Mathematics in The Modern World

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN

WORLD
TOPIC OUTLINE
I. Patterns & Numbers in Nature and in the World

II. Fibonacci Sequence
III. Patterns & Regularities in the World
IV. Behavior of Nature
V. Applications of Mathematics in the World
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
◦ Argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how is it expressed,

represented, and used.
◦ Discuss the concept of fibonacci and its applications.
◦ Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world.
◦ Appreciate the nature and uses of mathematics in everyday life.
◦ Establish the relationship between the fibonacci sequence with the golden ratio.
◦ Investigate the relationship of the golden ratio and the fibonacci number in
natural world.
◦ Determinate the application of golden ratio in arts and architecture.
◦ Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life.
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD 1

◦ Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.
◦ Supports the use of mathematics in various aspects and endeavors in life. affirm
honesty and integrity in the application of mathematics to various human
endeavor.
PATTERNS & NUMBERS IN NATURE AND IN THE WORLD
Patterns in nature are visible regularities found (e.g. natural world and
universe)
Patterns recurring in different context can sometimes be modelled

mathematically.
Mathematics - Organize and systematize ideas about patterns in nature.
Patterns possess utility and beauty.
Patterns in stars which move in circles across the sky each day.
The weather seasons cycle each year (e.g. winter, spring, summer, fall)
Snowflakes contain sixfold symmetry which no two are exactly the same.
There are evidence that hexagonal snowflakes have an atomic geometry of ice
crystals.
Animals and fish stripes and spots attest to mathematical regularities in

biological growth and form.
Evolutionary and functional arguments are explain by the patterns of animals.
e.g. spotted trunkfish, spotted puffer, blue spotter stingray, spotter moral eel, coral
grouper, redlion fish, yellow boxfish, angel fish
tiger, zebra, leopard, snake, cat, hyena, giraffe

ball of mackerel, v-formation of geese, tornado formation of starling
ocean waves, dessert dunes, typhoon, water ripples
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
Pizano or Leonardo of Pisa (1170 - 1250) is from in Pisa, Italy. His father
Guglielmo Bonacci was a wealthy Italian merchant, who represented
merchants of the Republic of Pisa who were trading in Bugia (now Bejaia) in
Algeria, North Africa.
Around 1200 AD, he published the Liber Abaci, or “Book of Calculation.”
One of the exercises in Fibonacci’s book:
“A main put a pair of rabbits in a place surrounded on all sides by a wall. How
many pairs of rabbits are produced from that pair in a year, if it is supposed that
every month each pair produces a new pair, which from the second month
onwards becomes productive?”
The Fibonacci Sequence is the sequence f₁, f₂, f₃, f₄, … which has its first two
terms f₁ and f₂ both equal to 1 and satisfies thereafter the recursion formula
fn= fn-1 + fn-2.
The sequence 1,1,2,3,5,8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, … is called the
Fibonacci sequence and its term the Fibonacci numbers.
GOLDEN RECTANGLE

A Golden Rectangle can be broken into squares the size of the next Fibonacci
number down and below.
Fibonacci Spiral - take a golden rectangle, break it down into smaller squares
based from Fibonacci Sequence and divide each with an arc.
The Fibonacci numbers can be applied to the proportions of a rectangle,

called the Golden Rectangle.
Golden Rectangle - is known as one of the most visually satisfying of all

geometric forms - hence, the appearance of the Golden Ratio in art. It is also
related to the Golden Spiral, which is created by making adjacent squares of
Fibonacci dimensions.
A Fibonacci Spiral which approximates the golden spiral, using Fibonacci

sequence square sizes up to 34.
The Golden Ratio is the limit of the ratios of successive terms of Fibonacci
Sequence, as originally shown by Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630).
FLOWER PETALS
Flower petals exhibit the Fibonacci number:

• white calla lily - 1 petal
• euphorbia - 2 petals
• trillium - 3 petals
• columbine - 5 petals
• bloodroot - 8 petals
• black-eyed susan - 13 petals
• sasha daisy - 21 petals
• field daisies - 34 petals, other types contains 55 and 89
SUNFLOWER
The sunflower seed conveyed the Fibonacci Sequence.
The pattern of two spirals goes in opposing directions (clockwise and

counterclockwise). The # of clockwise spirals and counterclockwise spirals
are consecutive Fibonacci numbers and usually contains 34 and 55 seeds.
PINEAPPPLE SPIRALS
Pineapple spirals formed by their hexagonal nubs.
The nubs on form 5 spirals and 8 spirals, or 8 spirals and 13 spirals that rotate
diagonally upward to the right depending on the size of the pineapple.
The numbers 5, 8, and 13 are Fibonacci numbers.
PINECONE SPIRALS
Pinecone spirals from the center have 5 arms and 8 arms, or 8 arms and 13
arms, depending on the size, which again two Fibonacci numbers.
GOLDEN RATIO

Luca Pacioli found the relationship between Fibonacci numbers and the
golden ratio.
The golden ratio was first called as the Divine Proportion in the early 1500s in
Leonardo Da Vinci’s work was explored by Luca Pacioli (italian mathematician)
entitled “De Divina Proportione” in 1509.
Da Vinci’s drawings of the 5 platonic solids and it was probably da Vinci who
first called it “section aurea” latin for golden section.
Two quantities are in the Golden Ratio if their ratio is the same of their sum to
the larger of the two quantities.
The Golden Ratio is the relationship between numbers on the Fibonacci Sequence
where plotting the relationships on scales results in a spiral shape.
GOLDEN TRIANGLE
Golden Ratio can also be deduced in an isosceles triangle.
A set of Whirling Triangles were able to draw a logarithmic spiral that will
converge at the intersection of the two lines.
DIVISION IN EXTREME AND MEAN RATIO
Given a line AB being cut at a point P, so that the ratios AP : AB and PB : AP

are the same.

