Unit 3 resonance.

for f< fr, It is Deading & Fx fr, it is

lagging.
Define and state the unit of admittance,
conductance f susceptance. Also draw the Power factor of the circuit is given by:
admittance triangle for Huctive circuit. cosϕ= ZR = R 2 +(ωL− ωC1 ) 2 R Current
Admittance is defined as the reciprocal of flowing in the circuit is given by: I= Z V I= Z V
the impedance It is denoted by Y and is o sin(ωt) L Instantaneous real power
measured in unit siemens or mho. dissipated in the circuit is: P=I 2 R P= Z V o2
Conductance is defined as the ratio of sin 2 (ωt) L R Average power dissipated in a
resistance to the Square of the impedance. cycle is given by:<P>= ∫ 02π/ω dt∫ 02π/ω
It is denoted by G and measured in unit Pdt = 2Z 2 ×2π/ωV o2 R ∫ 0 2π/ω
siemens. Susceptance is defined as ratio of (1−cos(2ωt))dt<P>=V rms I rms cos(ϕ)(i)
the reactance to the square of the No power is dissipated when P = 0 This
impedance. It is denoted as B and measured implies cosϕ=0 ϕ=π/2 That is the circuit is
in unit Siemens.Admittance triangle for purely inductive or capacitive. Maximum
Inductive circuit:GBL inductive power is dissipated when P is maximum.This
implies cosϕ=1 ϕ=0 Circuit is purely
Defined and state the unit of active,
resistive.
reactive and apparent power in case of
single phase circuit. Draw the power Pure inductive Circuit The circuit which
triangle.→ Active Power (P) - It is defined as contains only inductance (L) and not any
product of the applied voltage and the other quantities like resistance and
active component Of the circuit. It is capacitance in the circuit is called a Pure
measured in unit watts or kilowatts. -It is inductive circuit. In this type of circuit, the
also called as True or real power t Reactive current lags behind the voltage by an angle
Power (@) 2 is defined as product of the of 90 degrees.
applied voltage and the reactive Component
Series Resonance & Expression for RCL
of the comment.. Unit volt-amp reactive
occurs in electric circuits due to the
(VAR) or kilovolt-amp reactive (KVAR)
presence of energy storing elements like
Apparent Power (5)i- It is defined as the
inductor and capacitor. It is the
produ of 1. m.s Value of (V) and current (I) It
fundamental concept based on which, the
is measured in unit volt- amp. Kilo Volt-amp
radio and TV receivers are designed in such
(KVA). P= Q = VI sin S= VI watts d VAR VA
a way that they should be able to select
(VA OTNOI VJ (@s Power Triangle VIRAS
only the desired station frequency. There
Derive the exprasion for resonant are two types of resonances, namely series
frequency and Comment on impedance resonance and parallel resonance. These are
current and power factor in case. of series classified based on the network elements
resonance circuit Let fr be the resonant that are connected in series or parallel. In
Inquency in its at which, x_{t} = x ie (f)2 fr = this chapter, let us discuss about series
1/(2pi * sqrt(LC)) benes resonance HZ -AS 7 resonance. Series Resonance Circuit
= R+jx = R+j (XL - XO) but at f= fr, XL=Xc Diagram If the resonance occurs in series
&x=0 hence net impedance F=R which is RLC circuit, then it is called as Series
purely resistive so Impedance is minimum Resonance. Consider the following series
and purely resistive at series resonance. -As RLC circuit, which is represented in phasor
impedance is minimum, the current I= V/z is domain. Series Resonance Circuit Here, the
maximum. at series resonance. - The power passive elements such as resistor, inductor
factor cost = R/# & at f= fr as =R, the power and capacitor are connected in series. This
factor is unity & at it's max. at beries entire combination is in series with the
input sinusoidal voltage source. Apply KVL Common X-axib. Consider a simple circuit
around the loop. V−VR−VL−VC=0 consisting of a pure resistance 'R' ohms
connected across a voltage U=Vmsin @t-R
⇒V−IR−I(jXL)−I(−jXC)=0
U-Vmsinwt According to ohm's law R K
⇒V=IR+I(jXL)+I(−jXC) VIRAR Dok //20 i= (Nm) sinnt. Comparing
this with standard egn (= I'm sin (w++p) Ri=
⇒V=I[R+j(XL−XC)] Equation 1 The above Imsinut Amp The instantaneous power in
equation is in the form of V = IZ. Therefore, a.c circuits can be obtained by taking
the impedance Z of series RLC circuit will be product of instantaneous values of current
Z=R+j(XL−XC) of voltage P= oxi P= Vinsinuot Imsinat H Vm
Active Power Definition: The power which Im. sin²wt. p = Vm Im (1-(oszet) 2 VmI P =
is actually consumed or utilised in an AC Vin In 2 The aug value of the fructuating
Circuit is called True power or Active power cosine component of double frequency is
or Real power. It is measured in kilowatt zero, over one complete cycle. Vm Zm 2 P =
(kW) or MW. It is the actual outcomes of Vrms. Troms P=VI Vm Im Watts Dates OR
the electrical system which runs the electric Unit 4
circuits or load.
