joining two parts of metals or
rivet heading. alloys applying heat with or without
TOUGHNESS application of mechanical pressure.
➔ The ability of a material to withstand FORMABILITY
bending without fracture due to high ➔ The degree of deformation that can be
impact loads. Toughness is also achieved in a metal forming process
measured by the amount of energy that a without creating an undesirable condition,
unit volume of the material has absorbed such as cracking, necking, buckling or the
after being stressed up to the failure point formation of folds and flaws.
and is the area under stress-strain curve.
CREEP THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
➔ Examples are gas turbines that operate ➔ Thermal properties are those of a
at the highest temperature. Creep and substance that are related to its heat
Stress Rupture Testing are designed to conductivity. In other words, these are the
analyze the amount of stress a material qualities that a material exhibits when
can safely withstand until failure and heat is applied to it.
elongation. SPECIFIC HEAT
FATIGUE ➔ The specific heat of a material is defined
➔ The weakening of a material caused by as its heat capacity per unit mass. The
the repeated loading of the material. molar heat capacity of a mole is defined
When a material is subjected to cyclic as its heat capacity per mole. Specific
loading, and loading greater than a heat is the amount of heat required to
certain threshold value but much below alter one unit degree in one unit mass.
the strength of the material (ultimate The symbol for it is 's, ' and the unit is
tensile strength limit or yield stress limit), joule/kg kelvin.
microscopic cracks begin to form at grain
boundaries and interfaces.
THERMAL EXPANSION Aggregates
➔ Thermal expansion in solids is caused by Definition of Aggregates
the addition of heat energy in the atoms ➔ Aggregates generally occupy 70 to 80%
and their subsequent movement away of the volume of concrete and therefore
from their equilibrium positions as the have a significant effect on its properties.
temperature rises. For example, railway Strength of concrete and mix design are
tracks often expand and as a result, get independent of the composition of
misshapen due to extreme heat. aggregate, but durability may be affected.
HEAT CAPACITY Three Groups of Aggregates
➔ The heat capacity of a substance is a
feature of the material that determines
how much heat energy is required to
bring about a 1-degree unit change. It is a
measure of the material's ability to absorb
heat from its surroundings.
MELTING POINT
➔ Melting point, also known as softening
point, is a significant temperature level Aggregates Classification by Density
because it represents the transition point Normal-density Aggregates
between solid and liquid phases of a ➔ They are natural materials used for
material with different arrangements of making concrete, including gravels,
the atoms. When a solid is heated, its igneous rocks such as basalt and granite
thermal energy increases until the atoms and the stronger sedimentary rocks such
or molecules on the surface begin to as limestone and sandstone.
deviate. ➔ They have relative densities within a
limited range of approximately 2.55–2.75,
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS thus, all produced concrete normally
➔ The properties of materials against the ranges 2250–2450 kg/m3 , depending on
chemical actions or chemical mix proportions.
combinations are termed as chemical Lightweight Aggregates
properties. ➔ They are used to produce lower density
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE concrete, which are advantageous in
➔ The ability of construction materials to reducing the self-weight of structures and
resist the effects of chemicals like acids, also have better thermal insulation than
salts and alkalis is known as chemical normal-weight concrete.
resistance. Underground installations, ➔ The reduced relative density of this
constructions near sea etc. should be aggregate is obtained from air voids
built with great chemical resistance. within the aggregate particles.
CORROSION RESISTANCE Heavyweight Aggregates
➔ Formation of rust (iron oxide) in metals, ➔ This type of aggregate can be used
when they are subjected to the where concrete of high density is
atmosphere is called corrosion. So, the required, for example in radiation
metals should be corrosive resistant. To shielding.
increase the corrosion resistance proper ➔ These may be made with high-density
measures should be considered. ores such as barytes and haematite, or
Otherwise, it will damage the whole manufactured, such as steel shot.
structure.
Aggregate Classification by Shape Moisture Content
➔ Aggregate can contain water, both
internal, based on porosity, and external,
surface moisture. This gives aggregate
the ability to absorb water. This will
effectively reduce the amount of water
available for hydration; or conversely, if
the aggregate is very wet, add excess
water to a cement mix.
Four moisture states
There are four moisture
states:
1. Oven-dry (OD); all
moisture removed.
2. Air-dry (AD); surface
moisture removed,
internal pores partially
full.
3. Saturated-surface-dry
(SSD); surface
moisture removed, all
internal pores full.
4. Wet; pores full with
surface film.

