European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety

12(6): 109-120, 2020; Article no.EJNFS.58932

ISSN: 2347-5641

Safety Assessment of the Presence of Heavy Metals

and Organic Pollutants in Vended Street Foods from
Selected Locations in Lagos State Nigeria
G. I. Oyet1* and C. B. Samuel1
1
Department of Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration between the authors. Author GIO designed the study, wrote
the protocol and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Author CBS performed the statistical analysis
and the literature searches of the study. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/EJNFS/2020/v12i630251
Editor(s):
(1) Dr. Johnson Akinwumi Adejuyitan, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Nigeria.
(2) Dr. Rasha Mousa Ahmed Mousa, University of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
Reviewers:
(1) N. K. Srivastava, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, India.
(2) A. A. Prasanna Kumari, Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden & Research Institute, India.
Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/58932

Received 28 April 2020

Accepted 03 July 2020
Original Research Article
Published 04 July 2020

ABSTRACT
This study was aimed at investigating the presence of heavy metals and volatile organic pollutants
in street-vended foods sourced from three selected locations in Lagos State, Nigeria, to ascertain
their safety level. The study was carried out using complete randomization design and Cluster
sampling technique to source vended street foods from three locations (Marina, Yaba and Apapa).
The eight Food products studied were roasted (plantain, fish, yam, corn), suya meat, meat pie, egg
roll and doughnuts. Lead, Cadmium, Copper, Mercury, Iron, Zinc and organic pollutants in Foods
and particulate matter in Environment were examined. Heavy metals detected in vended street
foods from Marina, Yaba and Apapa Lagos were; iron, copper, lead and zinc, at level ranging from
0.14 mg/kg–2.80 mg/kg, 0.08 mg/kg – 0.27 mg/kg, 0.01 mg/kg – 0.18 mg/kg, and 0.01 mg/kg –
0.04 mg/kg, respectively. Mercury and Cadmium were below detectable limit. Significantly (P<0.05)
higher iron presence of 2.80 mg/kg and 1.99mg/kg were respectively, noticed in suya from Apapa
and roasted fish also from Apapa. Significantly (P<0.05) higher lead (Pb) content of 0.18 mg/kg
was observed in dough nut from Yaba, however, roasted plantain, roasted fish and meat pie all
sourced from Yaba gave significantly (P<0.05) lower lead content of 0.01mg/kg. The Zinc content
of roasted fish, suya and egg roll sourced from Marina, Yaba and Apapa were all significantly
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

*Corresponding author: Email: gogomaryo@yahoo.com;

 Oyet and Samuel; EJNFS, 12(6): 109-120, 2020; Article no.EJNFS.58932

(P<0.05) difference, with particular respect to food type. Higher iron content of 2.80 mg/kg was
noticed in suya from Apapa. Volatile organic compounds (TPH, PAHs, Phenol) were observed to
be below detectable limit (<0.001 mg/kg) in all the vended street food samples. Particulate matter
3 3
in air; SPM, PM1, PM2.5, PM10 and VOCs ranged from 0.34 – 0.84 mg/m , 0.32 – 0.56 mg/m , 0.32
3, 3 3
– 0.68 mg/m 0.33 – 0.79 mg/m and <0.001 – 0.24 mg/m , respectively. PM1 and PM25 from the
three locations were not statistically significant (P>0.05). All the vended food samples had lead
(Pb) content above the CODEX permissible limit of 0.01 mg/kg. The presence of high lead content
in Vended Street food is a major source of occupational health hazards.

Keywords: Heavy metals; organic pollutants; vended street foods; Lagos State.