Derive the relation between line and phase
Admittance Triangle It is formed with values of currents and voltages for
conductance 'G' at the X-axis, Susceptance balanced three phase star connected
'B' at the Y-axis, and Admittance 'Y' forming Consider the balanced star-connected load.
an angle Φ with Conductance at X-axis. The Fig. Circuit diagram Line voltages, VL = VRY =
figure below shows the Admittance triangle. VYB = VBR Line currents, IL= IR = IY = IB
Admittance Triangle. From the triangle, tan Phase voltages, Vph=VRN = VYN = VBN
Φ = B/G. Phase currents, I ph= IR = IY = IB As path for
Reactive Power Definition: The power line current, IL and phase current, Iph is
which flows back and forth that means it same, IL = Iph To derive relation between VL
moves in both the directions in the circuit or and Vph, let us consider line voltage VL =
reacts upon itself, is called Reactive Power. VRY. —— V RY = —— V RN + —— V NY as —
The reactive power is measured in kilo volt- — V NY = − —— V YN Hence, —— V RY = —
ampere reactive (kVAR) or MVAR. — V RN − —— V YN  (i) Similarly, —— V
YB = —— V YN − —— V BN  (ii) —— V BR
Apparent Power Definition: The product of
= —— V BN − —— V RN  (iii) The phasor
root mean square (RMS) value of voltage
diagram will give relation between line
and current is known as Apparent Power.
voltage and phase voltage. Fig. Phasor
This power is measured in kVA or MVA. It
diagram for resistive load As shown in Fig.
has been seen that power is consumed only
take phase voltage VRN as reference. The
in resistance. A pure inductor and a pure
three-phase voltages are displaced by 120
capacitor do not consume any power since
from each other. The phasor VRY line
in a half cycle whatever power is received
voltage is addition of —— V RN and − ——
from the source by these components, the
V YN, to get − —— V YN, —— V YN is
same power is returned to the source. This
reversed. Other Subjects:
power which returns and flows in both
https://www.studymedia.in/fe/notes SCOE-
Obtain the expression for corrent and BEE End-Sem Notes | Dr. A. N. Sarwade 17
power, when voltage WsVmSinwt is applied The perpendicular is drawn from point A on
across purely resistive circuit Also draw the phasor OC representing VL . OB = BC = VL 2
waveform for voltage, corrent & power on Angle between VRN and – VYN is 60 . So 
AOB = 30 (OC bisects VRN ^ −VYN) From  the current.. Unit volt-amp reactive (VAR) or
AOB, cos 30 = OB OA = VRY 2 VRN 3 2 = VL 2 kilovolt ampreactive (KVAR Apparent Power
Vph VL = 3 Vph Thus, line voltage is 3 times (s) :- It is defined as the produ of 1. m.s
the phase voltage and line current and Value of (V) and current (I) It is measured in
phase currents are same. Phasor diagram unit volt-amp (VA) or Kilo Volt- amp (KVA).
