Topic 1: Cell biology

This topic has one of the highest percentage (28%) of occurrence in the papers.

1.1 Introduction to cells (very common)

• According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of cells

• The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is
necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for
therapeutic uses

• Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples, including striated muscle, giant
algae and aseptate fungal hyphae

• Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one other named condition

• Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues, with drawing
of cells

• Calculation of the magnification of drawings and the actual size of structures and
ultrastructures shown in drawings or micrographs

Questions related to 1.1 Introduction to cells are:

• Different cell theory exceptions
• Stem cell use in Stargardt’s disease and diabetes
• Stem cell advantages and disadvantages

1.2 Ultrastructure of cells (very common)

• Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalisation

• Eukaryotes have a compartmentalised cell structure

• Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas and
within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf

• Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells based on electron micrographs

• Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells based on electron micrographs

• Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the function of
specialised cell

Questions related to 1.2 Ultrastructure of cells are:

• Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, include organelles functions
• Electrographs related to Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, include Small intestine and
pancreas cells

1.3 Membrane structure (less common)

• Cholesterol in mammalian membranes reduces membrane fluidity and permeability to
some solutes

• Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of structure, position in the membrane and
function

• Analysis of evidence from electron microscopy that leads to the proposal of the
Davson-Danielli model

• Analysis of the falsification of the Davson-Danielli model that lead to the Singer-
Nicolson model

Questions related to 1.3 Membrane structure are:

• Davidson and Danelli theory explanation
• Cholesterol role in cell membrane fluidity
• Cell membrane and its composition

1.4 Membrane transport (common)

• Particles move across membranes by simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis
and active transport

• The fluidity of membranes allows materials to be taken into cells by endocytosis or

released by exocytosis

• Estimation of osmolarity in tissues by bathing samples in hypotonic and hypertonic

solutions

Questions related to 1.4 Membrane transport are:

• Differentiate the different types of transportation from inside and outside the cell
• Explain how materials are transported by vesicles inside and outside cell through
endocytosis and exocytosis
1.5 The origin of cells (common)
• Cells can only be formed by division of pre-existing cells

• The first cells must have arisen from non-living material

• The origin of eukaryotic cells can be explained by the endosymbiotic theory

• Evidence from Pasteur’s experiments that spontaneous generation of cells and

organisms does not now occur on Earth

Questions related to 1.5 The origin of cells are:

• Explain the endosymbiotic theory.
• Explain the Pasteur’s experiment.

1.6 Cell division (common)

• Interphase is a very active phase of the cell cycle with many processes occurring in the
nucleus and cytoplasm

• Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plant and animal cells

• Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle

• Identification of phases of mitosis in cells viewed with a microscope or in a micrograph

Questions related to 1.6 Cell division are:

• Cell cycle and its phases, description about each
• Mitosis and its stages, describe them and identify them in micrographs
• How the cell cycle is controlled from one stage to the other
Topic 2: Molecular biology

Topic 2: Molecular biology has 14% of occurrence in papers 1 and 2.

2.1 Molecules to metabolism (less common)

• Urea as an example of a compound that is produced by living organisms but can also
be artificially synthesized

• Drawing molecular diagrams of glucose, ribose, a saturated fatty acid and a

generalised amino acid

• Identification of biochemicals such as sugars, lipids or amino acids from molecular

diagrams

Questions related to 2.1 Molecules to metabolism are:

• Usually there is identification or drawing of the structures such as fatty acid, amino
acid, starch
• Explain the process of Urea production

2.2 Water (less common)

• Hydrogen bonds and bipolarity explain the cohesive, adhesive, thermal and solvent
properties of water

• Substances can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic

• Comparison of the thermal properties of water with those of methane

• Use of water as a coolant in sweat

• Modes of transport of glucose, amino acids, cholesterol, fats, oxygen and sodium
chloride in blood in relation to their solubility in water

Questions related to 2.2 Water are:

• Water properties and how it affects the environment, usually it comes as multiple
choice or as a long answer question
2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids (common)
• Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated

• Triglycerides are formed by condensation from three fatty acids and one glycerol

• Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and glycogen in humans

• Lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storage in humans than carbohydrates

• Determination of body mass index by calculation or use of a nomogram

Questions related to 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids are:

• Analyze nomogram
• Compare energy of lipid against carbohydrates
• Identify the difference between saturated and unsaturated