Euclid used this construction on regular pentagons.
Taking PB to be of length 1, and let AP = x, so that AB = x+1.
Then the required condition is 1+x/x = x/1 so that x² - x - 1 = 0.
Solutions of the quadratic equation: φ = 1-√5/2 = 1.618034…
1 - φ = -1+√5/2 = -0.0618034….
GOLDEN RATIO IN NATURE, HUMAN BODY, ARTS
NATURE
Fibonacci numbers are said to be as on of the nature’s numbering systems.
The leaf arrangements in plants to the structures in outer space elicit golden
ratio.
e.g. rose, calla lilies, comfrey flowers, fern fiddleheads
spiral growth, flower buds, spiral aloe, pine cones

spirals on ram’s horn, bodies of butterfly & ants
tiger’s face, fish, penguin, dolphin

spirals in shells, growth of tree branches, human DNA, spirals on human face
HUMAN BODY
Many parts of the body are in pair like arms, legs, eyes, buds.
Parts of the human body follow the Fibonacci, 2 hands with 5 digits, and 8
fingers each contains 3 section.
The ratio of forearm to hand is phi and other parts of the human body.
ARTS

Golden Ratio shows beauty, balance, and harmony in art, architecture &
design.
Also known as Golden Section, or Golden Proportion, or Divine Proportion

denoted by Phi (φ) = 1.6180339887 …
Phi is the initial letters of “Phidias.”
Mark Barr (american mathematician), to use Phi in honor of Phidias.
Phidias
Phidias (490 BC - 430 BC) widely used the golden ratio in his works of
sculpture.
The exterior dimension of the Parthenon in Athens, Greece embodies the

golden ratio.
Plato
In “Timaeus” Plato (428 BC - 347 BC) describes 5 possible regular solids that
relate to the golden ratio.
He also considers the golden ratio to be the most binging of all mathematician
relationships.
e.g. tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, icosahedron, dodecahedron
Euclid
He was the first to give definition of the golden ratio as “a dividing line in the
extreme and mean ratio” in his book the “Elements.”
He proved the link of the number to the construction of the pentagram, known
as golden ratio.
RENAISSANCE ARTISTS
Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo de ser Piero da Vinci (1452 - 1519) was into invention, painting,
sculpting, architecture, science, music, mathematics, engineering, literature,
anatomy, geology, astronomy, botany, writing, history, and cartography.
e.g. the last supper, vitruvian ma, monalisa, st. jerome
Michelangelo
Michelangelo di Lodovico Simon (1475 - 1564) was a painter architect, poet,

and engineer from the Renaissance.
He was considered the greatest living artist of his time.
e.g. the creation of adam
Raphael
Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (1483 - 1520) was a painter and architect from the
Renaissance.
e.g. school of athens, stairs, two men, upper arch, holy family, crucifixion
Rembrandt
Rembrandt Harmenszoon Van Rijn (1606 - 1669) was a dutch painter.
it is said that the golden triangle is applied in his painting “self portrait”.
today the golden ratio is usually a concept that is applied in art, design, and
architecture.
Sandro Botticelli
Alessandro di Mariano di Yanni Filipepi (1445 - 1510), was a italian painter.
the Birth of Venus is one of the world’s famous and appreciated work of art
and it was painted between 1482 - 1485.
Georges Seurat

George-Pierre Seurat (1859 - 1891), was a french post-impressionist painter.
his paintings appear to have applied golden ratio to define the horizon, to
place point of interest and to create balance.
e.g. barthers of asinieres, bridge of courbevoie, a sunday on la grande jatte
Salvador Dali
Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dali (1904 - 1989) framed his paintings
using the golden ratio in his masterpiece, “The Sacrament of the Last
Supper.”
GOLDEN RATIO IN ARTS - ARCHITECTURE
The Great Pyramid of Giza built 4700 BC in Ahmes Papyrus of Egypt is with
proportion according to a golden ratio.
The length of each side of the base is 756 feet with a height of 481 feet.
The ratio of the base to the height is roughly 1.5717, which is close to the
golden ratio.
Notre Dame is Gothic Cathedral in Paris, built in between 1163 and 1250.
Cathedral of Our Lady of Chartes in Paris, France also exhibits the golden
ratio.
Taj Mahal in India used the golden ratio in its construction and was completed
in 1648.
United Nations Building, the window configuration reveal golden proportion.
Eiffel Tower in Paris, France erected in 1889 is an iron lattice.

CN Tower in Toronto, the tallest tower and free standing structure in the
world, contains the golden ratio in its design.
GOLDEN RATIO IN DESIGNS - e.g. pepsi, toyota, apple, national geographic
PATTERNS & REGULARITIES
Types of patterns:
1. Symmetry
2. Fractals
3. Spirals
SYMMETRY
Is a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion of balance or an object is

invariant to any of various transformations (reflection, rotation, or scaling).
There are 2 main types of symmetry, bilateral and radial.
a) Bilateral Symmetry
Is a symmetry in which the left and right sides of organism can be divided into
approximately mirror image of each other along the midline.
Symmetry exists in living things such as in insects, animals, plants, flowers,

and others.
Animals mainly have bilateral or vertical symmetry, even leaves of plants and
some flowers such as orchids.
b) Radial Symmetry (or rotational symmetry)

Is a type of symmetry around a fixed point known as the center and it can be
classified as either cyclic or dihedral.
Plants often have radial or rotational symmetry, as to flowers and some groups
of animals.
A five-fold symmetry is found in the echinoderms, the group which includes

starfish (dihedral-D5 symmetry), sea urchins, and sea lilies (dihedral-D5
symmetry).
Radial symmetry suits organisms like sea anemones whose adults do not
move and jellyfish (dihedral-D4 symmetry)
It is also evident in different kinds of flowers.
Snowflakes have 6-fold symmetry; each flake’s structure forms a record of

the varying conditions during its crystallization, with nearly the same pattern
of growth on each of its six arms.
Generally, crystals have a variety of symmetries and crystal habits; some are
cubic or octahedral.
FRACTALS
Is a curve or geometric figure, each part of which has the same statistical
character as the whole.
It is a class of highly irregular shapes that are related to continents,

coastlines, and snowflakes.
It is used to model structures in which similar patterns recur at progressively

smaller scales, and in describing partly random or chaotic phenomena such as
crystal growth, fluid turbulence, and galaxy formation.
Fractals can be seen in some plants, trees, leaves, and others.
SPIRALS
A logarithmic spiral (or growth spiral) is a self-similar spiral curve which often
appears in nature.

It was first described by Rene Descartes and was later investigated by Jacob
Bernoulli.
Spirals are more evident in plants.
Spirals can also be seen in typhoon, whirlpool, galaxy, tail of chameleon, and
shell among other.
BEHAVIOR OF NATURE
Behavior of nature can be observed around us.
Natural regularities of nature:

symmetry trees foams stripes
fractals meanders tessellations spots
spirals waves cracks
Golden Ratio can be found in the beauty of nature, the growth patterns of many
plants, insects, and the universe.
Honeycombs of the beast show specific regular repeating hexagons. It uses the
least amount of wax to store the honey giving a strong structure with no gaps.
Zebra's coat, the alternating pattern of blacks and white are due to mathematical
rules that govern the pigmentation chemicals of its skin.
Spider webs illustrate a beautiful pattern. The spider creates a structure by
performing innate steps.
The nautilus shell has a natural pattern which contains a spiral shape called
logarithmic spiral.
The age of the trees can be determined by applying dendrochronology which is a

scientific method of dating based on the amounts of rings found in the core of a

tree.
Turtles have growth rings called "scutes" which are hexagonal. Scutes estimates
the age of the turtle. The smallest scute is in the center and is the oldest one, well
the largest ones on the outside are the newer ones.
Lightning during storms creates fractals.