Absorption and Surface Moisture

To determine the amount of water an aggregate
will add or subtract from a cement paste, the
following three quantities are used:
1. Absorption capacity (AC) - maximum
Aggregate Classification by Size amount of water the aggregate will
Fine aggregates absorb. The range for most
➔ The size of fine aggregates is defined as normal-weight aggregates is 1 - 2%.
4.75mm or smaller. That is, aggregates
which can be passed through a number 4
sieve, with a mesh size of 4.75mm. Fine
aggregates include things such as sand,
silt and clay. Crushed stone and crushed 2. Effective Absorption (EA) - amount of
gravel might also fall under this category. water required to bring an aggregate from
Coarse Aggregates the air dry state to the
➔ Coarse aggregates measure above the saturated-surface-dry state.
4.75mm limit. These are more likely to be
natural stone or gravel that has not been
crushed or processed. These aggregates
will reduce the amount of water needed
for a concrete mix, which may also
reduce workability but improve its innate The weight of water absorbed by the aggregate,
strength. Wabs, is calculated from the weight of the
aggregate, Wagg, in a concrete mix using
effective absorption (EA).
 3. Surface Moisture (SM) -- amount of However, since the porosity of most rocks used
water in excess of SSD in concrete is 1 to 2%, the values of all specific
gravities are approximately the same; in the
range of 2.5 to 2.8.

Evaluation of Aggregates
It is used to calculate the additional water, ➔ It should be noted that tests on
Wadd, of the concrete mix. aggregates alone are not an effective
means of predicting aggregate
performance in the field. Tests for
aggregate properties for mix design are
straightforward. However, tests for
The moisture content (MC) of aggregate is given durability and performance have
by: limitations.

Physical Tests
Abrasion Resistance
If the moisture content (MC) is positive, there is Abrasion resistance - The Los Angeles test for
surface moisture. If the MC is negative, it has abrasion involves ball milling an aggregate
the potential for absorption. Therefore, the total sample for a given time and measuring how the
moisture associated with an aggregate is: sample particles are reduced in size.
Scratch hardness test - assumes a
relationship between hardness and abrasion.
Neither of these tests are an accurate or reliable
Unit Weight measure of the concrete hardness. An indication
➔ Unit weight (UW) or bulk density is the would be to test the concrete itself.
weight of a given volume of material. Frost Resistance
Basically, unit weight is measured by Soundness test - This test is a simulation of ice
filling a container of known volume with a formation in an aggregate sample. The sample
material and weighing it. The degree of is saturated with a solution of sodium or
moisture and compaction will affect the magnesium salt and dried in an oven. The salt
unit weight measurement. Therefore, crystals which form in the pores simulate ice.
ASTM has set a standard oven-dry Correlations between this test and field tests are
moisture content and a rodding method not good. Again, a better approach is testing
for compaction. The maximum unit weight aggregate in concrete.
of a blend of two aggregates is about
40% fine aggregate by weight. Therefore, Chemical Tests
this is the most economical concrete Alkali-silica Reaction
aggregate since it will require the least ➔ A rapid reliable test for alkali-aggregate
amount of cement. reactivity has not yet been developed.
Most acceptable tests require long curing
Specific Gravity times of about 6 months. In this test, the
A dimensionless ratio of density of the material aggregate is ground into a fine sand and
in question to the density of water. used to make a variety of mortar bars.
The mortars are stored in hot, moist
conditions to accelerate the reaction.
Absolute specific gravity (ASG) considers the Expansion of the sample is measured
weight and volume of the solid part of the and compared to ASTM specifications.
aggregate. Whereas, bulk specific gravity (BSG)
is a measure of the weight/volume of solids and
pores of a material.
Aggregate Beneficiation CEMENT
If an aggregate does not pass the ASTM tests, Cement is a binder substance used for
beneficiation may be useful in areas where construction that sets, hardens and adheres to
aggregate is scarce. There are several possible alternative materials to bind them along .​
ways of treatment: Classification of Cement​
➔ Crushing - Soft, porous rock may be Natural Cement​
removed by crushing. ➔ It is manufactured from stones containing
➔ Heavy-media separation - Lightweight 20 to 40 percent of clay, the remainder
particles may be separated by floating being carbonate of lime mixed with
them to the top of a liquid. carbonate of magnesia. The stones are
➔ Reverse water flow or air flow - used to first burnt and then crushed.​ It
remove lightweight particles like wood. possesses a brown color and sets rapidly
➔ Hydraulic jigging - Stratification of when mixed with water.​
aggregate in a vertical pulsation of water. Artificial Cement
Lightweight particles separate to the top. ➔ It is obtained by burning, at a very high
➔ Elastic fractionation - Aggregate is temperature, a mixture of calcareous and
dropped on an incline steel plate. Hard argillaceous materials. The mixture of
particles bounce higher off the plate than ingredients should be intimate and they
do softer particles. Appropriate placement should be in the correct proportion. ​
of collection bins can provide good Hydraulic Cement​
separation. ➔ Made using a mixture of limestone, clay
➔ Washing and scrubbing - Removes fine and gypsum and mixed together at very
surface particles. high temperatures, it was created with
convenience and speed in mind and
takes a remarkably short time to set and
harden.​
➔ Its ingredients react with water to form
stable calcium silicate hydrates, which
causes near-instant hardening when
poured.​
Non-Hydraulic Cement​
➔ The first form of cement invented. is less
convenient and less practical in most
applications. This type of cement includes
lime, gypsum plasters and oxychloride,
which means that it does not begin to
harden when exposed to water.​
HISTORY OF CEMENT
Cement has been in use by humans throughout
history; variations of the material were used by
the ancient Greeks, Romans and Egyptians,
with the earliest archaeological discovery dated
to 12-10,000BC in modern-day Turkey. ​

