EJOT UK Limited Tel: 01977 687040

Hurricane Close Fax: 01977 687041

Sherburn Enterprise Park Email: info@ejot.co.uk
Sherburn-in-Elmet Internet: www.ejot.co.uk
Leeds, LS25 6PB

Dear Customer,

Whenever any metals are in metallic contact and a common electrolyte is present, a galvanic reaction
takes place. Even where compositionally identical materials are in contact, galvanic reactions will take
place. However, the extent of the reaction may be extremely slow and take years or even decades to
take place. The reason same materials in contact can corrode by galvanic corrosion is because the
metals have been processed differently so have different internal stresses (energy difference). It could
be due to flaws and defects within a metals grain structure that could cause a difference in energy and
onset stress corrosion. As stated these reactions can take several decades to undergo and may
degrade by some other form of action first.
Furthermore, it is also important to recognise that in general, materials are looking to reduce free
energy and find a lower energy state. A lower energy state would be represented by the oxide
formation for any metal. In a simplistic way, you can think of this as the solid metal trying to go back
to become the ore that was used to produce it.

There are many mechanisms of corrosion, but for galvanic specifically, you require the following:
• At least two metals: One is the anode (more electronegative) and one is the cathode (less
electronegative).
• Metallic contact/connection.
• Common electrolyte (typically water or soil).

The galvanic series offers an order of potential difference (Voltage), based on testing conducted in
non-polluted sea-water (3.5wt% NaCl). When two different metallic materials are in contact and
placed in an electrolyte a potential (measured in voltage) exists. This potential can be considered as
the driving force. In general, the larger the difference in position of the items in the galvanic series,
the stronger the driving force for the reaction to occur. The anode (most reactive) will always be the
metal that corrodes away.
This is often the first thing that people use to assess suitability of two materials in contact. In general
it is good practice to use two metals that are close to one another in the galvanic series as shown in
Figure 1.
However, there are exceptions to this rule. A recognised example of this is aluminium in contact with
carbon steels. They are next to one another in the galvanic series and the aluminium is most
electronegative so should corrode away. One may assume that the combination would be ‘good’.
Although in reality, as the aluminium reacts with air it forms an inert aluminium oxide layer. The
aluminium oxide can be considered as a ceramic with very low potential difference (close to 0). It
therefore changes position in the galvanic series to become inert and the carbon steel becomes the
most electronegative and begins to corrode. This is an example of where two metals close by in the
galvanic series actually provide a ‘bad’ combination.
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Leeds, LS25 6PB

Whilst useful for a quick check, the galvanic series does have limitations and certainly should not be
the only consideration. It looks like the below:

Figure 1 Shows galvanic series [1]

Another extremely important consideration is the area effect. For an electrochemical reaction to
occur, the current must be identical in the anode and cathode. However, we know that in real life that
materials in contact are not the same size.

This relationship can be expressed as follows:

𝐼𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 𝐼𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒
𝐼
𝑖= where I=current, i = current density and A = area.
𝐴
For ease of understanding, let’s pretend we have some 2D metal rectangles in contact submersed in
water. One rectangle has an area of 25m2. The other has an area of 100m2. Let’s also pretend that we
have a shared current of 10Amps. We know the current is identical in both materials and if we
remember what current is, it is the measure of the flow of electrons from positive to negative. So the
electrons are moving at the same rate, but in the sample that is smaller, they are able to travel across
the 25m2 4 times in the same length of time that it would take for the electrons to travel through the
100m2. This can be considered as the current density, or the amount of current per unit area.

When evaluating this, we can say that the small item always has to deal with higher current density
and this is true for our imaginary 2D large and small shapes above or real life large roofs and small
screws.