1. INTRODUCTION of processing and vending is common due to

ignorant of food handlers and hawkers on basic
Table-ready foods prepared and sold by street food safety measures [6].
vendors and hawkers at public places for
immediate consumption or consumption at a later Prevalent and distribution of pollutants in the
and shortest possible time without further environment Is seen to increase due to increase
processing, are generally refered to as vended in Industrial and commercial activities, among
street foods [1,2,3]. Consumer acceptance for these are heavy metals and other serious
street-vended food is basically due to pollutants [1]. One major source of pollution for
convenience and uniqueness in flavours. The most vended street foods is vehicular emission
role of ready-to-eat foods in maintaining the [7]. Food toxicity results from contamination of
nutritional status of the population cannot be foods with heavy metals, its bioaccumulation and
overemphasized [4]. Street food vending biomagnifications in the food chain [8]. Human
provides a livelihood for a large number of exposure to heavy metals has increased
workers, it also assures food security and ease dramatically in the last 50 years’ as a result of
of food accessibility for low-income urban increase in the use of heavy metals in industrial
populations. Street food vending business processes and production activities [4]. Heavy
requires relatively low capital, hence its metals have been shown to have positive and
popularity among the low-income urban negative roles in human life [9,10]. As reported
population. Beside the perceived benefit of earlier by Onianwa et al. [11]. Heavy metals
offering business opportunities for developing composition of foods is of interest because some
entrepreneurs, street food vending is seen to be are essential while others are toxic in nature. For
a major public health risk. It is important to note example, iron, zinc, copper, chromium, cobalt,
that street-food vendors are often poor and and manganese are essential, while lead,
uneducated and lack basic training and cadmium, nickel, and mercury are toxic at certain
understanding of food safety, food hygiene and levels. Mineral elements such as iron, zinc and
best practices in food handling and services. To copper are micro nutrients essential for
ensure the safety of street-vended foods and to biochemical reactions in the body while
minimize the risk of food borne disease, cadmium, lead and mercury present as major
government intervention is needed, in terms of contaminants of exposed foods and may be seen
standards and regulations, including regular as the most important problem to our
training and enlightenment for street food environment [12]. High amount of cadmium and
operators, to ensure that standards for safety lead in food is associated with a number of
and best practices prevails, in line with state food diseases especially with cardiovascular, kidney,
safety requirement. The view that street food nervous as well as bone diseases. They have
vending provides ready employment and some also been implicated in causing carcinogenesis,
special income especially for women and the mutagenesis and teratogenesis [13]. Heavy
low-income urban dwellers, thus performing an metals such as copper, manganese, and zinc are
important socio-economic role cannot be associated with non-carcinogenic hazards such
overemphasized [5]. Report has shown that as neurologic disorders and liver disease if
many urban dwellers, especially the working present in food at concentrations above their
population obtain a significant portion of their diet safe limit [14]. In a similar study by Itoh et al. [15]
from street foods which enhances the street food reported that consumption of rice and other foods
business in major cities [4]. Exposure of street contaminated with cadmium were associated
foods to various contaminants at different stages with an increased risk of menopausal breast