2.4 Proteins (less common)

• The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is coded for by genes

• A protein may consist of a single polypeptide or more than one polypeptide linked
together

• The amino acid sequence determines the three-dimensional conformation of a protein

• Denaturation of proteins by heat or by deviation of pH from the optimum

Questions related to 2.4 Proteins are:

• Describe primary and tertiary structures for proteins
• Identify when proteins are denatured by heat or pH

2.5 Enzymes (less common)

• Temperature, pH and substrate concentration affect the rate of activity of enzymes

• Enzymes can be denatured

• Design of experiments to test the effect of temperature, pH and substrate

concentration on the activity of enzymes

• Experimental investigation of a factor affecting enzyme activity

Questions related to 2.5 Enzymes are:

• Enzymes role in different processes
• How enzymes are denatured dependent on the environment
• Explain the factors that affect enzyme activity, temperature, pH and substrate
concentration
2.6 Structure of DNA and RNA (less common)
• DNA differs from RNA in the number of strands present, the base composition and the
type of pentose

• DNA is a double helix molecule made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides linked
by hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs

• Drawing simple diagrams of the structure of single nucleotides of DNA and RNA, using
circles, pentagons and rectangles to represent phosphates, pentoses and bases

Questions related to 2.6 Structure of DNA and RNA are:

• Difference between DNA and RNA structure
• Be able to draw nucleotides and DNA structure

2.7 DNA replication, transcription and translation (very common)

• The replication of DNA is semi-conservative and depends on complementary base
pairing

• Helicase unwinds the double helix and separates the two strands by breaking hydrogen
bonds

• DNA polymerase links nucleotides together to form a new strand, using the pre-existing
strand as a template

• Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA copied from the DNA base sequences by RNA
polymerase

• Translation is the synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes

• The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is determined by mRNA according to the

genetic code

• Codons of three bases on mRNA correspond to one amino acid in a polypeptide

• Translation depends on complementary base pairing between codons on mRNA and

anticodons on tRNA

• Use a table of the genetic code to deduce which codon(s) corresponds to which amino
acid

• Analysis of Meselson and Stahl’s results to obtain support for the theory of semi-
conservative replication of DNA

• Use a table of mRNA codons and their corresponding amino acids to deduce the
sequence of amino acids coded by a short mRNA strand of known base sequence

• Deducing the DNA base sequence for the mRNA strand

Questions related to 2.7 DNA replication, transcription and translation are:

• Transcription of mRNA and reading codons to amino acids
• Explain DNA replication and translation, how ribosomes are important for it
• mRNA codes are given and students need to deduce the DNA base sequence
• Explain the Meselson and Stahl’s results and how it support semi-conservative
replication
2.8 Cell respiration (very common)
• Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce
ATP

• ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell

• Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose

• Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose

• Lactate production in humans when anaerobic respiration is used to maximise the

power of muscle contractions

Questions related to 2.8 Cell respiration are:

• Identify Cell Respiration reactants and products
• Explain different stages of cell respiration
• Understand the difference between aerobic and anaerobic process

2.9 Photosynthesis (common)

• Photosynthesis is the production of carbon compounds in cells using light energy

• Visible light has a range of wavelengths with violet the shortest wavelength and red the
longest

• Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light most effectively and reflects green light more
than other colours

• Oxygen is produced in photosynthesis from the photolysis of water

• Temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration are possible limiting
factors on the rate of photosynthesis

• Drawing an absorption spectrum for chlorophyll and an action spectrum for

photosynthesis

• Separation of photosynthetic pigments by chromatography

Questions related to 2.9 Photosynthesis are:

• Be able to draw or identify the action and absorption spectrums
• Explain the process of light dependent and dependent
• Identify and explain the factors that affect photosynthesis
Topic 3: Genetics

Topic 3: Genetics has 18% of occurrence in papers 1 and 2.