Foam bubbles formed by trapping pockets of gas in a liquid or solid.
Cracks can also be found on the barks of trees which shows some sort of
weakness in the bark.
The meander is one of a series of regular sinuous curves, bends, loops, turns, or
windings in the channel of the body of water.
Hurricanes rotates, the enormous cloud bands from golden spiral.

Galaxies form the same way as the golden spiral.
The waves of the sea also move in golden spiral in even the fluid dynamics create
golden spiral.
APPLICATIONS OF MATHEMATICS
Application of Calculus
In forensic, clarity the blurred image to clear the image.
Optimization (maximize or minimize) surface areas, volumes, profit and cost

analysis, projectile motion, etc.
Mathematical Modeling
In medical field, drugs are designed to change the shape or motions of a

protein by modeling using geometry and related areas.
Development of medicine to cure diseases.
Engineering

Numerical analysis: heat, electricity, and magnetism, relativistic mechanics,
quantum mechanics, and other theoretical constructs.
Information Technology
Computers are invented through mathematics.
Computer science development includes mathematical principles.
Google use linear algebra to quantify "relevance" with the help of

mathematics.
Facebook uses graph theory to create links between individuals.
Social Sciences
Mathematical modeling on economics, sociology, psychology, and linguistics.
Political Science
Political analysts study voting patterns and the influence of various factors on
voting behavior.
Music and Arts
Musical structure
Gothic architecture
Egyptian pyramids
Cryptography
Computer security on ATM cards, computer passwords, and electronic

commerce.
Archaeology

Surveys and try to find patterns to shed light on past human behavior.
and in carbon dating artifacts.
Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

... what is physical is subject to the laws of mathematics, and what is spiritual to
the laws of God, and the laws of mathematics are but the expressions of the
thoughts of God.
Learning Objectives:
Discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics.
Explain the nature of mathematics as a language.
Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.
Compare and contrast expression and sentences.
Identify and discuss the four basic concepts in mathematical language.
List and discuss some basic operations on logic and logical formalities.
Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.
Articulate the importance of mathematics in one's life.
Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.
Topic Outline
I. Characteristics of Mathematical Language
II. Expression versus Sentences
III. Conventions in Mathematical Language

IV. 4 Basic Concepts
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL LANGUANGE

MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
Mathematical Language is the system used to communicate mathematical

ideas.
it consists of some natural language using technical terms (mechanical terms)

and grammatical conventions that are uncommon to mathematical discourse,
supplemented by a highly specialized symbolic notation for mathematical
formulas.
Mathematical notation used for formulas has its own grammar and is shared
by mathematicians anywhere in the globe.
Mathematical language is precise, concise, and powerful.
EXPRESSION VERSUS SENTENCES
An expression (or mathematical expression) is a finite combination of

symbols that is well-defined according to rules that depend on the context.
Symbols can designate numbers, variables, operations, functions, brackets,

punctuations, and groupings to help determine order of operations, and the
other aspects of mathematical syntax.
Expression - correct arrangement of mathematical symbols to represent the

object of interest, does not contain a complete thought, and cannot be
determined if it's true or false.
Some types of expressions or numbers, sets, and functions.
Sentence (or mathematical sentence) - a statement about two expressions,

either using numbers, variables, or a combination of both.
Uses symbols or words like equals, greater than, or less than.
It is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols that states complete

thought and can be determined whether it's true, false, sometimes true or
sometimes false.

CONVENTIONS IN MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
Mathematics is a spoken and written natural languages for expressing

mathematical language.
Mathematical Language is an efficient and powerful tool for mathematical

expression, exploration, reconstruction after exploration, and communication.
It is precise and concise.
Mathematical Convention is a fact, name, notation, or use age which is

generally agreed upon by mathematicians.
PEMDAS (parenthesis, exponent, application, division, addition, and

subtraction.)
All mathematical names and symbols are conventional.
Different and specific meaning within mathematics — group, ring, field, term,
factor
Special terms — tensor, fractal, functor
Mathematical Taxonomy — axiom, conjecture, theorems, lemma, corollaries
Formulas are written predominantly left to right, even when the writing system of
the substrate language is right-to-left.
Latin alphabet is commonly used for simple variables and parameters.

Mathematical expression:
equal, less than, greater than, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
element, for all, there exists, infinity, implies, if and only if, approximately,
therefore.
4 BASIC CONCEPTS

A. Language of Sets
B. Language of Functions
C. Language of Relations
D. Language of Binary
Language of Sets
Set theory is the branch of mathematics that study sets or the mathematical
science of the infinite.
George Cantor (1845-1918) is a German Mathematician. He is considered as the
founder of set theory as a mathematical discipline.
Sets and Elements
A Set is a well-defined collection of objects, ideas, or characteristics. The objects

are called the elements or members of the set.
∈ element of a set.
∉ not an element of a set.
Some Examples of Sets
A = {x|x is a positive integer less than 10}
B = {x|x is a real number and x² - 1 = 0}
C = {x|x is a letter in the word dirt}
D = {x|x is an integer, 1 < x < 8}
E = { x|x is a set of vowel letters}
Set E equals the set of all x such that x is a set of vowel letters or E = {a, e, i, o, u}
Indicate whether the following defined a Set

a. The list of course offerings of TUP = set
b. The elected district councilors of Manila City = set

c. The collection of intelligent monkeys in Manila Zoo = set
List the Elements of the Sets

a. A = {x|x is a letter in the word mathematics.}
answer: A = {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s}
b. B = {x|x is a positive integer, 3 ≤ x ≤ 8}
answer: B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
c. C = {x|x = 2n + 3, n is a positive integer.}
answer: C = {5, 7, 9, 11, 13, ...}
METHODS OF WRITING SETS
Roster Method. The elements of the set are enumerated and separated by a
comma, it is also called tabulation method.
Rule Method. A descriptive phrase is used to describe the elements or

members of the set, it is also called set builder notation, symbol it is written as
{x| P(x)}.
Example:
Roaster method - E = {a, e, i, o, u}
Rule method - E = {x|x is a collection of vowel letters}
Write the following Sets in the Roster Method:

a. A = {x|x is the letter of the word discrete}
answer: A = {d, i, s, c, r, e, t}
b. B = {x|3 < x < 8, x ∈ Z}
answer: B = {4, 5, 6, 7}
c C = {x|x is the set of zodiac signs}
answer: C = {aries, cancer, capricorn, sagittarius, libra, leo, taurus, gemini, virgo,
scorpio, aquarius, pisces}