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cancer. Heavy metals induced toxicity is of public Lagos Port Complex, [28], Apapa been the major
health concern, since food ingestion is the major commercial district of Lagos is high in vehicular
pathway for human exposure to toxic traffic. The Location of the study site was around
substances. Therefore, there is the need to clusters of Oil and Gas depots and plants,
monitor their levels in frequently consumed street dealing on refined petroleum products.
foods marketed in Nigerian cities.
Yaba is a suburb located on Lagos Mainland. It is
Industrialization has posited air pollution as one home to several Federal Government Institutions
of the greatest risk factors of our times [16,17]. ; Queen's College, the Nigerian Institute of
One of the key indicators of the “better life index” Medical Research, the Yaba College of
in Industrialized countries is the concentration of Technology, Igbobi College, the University of
particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) [18]. The Lagos, the Federal Science and Technical
concentration of PM2.5, designated by the World College, and the Federal College of Education.
Health Organization as group 1 carcinogen, Yaba is home to the major Market centre in
varies depending on the country and region Lagos Metropolis. Marina is a district in Lagos
[19,20,21,22]. Island Ìsàlẹ̀ Èkó. It is the principal and
central local government area (LGA) in Lagos
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are organic State. It is part of the Lagos Division. Lagos
chemicals that have a high vapor pressure at Island plays host to the main government
room temperature [14]. VOCs molecules buildings, shops and offices and high commercial
evaporate or sublimate from the liquid or solid activities. This study is aimed at investigating the
form of its compound and enter the surrounding presence of heavy metals and volatile organic
air, food and surfaces, this is possible due to pollutants in street-vended foods commonly
their high vapour pressure resulting from their eaten in Lagos, Nigeria, to ascertain their safety
low boiling point. For this study, the scope of level.
Volatile Aromatic/Organic Compounds is limited
to; total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH), polycyclic 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Phenol.
These compounds are some of the volatile
2.1 Study Area
organic compounds (VOCs) found in petroleum
derivatives. VOCs are typically not acutely toxic,
Lagos is a city State in Nigeria, located between
but have compounding long-term health effects.
the latitudes of 6°27'55.5192" N and longitudes
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are
3°24'23.2128" E in the South Western Nigeria.
considered as potential lung cancer inducing
The Study was conducted in some selected parts
agents [23,24]. VOCs are emitted from both
of Lagos State, along the following sampling
natural (vegetation, specifically rural forested
clusters: Marina, Yaba and Apapa.
areas, soil microbiota and geological
hydrocarbon reservoirs) and anthropogenic
(transport sector, industrial solvent use, 2.2 Methods
combustion processes) sources [25,26]. Traffic
emission is considered the main source of VOCs 2.2.1 Experimental design
in the urban areas [27].
The study was carried out using complete
Lagos, been the commercial nerve center of randomization design. Cluster sampling
Nigeria is flagged with heavy Industrial and technique was used to source the food samples
human activities, with consequential increase in from Marina, Yaba and Apapa, taking the three
demand for table-ready foods. Thus, need to locations as clusters
ascertain the safety level of these ready-to-eat
foods becomes of utmost necessity, in order to 2.2.2 Sample collection
predict possible extents of consumer vulnerability
to exposed toxic materials due to inhalation and Eight food samples (roasted plantain, roasted
assimilation. Three locations in Lagos State yam, roasted fish, roasted corn, suya meat, meat
(Apapa, Yaba and Marina) were selected for this pie, egg roll and dough nut) each were
study. Apapa is a Local Government Area in purchased from the 3 (three) locations in Lagos
Lagos, located to the west of Lagos Island. (8x3) making a total of 24 food samples. The
Apapa contains a number of ports and terminals food samples were wrapped with aluminium foil
operated by the Nigerian Ports Authority (NPA), paper and transported in an iced cooler to the
including the major port of Lagos State and laboratory. The choice of the samples was