Concerning anodes and cathodes, a more electronegative anode is the most willing material to give
up its ions/electrons in oxidation (reduction oxidation reaction A.K.A Redox, n.b. OIL RIG Oxidation Is
Loss (of electrons), Reduction Is Gain (RIG)). It is happy to give ions/electrons away. As learned above
the current density is highest in the smallest item, so if the item is most willing of the two to give up
ions/electrons, it is going to lose at an extremely fast rate. The large and less electronegative item is
only going to fuel because of the potential difference (Voltage). This is a bad combination because the
small item will corrode very very quickly.
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Vat Reg No. GB 435 1627 62

Registered in Scotland No. SCO94473
Registered Address: 229 Fenwick Road, Giffnock, Glasgow G46 6JQ
 EJOT UK Limited Tel: 01977 687040
Hurricane Close Fax: 01977 687041
Sherburn Enterprise Park Email: info@ejot.co.uk
Sherburn-in-Elmet Internet: www.ejot.co.uk
Leeds, LS25 6PB

If the small item is less electronegative, it does not want to give up electrons/ions very easily. So when
this is the small item (such as a small stainless screw), even though it is subject to much higher current
density (electron movement per unit area), because it is less willing to give up electrons in the first
place, the corrosion rate is extremely slow. Here you might say, well yeah, but you’re still in contact
with the steel roof and that is more electronegative and wants to give away electrons. Well sure that
is true. BUT, remember the current is equal and the area of the roof is huge when compared with the
tiny screw. So the density of the current (electron movement per unit area) is very very small. So
corrosion rate is very low. This is representative of a good combination.

In short see example below:

The corrosion rate is also affected by other reasons including pH, electrolyte availability, relative
humidity, temperature, pressure, and many more.

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Vat Reg No. GB 435 1627 62

Registered in Scotland No. SCO94473
Registered Address: 229 Fenwick Road, Giffnock, Glasgow G46 6JQ
 EJOT UK Limited Tel: 01977 687040
Hurricane Close Fax: 01977 687041
Sherburn Enterprise Park Email: info@ejot.co.uk
Sherburn-in-Elmet Internet: www.ejot.co.uk
Leeds, LS25 6PB

One of the most common ways to control corrosion is to add a coating onto the metal. You can coat
with something inert, like paints or polymers. This is called anodic protection, because you are making
the base metal the more anodic (most electronegative) because paints or polymer coatings (like
EJOGuard or like any plastisol coating [including HPS by Tata and Colorscope by Bluescope]) usually
organic compounds that have no electronegative charge. This is really good at protecting the bulk
metal, unless you get a break in the layer.

If you get a break in the layer, the area effect comes back into effect. Cars are great examples. If you
get a scratch on your car, you’re exposing the bulk metal. The driving force for that reaction is the
potential difference between the very small electronegative bulk metal in the scratch against the huge
area of the inert painted vehicle. Corrosion happens very quickly indeed and you end up with a hole
in the side of your vehicle within weeks/months.

That is one way to protect, another common way is to coat the bulk metal in a more electronegative
material. This is called cathodic protection, because you are making the bulk metal the cathode. Using
zinc as a sacrificial coating (such as galvanised steel) is great for 2 reasons:
1. When it oxidises (gives away electrons) it turns into an inert oxide (zinc oxide).
2. If there is a break in the coating because of a scratch or abrasive action, the zinc oxidises in
and around the region instead of the bulk metal because it is more electronegative. This acts
like a plaster and covers the scratch with the inert oxide, protecting the bulk metal for longer.

It isn’t the ultimate problem solver for 3 more reasons:

1. The zinc can be washed away by rainwater or aggravation/agitation, leaving bulk metal
exposed.
2. The zinc is a consumable. It is not inherent within a material, so once it has been spent, that’s
it. The bulk metal will start to corrode.
3. The zinc oxide is inert. Where there is a break in both the zinc and zinc oxide, but contact
between the zinc oxide and bulk metal, a small galvanic cell can begin and local corrosion may
become enhanced.

In terms of corrosion resistance of the screws specifically; the stainless steel type offer a much
higher corrosion resistance when compared with the carbon steel organic coated screws. This, in a
similar fashion to the zinc, is thanks to the oxidizing of the stainless and the production of the
passive layer of chromium oxide that is present on all stainless steels. This layer is self-healing and
regenerative, so is practically ever-present through the screw’s intended working life. Whereas with
the zinc coating on the bulk metal and also on the organic coated carbon steel screws (EJOGuard),
once the coating has been spent, corrosion will begin on the screw body, which is not something
that happens in the same way on the stainless screw.