3.1 Genes (very common)

• A gene occupies a specific position on a chromosome

• The various specific forms of a gene are alleles

• Alleles differ from each other by one or only a few bases

• New alleles are formed by mutation

• The genome is the whole of the genetic information of an organism

• The causes of sickle cell anaemia, including a base substitution mutation, a change to
the base sequence of mRNA transcribed from it and a change to the sequence of a
polypeptide in hemoglobin

• Comparison of the number of genes in humans with other species

Questions related to 3.1 Genes are:

• Know about the Universal genetic code, how ATCG is found in every species
• Identify Gene mutation, learn specific example: Sickle cell anemia
• Comparison of genes and bases, chromosomes of different species

3.2 Chromosomes (common)

• Homologous chromosomes carry the same sequence of genes but not necessarily the
same alleles of those genes

• Diploid nuclei have pairs of homologous chromosomes

• Haploid nuclei have one chromosome of each pair

• A karyogram shows the chromosomes of an organism in homologous pairs of

decreasing length
• Sex is determined by sex chromosomes and autosomes are chromosomes that do not
determine sex

• Cairns’ technique for measuring the length of DNA molecules by autoradiography

• Use of karyograms to deduce sex and diagnose Down syndrome in humans

Questions related to 3.2 Chromosomes are:

• Diploid versus haploid, know the difference between homologous chromosomes
and sister chromatids
• Know the purpose of Cairn’s technique
• Understand how to read the karyogram and find the sex of the baby.

3.3 Meiosis (less common)

• One diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei

• Separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in the first division of meiosis halves

the chromosome number

• The early stages of meiosis involve pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing
over followed by condensation

• Orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes prior to separation is random

• Crossing over and random orientation promotes genetic variation

• Fusion of gametes from different parents promotes genetic variation

• Non-disjunction can cause Down syndrome and other chromosomal abnormalities

• Drawing diagrams to show the stages of meiosis resulting in the formation of four
haploid cells

Questions related to 3.3 Meiosis are:

• Know the stages of Meiosis I and II. Be able to compare the two stages and
compare it to mitosis
• Understand the behavior of the chromosomes while they go through the meiosis
stages
• Be able to explain how cross over and random orientation promotes genetic
variation
• Usually IB place diagram of meiosis stages for students to Identify them

3.4 Inheritance (less common)

• Dominant alleles mask the effect of recessive alleles but co-dominant alleles have joint
effects

• Many genetic diseases in humans are due to recessive alleles of autosomal genes,
although some genetic diseases are due to dominant or co-dominant alleles

• Some genetic diseases are sex linked

• The pattern of inheritance is different with sex-linked genes due to their location on sex
chromosomes

• Inheritance of ABO blood groups

• Red-green colour blindness and hemophilia as examples of sex-linked inheritance

• Inheritance of cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease

• Construction of Punnett grids for predicting the outcomes of monohybrid genetic

crosses

• Analysis of pedigree charts to deduce the patterns of inheritance of genetic diseases

Questions related to 3.4 Inheritance are:

• Blood type crosses are common in paper 1, trying to identify the offspring
• Student should be able to analyze the pedigree chart, be able to know the genotype
of individuals in the chart
• Know the difference between dominant versus recessive alleles, as well as
Codominance Punnett Square problems.

3.5 Genetic modification and biotechnology (very common)

• PCR can be used to amplify small amounts of DNA

• Gel electrophoresis is used to separate proteins or fragments of DNA according to size

• DNA profiling involves comparison of DNA

• Genetic modification is carried out by gene transfer between species

• Use of DNA profiling in paternity and forensic investigations

• Gene transfer to bacteria using plasmids makes use of restriction endonucleases and
DNA ligase

• Assessment of the potential risks and benefits associated with genetic modification of
crops

• Production of cloned embryos produced by somatic cell nuclear transfer

• Analysis of examples of DNA profiles

Questions related to 3.5 Genetic modification and biotechnology are:

• Understand the gel electrophoresis process, how the data is read in paternity and
forensic investigation
• Somatic nuclear transfer, how the process is conducted
• Explain the polymerase chain reactions
• Know the benefits and disadvantages of GMO
Topic 4: Ecology

Topic 4: Ecology has 27% of occurrence in the papers 1 and 2.