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carefully made to reflect the most consumed mg/kg, respectively. The trend of heavy metals
ready-to-eat street-vended foods in Lagos. The contamination in the street food samples
samples were stored at 4°C prior to analysis. decreased in the following order: Fe > Cu > Pb >
Zn. Iron, zinc and copper are micro nutrients and
2.2.3 Heavy metal content essential for biochemical reactions in the body
[32], however, concentrations above their safe
The heavy metals determined were; Iron, copper, levels is a risk factor for non-carcinogenic
mercury, cadmium, lead and zinc, using Atomic hazards such as liver disease and other
Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS-210 VGP, Buck neurologic disorders [33]. Lead was the major
Scientific), according to the methods of AOAC contaminant of the food samples, with critical
[29]. health concern. Mercury and Cadmium were
observed to be below the detectable limit, this
2.2.4 VOCs analysis in street vended food was a plus to street-vended foods sourced from
samples Marina, Yaba and Apapa, as Cadmium is a
probable human carcinogen [34]. High exposure
Volatile Organic Compounds (total petroleum to cadmium has been shown to cause a wide
hydrocarbon, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon range of diseases, including, anemia, skeletal
and phenol) were determined using Gas weakness, heart disease, depressed immune
Chromatography-Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) system response as well as liver and kidney
ASTM D5790 - 95 according to the methods of disease [35]. Significantly (P<0.05) higher iron
APHA [30]. presence of 2.80mg/kg and 1.99mg/kg were
respectively, noticed in suya meat from Apapa
2.2.5 Particulate matter in ambient air
and roasted fish also from Apapa. The high Iron
An aerostat SPM 531 particle a met -1 aerosol content may be from the source of water used in
mass monitor was used to measure respirable food material cleaning and processing, as the
particulate and total suspended particles. water in most part of Lagos State is high in Iron
Measurements from this instrument was content. This is in collaboration with the study by
periodically verified and calibrated using data WHO [36]. That the highest individual value (13.5
from gravimetric instrumentation [31]. mg/l) was measured in a borehole sample from
Hydrological Area 6- Lagos. These was followed
2.3 Data Analysis by 1.86 mg/kg and 1.84 mg/kg of iron observed
in egg roll and roasted yam, both from Marina
All experiments and analysis were carried out in Lagos. Significantly (P<0.05) higher lead (Pb)
triplicates, mean and standard deviations values content of 0.18mg/kg was observed in dough nut
were calculated. Data were subjected to Analysis from Yaba, however, roasted plantain, roasted
of Variance (ANOVA), Means were separated fish and meat pie all sourced from Yaba gave
using Tukey’s multiple comparison test, and significantly (P<0.05) lower lead content of 0.01
significance accepted at p<0.05 level. The mg/kg. Lead content of 0.01 – 0.17 mg/kg seen
statistical package in Minitab 16 computer in roasted plantain from the three locations were
program was used. higher than <0.001 mg/kg reported by earlier
researchers for roasted plantain from Port
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Harcourt [37, 38]. High Pb content of dough nut
from Yaba and roasted plantain from Marina
The study was intended to examine the food (0.17 mg/kg) is probably due to high vehicular
safety implications of the presence of heavy traffic around the locations. Lead content of
metals and organic pollutants in Ready- to- eat roasted plantain (0.17 mg/kg), dough nut (0.18
street foods in parts of Lagos State. mg/kg) and meat pie (0.06 mg/kg) were lower
compared to 0.31 mg/kg, 0.21 mg/kg and 0.24
3.1 Heavy Metal Content of Vended Street mg/kg for roasted plantain, dough nut and meat
Foods Sourced from Three Locations pie sourced from Benin and Emunede express
in Lagos, Nigeria way, Mid- western Nigeria [39]. Emission from
vehicles contributed to pollutant release to the
Heavy metals detected in vended street foods surrounding and thus, affect the street food [40].
from Marina, Yaba and Apapa Lagos were; iron, High exposure of Pb is associated with health
copper, lead and Zinc, at level ranging from 0.14 damages such as anaemia, weight loss and
mg/kg – 2.80 mg/kg, 0.08 mg/kg – 0.27 mg/kg, depression [41] Lead can adversely affect kidney
0.01 mg/kg–0.18 mg/kg and 0.01 mg/kg – 0.04 function, immune system, the nervous system,

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reproductive and developmental systems Table 1. Experimental design: Locations and