“Roman concrete is . Considerably weaker than

modern concrete. It’s approximately TEN TIMES
WEAKER.” ​
-Renato Perucchino
The Romans started making concrete more than SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENT
2,000 years ago, but it wasn’t quite like today’s ➔ is used to reduce the risk of sulphate
concrete. They had a different formula, which attack on concrete and thus is used in
resulted in a substance that was not as strong construction of foundations where soil
as the modern product. Yet structures like the has high sulphate content.​
Pantheon and the Colosseum have survived for AIR ENTRAINING CEMENT
centuries, often with little to no maintenance. ​ ➔ is produced by adding indigenous air
entraining agents such as resins, glues,
➔ New developments in cement and sodium salts of sulphates etc. during the
concrete happened during the Industrial grinding of clinker. This type of cement is
Revolution in Europe in the late 18th to fill up the gap in the concrete which are
century through the important produced by the excessive amount of
contributions of John Smeaton, James water during casting. It is especially
Parker, Louis Vicat and Egor Cheliev.​ helpful to increase the workability with
➔ In 1824, Joseph Aspdin patented the first few water-cement ratios.​
true artificial cement, which he called COLOURED CEMENT
Portland Cement. His son, William ➔ consists of portland cement with 5 - 10%
Aspdin, made the first cement containing of different coloured pigments. For
alite.​ uniform mixing of pigment, it is necessary
➔ In 1845 , Isaac Johnson fired chalk and to grind the pigment and cement together.
clay at much higher temperatures than The desired properties of colouring
the Aspdins, at around 1400-1500oC. pigments are the durability of colour,
This resulted to what is essentially absence of solute salts, the fine state of
modern-day cement.​ division, not affected by cement. ​
➔ Since the 1900s, rotary kilns have HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT
replaced the original vertical shaft kilns ➔ is obtained by melting a mixture of
since it uses radiative heat transfer which bauxite and lime and grinding with the
is more efficient at higher temperatures. clinker. The compressive strength of this
Thus, achieving a uniform clinkering cement is very high and more workable
temperature produces stronger cement. ​ than ordinary portland cement. Generally,
this refractory product is widely used in
Types of Cement sewer infrastructure and marine
ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT construction. Besides, it is also used in
➔ is the most widely used type of cement refractory concretes for furnaces, boilers,
which is suitable for all general concrete kilns, and chimneys.​
construction. It is the most widely BLAST FURNACE SLAG CEMENT
produced and used type of cement ➔ is obtained by grinding the clinkers with
around the world with annual global about 60% slag and resembles more or
production of around 3.8 million cubic less in properties of Portland cement. It
meters per year. This cement is suitable has similar properties as that of (OPC)
for all type of concrete construction.​ cement and therefore can be used in all
RAPID HARDENING CEMENT places. It has low early days strength and
➔ is much similar to ordinary Portland hence, it requires a long curing period.
cement. As the name indicates, it The cost of blast furnace slag cement is
develops strength rapidly than normal less as compared to ordinary Portland
cement.Therefore, sometimes, it may cement. It generated less heat of
also be called as high early strength hydration.​
cement. It may be noted that rapid
hardening cement, which develops
strength at a higher rate, may not be
confused with quick setting time, which
sets very quickly.​
LOW HEAT CEMENT EXPANSIVE CEMENT
➔ is prepared by maintaining the ➔ slightly with time and does not shrink
percentage of tricalcium aluminate below during and after the time of hardening.
6% by increasing the proportion of C2S. The use of expansive cement can
This makes the concrete produce low overcome and improve some
heat of hydration and thus is used in shortcomings of ordinary cement
mass concrete construction like gravity concrete (commonly used cement will
dams, as the low heat of hydration shrink in the hardening process, which
prevents the cracking of concrete due to causes the structures to crack and be
heat. permeable, inappropriate for some
PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT projects), and can enhance the density of
➔ is prepared by grinding pozzolanic clinker cement concrete structures and the
with Portland cement. This cement has integrity of concrete.​
high resistance to various chemical WHITE CEMENT
attacks on concrete compared with ➔ this type of cement which is clearly
ordinary portland cement and thus it is defined from the name this type of
widely used.​ cement is mainly white in colour with the
OIL-WELL CEMENT presence of a white base. It is mainly
➔ are used for cementing work in the drilling manufactured from the pure white chalk
of oil wells where they are subject to high (CaCO3) and fine clay free from iron
temperatures and pressures. The cement oxide.​
is mainly used for sealing the sides of WATERPROOF PORTLAND CEMENT
wells so that the slide of the freshly drilled ➔ is the name given to a portland cement to
well from collapsing can be prevented. ​ which a water-repellent agent has been
HYDROPHOBIC CEMENT added. Hydrophobic cement is obtained
➔ this is which is clearly defined from the by grinding portland cement clinker with a
name, Hydro means water and phobic film-forming substance such as oleic acid
generally means is against. It is produced in order to reduce the rate of deterioration
by mixing water-repelling chemicals and when the cement is stored under
has high workability and strength has the unfavourable conditions.
property of repelling water and it is COMPOSITION OF CEMENT​
unaffected during wet climates such as
monsoon or rains. ​
QUICK SETTING CEMENT
➔ the name of the cement has clearly
defined this cement and is set very
quickly with another type of cement. The
main reason is it contains less gypsum
and is finer than OPC. The initial setting
time starts within 5 minutes and the final
setting takes place within 30 minutes.
This type of cement sets very early. ​