4.1 Species, communities and ecosystems (common)

• Species have either an autotrophic or heterotrophic method of nutrition (a few species
have both methods)
• Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by ingestion
• Detritivores are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from detritus by internal
digestion
• Saprotrophs are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from dead organisms by
external digestion
• Classifying species as autotrophs, consumers, detritivores or saprotrophs from a
knowledge of their mode of nutrition
• Setting up sealed mesocosms to try to establish sustainability
Questions related to 4.1 Species, Communities and Ecosystems are:
• Know the difference between heterotrophs and autotrophs
• Know the benefits and disadvantages of mesocosm
• Know the role of decomposers

4.2 Energy flow (common)

• Most ecosystems rely on a supply of energy from sunlight
• Chemical energy in carbon compounds flows through food chains by means of feeding
• Energy released from carbon compounds by respiration is used in living organisms and
converted to heat
• Living organisms cannot convert heat to other forms of energy
• Heat is lost from ecosystems
• Energy losses between trophic levels restrict the length of food chains and the biomass
of higher trophic levels
• Quantitative representations of energy flow using pyramids of energy
Questions related to 4.2 Energy flow are:
• Be able to create a feeding chain
• Know the trophic levels of each animal in the chain
• Know the consumers and produces in a food web
• Be able to analyse an energy flow chart
• Be able to deduce the energy transfer in a pyramid of energy
4.3 Carbon cycling (very common)
• In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen
carbonate ions
• Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs
• Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or
the atmosphere
• Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or
anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils
• Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted into
either coal or into oil and gas that accumulates in porous rocks
• Animals such as reef-building corals and mollusca have hard parts that are composed
of calcium carbonate and can become fossilised in limestone
• Estimation of carbon fluxes due to processes in the carbon cycle
• Analysis of data from air monitoring stations to explain annual fluctuations

Questions related to 4.3 Carbon cycling are:

• Explain the process of carbon fluxes and how it impacts coral reef or mollusca
• Analyze data related to carbon in the atmosphere
• Outline the process of making peat

4.4 Climate change (very common)

• The impact of a gas depends on its ability to absorb long wave radiation as well as on
its concentration in the atmosphere
• The warmed Earth emits longer wavelength radiation (heat)
• Longer wave radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases that retain the heat in the
atmosphere
• Global temperatures and climate patterns are influenced by concentrations of
greenhouse gases
• Threats to coral reefs from increasing concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide
• Correlations between global temperatures and carbon dioxide concentrations on Earth
• Evaluating claims that human activities are not causing climate change

Questions related to 4.4 Climate change are:

• Explain the Greenhouse gases and its effect on the atmosphere, climate change
• Differentiate the long wave from short wave
• Explain how carbon dioxide can affect coral reefs
Topic 5: Evolution and diversity

Topic 5: Evolution and diversity has 19% of occurrence in papers 1 and 2.

5.1 Evidence for evolution (common)

• The fossil record provides evidence for evolution
• Evolution of homologous structures by adaptive radiation explains similarities in
structure when there are differences in function
• Populations of a species can gradually diverge into separate species by evolution
• Continuous variation across the geographical range of related populations matches the
concept of gradual divergence
• Development of melanistic insects in polluted areas
• Comparison of the pentadactyl limb of mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles with
different methods of locomotion
Questions related to 5.1 Evidence for evolution are:
• Outline how fossil records provide evidence for evolution
• Differentiate between adaptive and gradual divergence
• Identify all the possible causes of speciation
• Explain the peppered moth evolution
• Describe how homologous structure supports evolution.

5.2 Natural selection (very common)

• Natural selection can only occur if there is variation among members of the same
species
• Mutation, meiosis and sexual reproduction cause variation between individuals in a
species
• Species tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support
• Individuals that are better adapted tend to survive and produce more offspring while
the less well adapted tend to die or produce fewer offspring
• Individuals that reproduce pass on characteristics to their offspring
• Natural selection increases the frequency of characteristics that make individuals
better adapted and decreases the frequency of other characteristics leading to changes
within the species
• Evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria
Questions related to 5.2 Natural selection are:
• Explain how there is variation in the population and how it lead to overproduction
• Discuss the impact of natural selection on evolution
• Explain how antibiotic resistance in bacteria lead to its own evolution

5.3 Classification of biodiversity (very common)

• All organisms are classified into three domains
• Taxonomists classify species using a hierarchy of taxa
• The principal taxa for classifying eukaryotes are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,
genus and species
• In a natural classification, the genus and accompanying higher taxa consists of all the
species that have evolved from one common ancestral species
• Recognition features of bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta
• Recognition features of porifera, cnidaria, platyhelmintha, annelida, mollusca,
arthropoda and chordata
• Recognition features of birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles and fish
Questions related to 5.3 Classification of biodiversity are:
• Know all the phylums, including their traits and examples. Usually IB give pictures
and you must identify it or name their traits
• Know the difference between the three domains
• Be able to classify animal using the taxonomy classification