including the cardiovascular system [37]. All the food samples
vended food samples had lead (Pb) content
above the CODEX permissible limit of 0.01 MARINA YABA APAPA
mg/kg [42] except roasted plantain from Yaba, RPM RPY RPA
roasted Yam from Yaba and Meat Pie also RYM RYY RYA
sourced from Yaba. As shown in Table 1, 37.5% SMM SMY SMA
of the street-vended foods from Apapa and MPM MPY MPA
Marina had Pb content above the USEPA RCM RCY RCA
permissible limit of 0.05 mg/kg [14] These values ERM ERY DN3
were higher than the Pb values (<0.001 mg/kg) DNM DNY DNA
reported by Oyet et al. [37] in street-vended food RFM RFY RFA
samples from three locations in Port Harcourt. Legends: RPM = roasted plantain from Marina, RPY =
High concentration of Pb in foods from Apapa roasted plantain from Yaba, RPA = roasted plantain
and Marina is probably due to high vehicular from Apapa, RFM = roasted fish from Marina, RFY =
roasted fish from Yaba, RFA= roasted fish from Apapa,
movement and Industrial activities within those
RYM = roasted yam from Marina, RYY = roasted yam
locations. High concentration of Pb in the body from Yaba, RYA = roasted yam from Apapa, SMM =
can cause anaemia, irreversible brain damage suya meat from Marina, SMY = suya meat from Yaba,
(encephalopathy), coma and death if not treated SMA = suya meat from Apapa, MPM = meat pie from
immediately [43]. Long-term system exposure Marina, MPY = meat pie from Yaba, MPA = meat pie
can cause damage to the kidneys and from Apapa, RCM = roasted corn from Marina, RCY =
reproductive and immune system. Children are roasted corn from Yaba, RCA = roasted corn from
shown to absorb Pb easily making them more Apapa, ERM=egg roll from marina, ERY= egg roll from
vulnerable than adults to Pb toxicity. A low blood Yaba, ERA= egg roll from Apapa, DNM= dough nut
from Marina, DNY= dough nut from Yaba, DNA=
lead level can affect the intellectual development
dough nut from Apapa
or IQ of young children [44]. Pb levels in vended
street foods over permissible limits are implicated All the street- vended food samples examined
in chronic lead toxicity resulting in anemia, had Zn content below the CODEX maximum limit
abdominal pain and renal damage [34]. Lead is of contaminants (MLC) of 1 mg/kg [45].
reported as an immunosuppressive agent in Significantly (P<0.05) higher iron content of 2.80
human and other animals. Lead, which is proven
mg/kg was noticed in suya meat from Apapa
to be a serious cumulative body poison enters (SMA), this value was significantly higher than
into the body system through air, water and food 0.56 mg/kg observed in suya meat from Marina
and cannot be removed by washing. The high and Yaba. Iron content of the vended street
levels of Pb in some plants due to pollutants in foods were all within CODEX safety limit (<2.5
irrigation water, farm soil and pollution from the mg/kg). Excess iron intake may result in
highways traffic had earlier been reported by siderosis (deposition of iron in tissue) in liver,
Sobukola et al.,[32]. Significantly higher zinc pancreas, adrenals, thyroid, pituitary and heart
content of 0.04mg/kg was noticed in roasted depending on the chemical form.
plantain, roasted fish and dough nut from Marina. Haemochromatosis patients suffer from liver
The Zinc content of roasted fish, suya meat and cirrhosis, adrenal insufficiency, heart failure or
egg roll sourced from Marina, Yaba and Apapa diabetes [45].
were all significantly (P<0.05) difference, with
particular respect to food type. This is an
3.2 Volatile Organic Compounds/
indication that metal distribution in vended street
food is affected significantly by location. Zinc is a Pollutants Present in Ready-To-Eat
ubiquitous metal present in the environment, Zinc Street Foods Sourced from Three
is an essential trace element; the requirement for Locations in Lagos, Nigeria
zinc changes throughout life and health effects
associated with zinc deficiency are numerous. In Volatile organic compounds (TPH, PAHs,
human, acute level of zinc is associated with Phenol) were observed to be below detectable
vomiting and gastrointestinal irritation such as; limit (<0.001 mg/kg) in all the vended street food
nausea, cramps and diarrhea. However, these samples sourced from Marina, Yaba and Apapa.
health conditions present less when bound to VOCs, though noticed in ambient air studied
food components (i.e. meat, sea foods). Zn were not detected in vended food samples within
contamination in food also impaired copper the same locality. This observation agreed with
utilization [45]. the report of Oyet et al. [27], on ready-to-eat

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street-vended foods from Port Harcourt organic materials such as coal, oil, petrol, and
Metropolis. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) wood. Benzo (a) pyrene, is the most
are organic chemicals that have a high vapor carcinogenic PAH, with its maximum
pressure at ordinary room temperature [14]. contaminant level (MCL) set at 0.2 ppb [14].
Large number of VOCs molecules Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH) is a term
evaporate or sublimate from the liquid or solid used to describe a broad family of several
form of its compound and enter the surrounding hundred chemical compounds that come
air, food and surfaces, this is possible due to originally from crude oil [46]. Many of these
their high vapour pressure resulting from their products have characteristic gasoline, kerosene
low boiling point, such that volatile organic and greasy odours. Because modern society
compounds can be converted into vapour or gas uses so many petroleum-based products (for
without any chemical change [27]. Volatile example, gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil, mineral oil,
organic compounds are numerous, varied, and grease, wax and asphalt), Risk of environmental
ubiquitous, they are typically not acutely toxic, pollution by these contaminants is high.
but have compounding long-term health effects. Contamination caused by petroleum products will
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are invariably contain a variety of these volatile
ubiquitous environmental pollutants generated organic pollutants. Because there are so many, it
primarily during the incomplete combustion of is not usually practical to measure each