The raw materials used for the manufacture of

cement consist mainly of lime, silica, alumina
and iron oxide. These oxides interact with one
another in the kiln at high temperature to form
more complex compounds. The relative
proportions of these oxide compositions are
responsible for influencing the various properties
of cement; in addition to rate of cooling and
fineness of grinding.
PROCESS OF CEMENT PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
USES OF CEMENT TENSILE STRENGTH OF TEST
➔ Cement is a very useful binding material ➔ This test is carried out using a
in construction. The applications of cement-mortar briquette in a tensile
cement over various fields of construction testing machine. ​
have made it a very important civil COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
engineering material ➔ The compressive strength of this mortar
Some of the numerous functions of cement are: is the strength of cement at a specific
1. It is used in mortar for plastering, period.​
masonry work, pointing, etc.​ SOUNDNESS TEST OF CEMENT
2. It is used for making joints for drains and ➔ This test is conducted in Le Chatelier's
pipes.​ apparatus to detect the presence of
3. It is used for water tightness of structure.​ uncombined lime and magnesia in
4. It is used in concrete for laying floors, cement.​
roofs and constructing lintels, beams, HEAT OF HYDRATION TEST
stairs, pillars etc.​ ➔ The compressive strength of this mortar
5. It is used where a hard surface is is the strength of cement at a specific
required for the protection of exposed period.​
surfaces of structures against the
destructive agents of the weather and CHEMICAL COMPOSITION TEST
certain organic or inorganic chemicals.​ Different tests are conducted to determine the
6. It is used for precast pipes amount of various constituents of cement.​
manufacturing, piles, fencing posts etc.​ COLOUR TEST OF CEMENT
7. It is used in the construction of important ➔ The colour of the cement should not be
engineering structures such as bridges, uneven. It should be a uniform grey
culverts, dams, tunnels, lighthouses etc.​ colour with a light greenish shade.​
8. It is used in the preparation of PRESENCE OF LUMPS
foundations, watertight floors, footpaths ➔ The cement should not contain any hard
etc.​ lumps. These lumps are formed by the
9. It is employed for the construction of absorption of moisture content from the
wells, water tanks, tennis courts, lamp atmosphere. The cement bags with
posts, telephone cabins, roads etc.​ lumps should be avoided in construction.​
CEMENT ADULTERATION TEST
TESTS TO CHECK CEMENT QUALITY ➔ The cement should be smooth if you rub
FINENESS TEST ON CEMENT it between your fingers. If not, then it is
➔ Determine the rate of hydration, rate of because of adulteration with sand.​
evolution of heat and the rate of gain of FLOW TEST
strength​ ➔ This test consists of throwing some
➔ The fineness of cement can be handful of cement in the bucket full of
determined by Sieve Test or Air water.​
Permeability test.​ DATE OF MANUFACTURING
CONSISTENCY TEST ➔ This test consists of throwing some
➔ Conducted to find the setting times of handful of cement in the bucket full of
cement using a standard consistency test water.​
apparatus, Vicat's apparatus.​
SETTING TIME OF CEMENT INTERESTING FACT ABOUT CEMENT
➔ Vicat’s apparatus is used to find the Cement is the most widely consumed
initial and final setting times​ commodity after water.
STRENGTH TEST OF CEMENT
➔ The strength of cement is indirectly
defined on cement-mortar of 1:3.​