5.4 Cladistics (very common)

• A clade is a group of organisms that have evolved from a common ancestor
• Cladograms are tree diagrams that show the most probable sequence of divergence in
clades
• Evidence for which species are part of a clade can be obtained from the base sequence
of a gene or the corresponding amino acid sequence of a protein
• Sequence differences accumulate gradually so there is a positive correlation between
the number of differences between two species and the time since they diverged from
a common ancestor
• Traits can be analogous or homologous
• Analysis of cladograms to deduce evolutionary relationships
Questions related to 5.4 Cladistics are:
• Cladogram is given and student needs to identify species that are closely related
• Cladogram can be about DNA structure or animal trait
• Define analogous and homologous traits
Topic 6: Human physiology

Topic 6: Human physiology has 12% of occurrence in papers 1 and 2.

6.1 Digestion and absorption (very common)

• Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is carried out

• Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral ions and vitamins

• Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb different nutrients

• Processes occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of starch and
transport of the products of digestion to the liver

• Identification of tissue layers in transverse sections of the small intestine viewed with a
microscope or in a micrograph

Questions related to 6.1 Digestion and absorption are:

• Describe the villi and microvilli function and structure in the small intestine
• Be able to identify the structure of small intestine in a micrograph
• Outline the way in which nutrients are absorbed in the body

6.2 The blood system (common)

• Arteries convey blood at high pressure from the ventricles to the tissues of the body

• Arteries have muscle cells and elastic fibres in their walls

• The muscle and elastic fibres assist in maintaining blood pressure between pump
cycles

• Capillaries have permeable walls that allow exchange of material between cells in the
tissue and the blood in the capillary

• Veins collect blood at low pressure from the tissues of the body and return it to the
atria of the heart
• The heart beat is initiated by a group of specialised muscle cells in the right atrium
called the sinoatrial node

• The sinoatrial node acts as a pacemaker

• The sinoatrial node sends out an electrical signal that stimulates contraction as it is
propagated through the walls of the atria and then the walls of the ventricles

• Identification of blood vessels as arteries, capillaries or veins from the structure of their
walls

• Recognition of the chambers and valves of the heart and the blood vessels connected
to it in dissected hearts or in diagrams of heart structure

Questions related to 6.2 The blood system are:

• Identify and label the heart structure, as well as blood vessels
• Outline the differences between arteries,veins and capillaries
• Describe the cardiac cycle
• Outline the role of pacemaker

6.3 Defence against infectious disease (very common)

• Some strains of bacteria have evolved with genes that confer resistance to
antibiotics and some strains of bacteria have multiple resistance

• Florey and Chain’s experiments to test penicillin on bacterial infections in mice

Questions related to 6.3 Defence against infectious disease are:

• Explain antibiotic resistance in bacteria strains
• Describe Florey and Chain’s experiments, leading to discovery of penicillin
• Explain the antibody production

6.4 Gas exchange (less common)

• Ventilation maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
air in alveoli and blood flowing in adjacent capillaries
• Air is carried to the lungs in the trachea and bronchi and then to the alveoli in
bronchioles
• Type I pneumocytes are extremely thin alveolar cells that are adapted to carry out gas
exchange
• Type II pneumocytes secrete a solution containing surfactant that creates a moist
surface inside the alveoli to prevent the sides of the alveolus adhering to each other by
reducing surface tension
• Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the thorax that force air in and
out of the lungs to ventilate them
• Different muscles are required for inspiration and expiration because muscles only do
work when they contract
• Monitoring of ventilation in humans at rest and after mild and vigorous exercise
Questions related to 6.4 Gas exchange are:
• Explain the ventilation mechanism
• Outline the effect of exercise on ventilation
• Identify the role of Type I and II pneumocytes

6.5 Neurons and synapses (less common)

• Neurons transmit electrical impulses

• Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions across their membranes to generate a
resting potential

• An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron

• Nerve impulses are action potentials propagated along the axons of neurons

• Propagation of nerve impulses is the result of local currents that cause each
successive part of the axon to reach the threshold potential

• Synapses are junctions between neurons and between neurons and receptor or effector
cells

• When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they release a neurotransmitter into the
synapse

• A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold potential is reached

• Secretion and reabsorption of acetylcholine by neurons at synapses

• Blocking of synaptic transmission at cholinergic synapses in insects by binding of

neonicotinoid pesticides to acetylcholine receptors

Questions related to 6.5 Neurons and synapses are:

• Explain how nerve impulse passes along the neuron
• Explain the synapse transmission
• Describe how pesticide neonicotinoid kills insects.