Write the following Sets in Rule Method:
a. D ={Narra, Mohagony, Molave, ...}
answer: {x|x is the set of non-bearing trees.}
b. E = {DOJ, DOH, DOST, DSWD, DENR, SHED, DepEd, ...}
answer: {x|x is the set of government agencies.}

c. F = {Botany, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, ...}
answer: {x|x is the set of science subjects.}
Some Terms on Sets
finite and infinite sets
unit set
empty set
universal set
Infinite Set
Infinite Set is a set whose elements are unlimited or uncountable, in the last
element cannot be specified.
Example:
a. F = {..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...}
b. G = {x|x is a set of whole numbers}
c. H = {x|x is a set of molecules on earth}
Finite Set
Finite Set is a set whose elements are limited or countable, and the last element
can be identified.
Example:

a. A = {x|x is a positive integer less than 10}
Unit Set
Unit Set is a set with only one element, it is also called singleton.
Example:
a. i = {x|x is a whole number greater than 1 but less than 3}
b. j = {w}
c. k = {rat}
Empty Set
An Empty Set is a unique set with no elements (or null set), it is denoted by the
symbol ∅ or { }.
Example:
a. J = {x|x is an integer less than 2 but greater than one}
5 Parts of Mathematical Speech
Number Symbols - things or objects (nouns)
Operation Symbols - actions e.g. +, -, etc. (verbs)
Relation Symbols - relations e.g. >, <, =, etc. (personality)
Grouping Symbols - associations (punctuations, e.g. ' or !, etc.)
Placeholder Symbols - unknowns (pronouns, e.g. he, she, etc.)
UNIVERSAL SET

Universal set is the all sets under investigation in any application of set theory are
assumed to be contained in some large fixed set, denoted by the symbol U.
Example:
a. U = {x|x is a positive integer, x² = 4}
b. U = {1, 2, 3, ..., 100}

c U = {x|x is an animal in Manila Zoo}
Cardinal number of a set is the number of elements or members in the set, the
cardinality of set a is denoted by n (A).
Example:
Determine its cardinality of the ff. sets:
a. E = {a, e, i, o, u} ans: n(E) = 5
b. A = {x|x is a positive integer less than 10} ans: n(A) = 9
c. C = {d, i, r, t} ans: n(C) = 4
Theorem 1.1: Uniqueness of the Empty Set: There is only one set with no
elements.
Venn Diagram is a pictorial presentation of relation and operations on set.
Also known set diagrams, it show all hypothetically possible logical relations
between finite collections of sets.
Constructed with a collection of simple closed curves drawn in the plane or

normally comprise of overlapping circles.
The interior of the circle symbolically represents the elements (or members) of
the set, while the exterior represents elements which are not members of the
set.
Introduced by John Venn in his paper "On the Diagrammatic and Mechanical
Representation of Propositions and Reasoning's"

1. Subset
2. Proper Subset
3. Equal Set
4. Power Set
If A and B are sets, A is called subset of B, if and only if, every element of A is also
an element of B.
Symbolically: A ⊆B
∀x, x ∊ A
x ∊ B.
Example: Suppose
A = {c, d, e}
B = {a, b, c, d, e}
C = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}
Then A ⊆ B, since all elements of A is in B.
Let A and B be sets. A is a proper subset of B, if and only if, every element of A is
in B but there is at least one element of B that is not in A.
The symbol ⊄ denotes that it is not a proper subset.
Symbolically: A ⊂ B
∀x, x ∊ A
x ∊B.
Example: Suppose
A = {c, d, e}

B = {a, b, c, d, e}
C = {e, a, c, b, d}
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}
Then A ⊂ B,
Given set A and B, A equals B, written, by if and only if, every element of A is in B
and every element of B is in A.
Symbolically: A = B
A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ A.
Example: Suppose
A = {}
B = {}
U = {}
Then A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, thus A = B.
Given a set S from universe U, the power set of S denoted by ℘ (S), is the
collection (or sets) of all subsets of S.
Example: Determine the power set of
(a) A = {e, f},

(b) B = {1, 2, 3}
(a) A = {e, f} ℘(A) = {{e, {f}, {e, f}, ∅}
(b) B = {1, 2, 3} ℘(B) = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}, ∅}.
Theorem 1.2: A Set with No Elements is a Subset of Every Set: If ∅ is a set with no
elements and A is any set, then ∅ A. ⊆
Theorem 1.3: For all sets A and B, if A ⊆ B then ℘(A) ⊆ ℘(B).

Theorem 1.4: Power Sets: For all integers n, if a set S has n elements then ℘(S)
has 2ⁿ elements.
Union
Intersection
Complement
Difference
Symmetric difference
Disjoint Sets
The union of A and B, denoted A ∪ B, iz the set of all elements x in U such that x
is in A or x is in B.
Symbolically: A U B = {x|x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}.
The intersection of A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set of all elements x in U such
that x is in A and x is in B.
Symbolically: A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}.
The complement of A (or absolute complement of A), denoted A', is the set of all
elements x in U such that x is not in A.
Symbolically: A' = {x ∈ U | x ∉ A}.
The difference of A and B (or relative complement of B with respect to A),
denoted A ~ B, is the set of all elements x in U such that x is in A and x is not in B.
Symbolically: A ~ = {x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B} = A ∩ B'.
If set A and B are two sets, their symmetric difference as the set consisting of all
elements that belong to A or to B, but not to both A and B.

Symbolically: A ⊕ B = {x|x ∈ (A U B) ∧ x ∉ (A ∩ B)}
= (AUB) ∩ (A ∩ B)' or (AUB) ~ (A∩B).
Two set are called disjoint (or non-intersecting) if and only if, they have no
elements in common.
Symbolically: A and B are disjoint ↔ A ∩ B = ∅
In the ordered pair (a, b), a is called the first component and b is called the
second component. In general, (a, b) ≠ (b, a).
Example: Determine whether each statement is true or false.

a. (2, 5) = (9 - 7, 2 + 3) TRUE
b. {2, 5} ≠ {5, 2} FALSE
c. (2, 5) ≠ (5, 2) TRUE
The Cartesian Product of sets A and B, written AxB, is

AxB = {(a, b) | a ∊ A and b ∊ }
Example: Let A = {2, 3, 5} and B = {7, 8}. Find each set.
a. AxB ={(2, 7), (2, 8), (3, 7), (3, 8), (5, 7), (5, 8)}
b. BxA = {(7, 2), (7, 3), (7, 5), (8, 2), (8, 3), (8, 5)}
c. AxA = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 5), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 5)}
A relation is a set of ordered pairs.

if x and y are elements of these sets and if a relation exists between x and y, and
then we say that x corresponds to y or that y depends on x and is represented as
the ordered pair of (x, y).