for Inductive load Phasor diagram for P= VI Cos watts G = VI sin VAR S= VI VA
Capacitive load
Derive the exprasion for resonant
Define and state the unit of admittance, frequency and comment on impedance,
conductance 4 susceptance. Also draw the current and power factor in case of series
admittance triangle for inductive resonance circuit Let f_{gamma} be the
circuit.Admittance is defined as the resonant frequency in Hz at which, X_{L} =
reciprocal of the impedance It is denoted by X_{c} ie 2pi*rfrL = 1/(2pi*frC) benes
Y and is measured in unit siemens or mho resonance (fx) ^ 2 = 1/(4pi ^ 2 * Lc) fr =
Conductance is defined no the ratio of 1/(2pi * sqrt(LC)) -AS = R+jx = R+j (XL - Xc)
resistance to the Square of the impedance. but at f=fr, X_{L} = Xc & x = 0 hence net
It is denoted by fr and measured in unit impedance 7 = R which is purely resistive so
siemens Susceptance is defined as ratio of Impedance is minimum and purely resistive
the wastong to the square of the at series resonance. - As impedance is
impedance. It is denoted as B and measured minimum the current I = v / t is maximum at
in unit Siemens. * Admittance triangle for series resonance. The power factor coso =
Inductive circuit: R/z & at f= fr as Z=e, the power factor is
unity & at it's max. at berie's resonance. for
Derive the expression for power, when
f < fr , it is leading & f > fr , it is lagging.
vollage = Vertical is applied across R-L
sestes circuit. Als draw the wave five for Derive the EMF equation of single phase
voltage, current & power on common x-axis transformer When transformer primary
The Vortage & current ajuation for series R- winding is connected across the alternating
1 cirwit is- 6= Vinsiniot i- Tm sin (wet-p).as current supply, the current starts flowing
current lage voltage. The power is product through it. This alternating current produces
of Instantaneous values of Voltage & alternating flux which links with primary and
current p = 10x1 .:: p = Umsinot. I'm sin(t-6) secondary winding and induces an emf of E1
= Vm Im Sinet, sin (wt-6)] Vm Im cost-cos and E2 in it respectively. Magnitude of E1
(2wt-p) Vin I'm cosp 2 1- Vin Im cas (2 wt-4) and E2 can be derived using following
2 Second form is cosine term whose method Let us consider the flux waveform,
average value over a Cycle is zero.p av = V m as shown According to the Faraday's law of
I m 2 cos phi= V m sqrt 2 , T m sqrt 2 cos phi electromagnetic induction the average emf
| P= VI .cos phi Watts. get induced in each turn. Average emf
induced in each turn = d dt where, d : be
Defined and state the unit of active,
the change in flux and dt : be the time
reactive and apparent power in case of
required for change in flux Now, considering
single phase circuit. Draw the power
quarter cycle of the flux waveform. d : m
triangle.nbears hit it Active power (P): :- It
- 0 and dt : T/4  Substituting this in above
is defined as product of the applied voltage
equation, average emf induced in each turn,
and the active component Of the circuit. It
d dt = m – 0 T/4 = 4 m T But,Time
is measured in unit watts or kilowatts. -It is
period, T= 1 f  d dt = 4 m 1/f = 4 m f
also called as True of real power a Reactive
But the flux considered very sinusoidally
Power (Q) - It is defined as product of the
with time, the emf induced is also sinusoidal
applied voltage and the reactive Component
in nature. For pure sine wave: Hence, Form greater than single-phase motor for same
Factor = RMS value Average value = 1.11  rating. (v) Three-phase motors are self-
RMS value of emf induced in each turn, = starting, as the magnetic field produced by
Average value  1.11 = 4 m f  1.11 = 4.44 three-phase supply is rotating. But the
m f volt Total emf induced in primary magnetic field produced by single-phase
winding with N1 number of turns E1 = 4.44 system is pulsating, so most of the single-
m f N1 volt. Similarly, emf in induced in the phase motors are not self-starting.