6.6 Hormones, homeostasis and reproduction (very common)

• Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate the metabolic rate and help control
body temperature

• Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and act on the hypothalamus of the brain
to inhibit appetite

• Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland to control circadian rhythms

• A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as testes and

secrete testosterone

• Testosterone causes pre-natal development of male genitalia and both sperm

production and development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty
• Estrogen and progesterone cause pre-natal development of female reproductive organs
and female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty

• The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms

involving ovarian and pituitary hormones

• Testing of leptin on patients with clinical obesity and reasons for the failure to control
the disease

• Causes of jet lag and use of melatonin to alleviate it

• Annotate diagrams of the male and female reproductive system to show names of
structures and their functions

Questions related to 6.6 Hormones, homeostasis and reproduction are:

• Explain jet lab and how melatonin which is produced in the pineal gland influences
it
• Explain leptin role on obesity
• Explain how temperature is regulated by the body
• Outline the menstrual cycle and its hormones roles on it
• Identify the male reproductive system
HL Topic 7: Nucleic acid

Topic 7: Nucleic acid has 6% of occurrence in papers 1 and 2.

7.1 DNA structure and replication (common)

• DNA structure suggested a mechanism for DNA replication

• DNA replication is carried out by a complex system of enzymes

• DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to the 3’ end of a primer

• DNA replication is continuous on the leading strand and discontinuous on the lagging
strand

• Nucleosomes help to supercoil the DNA

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Explain DNA replication process, include all enzymes roles
• Differentiate lagging strands from leading strands
• Describe the role of nucleosomes in the process of DNA replication

7.2 Transcription and gene expression (very common)

• Transcription occurs in a 5’ to 3’ direction

• Nucleosomes help to regulate transcription in eukaryotes

• Eukaryotic cells modify mRNA after transcription

• Splicing of mRNA increases the number of different proteins an organism can produce

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Explain the transcription process
• Describe how splicing increase production of different proteins

7.3 Translation (common)

• The sequence and number of amino acids in a polypeptide is the primary structure

• The secondary structure is the formation of alpha helices and beta pleated sheets
stabilised by hydrogen bonding
• The tertiary structure is the further folding of the polypeptide stabilised by interactions
between R groups

• The quaternary structure exists in proteins with more than one polypeptide chain

• tRNA-activating enzymes illustrate enzyme-substrate specificity and the role of

phosphorylation

• Identification of polysomes in electron micrographs of prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Identify the tRNA structure and function
• Identify ribosome structure in electron micrographs and know their role in
translation
• Outline the 4 levels of protein structure
HL Topic 8: Metabolism

Topic 8: Metabolism, cell respiration and photosynthesis has 11% of occurrence in papers
1 and 2.

8.1 Metabolism (very common)

• Enzymes lower the activation energy of the chemical reactions that they catalyse

• Enzyme inhibitors can be competitive or non-competitive

• Metabolic pathways can be controlled by end-product inhibition

• Calculating and plotting rates of reaction from raw experimental results

• Distinguishing different types of inhibition from graphs at specified substrate

concentration

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Compare and contrast enzyme inhibitors? Competitive versus non-competitive
• Graph analyzing enzyme rate reactions

8.2 Cell respiration (common)

• Cell respiration involves the oxidation and reduction of electron carriers

• Phosphorylation of molecules makes them less stable

• In glycolysis, glucose is converted to pyruvate in the cytoplasm

• Glycolysis gives a small net gain of ATP without the use of oxygen

• In aerobic cell respiration pyruvate is decarboxylated and oxidised, and converted into
acetyl compound and attached to coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A in the link
reaction

• In the Krebs cycle, the oxidation of acetyl groups is coupled to the reduction of
hydrogen carriers, liberating carbon dioxide

• Energy released by oxidation reactions is carried to the cristae of the mitochondria by

reduced NAD and FAD

• Transfer of electrons between carriers in the electron transport chain in the membrane
of the cristae is coupled to proton pumping
• In chemiosmosis protons diffuse through ATP synthase to generate ATP