Table 2. Heavy metal content of ready-to-eat street foods sourced from three locations in
Lagos, Nigeria

Samples Iron Copper Mercury Cadmium Lead Zinc

(mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
RPM 0.14v ±0.000 0.10lm±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.17b±0.000 0.04a±0.000
RPY 0.75n±0.000 0.11k±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.01p±0.000 0.02c±0.000
m f j c
RPA 0.78 ±0.000 0.13 ±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.05 ±0.000 0.02 ±0.000
RFM 0.87l±0.000 0.10n±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.03m±0.000 0.04a±0.000
h ij p d
RFY 1.10 ±0.000 0.12 ±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.01 ±0.000 0.01 ±0.000
RFA 1.99b±0.000 0.12ij±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.06i±0.000 0.02h±0.000
d a g b
RYM 1.84 ±0.000 0.27 ±0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.07 ±0.000 0.03 ±0.000
u b n b
RYY 0.32 ±0.000 0.22 ±0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.02 ±0.000 0.03 ±0.000
RYA 0.89k±0.001 0.20c±0.002 <0.001 <0.001 0.05j±0.000 0.02c±0.000
s g l b
SMM 0.56 ±0.001 0.13 ±0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.04 ±0.000 0.03 ±0.000
SMY 0.56s±0.001 0.12h±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.02n±0.000 0.04a±0.000
a g c c
SMA 2.80 ±0.000 0.13 ±0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.15 ±0.001 0.02 ±0.000
o h k c
MPM 0.73 ±0.000 0.12 ±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.04 ±0.001 0.02 ±0.000
MPY 1.58g±0.000 0.14e±0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.01p±0.002 0.03b±0.000
i c h b
MPA 0.91 ±0.000 0.10 ±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.06 ±0.001 0.03 ±0.001
RCM 0.69p±0.000 0.14d±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.12d±0.001 0.02c±0.001
p k o b
RCY 0.69 ±0.000 0.11 ±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.02 ±0.001 0.03 ±0.001
RCA 0.90j±0.000 0.12i±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.06i±0.000 0.03b±0.001
ERM 1.86c±0.000 0.13e±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.07g±0.000 0.02 c±0.001
e g e b
ERY 1.81 ±0.000 0.13 ±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.08 ±0.000 0.03 ±0.001
ERA 1.75f±0.000 0.11j±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.08f±0.000 0.01d±0.001
r d g a
DNM 0.66 ±0.000 0.14 ±0.000 <0.001 <0.001 0.07 ±0.000 0.04 ±0.001
DNY 0.68q±0.000 0.10m±0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.18a±0.000 0.03b±0.001
t o b
DNA 0.46 ±0.000 0.08 ±0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.02n±0.000 0.03 ±0.001
Values are means ± standard deviation of triplicate samples, Mean values bearing different superscript in the
same column differ significantly (P<0.05). Key: RPM = roasted plantain from Marina, RPY = roasted plantain from
Yaba, RPA = roasted plantain from Apapa, RFM = roasted fish from Marina, RFY = roasted fish from Yaba,
RFA= roasted fish from Apapa, RYM = roasted yam from Marina, RYY = roasted yam from Yaba, RYA = roasted
yam from Apapa, SMM = suya meat from Marina, SMY = suya meat from Yaba, SMM = suya meat from Apapa,
MPM = meat pie from Marina , MPY = meat pie from Yaba, MPA = meat pie from Apapa, RCM = roasted corn
from Marina, RCY = roasted corn from Yaba, RCA = roasted corn from Apapa, ERM=egg roll from marina, ERY=
egg roll from Yaba, ERA= egg roll from Apapa, DNM= dough nut from Marina, DNY= dough nut from Yaba,
DNA= dough nut from Apapa