secondary winding with N2 turns due to
What are the different types of losses
mutual induction. E2 = 4.44 m f N2 volt taking place in the transformer? How these
Symmetrical System: A three-phase system losses are minimized. State the parts in
is said to be symmetrical when voltages of which it takes place. Since, the transformer
same frequency in different phases are is a static device and not a rotating
equal in magnitude and displaced from one machine, therefore friction and windage
another by equal phase angles. (ii) Phase losses are not present. The losses which
sequence: A sequence in which three takes place in a transformer are of two
voltages will achieve their positive types (i) Iron losses or core losses (constant
maximum values is called phase sequence. losses), [takes place in transformer
(iii) Balanced load: The load is said to be magnetic core] (ii) Copper losses (variable
balanced when loads in each phase are losses). [Takes place in transformer copper
equal in magnitude and identical in nature. windings] (i) Iron Losses These losses occurs
(iii) UnBalanced load: The load is said to be due to the alternating flux in the
balanced when loads in each phase are not transformer core. These losses consist of :
equal in magnitude and identical in nature (a) Hysteresis loss, (b) Eddy current loss.
These losses remains constant at any load
. State the advantages of three phase ac condition. (a) Hysteresis Loss : When
system over single phase ac system. Ans: transformer core is subjected to a magnetic
There are several reasons why three-phase field, the molecules in the material are
system is superior to single-phase system. forced to get aligned in the direction of
(i) The rating of three-phase motor and applied magnetic field. If the applied
three-phase transformer are about 150% magnetic field is alternating in nature then,
greater than single-phase motor or the molecules are forced to change the
transformer with a similar frame size. (ii) directions with the same frequency of
The power delivered by a single-phase applied magnetic field. But the molecules
system pulsates. The power falls to zero, are very much reluctant to change their
three times during each cycle. The power direction. Hence, some energy is required in
delivered by a three-phase circuit pulsates order to change their direction as per the
also, but it never falls to zero. So in three- applied alternating magnetic field. This loss
phase system, power delivered to the load of energy is called as hysteresis loss. It is
is same at any instant. This produces dissipated in the form of heat. It is given by
superior operating characteristics for three- empirical formula asHysteresis loss, Ph =  B
phase system. (iii) To transmit certain 1.6 max f v watt where,  : stenmitz
amount of power at a given voltage over a constant, Bmax: maximum flux density in
given distance, threephase transmission line the core. f : frequency of alternating flux v :
requires less amount of copper than single- be the volume of core material. (b) Eddy
phase line. This reduces the cost of material Current Losses: Due to the linking of
required, hence, becomes economical. (iv) alternating flux to transformer core, emf get
Power factor of three-phase motor is induced in the transformer core. It gives rise
to circulating, current in the core. These 'bilateral'. Network comprised of pure
circulating currents are called as eddy resistance is bilateral one. Unilateral
currents. Now the every path of circulating Network: If characteristic or behavior of the
current in the core has some resistance circuit depends on direction of current
which causes the loss of energy. The total through one or more elements it is called
loss of energy due to the total eddy current 'Unilateral Network'. A diode allows flow of
is called as eddy current loss. It is also current only in one direction when it is
dissipated in the from of heat. It is also forward biased, circuit consisting of diode is
given by an empirical formula. Eddy current unilateral one. (3) Active Network: If
loss Pe=Ke B 2 max f 2 t 2 v watt Where, Ke : electric circuit contains at least single
constant depends on the resistivity of core energy source, it is called 'Active network'.
material Bmax: maximum flux density, f : It may be either voltage or current source.
frequency of alternating flux t : thickness of Passive Network: A circuit in absence of an
the lamination of the core, v : volume of energy source containing only passive
core material The flux density in the core elements is called 'Passive network'.
remains practically constant from no load to (4)Lumped Network: If all the network
full load as well as supply frequency also elements are physically separable, such a
remains constant therefore iron losses are network is called 'lumpednetwork'. Most of
also called as constant losses. (i) Copper the electrical networks are lumped in
Losses These losses occurs in the primary nature. Distributed Network: A network in
and secondary windings due to resistance of which elements are not physically separable
primary and secondary winding. Let I1 and is known as 'distributednetwork'. As
I2 : the primary and secondary current. R1 resistance inductance and capacitance of a
and R2 : the primary and secondary winding transmission line are uniformly distributed
resistance. Hence, Total copper loss = I 2 1 over its length, it is a 'distributed network'.