A relation from set A to set B is defined to be any a subset of AxB.
If R is a relation from A to B and (a, b) ∊ R, then we say that "a is related to b" and
it is denoted as a R b.
Let A = {a, b, c, d} be the set of car brands, and

B = {s, t, u, v} be the set of countries of the car manufacturer.
Then AxB gives all possible pairings of the elements of A and B, let the relation R
from A to B be given by
R = {(a, s), (a, t), (a, u), (a, v), (b, s), (b, t), (b, u), (b, v), (c, s), (c, t), (c, u), (b, v), (d,
s), (d, t), (d, u), (d, v)}.
Let R be a relation from set A to the set B.

domain of R is the set dom R
dom R = {a ∊ A| (a, b) ∊ R for some b ∊ B}.
image (or range) of R
im R = {b ∊ B| (a, b) ∊ R for some a ∊ A}.
Example: A = {4, 7},
Then AxA = {(4, 4), (4, 7), (7, 4), (7, 7)}.
Let∮ on A be the description of x ∮ y ⟷ x + y is even.

Then (4, 4) ∊∮, and
Function is a special kind of relation helps visualize relationships in terms of

graphs and make it easier to interpret different behavior of variables.

Applications of Functions:
financial applications, engineering, calculating pH levels, designing machineries,
economics, sciences natural disasters, measuring decibels, medicine.
A function is a relation in which, for each value of the first component of the
ordered pairs, there is exactly one value of the second component.
The set X is called the domain of the function.
For each element of x in X, the corresponding element y in Y is called the value of
the function at x, or the image of x.
Algebraic structures focuses on investigating sets associated by single operations

that satisfies certain reasonable axioms.
An operation on a set generalized structures as the integers together with the
single operation of addition, or invertible 2x2 matrices together with the single
operation of matrix multiplication.
The algebraic structures known as group.
The set of group G contain all the elements including the binary operation result
and satisfying all the four properties closure, associative, identity e, and inverse a
raise to -1.
Step 4: Inverse property, choose any positive integer

4 + (-4) = 0;
10 + (-10) = 0;
23 + (-23) = 0
Note that a raise to -1 = -a.

Thus, it also satisfies the inverse property.
Thus, the set of all non-negative integers under addition is a group, since it
satisfies the four properties.
Learning Objectives
Compare and contrast inductive and deductive reasoning.
Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made

about mathematics and mathematical concepts.
Apply the Polya's four-step in problem solving.
Organize one's methods and procedures for proving and solving problems.
Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.
Articulate the importance of mathematics in one's life.
Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.
Support the use of mathematics in various aspects and endeavors in life.
A firm honesty and integrity in the application of mathematics to various

human and endeavors.
Topic Outline
I. Inductive and deductive reasoning
II. Intuition, proof, and certainty
III. Polya's four-steps in problem solving
IV. Problem solving strategies
V. Mathematical problems involving patterns
VI. Recreational problems using mathematics

PROBLEM
1. a matter or situation regarded as unwelcome or harmful and needing to be dealt
with and overcome.
2. an inquiry starting from given conditions to investigate or demonstrate a fact,
result, or law.
Inductive reasoning is drawing a general conclusion from a repeated observation

or limited sets of observations of specific examples.
Given data, then we draw conclusion based from the frame this data or simply
from specific case to general case.
Conjecture is drawing conclusion using inductive reasoning.
The conjecture may be true or false depending on the truthfulness of the
argument.
Counterexample if a statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all

cases and it only takes one example to prove the conjecture is false.
Example 1:
1 is an odd number.
11 is an odd number.
21 is an odd number.
Thus, all number ending with one are odd numbers.
Example 2:
Essay test is difficult.
Problem solving test is difficult.
Therefore, all tests are difficult.

Example 3:
Mark is a Science teacher.

Mark is bald.
Therefore, all Science teachers are bald.
Deductive reasoning is drawing general to specific examples or simply from

general case to specific case.
Deductive starts with a general statement (or hypothesis) and examines to reach a
specific conclusion.
Example 4:
All birds have feathers.

Ducks are birds.
Therefore, ducks have feathers.
Example 5:
Christopher is sick.
If Christopher is sick, he won't be able to go to work.
Therefore, Christopher won't be able to go to work.
Example 6:
All Science teachers are bald.
Mark is a Science teacher.
Therefore, Mark is bald.
Note: Logical reasoning may be valid but not necessarily true.

Deductive Reasoning
----->
(GENERAL PRINCIPLE) (SPECIAL CASE)
<------
Inductive Reasoning
Intuitive can be found in mathematical literature and discovery.
Srinivasa Ramanujan wrote a letter to Godfrey Harold Hardy on infinite sums,

products, fractions, and roots.
Ramanujan's formulas prove there is mathematical intuition, though he didn't

prove them.
Hardy made a sound judgment without directly proving the formulas of

Ramanujan's were correct.
Mathematical Intuition. Intuition is a reliable mathematical belief without being

formalized and proven directly and serves as an essential part of mathematics.
"Intuition" carries a heavy load of mystery and ambiguity and it is not legitimate
substitute for a formal proof.
Intuitive is being visual and is absent from the rigorous formal or abstract version.
Proof is an inferential argument for a mathematical statement.
Mathematical argument like theorems can only be used if it is already proven.
Axioms may be served as conditions that must be met before the statement
applies.

Proofs are examples of exhaustive deductive reasoning and inductive
reasoning.
A mathematical proof demonstrate that a certain statement is always true in all

possible cases.
An unproved proposition that is believed to be true is known as a conjecture.
If one has a conjecture, the only way that it can safely be sure that it is true, is
by presenting a valid mathematical proof.
CERTAINTY
Mathematics has a tradition and standard point of view that it provides

certainty.
A correct formulated mathematical knowledge is forever beyond error and

correction.
Mathematical certainty is an essential defining attribute of mathematics and

mathematical knowledge.
George Polya (1887-1985) was a mathematics educator who strongly believed

that the skill of problem solving can be taught.
: He developed a framework known as Polya's four-steps in problem solving.

: The process addressed the difficulty of students in problem solving.
Step 1: understand the problem.
Step 2: devise a plan.
Step 3: carry out the plan.
Step 4: look back.