• Oxygen is needed to bind with the free protons to maintain the hydrogen gradient,
resulting in the formation of water

• Analysis of diagrams of the pathways of aerobic respiration to deduce where

decarboxylation and oxidation reactions occur

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Explain the entire Cell respiration process, including glycolysis, Kreb cycle and
chemiosmosis phosphorylation
• Diagrams will be presented where students need to know where oxidation,
decarboxylation, phosphorylation and reduction happens

8.3 Photosynthesis (very common)

• Light-dependent reactions take place in the intermembrane space of the thylakoids

• Light-independent reactions take place in the stroma

• Reduced NADP and ATP are produced in the light-dependent reactions

• Absorption of light by photosystems generates excited electrons

• Photolysis of water generates electrons for use in the light-dependent reactions

• Transfer of excited electrons occurs between carriers in thylakoid membranes

• Excited electrons from Photosystem II are used to contribute to generate a proton

gradient

• ATP synthase in thylakoids generates ATP using the proton gradient

• Excited electrons from Photosystem I are used to reduce NADP

• In the light-independent reactions a carboxylase catalyses the carboxylation of ribulose

bisphosphate

• Glycerate-3-phosphate is reduced to triose phosphate using reduced NADP and ATP

• Triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP and produce carbohydrates

• Ribulose bisphosphate is reformed using ATP

• The structure of the chloroplast is adapted to its function in photosynthesis

• Calvin’s experiment to elucidate the carboxylation of RuBP

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Explain the entire photosynthesis process
• Diagrams will be presented where students need to know where oxidation,
decarboxylation, phosphorylation and reduction happens
• Explain the Calvin’s experiment lollipop
HL Topic 9: Plant biology

Topic 9: Plant biology has 14% of occurrence in papers 1 and 2.

9.1 Transport in the xylem of plants (very common)

• Transpiration is the inevitable consequence of gas exchange in the leaf

• Plants transport water from the roots to the leaves to replace losses from transpiration

• The cohesive property of water and the structure of the xylem vessels allow transport
under tension

• The adhesive property of water and evaporation generate tension forces in leaf cell
walls

• Active uptake of mineral ions in the roots causes absorption of water by osmosis

• Adaptations of plants in deserts and in saline soils for water conservation

• Design of an experiment to test hypotheses about the effect of temperature or humidity

on transpiration rates

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Describe the process of transpiration
• Outline the main factors that affect transpiration
• Identify adaptations of desert and saline plants

9.2 Transport in the phloem of plants (less common)

• Identification of xylem and phloem in microscope images of stem and root

• Analysis of data from experiments measuring phloem transport rates using aphid
stylets and radioactively-labelled carbon dioxide

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Be able to identify xylem and phloem in microscope image
• Analyse how aphid styles and radioactively- labelled carbon dioxide are used to
determine phloem transport rate
9.3 Growth in plants (less common)
• Plant hormones control growth in the shoot apex

• Plant shoots respond to the environment by tropisms

• Auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration gradients of auxin in plant tissue

• Auxin influences cell growth rates by changing the pattern of gene expression

• Micropropagation of plants using tissues from the shoot apex, nutrient agar gels and
growth hormones

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Explain the role of auxin in cell growth
• Outline the process of micropropagation

9.4 Reproduction in plants (very common)

• Flowering involves a change in gene expression in the shoot apex

• The switch to flowering is a response to the length of light and dark periods in many
plants

• Success in plant reproduction depends on pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal

• Most flowering plants use mutualistic relationships with pollinators in sexual

reproduction

• Methods used to induce short-day plants to flower out of season

• Design of experiments to test hypotheses about factors affecting germination

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Outline seed dispersal
• Explain the process of fertilization
• Describe the role of phytochrome in flowering
• Explain how different factors affect germination
HL Topic 10: Genetics and gene pool

Topic 10: Genetic and gene pool has 10% of occurrence in papers 1 and 2.