R1 + I 2 2 R2
Derive the EMF equation of single phase
Unit 5 Transform fig. Sinusoidal flux. Let, fux pm=
Max. value of flux N₁ = No. of pri. wodg
Explain following types of Electrical
turns N₂ = No. of see. wdg turns f =
Networks. 1) Linear and Non Linear
frequency of the supply Voltage E = RMS
network (2Unilateral and Bilateral
Value of the pai. induced emf E2= RMS
network) (3) Active and Passive network
Value of see. induced emf. from Faraday's
(4) Lumped and Distributed Network Ans:
law of electromagnetic induction the avg.
(1) Linear Network: A network in which
emp induced in each turn is proportional to
values of the circuit elements (resistance,
the aug. rate" of change of Aux .: Aug. emf
inductance and capacitance) remain
perturn = Aug·rate of change of flox = do . at
constant, irrespective of change in voltage
Now L db change in-flox Time required for
or current, is known as 'linear network'.
change in flux consider , to cycle of flex
Ohm's law is applicable to such network.
4fthm wh/seo. Aeg. amf per turn = 4fhm
Non Linear Network:On the other hand, if
volts. e As form factor Rigs Valve Aug. Value
values of the circuit elements change with
RMS = 1-11 X Avg. Value RMS Value of
change in voltage or current, such a
induced emf per-turn = 1-11 x 4fom for pri
network is called 'Non-linear network'.
& sea wdg, No. of turns are N, & N2 .. Rige
Ohm's law is not applicable to such a
value of Induced emf for primary &
network. (2) Bilateral Network: If
secondary E₁ = 4.44.fom N, Volts £2 = 4+44-
characteristics or behavior of the circuit is
from N₂ Volts
independent of direction of current through
various elements, such a network is called
F K, and K₂ are the RTC of a conducting junction or node in an electric circuit, sum
material at tic 4 to°c respectively. prove of incoming currents is equal to sum of
that, ∞₂ = 4. 1+2, (t2-ti) R2= R, [i+α, (t₂-ti)] outgoing currents. i.e. at any node, ∑
Where Rif2, are resistance and RTC at tic & Incoming Currents= ∑ Outgoing Currents
R₂ is resistance at tec If the same resistance Explanation : Consider a node as shown in
is cooled from ±2 to tic & if d2 is RTC at t2°c Fig. Fig. Four branches meet at junction or
then R₁ = R₂ [1+ de (+, -+1)] Divide eg by R2 node A. By KCL, I 2 + I4 = I 1 + I3 where I2
R2 @ As (+α₁ (+2-+1) Divide em by Ry to and I4 are incoming currents while I1 and I3
VIRA 120 R2 1+x9 (+1-+1) equating eqh4@ are outgoing currents. Kirchhoff's Voltage
1+α₁ (tanti) s K₁ (t₁-ti) = 1+ 42(4-2) 1 1+22(t₁- Law (KVL) Statement : In any electrical
tz) = 1 - 1 - alpha_{2}(t_{1} - t_{2}) 1+xa (+1- network, algebraic sum of voltage drops
+2) (alpha_{2}(t_{1} - t_{2}))/(1 + across various elements around any closed
alpha_{2}(t_{1} - t_{2})) alpha_{2}(t_{2} - loop or mesh is equal to algebraic sum of
t_{1}) 1+da (+1-42) <₁ (t₂-t₁) = L2 , 1+de (t₁- e.m.f.s in that loop. ∑IR=∑E In other words,
kz) alpha_{2} = alpha_{1}/(1 + if we trace any closed path or loop in an
alpha_{1}(t_{2} - t_{1})) =25/27 proved electrical network an algebraic sum of
branch voltages is always zero. ∑V=0 Sign
What is phase sequence & state it's any
Convention: Direction of current through a
two applicatios ans) The sequence in which
circuit element decides polarity of voltage.
the voltages in three phases reach their
Current always flows from higher potential
maximum positive values is called phase
to lower potentialWhile tracing a closed
sequence. Generally the phase sequence is
path, from positively marked terminal of
R - Y - B Application- 1.To determine
resistor to negatively marked terminal then
direction of rotathon of ae motors 2.To
it indicates potential drop. This is shown in
study parallel operation of alternators.