Despite this, EJOT’s EJOGuard inert coating utilised on carbon steel components does have its pros
and cons. The coating is comprised of several layers including a zinc electroplated coating offering
cathodic protection as described above and an inert, strongly adhered/bonded organic coating
which acts as a barrier to the external environment. This barrier is very difficult to break down both
chemically and physically. Even the abrasion caused during installation into metals removes very
little of the coating. When used in combination with a plastic injection moulded head, it may be
considered as suitable for C4 environments according to AS 3566.2 (subject to specific application
assessment).
4

One of the largest drawbacks of EJOGuard is as mentioned above, that ultimately, the bulk metal of
Page

the screw will inevitably break down over time by corrosion. It has a higher susceptibility to this long
Vat Reg No. GB 435 1627 62
Registered in Scotland No. SCO94473
Registered Address: 229 Fenwick Road, Giffnock, Glasgow G46 6JQ
 EJOT UK Limited Tel: 01977 687040
Hurricane Close Fax: 01977 687041
Sherburn Enterprise Park Email: info@ejot.co.uk
Sherburn-in-Elmet Internet: www.ejot.co.uk
Leeds, LS25 6PB

term and often unseen/hidden failure mode, than austenitic stainless steel fasteners. Once again,
this is due to the inherent corrosion resistant nature of stainless steel, which offers this intrinsic
chemical property, where plain/carbon steels do not.

Further to this according to Callister & Rethwisch’s ‘Materials Science and Engineering’ [1] the
thermal conductivity of 304 stainless steel is 16.2W/m-K versus 51.9W/m-K for carbon steel. The
lower the value of thermal conductivity, the better the resistance of thermal transmission, so in this
instance, stainless steel is far better than the 1020 carbon steel which we use for manufacture of our
carbon steel screws.

Figure 2 Table showing Thermal conductivity for various metals [1]

Additionally, if a nylon headed screw is used, thermal conductivity would also decrease, which again
is of benefit in applications such as these. The value is 0.24W/m-K as per Callister & Rethwisch’s
‘Materials Science and Engineering’ [1].

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Vat Reg No. GB 435 1627 62

Registered in Scotland No. SCO94473
Registered Address: 229 Fenwick Road, Giffnock, Glasgow G46 6JQ
 EJOT UK Limited Tel: 01977 687040
Hurricane Close Fax: 01977 687041
Sherburn Enterprise Park Email: info@ejot.co.uk
Sherburn-in-Elmet Internet: www.ejot.co.uk
Leeds, LS25 6PB

Figure 3 Table showing Thermal conductivity for various polymers

As for low temperature applications, it is well documented that austenitic stainless steel retains great
toughness at cryogenic temperatures. Whilst an industrial freezer at -24°C is not quite cryogenic,
hopefully this can lead to assurances of the use of this screw in colder temperatures and its mechanical
performance.

With regards to corrosion resistance at different temperatures, it does indeed vary. If you can imagine
at a higher temperatures atoms and ions move more easily. This is because you are increasing the
enthalpy (heat energy) within an application. According to the Arrhenius equation, when you increase
the temperature of a given reaction, the activation energy decreases. So in layman’s, the energy
barrier for a reaction to occur spontaneously becomes a lower hurdle because of the increased energy
(from heat) within the system.

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Vat Reg No. GB 435 1627 62

Registered in Scotland No. SCO94473
Registered Address: 229 Fenwick Road, Giffnock, Glasgow G46 6JQ
 EJOT UK Limited Tel: 01977 687040
Hurricane Close Fax: 01977 687041
Sherburn Enterprise Park Email: info@ejot.co.uk
Sherburn-in-Elmet Internet: www.ejot.co.uk
Leeds, LS25 6PB

So as temperature increases diffusion also increases and therefore the reaction rate increases.
Lower temperature means lower energy, so getting over the energy barrier is a greater challenge.

In your application of lower temperature, I would not expect to see increased corrosion thanks to
this thermodynamic relationship.

However, there may be interstitial condensation within the panel, and in direct contact with the
screw. This is because of the thermal gradient and change in partial pressure of the water from
outdoors to indoors.