10.1 Meiosis (very common)

• Homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis I

• Sister chromatids separate in meiosis II

• Independent assortment of genes is due to the random orientation of pairs of

homologous chromosomes in meiosis I

• Chiasmata formation between non-sister chromatids can result in an exchange of

alleles

• Crossing over is the exchange of DNA material between non-sister homologous

chromatids

• Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles on the chromosomes of the

haploid cells

• Drawing diagrams to show chiasmata formed by crossing over

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Identify the location of chiasmata in a diagram
• Solve crossover problems through chromosomes diagrams
• Outline the steps of meiosis

10.2 Inheritance (common)

• Variation can be discrete or continuous

• The phenotypes of polygenic characteristics tend to show continuous variation

• Completion and analysis of Punnett squares for dihybrid traits

• Polygenic traits such as human height may also be influenced by environmental factors

• Calculation of the predicted genotypic and phenotypic ratio of offspring of dihybrid

crosses involving unlinked autosomal genes

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Solve dihybrid cross using punnett squares, solve for genotype and phenotype
• Identify examples of polygenic trait
10.3 Gene pools and speciation (very common)
• Reproductive isolation of populations can be temporal, behavioral or geographic

• Speciation due to the divergence of isolated populations can be gradual

• Speciation can occur abruptly

• Identifying examples of directional, stabilizing and disruptive selection

• Comparison of allele frequencies of geographically isolated populations

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• How are genes expressed and how they impact the biodiversity
• Explain how new species evolve
• Differentiate between directional, stabilizing and disruptive selection
• Differentiate between temporal, behavioral or geographic

HL Topic 11: Animal physiology

Topic 11: Animal physiology has 28% of occurrence in papers 1 and 2.

11.1 Antibody production and vaccination (very common)

• Every organism has unique molecules on the surface of its cells

• Pathogens can be species-specific although others can cross species barriers

• B lymphocytes are activated by T lymphocytes in mammals

• Activated B cells multiply to form clones of plasma cells and memory cells

• Plasma cells secrete antibodies

• Antibodies aid the destruction of pathogens

• White blood cells release histamine in response to allergens

• Histamine causes allergic symptoms

• Immunity depends on the persistence of memory cells

• Fusion of a tumor cell with an antibody-producing cell creates a hybridoma cell

 • Monoclonal antibodies are produced by hybridoma cells

• Antigens on the surface of red blood cells stimulate antibody production in a

person with a different blood group

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Explain how bacteria resist antibiotics
• Explain how antibody are produced after immune response
• Outline the steps of an allergy reaction
• Explain the production of monoclonal antibodies

11.2 Movement (common)

• Muscle fibers contain many myofibrils

• Each myofibril is made up of contractile sarcomeres

• The contraction of the skeletal muscle is achieved by the sliding of actin and
myosin filaments

• ATP hydrolysis and cross bridge formation are necessary for the filaments to slide

• Calcium ions and the proteins tropomyosin and troponin control muscle
contractions

• Antagonistic pairs of muscles in an insect leg

• Drawing labeled diagrams of the structure of a sarcomere

• Analysis of electron micrographs to find the state of contraction of muscle fibers

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Describe the structure of a sarcomere
• Explain the sliding filament theory

11.3 The kidney and osmoregulation (very common)

• The composition of blood in the renal artery is different from that in the renal vein

• The ultrastructure of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule facilitate ultrafiltration

• The proximal convoluted tubule selectively reabsorbs useful substances by active

transport

• The loop of Henle maintains hypertonic conditions in the medulla

• ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct

• Blood cells, glucose, proteins and drugs are detected in urinary tests

• Drawing and labeling a diagram of the human kidney

• Annotation of diagrams of the nephron

Questions related to this subtopic are:
• Identify and describe the role of each part of the nephron
• Explain the process of ultrafiltration in the glomerulus
• Outline how ADH affects reabsorption of water
• Compare and contrast the blood before and after entering the kidney

11.4 Sexual reproduction (very common)

• Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of
meiosis and differentiation

• Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of

gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm

• Fertilization in animals can be internal or external

• Fertilization involves mechanisms that prevent polyspermy

• Implantation of the blastocyst in the endometrium is essential for the continuation

of pregnancy

• hCG stimulates the ovary to secrete progesterone during early pregnancy

• The placenta facilitates the exchange of materials between the mother and fetus

• Estrogen and progesterone are secreted by the placenta once it has formed

• Annotation of diagrams of seminiferous tubule and ovary to show the stages of

gametogenesis

Questions related to this subtopic are:

• Outline acrosome reaction
• Outline how fertilization occurs in the oviduct
• What is the role of the blastocyst in pregnancy?
• Identify seminiferous tubule in electron micrograph and know its role
• Explain how hormones influence menstrual cycle
• Outline the difference between spermatogenesis and oogenesis.