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one individually. However, it is useful to measure antiviral activity, antimicrobial activity, and
the total amount of all hydrocarbons found antimutagenic activity. However, other studies
together in a particular sample, which could be; have shown that the same phenolic have
soil, water, food or air. The amount of TPH negative attributes such as carcinogenic activity
distribution in a sample gives an indication of the and antinutritional activity, as well as imparting
level of petroleum contamination at that location negative attributes to foods [50].
[46]. Phenols are crystalline, volatile aromatic
organic compounds, with molecule consisting of 3.3 Suspended Particulate Matters and
a phenyl group bonded to a hydroxy group [47]. Volatile Organic Content of Ambient
Phenol and its vapours are shown to be Air from Three Locations in Lagos,
corrosive to the eyes, skin, and the respiratory Nigeria
tract [48]. Its corrosive effect on skin and mucous
membranes is due to a protein-degenerating Result for Suspended Particulate Matters and
effect. Phenol vapour if inhaled may cause lung Volatile Organic content of Ambient Air from
disease (oedema) [48]. Phenolic substances may Marina, Yaba and Apapa is shown in Table 3.
cause harmful effects on the heart and the SPM, PM1, PM2.5, PM10 and VOCs ranged from
central nervous system, resulting in seizures, 0.34 – 0.84 mg/m3, 0.32 – 0.56 mg/m3, 0.32 –
3 3
and coma and to some extent, kidney failure 0.68 mg/m , 0.33 – 0.79 mg/m and 0 – 0.24
3
[49]. Studies, have demonstrated that phenolic mg/m , respectively. Differences in PM1 and
compounds in foods possess positive attributes PM2.5 from the three locations were not
such as anticarcinogenesis, antioxidant potential, statistically significant (P>0.05). Suspended

Table 3. Organic compounds/pollutants

Samples TPH (mg/kg) PAHs (mg/kg) Phenol (mg/kg)

RPM <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
RPY <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
RPA <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
RFM <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
RFY <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
RFA <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
RYM <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
RYY <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
RYA <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
SMM <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
SMY <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
SYA <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
MPM <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
MPY <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
MPA <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
RCM <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
RCY <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
RCA <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
ERM <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
ERY <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
ERA <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
DNM <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
DNY <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
DNA <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Key: TPH = total petroleum hydrocarbon. PAHs = polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, RPM = roasted plantain
from Marina, RPY = roasted plantain from Yaba, RPA = roasted plantain from Apapa, RFM = roasted fish from
Marina, RFY = roasted fish from Yaba, RFA= roasted fish from Apapa, RYM = roasted yam from Marina, RYY =
roasted yam from Yaba, RYA = roasted yam from Apapa, SMM = suya meat from Marina, SMY = suya meat from
Yaba, SMM = suya meat from Apapa, MPM = meat pie from Marina , MPY = meat pie from Yaba, MPA = meat
pie from Apapa, RCM = roasted corn from Marina, RCY = roasted corn from Yaba, RCA = roasted corn from
Apapa, ERM=egg roll from marina, ERY= egg roll from Yaba, ERA= egg roll from Apapa, DNM= dough nut from
Marina, DNY= dough nut from Yaba, DNA= dough nut from Apapa

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Table 4. Particulate matters and volatile organic contents