Original problem (translate) Mathematical Version of the 0roblem (solve) Answer
to Original Problem (interpret) Solution to the Mathematical Version (check)
Original problem
Step 1: Understanding the Problem

What is the goal?
What is being asked?
What is the condition?
What sort of a problem is it?
What is known or unknown?
Is there enough information?
Can you draw a figure to illustrate the problem?
Is there a way to restate the problem in your own words?
Step 2: Devise a Plan

Act it out.
Be systematic.
Work backwards.
Consider special cases.
Eliminates possibilities.
Perform an experiment.
Draw a picture/diagram.
Make a list or table/chart.
Use a variable, such as x.
Look for a formula/formulas.
Write an equation (or model).

Look for a pattern or patterns.
Use direct or indirect reasoning.
Solve a simple version of the problem.
Guess and check your answer (trial and error).
Step 3: Carry Out the Plan

Be patient.
Work carefully.
Modify the plan or try a new plan.
Keep trying until something works.

Implement the strategy and strategies in step 2.
Try another strategy if the first one is not working.
Keep a complete and accurate record of your work.
Be determined and don't get discouraged if the plan does not work immediately.
Step 4: Look Back

Look for an easier solution.
Does the answer makes sense?
Check the results in the original problem.
Interpret the solution with the facts of the problem.
Reject any computations involved in the solution.

Can the solution be extended to a more general case?
Ensure that all the conditions related to the problem are met.
Determine if there is another method of finding the solution.
Ensure the consistency of the solution in the context of the problem.

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES
Example 1:
Suppose the NCAA basketball championships is decided on a best of five series
game. In how many different ways can a team win the championships?
Solution:
Step 1:
Understand the problem.
Many different orders to win the championships.
Themes may have a won WWW or LLWWW.
Step 2:
Devise a plan.
Make an organized list of all possible orders and ensure that each of the different
orders is accounted for only once.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan.

Each entry in the list must contain three Ws and may contain one or two losses.
WWW (start with three wins)

WWLW (start with two wins)
WWLLW (start with two wins)
WLWW (start with one win)
WLLWW (start with one win)
WLWLW (start with the one win)
LWWW (start with one loss)
LWWLW (start with one loss)
LWLWW (start with one loss)

LLWWW (start with two losses)

Step 4:
Look back.
Check if the list contains no duplications.
Includes all possibilities.
Conclude that there are 10 different ways in to win the NCAA championships in the
best of 5 games.
Example 2:
Two times the sum of a number and 3 is equal to thrice the number plus 4. Find
the number.
Solution:
Step 1:
Read the question carefully several times.
Look for a number, for and let x be a number.
Step 2:
Devise a plan.
Translate: two times the sum of a number and 3 is equal to thrice the number plus
4. [ 2(×+3) = 3× + 4 ]
Step 3:
Carry out the plan.
Solve for the value of x,
2(×+3) = 3× + 4
2× + 6 = 3× + 4
3× - 2× = 6 - 4
x=2
Step 4:

Look back.
If we take two times the sum of 2 and 3, that is the same as thrice the number 2
plus 4 which is 10, so this does check.
Thus, the number two is 2.
Example 3:
Three siblings Sofia, Achaiah, and Riana. Sofia gave Achaiah and Riana as much
money as each had. Then Achaiah give Sofia and Riana as much money as each
had. Then Riana give Sofia and Achaiah as much money as each had. Then each
of the three had 128 pesos. How much money did each have originally?
Solution:
Step 1:

The problem is confusing and must be carefully analyzed.
Step 2:
Devise a plan.
We will be working backwards.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan.
The problem has fourth stages.
4th: each has 128 pesos.
3rd: Riana gave Sofia and Achaiah as much money as each has.
2nd: Achaiah gave Sofia and Riana as much money as each has.
Step 4:
Look back.
We check the result.
Thus, Sofia, Achaiah, and Riana's initial money are 208, 112, and 64, respectively.

Example 4:
If the length of the top of a rectangle is 15 inches more than its width and the area
is 1,350 square inches. Find the dimension of the table.
Solution:
Step 1:
Look for the length and width of the table.
Let l be the length, w be the width.
Step 2:
Devise a plan.
area = lw
1,350 = lw = (15+ w)w
Step 3:
Carry out the plan.
1,350 = (15 + w)w
1,350 = 15w + w²
w² + 15w = 1,350
(w + 45) (w - 30) = 0
w + 45 = 0 w - 30 = 0
w = -45 w = 30
The width of the rectangle is 30.
The length is l = 15 + w = 15 + 30 = 45 inches.

Step 4:
Look back.

If the width of a rectangle is 30 inches and the length is 15 inches longer than the
width which is 45 inches.
The area of a rectangle is
Area = lw = 30(45) = 1,350 square inches.
Thus, the with is 30 and the length is 45 inches.
MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING PATTERNS
Mathematics is useful to predict.
Number pattern needs directly to the concept of functions in mathematics.
Number pattern is applied to problem solving whether a pattern is present and

used to generalize a solution to a problem.
Pattern can be in the form counting up or down and the missing number is of
the form of completing count up or down.
Infinite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers.

Terms of the sequence are a1, a2, a3, a4, …, an-1, an, …
Finite sequence. If the domain of the function consists of the first n positive
integers only, the sequence is a.
a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
b. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14
c. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15
A - C = FINITE SEQUENCE
d. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, …
e. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, …

f. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, …
D - F = INFINITE SEQUENCE
A general sequence a1, a2, a3, a4, …, an-1, an, … having the first term a1, the
second term is a2, the third term is a3, and the nth term, also gold the general
term of the sequence, is an.
Example 2: Write the first three terms of the sequence whose nth term is given by
the formula an = 3n + 1.
Solution:
an = 3n + 1
a1 = 3(1) + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4 Replace n by 1.
a2 = 3(2) + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7 Replace n by 2.
a3 = 3(3) + 1 = 9 + 1 = 10 Replace n by 3.
Thus, the first three terms of the sequence are 4, 7, and 10.
Difference table shows the differences between successive terms of the

sequence.
Differences in a rows maybe the first, second, and third differences.
Each number in the first row of the table is the differences between the
closest numbers just above it.
If the first differences are not the same, compute the successive differences
of the first differences.
Example 3: Construct the difference table to predict the next term of each
sequence.

a. 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, …
b. 2, 4, 9, 17, 28, …
c. 6, 9, 14, 26, 50, 91, …
Solution:
a. 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, …
Sequence - 3 7 11 15 19 23
1st diff - 4
The next term is 23.
b. 2, 4, 9, 17, 28, …
Sequence - 2 4 9 17 28 42
1st diff - 2 5 8 11 14
2nd diff - 3
c. 6, 9, 14, 26, 50, 91, …
Sequence - 6 9 14 26 50 91 154
1st diff - 3 5 12 24 41 63
2nd diff - 2 7 12 17 22
3rd diff - 5
Example 4: Determine the nth term formula for the following polygonal numbers in
the nth figure:
(a) triangular number;
(b) square number;
(c) pentagonal number; and
(d) hexagonal number.
Solution:

A polygonal number is a type of figurative number represented as dots or pebbles
arranged in the shape of a regular polygon.
a. Triangular Number - 1, 3, 6, 10, 15
The number sequence is

n=1 1
n=2 1+2=3
n=3 1+2+3=6
n=4 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
n=5 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
n=6 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21
b. Square Number - 1, 4, 9, 16, 25
n=1 1² = 1
n=2 2² = 4
n=3 3² = 9
n=4 4² = 16
n=5 5² = 25
n=6 6² = 36
Generalized as Sn = ½(2n² - 0n) = n²

Expansion: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, …
c. Pentagonal Number - 1, 5, 12, 22, 35
n=1 1
n=2 1+4=5
n=3 1 + 4 + 7 = 12
n=4 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 = 22
n=5 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 = 35

n=6 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + 16 = 51
Generalized as Pn = ½(3n² - n) = ½(3n² - n)
Expansion: 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, 51, 70, 90, 117, 145, …
d. Hexagonal Number - 1, 16, 15, 28, 45
n=1 1
n=2 1+5=6
n=3 1 + 5 + 9 = 15
n=4 1 + 5 + 9 + 13 = 28
n=5 1 + 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 = 45
n=6 1 + 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 + 21 = 66
Generalized as Hn = ½(4n² - 2n) = 2n² - n
Expansion: 1, 6, 15, 28, 45, 66, 91, 120, 153, 190, …
Example 5: A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment that connects vertices

(corners) of the polygon. Following are polygons: triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon,
and hexagon.
Determine the number of diagonals in a heptagon and an octagon.
Solution:
The sequence of the diagonals
Number of Sides: 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
Number of Diagonals: 0, 2, 5, 9
Difference table:
Sequence - 0 2 5 9 14 20
1st diff - 2 3 4 5 6
2nd diff - 1
Pentagon has 14 diagonals.

Octagon has 20 diagonals.
Example 6: Given a circle with n points on its perimeter, what is the maximum
number of regions determined by the chords and the circle rim?
Solution:
When n = 0 and continuing the case to n = 6.
Locate a point on a circle and connect it with the other point on a circle and count
the number of regions it generates.
The number of chords and the regions produced with given n points on a circle.
Summary Table:
No. of Points - 1 2 3 4 5 6
No. of Chords - 0 1 3 6 10 15
No. of Regions - 1 2 4 8 14 31
Seven points on a circle: Maximum number of regions is 57.

Eight points on a circle: Maximum number of regions is 99.
One of ancient “square” mathematical recreations of all is the magic square.
A Chinese myth, on the time of Emperor Yu, game across a sacred turtle with a
strange marking on its shell known as Lo Shu.
The markings are numbers, and they form a square pattern of order 3.
In 1514 the artist Albrecht Durer made an engraving “Melancholia”, containing

a square pattern of 4.
Magic square of order n is an arrangement of numbers in a square such that the

sum of the n numbers in each row, column, and diagonal is the same number.

A palindrome is a number or word, or phrase sequence of characters or symbols
which reads the same backward as forward, for example 131, 12,321, 1,234,321,
etc.
One of the most famous palindrome triangles is the Pascal's Triangle named
after French mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623 - 1662).
The Pascal’s triangle has intrigued mathematicians for hundreds of years.
The Triangle was first published by Zhu Shijie (1260 - 1320) a Chinese
mathematician in 1303 in his “Si Yuan Yu Jian”.
It was called Jia Xian Triangle or Yanghui Triangle by the Chinese.
Example 1: The lazy caterer’s sequence describes the maximum number of pieces
of a pizza that can be made with a given number of straight cuts. One straight cut
across a pizza produces 2 pieces. Two straight cuts produce a maximum of 4
pieces. Three straight cuts produce a maximum of 7 pieces. Four straight cuts
produce a maximum of 11 pieces. Determine the number of pieces in which it is
the maximum possible pieces to divide the pizza for a given number of straight
cuts.
Solution:
Illustrating the number of cuts and the number of regions it creates.
Cuts - 1 2 3 4
Regions - 2 4 7 11
To maximize the number of pieces in the next cut, then nth cut must cut each of
the n - 1 previous one.
The new caught meets one of the n - 1 previous one, a pizza piece is cut in two.
A piece cut in two when the new cut finishes on the opposite side of the pizza.
The total number of pieces of pizza increases by n when we pass from n - 1 cuts
to n cut, which is exactly what the recurrence reveals.

Example 2: There are 12 coins (identical in appearance) and a balance beam. If
exactly one of these coins is fake and heavier than the other eleven, find the fake
coin, using utmost three weighings on a balance beam.
Solution:
Balance beam has no graduations for weights; they just have two pans.
Label the coins 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.
Three possible outcomes:
(i) the two sides of the beam are balanced, indicating that the coins in the two
pans are not fake.
(ii) the left pan of the beam goes down, indicating that the fake coin is in the left
pan.
(iii) the right pan of the beam goes down, indicating that the fake coin is in the
right pan.
Example 3: Given a magic 6 pointed star, place the numbers 1 to 12 in the circles,
using one of each. Each line of four numbers should have the same total.
Solution:
There are six lines in the magic pointed star.
Adding each line, each of the number is considered twice.
Adding the numbers 1 to 12,
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 + 11 + 12 = 78
2(78) = 156
Divide the sum of the totals 156 by the lines obtaining a value of 26.
STATISTICS

Statistics
is a branch of Mathematics that deals with the collection, organization,

presentation, and interpretation of quantitative or numerical data.
USE OF STATISTICS
– rates of birth, death
– projecting the income of a company
– projecting the trend in the world market
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Population - refers to the totality of all objects under study.
Sample - is the small part that serves as a representative of the population.
Why take a Sample instead of Population?
1. It is hard to determine the actual population size.
2. It is too costly in terms of human resources and other expenses.
3. It is time consuming.
4. There is a lot of error to control and monitor.
5. Lists are rarely up to date.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Random Sampling – is a process whose members had an equal chance of

being selected from the population; it is also called Probability Sampling.
A. Simple
B. Systematic
C. Stratified - a process of subdividing the population into subgroups or strata
and drawing members at random from each subgroup or stratum.