Fig. (a). (a) Potential drop If circuit path is
state the relation between- 1 phase traced from negatively marked terminal to
Voltage & line voltage. 11) phase current & positively marked terminal, then it indicates
line current is case of balanced kel delta potential rise. This is shown in Fig. (b) (b)
connected 3-ph load. Using above relations, Potential rise Consider a network shown
Tabtain the expressions for 3p active power below. Using KVL, ∑V=0 -I R1- I R2 + V=0,
and 3-ph reactive power. For Delta V=I(R1+R2) I= (V/(R1+R2))
connected balanced load, phase voltage |
State & explain Superposition theorem.
V_{1} = V*rho*b And Line current and phase
Statement: In any linear, bilateral network
current relation is, I_{1} = sqrt(3) * Iph
containing atleast two energy sources, the
power consumed in each phase in single
current flowing through a particular branch
phase power given by P ph =VphIph cos phi
is the algebraic sum of the currents flowing
Total power, p= Line Voltage P = SP*rho*h
through that branch when each source is
P= 9 Vph Iph costP = 3V_{L} * I_{L}/V_{3} *
considered separately and remaining
cos phi = sqrt(5) * sqrt(3) * V_{1} *
sources are replaced by their respective
T_{L}/(sqrt(3)) * cos phi P = sqrt(3) *
internal resistances. Explanation: Consider a
V_{1}*I_{L} * cos phi Workw Reactive Power
network shown in Fig. (a). The current (I)
is, Q = sqrt(3) * sqrt(L) * I * sin phi VAR or
through R2 is to be estimated using
KVAR
Superposition theorem Consider voltage
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) Statement: source V1 acting alone. Make other voltage
Algebraic sum of currents meeting at any source inactive i.e. replace it by it's internal
junction point in an electric circuit is always resistance. As internal resistance of an ideal
zero. i.e. ∑I=0 In other words, at any voltage source is zero, it is replaced by short
circuit. Circuit will be as shown in Fig. across Thevenin's equivalent circuit and find
(b).The current through R2 is I’. Fig. (b) Now current through it.
consider second voltage source V2 is acting
Unit 6
alone. Replace first voltage source V1 by
short circuit. Circuit will be as shown in Fig. Resistivity of the material: Ri depends on
(c).The current through R2 is I’’ Fig. (c) I’ and type and nature (resistivity) of the material
I’’ can be calculated by using KVL or branch
current method. Hence the current flowing Derive an expression for insulation
through R2 when both the sources are resistance of a single core cable. To find the
acting is… I=I’+I” resistance offered by insulating material (Ri)
of a single core cable having length ‘l’
State & explain Thevenin's Theorem. meters to flow of leakage current, cross
Statement: Any linear, bilateral network section of the cable is considered as shown
containing energy sources and circuit in figure. Due to finite insulation resistance
elements can be replaced by an equivalent of the insulating material used, some
circuit containing a voltage source VThand a leakage current flows from the conductor in
series resistance RTh or Req across the radialy outward direction. Therefore, to
terminals under consideration. Value of obtain the expression for Ri , a small section
voltage source VThis equal to the open- with thickness as "dr" at a distance of “r"
circuit voltage across the terminals under meters from the centre of the cable is
consideration while RTh or Req is the considered. Where, R1 = Radius of
equivalent resistance measured between conductor, R2 = Radius of cable including
the same terminals replacing all the energy conductor and insulator Length offered by
sources by their internal resistances. insulation layer = dr, Cross-sectional area =
Explanation:By using this theorem current 2πrl The resistance offered by small section
flowing through any particular circuit is dRi =  dr 2πrl The total insulation
element can be calculated. Consider linear resistance Ri can be obtained by integrating
bilateral network as shown in figure. The "dRi " over the entire radius of insulating
current (IL) through branch AB carrying material i.e. from R1 and R2 . Ri =   R1 R2
resistance RL is to be determined using dRi =   R1 R2  dr 2πrl =  2πl   R1 R2
Thevenin’s Theorem. How to apply dr r =  2πl [loge r] R2 R1 Ri =  2πl [loge R2
Thevenin's theorem to calculate IL? (i) – loge R1] =  2πl ln      R2 R1 Ω Ri = 
Remove the circuit element (RL) under 2πl loge      R2 R1 Ω
consideration from the network. (ii) Find the
value of open-circuit voltage across those Explain the construction of Lead acid
terminals. This is nothing but Thevenin's battery with neat diagram The lead-acid
voltage source (VTH). (iii) Find the cell essentially contains following elements:
equivalent resistance between the same 1. Plates The plates, which are actually
terminals replacing all energy sources by electrodes are a) Anode: Lead Peroxide
their internal resistances. Ideal voltage (PbO2) of Chocolate brown colour b)
sources are replaced by short circuit, while Cathode: Spongy Lead (Pb) with slate grey
ideal current sources are replaced by open colour 2. Electrolyte: Aqueous solution of
circuit. This resistance is RThor Req. (iv) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4). 3. Separators: The
Replace the given network across terminals separators are used to separate positive and
under consideration by Thevenin's negative plates, preventing them to come in
equivalent circuit, which is Thevenin's contact with each other. These are made of
voltage source in series with an equivalent either specially treated wood or perforated
resistance. (v) Reconnect original element rubber. The common separator is wood,
since it is the cheapest of all separators. 4. equations. As their name suggests, lithium-
Container The container is made of ion batteries are all about the movement of
vulcanized rubber, or glass. Glass containers lithium ions: the ions move one way when
are normally used for light duty work and the battery charges (when it's absorbing
rubber container for portable work. Entire power); they move the opposite way when
assembly of plates along with the solution is the battery discharges (when it's supplying
placed in the container. 5. Bottom Blocks power): Charging During charging, lithium
These are fitted at the bottom of the ions flow from the positive electrode to the
container to prevent short circuiting of cell negative electrode through the electrolyte.
due to the active material fallen from the Electrons also flow from the positive
plates. 6. Plate connector Separate electrode to the negative electrode, but
connectors are used to connect all positive take the longer path around the outer
plates to one bar and negative plates to circuit. The electrons and ions Applications
another common bar 7. Cover with vent 1. Used in automobiles for starting and
Plug The covers are generally of vulcanized lighting 2. Used in generating stations and
rubber. A hole is provided for pouring the Substations to operate protective devices
electrolyte and this can be closed by a and emergency lighting 3. Used Un-
screwed cap. The cap is provided with interrupted Power Supply
minute holes for gases to escape. This is
Fully charged battery The various
also known as ‘Vent Cap’. The function of
indications of fully charged battery are a)
the vent cap is to allow the escape of the
Voltage b) Specific Gravity of Electrolyte c)
gases. Applications 1. Used in automobiles
Colour of the electrodes d) Gassing Voltage:
for starting and lighting 2. Used in
When the cell is fully charged its terminal
generating stations and Substations to
potential will be approximately 2.6
operate protective devices and emergency
voltsSpecific Gravity: When the cell is fully
lighting 3. Used Un-interrupted Power 4.
charged, the specific gravity of the
Used in Emergency Lighting 5. Used in
electrolyte will be approximately 1.21.
telephone exchange
When the cell is fully discharged its value
Explain construction working of Lithium falls to 1.17. Colour of Electrodes: When the
Ion battery. The lithium ion battery was cell is fully charged, the lead sulphate anode
introduced in the early 1990s. This batteries gets converted into lead per oxide (PbO2)
consist of largely four main components: dark chocolate brown in colour and lead
cathode, anode, electrolyte, and separator. sulphate cathode gets converted into lead
a) Cathode: A Positive electrode is made (Pb), grey in colour. It is considered one of
with Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2) has a the best tests for ascertaining the condition
current collector made of thin aluminum of a battery Gassing: When the cell is fully
foil. b) Anode: A negative electrode made charged, the hydrogen and oxygen gases
with specialty carbon has current collector are liberated at the cathode and anode
of thin copper foil. c) Separator: It is a fine respectively, so liberation of gases
porous polymer film. d) Electrolyte: Lithium (hydrogen and oxygen), known as gassing,
salt in an organic solvent. Electrolyte is on the electrodes indicates that the cells are
selected in such a way that there should be fully charged.
an effective transport of Li-ion to the
cathode during discharge. Type of
conductivity is ionic in nature rather than
electronic. Explain working of Lithium Ion
battery along with charging and discharging
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