Location SPM PM1 PM2.5 PM10 VOCs

3 3 3 3 3
(mg/m ) (mg/m ) (mg/m ) (mg/m ) (mg/m )
a a a a a
Marina 0.84 ±0.255 0.52 ±0.307 0.68 ±0.255 0.79 ±0.241 0.24 ±0.004
Yaba 0.34b±0.029 0.32a±0.029 0.32a±0.029 0.33b±0.027 0.00c±0.000
Apapa 0.59ab±0.386 0.56a±0.386 0.57a±0.385 0.59ab±0.388 0.07b±0.005
Values are means ± standard deviation of triplicate samples, Mean values bearing different superscript in the
same column differ significantly (P<0.05)

particulate matter (SPM) and coarse particulate concern. Mercury and Cadmium were below
matter (PM10) detected at Yaba location were detectable limit in food samples from all the
significantly (P<0.05) lower than those of Marina locations, this was a plus to street-vended foods
location, but not significantly difference (P>0.05) sourced from Marina, Yaba and Apapa, as
from those of Apapa location. Volatile organic Cadmium is a probable human carcinogen. All
compounds (VOCs) in ambient air at Yaba the street-vended food samples had lead (Pb)
location was below detectable limit. VOCs in content above the CODEX permissible limit of
ambient air at Marina location (0.24 mg/m3) was 0.01 mg/kg, except roasted plantain from Yaba,
3
significantly (P<0.05) higher than 0.07 mg/m roasted Yam from Yaba and Meat Pie also
detected at Yaba location. Particulate matter sourced from Yaba. Also, 37.5% of the street-
(PM) is the sum of all solid and liquid particles vended foods from Apapa and Marina had Pb
suspended in air many of which are hazardous. content above the USEPA permissible limit of
This complex mixture includes both organic and 0.05 mg/kg. High concentration of Pb in ready-to-
inorganic particles, such as dust, pollen, soot, eat foods from Apapa and Marina is probably
smoke, heavy metals and liquid droplets. These due to high vehicular movement and Industrial
particles vary greatly in size, composition, and activities within those locations. The result
origin. Particulate matters are widespread air showed that metal distribution in vended street
pollutant that consist of a mixture of solid and food is affected significantly by location. All the
liquid particles suspended in air and groundwater street- vended food samples studied had Zn
[51,52]. The concentration, density and content below the CODEX maximum limit of
distribution depend on the mass composition of contaminants (MLC) of 1 mg/kg. Iron content of
the particulate matter [53]. Toxicity effect of PM the vended street foods were all within CODEX
on human health depends on its nature and level safety limit (<2.5 mg/kg). VOCs, though noticed
of spread [54]. The physical and compositional in ambient air, were not detected in the vended
characteristics of particulate matter in ambient air street foods. Low particulate matter distribution in
is location dependent [55,56,57,58]. Sulphates, ambient air at Yaba location is probably
nitrates and ammonium are common chemical responsible for the relatively low heavy metal
constituents of particulate matters [59]. Other content of vended street foods sourced from
constituents are inorganic ions such as ions of Yaba. Further work on the comprehensive
Calcium, Chlorine, Potassium, Magnesium and outdoor air quality and street food quality in
sodium; organic and elemental carbon; crustal Lagos State to serve as a protection to public
material; particle-bound vapour; heavy metals health and consumer interest is highly
such as Cadmium, Copper, Nickel, Iron and Zinc; recommended.
and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
[60,61,62]. It should be noted that even if ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
concentration of Particulate matter in air is
relatively low, there is a possibility that heavy The study was carried as part of personal
metals may accumulate in street-vended foods development program and the author OGI
beyond safe levels if exposure time is extended provided the funding, design the study,
[63]. participated in sample collection, Laboratory
analysis and interpretation of data; and in the
4. CONCLUSION writing of the manuscript. Author CBS, anchored
the statistical analysis and inteprepatation of
Lead was observed to be the major contaminant data and also previewed the manuscript. We
of street-vended foods from Marina, Yaba and wish to specially appreciate the staff of Odun
Apapa in Lagos State, this is of critical health Environmental Laboratory located at Block 81.

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Plot 71 G, Freedom Way lekki, Lagos, Nigeria Toxicology and Food Technology. 2016;
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COMPETING INTERESTS leafy vegetables and fruits of Kitwe district,
Zambia. International Journal of
Authors have declared that no competing Environmental Protection and Policy.
interests exist. 2016;4:120-125.
10. Colak H, Soylak M, Turkoglu O.
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