e.g. given that a population of a certain university
D. Cluster - a process of selecting clusters from a population which is very large
or widely spread out over a wide geographical area.
e.g. If we want to know the opinion of the residence of Manila regarding the
improvement of living in the city. We may use the cluster sampling by subdividing
the city into district then select at random the number of district to be used as
sample.
Non-random Sampling – is a sampling procedure where samples selected in a

deliberate manner with little or no attention to randomization; it is also called
Non-Probability Sampling.
A. Convenience - it is a process of selecting a group of individuals who

(conveniently) are available for study.
e.g. A researcher may only include close friends and clients to be included in the
sample population.
B. Purposive - a process of selecting based from judgment to select a sample
which the researcher believed, based on prior information, will provide the data
they need.
Disadvantage: The researchers judgement may be in error*

– the estimate of representation may be wrong or their expertise regarding the
information needed.
C. Quota - when an investigator survey collects information from an assigned
number, or quota of individuals from one of several sample units fulfilling certain
prescribed criteria or belonging to one stratum. their advantage is that they are
cheaper to administer.
e.g. When the respondents are composed of men aged over 50 or 20 people who
have bought a cellular phones in the last week. It is in the interviews discretion
which men or cellular phone buyers they select.
D. Snowball - when one or more members of a population are located and used to
lead the researchers to other members of the population.
e.g. Imagine attempting to obtain the frame that includes all homeless people in

Metro Manila. To obtain a sample of homeless individuals, for example, the
researcher will interview individuals on the street or at homeless shelter.
E. Voluntary - when sample are composed of respondents who are self-select
into the study or survey. most of the time samples have a strong interest in the
topic of the study.
e.g. Consider a new show asks the viewers to participate in an online poll. The
samples are viewers who have chosen themselves and not the survey
administrator.
F. Judgment - when the researcher relies on their personal judgement in choosing
to participate in the study or the sample selected is based on the opinion of an
expert.
e.g. In a study where in a researcher wants to know what it takes to be a
topnotcher in a bar examination, the only people who can give the researcher first
hand advice or individuals who are bar topnotcher.
STEPS IN STATISTICAL INQUIRY
1. Collection of Data
2. Presentation of Data
3. Analysis of Data
4. Interpretation of Data
I. Collection of Data - refers to the process of gathering numerical information.

Ways of gathering data:
a. Interview method
b. Questionnaire method
c. Experiments
d. Observations

e. Documentary analysis
f. Registration
TWO SOURCES OF DATA
1. Primary Data
2. Secondary Data
II. Presentation of Data - this is the process wherein the data are organized,
classified and presented in tables or graphs.
Ways of presenting data:
a. Textual Method - presented in paragraph form.
b. Tabular Method - presented in rows and columns.
c. Graphical Method - presented in visual form.
Types of Graphs
1. Line graph
2. Bar graph
3. Pie graph
4. Pictograph
5. Map graph
III. Analysis of Data - refers to the activity of describing the properties or behavior
of the data or the possible correlation of different quantities or variables. such
descriptions can be obtained after summarizing the data into measurements like
the averages.

IV. Interpretation of Data - interpretation of data involves testing the significance
of the results.
2 sub-areas or Fields of Statistics
1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
This includes the techniques which are concerned with summarizing and
describing numerical data.
2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
The technique by which decisions about a statistical population are made

based only on a sample having been observed or a judgement having been
obtained.
Variables are characteristics that are being studied.
a. Qualitative Variable - refers to the attributes or characteristics of a sample.
b. Quantitative Variable - consists of numerical values.
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal Data - categories with no inherent order.
e.g. color of skin, gender, nationality, religion
2. Ordinal Data - ordered categories with uneven intervals.
e.g. honor ranking
3. Ratio - equal intervals with a true zero.
e.g. height, weight, length
4. Interval - equal intervals, no true zero point.
e.g. exam results

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➕

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN

I. Patterns & Numbers in Nature and in the World

◦ Argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how is it expressed,

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD 1

PATTERNS & NUMBERS IN NATURE AND IN THE WORLD

Patterns recurring in different context can sometimes be modelled

Mathematics - Organize and systematize ideas about patterns in nature.

Patterns possess utility and beauty.

Animals and fish stripes and spots attest to mathematical regularities in

Evolutionary and functional arguments are explain by the patterns of animals.

tiger, zebra, leopard, snake, cat, hyena, giraffe

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD 2

Around 1200 AD, he published the Liber Abaci, or “Book of Calculation.”

One of the exercises in Fibonacci’s book:

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The Fibonacci numbers can be applied to the proportions of a rectangle,

Golden Rectangle - is known as one of the most visually satisfying of all

A Fibonacci Spiral which approximates the golden spiral, using Fibonacci

Flower petals exhibit the Fibonacci number:

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• black-eyed susan - 13 petals

• sasha daisy - 21 petals

• field daisies - 34 petals, other types contains 55 and 89

The sunflower seed conveyed the Fibonacci Sequence.

The pattern of two spirals goes in opposing directions (clockwise and

Pineapple spirals formed by their hexagonal nubs.

The numbers 5, 8, and 13 are Fibonacci numbers.

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Golden Ratio can also be deduced in an isosceles triangle.

DIVISION IN EXTREME AND MEAN RATIO

Given a line AB being cut at a point P, so that the ratios AP : AB and PB : AP

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Taking PB to be of length 1, and let AP = x, so that AB = x+1.

Then the required condition is 1+x/x = x/1 so that x² - x - 1 = 0.

Solutions of the quadratic equation: φ = 1-√5/2 = 1.618034…

GOLDEN RATIO IN NATURE, HUMAN BODY, ARTS

Fibonacci numbers are said to be as on of the nature’s numbering systems.

e.g. rose, calla lilies, comfrey flowers, fern fiddleheads

spiral growth, flower buds, spiral aloe, pine cones

tiger’s face, fish, penguin, dolphin

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Also known as Golden Section, or Golden Proportion, or Divine Proportion

Phi is the initial letters of “Phidias.”

Mark Barr (american mathematician), to use Phi in honor of Phidias.

The exterior dimension of the Parthenon in Athens, Greece embodies the

e.g. tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, icosahedron, dodecahedron

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e.g. the last supper, vitruvian ma, monalisa, st. jerome

Michelangelo di Lodovico Simon (1475 - 1564) was a painter architect, poet,

He was considered the greatest living artist of his time.

e.g. the creation of adam

Rembrandt Harmenszoon Van Rijn (1606 - 1669) was a dutch painter.

Alessandro di Mariano di Yanni Filipepi (1445 - 1510), was a italian painter.

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e.g. barthers of asinieres, bridge of courbevoie, a sunday on la grande jatte

GOLDEN RATIO IN ARTS - ARCHITECTURE

United Nations Building, the window configuration reveal golden proportion.

Eiffel Tower in Paris, France erected in 1889 is an iron lattice.