The relative humidity (RH) is a measure of how much water can be retained by air at a given
temperature and a given pressure. It is calculated by dividing the partial pressure of H2O by the
vapour pressure of H2O multiplied by 100 to give a percentage. The partial pressure of water offers a
value for the amount of water in the air, whereas the vapour pressure can be considered as the
maximum amount of water that can be absorbed by air at a given temperature. When you have
relative humidity less than 100%, the air is not fully saturated. When this happens the rate of
evaporation is higher than the rate of condensation. When you have 100% relative humidity, the
rate of condensation and evaporation are equal. This is the same as the vapour pressure mentioned
above. As air temperature increases, so does air’s ability to absorb moisture. By convention then, as
temperature decreases, so does air’s ability to retain moisture. When air temperature drops
suddenly, the relative humidity can exceed 100%. When this happens the rate of condensation
exceeds the rate of evaporation and the air is considered as supersaturated. Furthermore, in a given
system, where there is a temperature gradient (like in a cross section of a composite panel) the
temperature at which the relative humidity exceeds 100% is the dew point.

When the supersaturated air comes into contact with a surface (in particular a cooler surface, like a
screw perhaps) the water molecules agglomerate and condense to a liquid. This additional exposure
7

to liquid (electrolyte) results in an increased corrosion rate. This constant presence of electrolyte
Page

Vat Reg No. GB 435 1627 62

Registered in Scotland No. SCO94473
Registered Address: 229 Fenwick Road, Giffnock, Glasgow G46 6JQ
 EJOT UK Limited Tel: 01977 687040
Hurricane Close Fax: 01977 687041
Sherburn Enterprise Park Email: info@ejot.co.uk
Sherburn-in-Elmet Internet: www.ejot.co.uk
Leeds, LS25 6PB

will increase the probability of corrosion taking place. Something that labours the EJOGuard coated
screws more than the inherent stainless steel screws.

Considering composite panels are designed to insulate from the heat outdoors permeating through
internally, where equally the panel is designed to keep the cold inside, a thermal gradient is to be
anticipated somewhere within the thickness of the panel. Subject to proper and competent
installation of our fixings with sealing washers (where pertinent) we can guarantee that moisture
and even air will not penetrate through the affixed sheet into the building envelope. However, on
the inside of the building there is a drilled hole that cannot be avoided. It is here where moisture can
be generated through the temperature change within the panel (temperature gradient) resulting in
water droplets (additional electrolyte).

In conclusion, stainless steel is the best option for cold store applications due to the following
reasons:

• There is an increased risk of corrosion due to thermal gradient and relative humidity causing
interstitial condensation (electrolyte). The intrinsic chemical resistance of stainless steel
offers certainty that the fixings can withstand the test of time.
• The increased electrolyte will likely influence the corrosion rate with a negative effect. Once
the coating of EJOGuard has deteriorated, the bulk screw will rust.
• Stainless steel has a thermal transmission value with a factor of 3.2 times lower than its
carbon steel equivalent, effectively limiting the transfer of heat energy.
• EJOGuard coated screws are highly effective in certain applications (typically ≤ C3), but lack
inherent corrosion resistance and have higher thermal transmission values when compared
with austenitic stainless, both of which can be detrimental in cold storage applications.
• Colorfast headed & EJOGuard coated screws can achieve warranty periods of between 10
and 15 years in C3 environments.
• Colorfast headed 304 stainless screws can achieve warranty period of 25 years for C3
environments.
• We have offered warranty periods in very specific inbstances for longer than 25 years, where
correct naterials have been used for application.

If you have any specific questions to ask, please feel free to get in contact anytime.

Kind Regards,

Jon Knaggs – Technical Advisor

D: +44 (0) 1977 68 70 55

T: +44 (0) 1977 68 70 40
F: +44 (0) 1977 68 70 41
j.knaggs@ejot.co.uk
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Vat Reg No. GB 435 1627 62

Registered in Scotland No. SCO94473
Registered Address: 229 Fenwick Road, Giffnock, Glasgow G46 6JQ
 EJOT UK Limited Tel: 01977 687040
Hurricane Close Fax: 01977 687041
Sherburn Enterprise Park Email: info@ejot.co.uk
Sherburn-in-Elmet Internet: www.ejot.co.uk
Leeds, LS25 6PB

Bibliography

[1] W. D. J. /. D. G. R. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering: SI Version (Ninth Edition),

Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2015.

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Vat Reg No. GB 435 1627 62

Registered in Scotland No. SCO94473
Registered Address: 229 Fenwick Road, Giffnock, Glasgow G46 6JQ